Training 9 Title en

OFFICE OF THE HIGH COMMISSIONER FOR HUMAN RIGHTS
IN COOPERATION WITH THE

INTERNATIONAL BAR ASSOCIATION
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING SERIES No. 9
HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE:
A Manual on Human Rights
for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers
UNITED NATIONS
New York and Geneva, 2003
CONTENTS
Foreword by the Office of the
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.................................xxvii
Foreword by the International Bar Association .................................................xxix
Acknowledgements.................................................................................................xxxi
Addendum Major Recent Developments (2002 March 2003) .................xxxii
Abbreviations.........................................................................................................xxxiv
Chapter 1
International Human Rights Law and the Role
of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction ................1
Learning Objectives .....................................................................................................1
Questions.......................................................................................................................1
1.
Introduction ..........................................................................................................2
2.
Origin, Meaning and Scope of International Human Rights Law................2

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
The Charter of the United Nations and the Universal

Declaration of Human Rights ............................................................................2
The ethical dimension of human rights ............................................................4
Human rights and their impact on national and international peace,
security and development....................................................................................5
The sources of law................................................................................................6
2.4.1 International treaties.....................................................................................7
2.4.2 International customary law..........................................................................8
2.4.3 General principles of law recognized by the community of nations .................11
2.4.4 Subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law.................................11
International human rights law and international humanitarian law:
common concerns and basic differences........................................................12
Reservations and interpretative declarations to international
human rights treaties..........................................................................................13
Limitations on the exercise of rights ...............................................................15
Derogations from international legal obligations ..........................................16
International State responsibility for human rights violations ....................17
3.
Business Corporations and Human Rights ....................................................19
4.
International Human Rights Law at the Domestic Level ............................20

4.1
Incorporating international law into domestic legal systems.......................20
Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers
iii
Contents
4.2
The application of international human rights law in domestic

courts: some practical examples.......................................................................22
5.
The Role of the Legal Professions in the Implementation of

Human Rights.....................................................................................................25
6.
Concluding Remarks..........................................................................................25
Chapter 2
The Major Universal Human Rights Instruments and
the Mechanisms for Their Implementation.......................27
Learning Objectives ...................................................................................................27
Questions.....................................................................................................................27
1.
Introduction ........................................................................................................28
1.1
1.2
1.3
2.
The Major United Nations Human Rights Treaties and their

Implementation ..................................................................................................31
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
iv
Scope of the chapter ..........................................................................................28

The international treaty-based control mechanisms .....................................28
Civil and political rights, and economic, social and cultural rights.............30
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966,

and its two Protocols, 1966 and 1989 .............................................................31
2.1.1 The undertakings of the States parties.........................................................31
2.1.2 The rights recognized ..................................................................................32
2.1.3 Permissible limitations on the exercise of rights............................................34
2.1.4 Permissible derogations from legal obligations ..............................................36
2.1.5 The implementation mechanisms .................................................................38
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights, 1966.........................................................................................................39
2.2.3 Permissible limitations on rights..................................................................41
2.2.4 The implementation mechanism ..................................................................42
The Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 and its two
Optional Protocols, 2000 ..................................................................................43
The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide, 1948..............................................................................................47
2.4.2 The legal scope of the Convention ................................................................48
2.4.3 International crimes: recent legal developments .............................................49
Contents
2.5
2.6
2.7
3.
The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms

of Racial Discrimination, 1965 .........................................................................50
2.5.2 The field of non-discrimination protected......................................................51
The Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 1984...................................................54
2.6.2 The legal scope of the Convention ................................................................55
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women, 1979, and its Protocol, 1999................................................58
2.7.2 The specific legal scope of the Convention .....................................................59
2.7.3 The implementation mechanisms .................................................................60
Other Instruments Adopted by the United Nations General

Assembly..............................................................................................................61
3.1
The Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance

and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, 1981............................62
3.2 The Basic Principles for the Treatment of Prisoners, 1990.........................62
3.3 The Body of Principles for the Protection of All Persons under
Any Form of Detention or Imprisonment, 1988 ..........................................63
3.4 The United Nations Rules for the Protection of Juveniles
Deprived of their Liberty, 1990 .......................................................................63
3.5 The Principles of Medical Ethics relevant to the Role of Health
Personnel, particularly Physicians, in the Protection of Prisoners
and Detainees against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 1982...................................................63
3.6 The Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials, 1979 .....................64
3.7 The United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for Non-custodial
Measures (The Tokyo Rules), 1990 .................................................................64
3.8 The United Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile
Delinquency (The Riyadh Guidelines), 1990 .................................................65
3.9 The United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the
Administration of Juvenile Justice (The Beijing Rules), 1985 .....................65
3.10 The Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of
Crime and Abuse of Power, 1985....................................................................65
3.11 The Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Enforced
Disappearance, 1992 ..........................................................................................66
3.12 The Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals,
Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally
Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 1998..................66
4.
Instruments adopted by the United Nations Congress on the

Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders ................................67
Contents
5.
United Nations Extra-Conventional Mechanisms for Human

Rights Monitoring ..............................................................................................67
5.1
5.2
6.
Special procedures I: Thematic and country mandates ................................68

Special procedures II: The 1503 complaints procedure ...............................69
Concluding Remarks..........................................................................................70
Chapter 3
The Major Regional Human Rights Instruments and
the Mechanisms for Their Implementation.......................71
Learning Objectives ...................................................................................................71
Questions.....................................................................................................................71
1.
Introduction ........................................................................................................72
2.
African Human Rights Treaties and their Implementation.........................72

2.1. The African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, 1981........................72
2.1.2 The individual and collective rights recognized..............................................73
2.1.3 The individual duties..................................................................................74
2.1.5 Derogations from legal obligations...............................................................75
2.2 The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, 1990 ..........77
2.2.3 The childs duties........................................................................................79
3.
American Human Rights Treaties and their Implementation.....................80

3.1
3.2
3.3
vi
The American Convention on Human Rights, 1969, and its

Protocols of 1988 and 1990..............................................................................80
The Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish
Torture, 1985 ......................................................................................................90
3.2.1 The scope of the Convention ........................................................................90
The Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance
of Persons, 1994 .................................................................................................91
Contents
3.4
4.

The Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment
and Eradication of Violence against Women, 1994......................................93
European Human Rights Treaties and Their Implementation ...................95

4.1
The European Convention on Human Rights, 1950, and its

Protocols Nos. 1, 4, 6 and 7 .............................................................................95
4.1.2 The rights guaranteed .................................................................................95
4.1.5 The implementation mechanism ................................................................100
4.2. The European Social Charter, 1961, and its Protocols of 1988,
1991 and 1995...................................................................................................102
4.2.1 The undertakings of the States parties ......................................................102
4.2.2 The rights recognized ................................................................................102
4.2.3 Permissible limitation on the exercise of rights ...........................................103
4.2.4 Permissible derogations from legal obligations ............................................104
4.3 The European Social Charter (revised), 1996 ..............................................106
4.4 The European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and
Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 1987 ..........................107
4.4.1 The undertakings of the States parties and the monitoring
mechanism ...............................................................................................107
4.5 The Framework Convention for the Protection of National
Minorities, 1995................................................................................................108
4.5.1 The undertakings of the States parties ......................................................109
4.5.2 Permissible limitations on the exercise of rights..........................................110
5.
Concluding Remarks .......................................................................................111
Chapter 4
Independence and Impartiality of Judges,
Prosecutors and Lawyers.............................................113
Learning Objectives.................................................................................................113
Questions ..................................................................................................................113
Relevant Legal Instruments....................................................................................114
1.
Introduction......................................................................................................115
2.
The Role of Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers in Upholding the

Rule of Law, Including Human Rights Standards ......................................115
vii
Contents
3.
Challenges to the Independence and Impartiality of the Legal

Professions ........................................................................................................116
4.
International Law and the Independence and Impartiality of the

Judiciary .............................................................................................................117
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
5.
International Law and the Independence of Prosecutors .........................147

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
6.
Guidelines on the Role of Prosecutors, 1990 ..............................................147

Professional qualifications ..............................................................................147
Status and conditions of service.....................................................................148
Freedom of expression and association........................................................148
The role in criminal proceedings ...................................................................148
Alternatives to prosecution.............................................................................149
Accountability ...................................................................................................150
International Law and the Independence of Lawyers................................150

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
viii
Applicable international law ...........................................................................117

Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary, 1985 ...................119
The notions of independence and impartiality: links and
basic differences ...............................................................................................119
The notion of institutional independence ....................................................120
4.4.1 Independence as to administrative matters .................................................120
4.4.2 Independence as to financial matters..........................................................121
4.4.3 Independence as to decision-making...........................................................121
4.4.4 Jurisdictional competence...........................................................................122
4.4.5 The right and duty to ensure fair court proceedings and give
reasoned decisions .....................................................................................122
The notion of individual independence........................................................123
4.5.1 Appointment............................................................................................123
4.5.2 Security of tenure......................................................................................127
4.5.3 Financial security .....................................................................................128
4.5.4 Promotion ................................................................................................129
4.5.5 Accountability..........................................................................................129
4.5.6 Freedom of expression and association ......................................................132
4.5.7 Training and education ............................................................................133
4.5.8 The right and duty to ensure fair court proceedings and give
reasoned decisions .....................................................................................134
The notion of impartiality...............................................................................135
Military and other special courts and tribunals............................................139
Applicable international law ...........................................................................150

Duties and responsibilities ..............................................................................151
Guarantees for the functioning of lawyers...................................................151
Lawyers and fundamental freedoms .............................................................153
6.4.1 Executive permission to exercise the legal profession...................................153
6.4.2 The right to peaceful assembly...................................................................154
6.4.3 The right to freedom of association ............................................................155
6.4.4 The right to freedom of expression .............................................................156
Contents
6.5
7.
Codes of professional discipline ....................................................................157
Chapter 5
Human Rights and Arrest, Pre-trial Detention
and Administrative Detention......................................159
Questions ..................................................................................................................159
1.
Introduction......................................................................................................161
2.
Arrests and Detention without Reasonable Cause: a Persistent

Problem .............................................................................................................161
3.
The Right to Liberty and Security of the Person: Field of

Applicability of the Legal Protection ............................................................162
3.1
3.2
4.
Universal legal responsibility: All States are bound by the law .................162
The notion of security of person: State responsibility to act.....................162
Lawful Arrests and Detentions......................................................................163

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
The legal texts ...................................................................................................163

The notions of lawfulness and arbitrariness: their meaning ......................165
4.2.1 Unacknowledged detentions, abductions and involuntary
disappearances..........................................................................................169
Detention after conviction..............................................................................172
Arrest and detention for non-compliance with the lawful order of
a court or in order to secure the fulfilment of any obligation
prescribed by law..............................................................................................173
Detention on reasonable suspicion of having committed an
offence ...............................................................................................................173
4.5.1 The meaning of reasonableness ..............................................................174
Detention in order to prevent flight..............................................................175
Administrative detention.................................................................................175
4.7.1 Deprivation of liberty for the purpose of educational supervision .................176
4.7.2 Deprivation of liberty for reasons of mental health .....................................177
4.7.3 Deprivation of liberty of asylum seekers and for purposes of
deportation and extradition ......................................................................179
4.7.4 Preventive detention and detention for reasons of ordre public .................180
The right to be promptly informed of reasons for arrest and
detention and of any charges against oneself...............................................181
The right to be promptly brought before a judge or other
judicial officer ...................................................................................................185
4.9.1 The legitimate decision-making organ........................................................189
ix
Contents
5.
The Right to Trial within a Reasonable Time or to Release

pending Trial.....................................................................................................190
5.1
5.2
6.
The notion of reasonable time...................................................................191

