Module C3 Working with concepts

Introduction to module C3
Objectives
Learning resources
o Selected readings
o Other resources
C3.1 Using concepts
o C3.1.1 Reasons for using concepts
C3.2 Academic paragraph structure
o C3.2.1 Working with academic paragraph structure
o C3.2.2 Variation in structure
C3.3 Using other writers ideas referencing
o C3.3.1 In-text referencing
o C3.3.2 The Harvard system
C3.4 Reading
o C3.4.1 Welfare reform
o C3.4.2 Sustainable development
Feedback
Feedback for activities

Introduction to module C3
In order to talk or write at the general level academics use concepts such as unemployment, sustainable
development, pollution, and diversity. The activities in module C3 will provide you with the opportunity
to formalise the work with concepts that we have already begun. We will also introduce you to a
paragraph structure that is commonly used in academic writing. Finally we will begin work on learning
how to acknowledge other writers ideas through the use of a standard referencing system.

Objectives
Please refer to the course introduction for the overall objectives for this course.

Learning resources
Selected readings
C3.1: Case study 1: OKeefe, B 2003, Casual security a tautology, The Weekend Australian, 78 June,
p. 23.
This reading has not been included for copyright reasons. Use the reference details to search either
online or through your local library.
Case study 2: OKeefe, B 2003, Contracts eat into the lives of tradesmen, The Weekend
Australian, 78 June, p. 22.
This reading has not been included for copyright reasons. Use the reference details to search either
online or through your local library.
C3.2: Giddens, A 2001, Sociology, 4th edn, Polity Press, Cambridge.
This reading has not been included for copyright reasons. Use the reference details to search either
online or through your local library.

C3.4: Beder, S 2006, Environmental principles and policies: an interdisciplinary approach, UNSW Press,
Sydney.
This reading has not been included for copyright reasons. Use the reference details to search either
online or through your local library.

Other resources
USQ Library Harvard Referencing Guide.
USQ Library Harvard referencing Breeze presentation.

C3.1 Using concepts

Learning activity C3.1

Look at the list below:

School
Marks
Teacher
Student
Curriculum
Assignment
Identify an overall idea or concept which unifies the separate items in the list.
The concept is education.
Learning activity C3.2

Read the two columns below.

Column 1

Column 2

steamed chicken

fried battered sausage

mineral water

high sugar soft drink

fruit

chocolate biscuit

Identify the idea you think was used to organise the items into two columns. Answer in one
word.

The idea or concept is nutrition.

C3.1.1 Reasons for using concepts

We have already begun to use concepts such as welfare dependency and sustainable development in the
course. Concepts allow us to talk about an issue without having to go through the facts and details each
time we wish to discuss it. Another useful concept when we are thinking about unemployment for
example, is the idea of economic restructuring.
Economic restructuring refers to two major developments in Australia. The first is the decline in
manufacturing industries in Australia and the loss of full time jobs for unskilled and semi-skilled men.
The decline in manufacturing is partly due to the decision to reduce taxes on imported goods (tariffs)
which means that Australian-made goods are no longer protected from cheap imports. The second
development is the growth of the service sector which includes banking, telecommunications (call
centres), retail and hospitality. Many of these jobs are casual or part-time and are performed by women
rather than men.

Learning activity C3.3

Read case studies 1 and 2 (readings C3.1). Think of a general idea or concept which applies to
both studies and write one sentence which sums them up.

C3.2 Academic paragraph structure

At university, paragraphs are the basic unit or building block of extended pieces of writing. Successful
essay or report writing depends upon building up the overall structure, through paragraphs which have a
clearly identified main idea.
Paragraphs in academic writing frequently consist of a main idea, which is explained, amplified,
supported and sometimes illustrated. Paragraphs in formal university work are also characterised by
increasing specificity. That is, they move from the general to the specific thus increasingly refining the
readers understanding.
A common structure for paragraphs in academic writing is as follows:

(Source: Adapted from Puhl, L n.d. Writing at University, Cowan University.)

The main idea of an academic paragraph often states or seeks to establish a relationship between facts or
at higher levels of thinking between concepts. It does more than state a simple fact or announce a topic.
Look at the pairs of topics and main ideas below. Notice that the main idea is always a full sentence
which makes a claim or assertion.
General topic area
The relationship between home and school.
Main idea
The relationship between home and school is an important factor in a childs educational achievement.
General topic area
The impact of cars on pollution levels.
Main idea
Cars are a major source of air pollution in large cities.

C3.2.1 Working with academic paragraph structure

In the sample paragraph below, the first sentence contains the main idea, the next two sentences explain
and elaborate, and the last sentence contains data to support the main idea.

Australia is a society where economic inequality is deeply entrenched. Claims about Australias unique
egalitarianism do not match with the factual picture. The level of inequality in Australia, is much the
same as that found in North America, Western Europe, and middle ranking capitalist economies elsewhere.
For example studies of income and wealth distribution show that the top 20% of Australians hold 72% of
the wealth (Dilnot 1990, p. 10) and the top 10% of households receive 40% of total income (Raskall 1993,
p. 72).
Learning activity C3.4

Read through the paragraph below. Apply the structure above to this paragraph by using
different colours or different types of underlining to identify the sentence which contains the
main idea, the sentences which explain or elaborate the main idea, and the sentence which
contains an example, data or quote. Note that the main idea is general enough to allow the
movement from general to more specific which we learned about in module C2.

The individual rights approach makes individual freedom more

important than the welfare of particular groups in society. Advocates
of individual rights argue that individuals possess natural rights which
should not be restricted by governments or other individuals (Jones
2002). According to Heywood (2004), in contemporary liberal
democratic societies, rights are frequently interpreted as freedom of
choice. This choice is limited when governments intervene in

individuals lives through such measures as taxation and setting

minimum wages and conditions. Advocates of individual rights argue
that there is a need to limit the powers and responsibilities of
governments in order to protect the natural freedom of the individual
(Ryan, Parker & Hutchings 1999, p. 234).

Learning activity C3.5

Below you will find two paragraphs.

1. Apply the academic paragraph structure given above to the first paragraph and then give
it a mark out of ten. In full sentences briefly explain why you gave the mark. You may
find the following questions helpful in assessing the paragraph.
Does the paragraph have a clear main idea?
Is the main idea sufficiently general to generate a whole paragraph?
Is everything in the paragraph related to the main idea?
Do the sentences join together smoothly?
Is the main idea adequately developed and explained?
2. Repeat the exercise for the second paragraph.
Paragraph 1

Public relations and advertising differ in two important respects.

Firstly, public relations may use advertising strategies but the
purpose is not to generate sales of specific products or services.
Public relations practitioners use advertising techniques to promote
the organisation as a whole and to increase awareness within specific
publics of the organisations nature, efforts, and activities. Secondly,
advertising relies solely on paid space in mass media outlets. Public
relations practitioners do use media outlets for which