Alternatives to detention on remand: guarantees to appear at trial..........195
The Right to Have the Lawfulness of the Detention Decided

Speedily or Without Delay by a Court..........................................................197
6.1
6.2
The legal procedures complying with this requirement .............................199

The notions of speedily and without delay ..........................................206
7.
The Right of Access to and Assistance of a Lawyer...................................208
8.
The Right to Compensation in the Event of Unlawful

Deprivation of Liberty ....................................................................................209
9.
Incommunicado Detention..................................................................................210
10. Concluding Remarks .......................................................................................211
Chapter 6
The Right to a Fair Trial:
Part I From Investigation to Trial ..............................213
Questions ..................................................................................................................213
1.
Introduction......................................................................................................215
2.
The Effective Protection of the Right to a Fair Trial:

A Global Challenge..........................................................................................215
3.
The Legal Texts................................................................................................216
4.
The Right to Equality before the Law and Equal Treatment

by the Law.........................................................................................................217
5.
The Right to be Presumed Innocent: the Overall Guarantee from

Suspicion to Conviction or Acquittal............................................................219
6.
Human Rights during Criminal Investigations............................................223

6.1
6.2
6.3
The right to respect for ones private life, home and

correspondence.................................................................................................223
6.1.1 Wire tapping............................................................................................224
6.1.2 Searches ...................................................................................................227
6.1.3 Interference with correspondence.................................................................228
The right to be treated with humanity and the right to freedom
from torture.......................................................................................................230
The right to be notified of the charges in a language one
understands .......................................................................................................232
Contents
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
7.
The right to legal assistance ............................................................................235

The right not to be forced to testify against oneself/
The right to remain silent................................................................................240
The duty to keep records of interrogation ...................................................243
The right to adequate time and facilities to prepare ones defence ..........244
Chapter 7
The Right to a Fair Trial:
Part II From Trial to Final Judgement ........................251
Questions ..................................................................................................................251
1.
Introduction......................................................................................................253
2.
The Legal Provisions .......................................................................................253
3.
Human Rights during Trial.............................................................................253

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
The right to be tried by a competent, independent and impartial

tribunal established by law ..............................................................................253
The right to a fair hearing ...............................................................................254
3.2.1 The right of access to a court or tribunal....................................................257
3.2.2 The right to equality of arms and adversarial proceedings...........................258
3.2.3 The detention of witnesses .........................................................................261
3.2.4 Judges instructions to the jury...................................................................261
The right to a public hearing ..........................................................................262
3.3.1 The right to a public judgement.................................................................265
The right to be tried without undue delay or
within a reasonable time..............................................................................267
The right to defend oneself in person or through a lawyer of
ones own choice ..............................................................................................271
3.5.1 The right to effective legal assistance in death penalty cases .........................274
3.5.2 The right to free legal aid ..........................................................................277
3.5.3 The right to privileged communications with ones lawyer ...........................279
The right to be present at ones trial .............................................................280
3.6.1 Trials in absentia.....................................................................................280
The right not to be compelled to testify against oneself or to
confess guilt.......................................................................................................282
3.7.1 Prohibition on the use of evidence obtained through unlawful
means/treatment ......................................................................................283
The right to call, examine, or have examined, witnesses ...........................285
3.8.1 Anonymous witnesses ...............................................................................288
xi
Contents
3.9 The right to free assistance of an interpreter ...............................................291

3.10 The right to a reasoned judgement................................................................293
3.10.1 The lack of a reasoned judgement and capital punishment cases .................294
3.11 Freedom from ex post facto laws/The principle of nullum crimen
sine lege.................................................................................................................295
3.12 The principle of ne bis in idem, or prohibition of double jeopardy ............297
4.
Limits on Punishment .....................................................................................301

4.1
4.2
5.
The right to benefit from a lighter penalty...................................................301

Consistency with international legal standards ............................................301
4.2.1 Corporal punishment................................................................................302
4.2.2 Capital punishment..................................................................................303
The Right of Appeal ........................................................................................305

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
The right to full review....................................................................................306

The availability of a judgement ......................................................................307
Transcripts of the trial .....................................................................................307
Preservation of evidence .................................................................................307
The right to legal aid ........................................................................................308
6.
The Right to Compensation in the Event of a Miscarriage of Justice.....309
7.
The Right to a Fair Trial and Special Tribunals ..........................................310
8.
The Right to a Fair Trial in Public Emergencies.........................................311
9.
Chapter 8
International Legal Standards for the Protection of
Persons Deprived of Their Liberty ................................315
Questions ..................................................................................................................315
1.
Introduction......................................................................................................317
1.1
2.
The Prohibition of Torture and Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading

Treatment or Punishment...............................................................................318
2.1
2.2
2.3
xii
Use of terms......................................................................................................318
Introductory remarks.......................................................................................318
Legal responsibilities of States .......................................................................319
The notions of torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment
or punishment: definitions and understandings ..........................................323
2.3.1 Rape as torture ........................................................................................325
2.3.2 Treatment of detainees and prisoners.........................................................327
Contents
2.4
3.
Legal Requirements as to Places of Detention and Registration of

Detainees and Prisoners..................................................................................334
3.1
3.2
4.
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Basic principles governing detention and imprisonment...........................337

Accommodation...............................................................................................339
4.2.1 Separation of categories.............................................................................341
Personal hygiene, food, health and medical services ..................................342
Religion ..............................................................................................................348
Recreational activities ......................................................................................349
Solitary confinement........................................................................................350
4.6.1 Incommunicado detention..........................................................................352
Contacts with the Outside World..................................................................356

5.1
5.2
6.
Official recognition of all places of detention .............................................334

Registration of detainees and prisoners ........................................................335
Conditions of Detention and Imprisonment...............................................337

4.1
4.2
5.
2.3.3 Corporal punishment................................................................................330

2.3.4 Medical or scientific experimentation.........................................................331
Torture and law enforcement officials, health personnel and
prosecutors........................................................................................................332
Contact with family members and friends: visits and

correspondence.................................................................................................356
5.1.1 The rights of visitors to detainees and prisoners..........................................358
Contact with lawyers: visits and correspondence........................................360
Inspection of Places of Detention and Complaints Procedures ..............365

6.1
6.2
Inspection of places of detention ..................................................................365

Complaints procedures....................................................................................366
7.
The Role of Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers in Preventing and

Remedying Unlawful Treatment of Persons Deprived of their
Liberty................................................................................................................369
8.
Concluding Remarks ......................................................................................370
Chapter 9
The Use of Non-Custodial Measures in the
Administration of Justice ............................................371
Questions ..................................................................................................................371
1.
Introduction......................................................................................................373
1.1
The purpose of non-custodial measures and the Tokyo Rules.................373
xiii
Contents
2.
Terminology......................................................................................................374
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.
General Principles Relating to Non-custodial Measures ...........................375

3.1
3.2
3.3
4.
The fundamental aims of non-custodial measures .....................................375

The scope of non-custodial measures...........................................................377
3.2.1 The general scope of non-custodial measures...............................................377
3.2.2 The prohibition of discrimination ..............................................................377
3.2.3 Flexibility in application ..........................................................................378
Legal safeguards................................................................................................380
3.3.1 The principle of legality.............................................................................380
3.3.2 The criteria for resorting to non-custodial measures and the need for
discretion..................................................................................................380
3.3.3 The requirement of consent........................................................................381
3.3.4 The right to review....................................................................................381
3.3.5 Restrictions on the imposition of non-custodial measures ............................382
Non-custodial Options at the Different Stages of the Judicial

Process...............................................................................................................384
4.1
4.2
4.3
5.
The term non-custodial measures .............................................................374

The term offender........................................................................................374
The term competent authority ...................................................................375
Non-custodial measures at the pre-trial stage..............................................384

Non-custodial measures at the trial and sentencing stage .........................385
Non-custodial measures at the post-sentencing stage................................387
Implementation of Non-custodial Measures ...............................................389

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
The supervision of non-custodial measures.................................................389

The duration of non-custodial measures......................................................391
The conditions attached to non-custodial measures ..................................391
The treatment process .....................................................................................392
Discipline and breach of conditions..............................................................393
6.
The Role of Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers in Choosing

Alternatives to Imprisonment........................................................................395
7.
Chapter 10
The Rights of the Child in the Administration of Justice ....397
Questions ..................................................................................................................397
1.
Introduction......................................................................................................399
1.1
xiv
Terminology......................................................................................................400
Contents
2.
The Administration of Justice and Children: Persistent Concerns ..........400
3.
The Definition of Child ..............................................................................401

3.1
3.2
4.
The age of majority in general........................................................................401

The age of criminal responsibility..................................................................401
The Rights of the Child in the Administration of Justice:

Some Basic Principles......................................................................................404
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
The principle of non-discrimination .............................................................404

The best interests of the child ........................................................................405
The childs right to life, survival and development.....................................406
The childs right to be heard...........................................................................407
5.
The Aims of Juvenile Justice ..........................................................................408
6.
The Duty to Create a Juvenile Justice System .............................................411
7.
The Accused Child and the Administration of Justice...............................411

7.1
7.2
7.3
8.
The Child and Deprivation of Liberty..........................................................420

8.1
8.2
8.3
9.
The right to freedom from torture and from cruel, inhuman or

degrading treatment or punishment ..............................................................412
General treatment of the child/the childs best interests...........................413
Some fundamental procedural rights ............................................................414
7.3.1 The principle of nullum crimen sine lege .............................................414
7.3.2 The right to be presumed innocent .............................................................415
7.3.3 The right to prompt information and the right to legal assistance................415
7.3.4 The right to be tried without delay.............................................................416
7.3.5 The right not to incriminate oneself and the right to examine and
have witnesses...........................................................................................417
7.3.6 The right to review....................................................................................417
7.3.7 The right to free assistance of an interpreter ...............................................418
7.3.8 The right to respect for privacy ..................................................................418
The meaning of deprivation of liberty ..........................................................421
Deprivation of liberty: a measure of last resort ...........................................421
The rights of the child deprived of liberty ...................................................422
8.3.1 The right to humane treatment..................................................................422
8.3.2 The right of the child to be separated from adults.......................................423
8.3.3 The right of the child to remain in contact with his or her family ................424
8.3.4 The childs rights to prompt access to legal assistance and to legal
challenge of detention ................................................................................424
8.3.5 The child and the general conditions of detention........................................425
8.3.6 The rights of the child and disciplinary measures .......................................427
The Rights of the Child and Penal Sanctions ..............................................429
10. The Accused Child and the Question of Diversion ...................................430

10.1 The meaning of the term diversion...........................................................430
10.2 Diversion and the responsible authorities....................................................431
xv
Contents
10.3 Diversion and consent of the child ...............................................................432
11. The Child as Victim or Witness in Judicial Proceedings............................433

12. The Child and His or Her Parents: When Separation May be
Justified ..............................................................................................................436
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
The best interests of the child ........................................................................436

The grounds justifying separation..................................................................436
The legal safeguards.........................................................................................437
The childs right to remain in contact with his or her parents ..................438
13. The Rights of the Child and Adoption Proceedings ..................................439

14. The Role of Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers in Guaranteeing the
Rights of the Child in the Course of the Administration of Justice.........442
Chapter 11
Womens Rights in the Administration of Justice ............445
Questions ..................................................................................................................445
1.
Introduction......................................................................................................447
2.
Womens Right to Legal Personality.............................................................449
3.
Womens Right to Equality Before the Law and Equal

Protection of the Law......................................................................................450
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.
Womens Right to Respect for their Life and their Physical and
Mental Integrity ................................................................................................458
4.1
4.2
xvi
The Charter of the United Nations and the International Bill of

Human Rights...................................................................................................450
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women, 1979...........................................................450
Regional human rights treaties .......................................................................453
The meaning of the principle of gender equality and
non-discrimination between women and men ............................................453
3.4.1 The general meaning of equality and non-discrimination ............................454
3.4.2 The meaning of equality between women and men......................................454
Relevant legal provisions.................................................................................458

The right to life.................................................................................................461
4.2.1 Abduction and murder.............................................................................461
4.2.2 Dowry violence and honour killings.......................................................462
4.2.3 Female genital mutilation .........................................................................463
Contents
4.3
4.4
5.
Womens Right to Freedom from Slavery, the Slave Trade,

Forced and Compulsory Labour, and Trafficking ......................................478
5.1
5.2
6.

5.1.1 Slavery, the slave trade and servitude ........................................................478
5.1.2 Forced and compulsory labour...................................................................479
5.1.3 Trafficking...............................................................................................479
The practice of slavery, forced and compulsory labour, and
trafficking in women........................................................................................481
The Right to Equality in respect of Marriage ..............................................484

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
7.
4.2.4 Abortion..................................................................................................464
4.2.5 Infant mortality and life expectancy ..........................................................465
The right to freedom from torture and other cruel, inhuman or
4.3.1 Violence against women deprived of their liberty........................................467
4.3.2 Unlawful punishments .............................................................................469
4.3.3 Violence against women and the girl child in families and the
community in general................................................................................472
Violence against women as crimes against humanity and
war crimes..........................................................................................................477
The right of intending spouses to marry freely and to found

a family...............................................................................................................484
6.1.1 Polygamous marriages ..............................................................................486
6.1.2 The marriageable age................................................................................487
6.1.3 Other de jure and de facto impediments to the right to marry freely.............488
6.1.4 Restrictions on remarriage.........................................................................489
6.1.5 Registration of marriages ..........................................................................490
6.1.6 Meaning of the right to found a family ......................................................491
Equality of rights in terms of nationality laws .............................................493
The equal right to a name ...............................................................................495
Equal rights and responsibilities of spouses as to marriage,
during marriage and at its dissolution ...........................................................496
6.4.1 Relevant legal provisions ...........................................................................496
6.4.2 General understanding of the principle of equal rights and
responsibilities ..........................................................................................497
6.4.3 Equal right to decision-making.................................................................498
6.4.4 Equal parental rights and responsibilities .................................................498
6.4.5 Equal rights to marital property ...............................................................499
6.4.6 The equal right to a profession and an occupation......................................500
6.4.7 Women living in de facto unions ...............................................................500
6.4.8 Equality with respect to divorce.................................................................501
6.4.9 The equal right of succession between spouses.............................................501
The Equal Right to Legal Capacity in Civil Matters ...................................502

7.1
7.2
Equal rights to administer property and conclude contracts ....................502

The equal right to succession in general.......................................................504
xvii
Contents
8.
The Right to Equal Participation in Public Affairs, including

Elections............................................................................................................505
8.1
8.2
8.3
9.

The interpretation of article 25 of the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights .................................................................................507
The interpretation of articles 7 and 8 of the Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women...................508
Womens Right to Equal Enjoyment of Other Human Rights ................511

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
The right to freedom of movement and residence .....................................511

The right to privacy..........................................................................................512
Freedom of thought, conscience, belief, religion, opinion,
expression, association and assembly............................................................513
The right to education .....................................................................................514
10. Womens Right to an Effective Remedy, including the Right of

Access to the Courts and Due Process of Law ...........................................516
11. The Role of Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers in Ensuring
Protection of the Rights of Women..............................................................519
Chapter 12
Some Other Key Rights: Freedom of Thought,
Conscience, Religion, Opinion, Expression, Association
and Assembly ...........................................................521
Questions ..................................................................................................................521
1.
Introduction......................................................................................................523
2.
The Right to Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion..................524

2.1
2.2
2.3
xviii

General meaning of the right to freedom of thought, conscience
and religion........................................................................................................525
2.2.1 Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights ......................................................................................................525
2.2.2 Article 8 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights..............527
2.2.3 Article 12 of the American Convention on Human Rights .......................527
2.2.4 Article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights .........................528
The right to manifest ones religion or belief...............................................530
2.3.1 Limitations on the right to manifest ones religion or belief.........................533
2.3.2 Prohibitions on the freedom to manifest ones religion or belief....................540
Contents
2.4
2.5
2.6
3.
The Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression ...................................546

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4.
Freedom of religion and public school instruction.....................................540

State religion and religious minorities ...........................................................543
Conscientious objection on religious grounds.............................................544
Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights .................................................................................................................548
3.2.1 Choice of language in court .......................................................................549
3.2.2 Advertising ..............................................................................................549
3.2.3 Defamation and dissemination of false information ...................................550
3.2.4 Denial of crimes against humanity and advocacy of hatred.........................552
3.2.5 Threats to national security and public order .............................................554
3.2.6 Freedom of the press .................................................................................557
3.2.7 Human rights defenders............................................................................561
Article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights.............561
3.3.2 Freedom to express opinions .....................................................................564
3.3.3 Human rights defenders............................................................................564
Article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights.......................565
3.4.1 The individual and collective dimensions of freedom of expression,
including the role of the mass media ..........................................................567
3.4.2 Freedom of expression and the concept of public order in a democratic
society ......................................................................................................570
3.4.3 Restrictions on freedom of expression: Meaning of the term
necessary to ensure ................................................................................571
3.4.4 Indirect control of the mass media: The case of
Ivcher Bronstein v. Peru ....................................................................572
3.4.5 Article 13(2) and the Compulsory Licensing of Journalists case ......573
Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights ......................575
3.5.1 Basic interpretative approach to freedom of expression................................576
3.5.3 Freedom of expression of elected members of professional organizations.......589
3.5.4 Freedom of expression of elected politicians ................................................592
3.5.5 Freedom of artistic expression ...................................................................594
The Rights to Freedom of Association and Assembly...............................597

4.1
4.2

Articles 21 and 22 of the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights ..................................................................................................599
4.2.1 Origin and meaning of the in a democratic society concept.......................599
4.2.2 Freedom of association..............................................................................601
4.2.3 Freedom of assembly.................................................................................602
4.3. Articles 10 and 11 of the African Charter on Human and
Peoples Rights..................................................................................................604
4.3.1 Freedom of association..............................................................................604
4.4 Articles 15 and 16 of the American Convention on Human Rights........606
xix
Contents
4.5
Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights ......................608

4.5.1 Freedom of association, trade unions and the closed shop system.................609
4.5.2 Trade unions and collective agreements ......................................................612
4.5.3 Freedom of association and political parties ...............................................614
4.5.4 A lawyers right to freedom of assembly.....................................................627
5.
The Role of Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers in Ensuring

Protection of Freedom of Thought, Conscience, Religion, Opinion,
Expression, Association and Assembly ........................................................629
6.
Chapter 13
The Right to Equality and Non-Discrimination
in the Administration of Justice ...................................631
Questions ..................................................................................................................631
1.
Introduction......................................................................................................633
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
2.
Selected Universal Legal Provisions Guaranteeing the Right to

Equality before the Law and the Right to Non-discrimination ................636
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
xx
Discrimination: A persistent serious human rights violation ....................633

The role of judges, prosecutors and lawyers in protecting persons
against discrimination ......................................................................................634
Glimpses of international legal history .........................................................634
The purpose and scope of the present chapter ...........................................635
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948............................................636

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide, 1948.................................................................................................637
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966 ......................638
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights, 1966.......................................................................................................639
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination, 1965............................................................................639
Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989..............................................640
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women, 1979.......................................................................................641
Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and
of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, 1981 .................................642
Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or
Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, 1992.......................................642
Contents
3.
Selected Regional Legal Provisions Guaranteeing the Right to

Equality before the Law and the Right to Non-discrimination ................643
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, 1981 ..............................643

African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, 1990 ................644
American Convention on Human Rights, 1969..........................................644
Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human
Rights in the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1988..........645
Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, and
Eradication of Violence against Women, 1994 ...........................................645
Inter-American Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Persons with Disabilities, 1999..............................646
European Convention on Human Rights, 1950..........................................646
European Social Charter, 1961, and European Social Charter
(revised), 1996...................................................................................................647
Framework Convention for the Protection of National
Minorities, 1994................................................................................................648
4.
The Prohibition of Discrimination and Public Emergencies....................649
5.
The General Meaning of Equality and Non-Discrimination ....................651
6.
Selected International Case Law and Legal Comments on the

Right to Equality and the Prohibition of Discrimination ..........................656
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
Race, colour or ethnic origin ..........................................................................656

6.1.1 Racial slurs..............................................................................................656
6.1.2 The right to freedom of movement and residence .........................................657
6.1.3 Racial and ethnic discrimination in law enforcement ..................................658
6.1.4 Racial discrimination in ensuring economic, social and cultural rights.........658
Gender ...............................................................................................................659
6.2.1 The right to represent matrimonial property...............................................659
6.2.2 Right to respect for family life....................................................................659
6.2.3 Preferential pension rights.........................................................................661
6.2.4 Social security benefits ..............................................................................662
6.2.5 Contributions to general child-care benefit schemes .....................................662
6.2.6 Parental leave allowance ...........................................................................663
6.2.7 Acquisition of citizenship .........................................................................664
Language............................................................................................................665
Religion or belief ..............................................................................................666
6.4.1 Conscientious objection to military service ..................................................666
6.4.2 Duty to wear safety gear at work ..............................................................668
6.4.3 Public funding of religious schools..............................................................669
6.4.4 Lack of public-law status for purposes of bringing court proceedings ...........669
Property .............................................................................................................670
Birth or other status.........................................................................................671
6.6.1 Social security benefits for married/unmarried couples ...............................671
6.6.2 Inheritance rights......................................................................................672
6.6.3. Conditions of birth or descent for presidential candidates............................673
xxi
Contents
6.7
6.8
6.9
7.
National origin..................................................................................................674
Sexual orientation.............................................................................................675
Minorities...........................................................................................................676
6.9.1 Right to ones own culture.........................................................................676
6.9.2 Right to reside in an Indian reserve...........................................................677
Chapter 14
The Role of the Courts in Protecting Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights ...........................................681
Questions ..................................................................................................................681
1.
Introduction......................................................................................................683
2.
History Revisited: Why are there Two International Covenants

on Human Rights? ...........................................................................................683
2.1 A chronological overview ...............................................................................683
2.2. The substance of the debates .........................................................................686
2.2.1 Principal arguments in favour of one covenant ...........................................686
2.2.2 Principal arguments in favour of two covenants..........................................687
2.2.3 Pleadings in favour of a practical solution..................................................689
2.2.4 The question of justiciability .....................................................................690
3.
Interdependence and Indivisibility of Human Rights ................................692
4.
Universal and Regional Treaties for the Protection of Economic,

Social and Cultural Rights: The Rights Guaranteed ...................................696
4.1
4.2
5.
The Legal Obligations of States to Protect Economic, Social

and Cultural Rights ..........................................................................................701
5.1
xxii
The universal level............................................................................................696

4.1.1 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights, 1966 ...........................................................................................696
The regional level .............................................................................................697
4.2.1 African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, 1981 ...........................697
4.2.2 American Convention on Human Rights, 1969, including the Additional
Protocol in the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1988 .............698
4.2.3 European Social Charter, 1961, and European Social Charter
(revised), 1996.........................................................................................699
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural

Rights, 1966.......................................................................................................701
5.1.1 Introductory remarks................................................................................701
5.1.2 The obligation of conduct ..........................................................................702
Contents
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.1.3 The obligation of result .............................................................................703

5.1.4 The obligation to give effect: the provision of domestic remedies ...................704
African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, 1981 ..............................705
American Convention on Human Rights, 1969, and
Additional Protocol in the Area of Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights, 1988 .......................................................................................706
European Social Charter, 1961, and European Social Charter
(revised), 1996...................................................................................................706
6.
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Are they Justiciable? ....................707
7.
Case Study I: The Right to Adequate Housing ...........................................710

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
8.
Case Study II: The Right to Health...............................................................730

8.1
8.2
8.3
9.
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights:
article 11(1)........................................................................................................711
7.2.1 Persons covered by the right.......................................................................712
7.2.2 Interpretative approach, including interdependence of rights ........................713
7.2.3 The concept of adequacy............................................................................713
7.2.4 Immediate legal obligations .......................................................................714
7.2.5 Domestic remedies ....................................................................................715
7.2.6 Forced evictions ........................................................................................716
Relevant European case law: The Seluk and Asker case ............................719
Relevant domestic case law: The example of South Africa .......................721
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights:
article 12.............................................................................................................730
8.1.1 The normative content of article 12(1) ......................................................731
8.1.2 The meaning of the provisions in article 12(2)...........................................732
8.1.3 The obligations of States parties................................................................734
8.1.4 The core obligations ..................................................................................736
8.1.5 Violations of article 12 ............................................................................737
8.1.6 Implementation at the national level..........................................................738
Relevant domestic case law I: The example of Canada..............................740
Relevant domestic case law II: The example of India ................................744
The Role of Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers in the Protection of

Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Lessons Learned ..........................748
Chapter 15
Protection and Redress for Victims of Crime and
Human Rights Violations ............................................749
Questions ..................................................................................................................749
xxiii
Contents

1.
Introduction......................................................................................................751
2.
Protection and Redress for Victims of Crime .............................................753

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
3.
Protection and Redress for Victims of Human Rights Violations ...........773

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
xxiv

2.1.1 The universal level....................................................................................753
2.1.2 The regional level......................................................................................754
The notion of victim........................................................................................756
Treatment of victims in the administration of justice ................................758
2.3.1 Treatment of victims by the police..............................................................758
2.3.2 Treatment of victims by the prosecution .....................................................761
2.3.3 Questioning of victims during criminal procedures......................................762
2.3.4 Victims and criminal court proceedings .....................................................763
2.3.5 Victims right to protection of their private life and their safety ..................764
Restitution, compensation and assistance to victims of crime..................765
2.4.1 General remarks ......................................................................................765
2.4.2 Restitution ...............................................................................................766
2.4.3 Compensation ..........................................................................................766
2.4.4 Assistance................................................................................................771
The notion of victim........................................................................................774
The general legal duty to ensure the effective protection of
human rights .....................................................................................................776
The duty to prevent human rights violations...............................................780
The duty to provide domestic remedies .......................................................783
The duty to investigate, prosecute and punish ............................................792
3.5.3 The role of victims during investigations and court proceedings....................799
The duty to provide redress for human rights violations ..........................801
3.6.1 Restitution and compensation ...................................................................801
3.6.2 Rehabilitation ..........................................................................................803
The problem of impunity for human rights violations ..............................805
3.7.1 Impunity from a legal perspective...............................................................805
3.7.2 Justice, impunity and reconciliation ...........................................................808
4.
The Role of Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers in Ensuring Justice

for Victims of Crime and Human Rights Violations..................................809
5.
Contents
Chapter 16
The Administration of Justice During
States of Emergency ..................................................811
Questions ..................................................................................................................811
1.
Introduction......................................................................................................813
1.1
1.2
2.
General introductory remarks ........................................................................813

Introductory remarks on limitations and derogations
in the field of human rights ............................................................................814
The Notion of Public Emergency in International

Human Rights Law ..........................................................................................815
2.1

2.1.1 Derogations and the African Charter on Human and
Peoples Rights.........................................................................................816
2.2. Derogations from legal obligations: A dilemma for the drafters..............816
2.3 The interpretation of the international monitoring bodies........................821
2.3.1 Article 4(1) of the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights ........................................................................................821
2.3.2 Article 27(1) of the American Convention on Human Rights ..................825
2.3.3 Article 15(1) of the European Convention on Human Rights...................827
3.
Non-Derogable Rights and Obligations in International

Human Rights Law ..........................................................................................831
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
The right to life.................................................................................................833
The right to freedom from torture and from cruel, inhuman or
3.5 The right to humane treatment......................................................................837
3.6 The right to freedom from slavery and servitude. ......................................838
3.7 The right to freedom from ex post facto laws and the principle
of ne bis in idem...................................................................................................839
3.7.1 The prohibition of ex post facto laws.........................................................839
3.7.2 The principle of ne bis in idem ..............................................................840
3.8 The right to recognition as a legal person ....................................................842
3.9 The right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion........................842
3.10 The right not to be imprisoned merely on the ground of inability
to fulfil a contractual obligation.....................................................................843
3.11 The rights of the family...................................................................................844
3.12 The right to a name..........................................................................................844
xxv
Contents
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
4.
The rights of the child .....................................................................................845

The right to a nationality.................................................................................846
The right to participate in government.........................................................847
Non-derogable rights and the right to effective procedural and
judicial protection.............................................................................................847
Derogable Rights and the Condition of Strict Necessity...........................852

4.1
General interpretative approach ....................................................................853

4.1.1 Article 4(1) of the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights ........................................................................................853
4.1.2 Article 27(1) of the American Convention on Human Rights ..................854
4.1.3 Article 15(1) of the European Convention on Human Rights...................855
4.2 The right to effective remedies ......................................................................856
4.3. The right to liberty and special powers of arrest and detention ...............857
4.4 The right to a fair trial and special tribunals ................................................868
xxvi
5.
The Condition of Consistency with Other International

Legal Obligations .............................................................................................877
6.
The Condition of Non-Discrimination ........................................................879
7.
The Condition of International Notification...............................................881
8.
The Role of Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers in Ensuring the

Effective Protection of Human Rights in Emergency Situations ............884
9.
NOTE
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication
do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the
United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
*
*
Material contained in this series may be freely quoted or reprinted, provided credit is
given and a copy of the publication containing the reprinted material is sent to the Office
of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, United Nations, 1211 Geneva 10,
Switzerland.
HR/P/PT/9
UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION

Sales No. E.02.XIV.3
ISBN 92-1-154141-7
ISSN 1020-1688

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OFFICE OF THE HIGH COMMISSIONER FOR HUMAN RIGHTS

IN COOPERATION WITH THE

PROFESSIONAL TRAINING SERIES No. 9

HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE

Origin, Meaning and Scope of International Human Rights Law................2

The Charter of the United Nations and the Universal

Business Corporations and Human Rights ....................................................19

International Human Rights Law at the Domestic Level ............................20

Incorporating international law into domestic legal systems.......................20

The application of international human rights law in domestic

The Role of the Legal Professions in the Implementation of

The Major United Nations Human Rights Treaties and their

Scope of the chapter ..........................................................................................28

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966,

The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms

Other Instruments Adopted by the United Nations General

The Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance

Instruments adopted by the United Nations Congress on the

United Nations Extra-Conventional Mechanisms for Human

Special procedures I: Thematic and country mandates ................................68

African Human Rights Treaties and their Implementation.........................72

American Human Rights Treaties and their Implementation.....................80

The American Convention on Human Rights, 1969, and its

3.3.3 The implementation mechanism ..................................................................92

European Human Rights Treaties and Their Implementation ...................95

The European Convention on Human Rights, 1950, and its

Concluding Remarks .......................................................................................111

The Role of Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers in Upholding the

Challenges to the Independence and Impartiality of the Legal

International Law and the Independence and Impartiality of the

International Law and the Independence of Prosecutors .........................147

Guidelines on the Role of Prosecutors, 1990 ..............................................147

International Law and the Independence of Lawyers................................150

Applicable international law ...........................................................................117

Applicable international law ...........................................................................150

Codes of professional discipline ....................................................................157

Concluding Remarks .......................................................................................158

Arrests and Detention without Reasonable Cause: a Persistent

The Right to Liberty and Security of the Person: Field of

Lawful Arrests and Detentions......................................................................163

The legal texts ...................................................................................................163

The Right to Trial within a Reasonable Time or to Release

The notion of reasonable time...................................................................191

The Right to Have the Lawfulness of the Detention Decided

The legal procedures complying with this requirement .............................199

The Right of Access to and Assistance of a Lawyer...................................208

The Right to Compensation in the Event of Unlawful

10. Concluding Remarks .......................................................................................211

The Effective Protection of the Right to a Fair Trial:

The Legal Texts................................................................................................216

The Right to Equality before the Law and Equal Treatment

The Right to be Presumed Innocent: the Overall Guarantee from

Human Rights during Criminal Investigations............................................223

The right to respect for ones private life, home and

The right to legal assistance ............................................................................235

Concluding Remarks .......................................................................................248

The Legal Provisions .......................................................................................253

Human Rights during Trial.............................................................................253

The right to be tried by a competent, independent and impartial

3.9 The right to free assistance of an interpreter ...............................................291

Limits on Punishment .....................................................................................301

The right to benefit from a lighter penalty...................................................301

The Right of Appeal ........................................................................................305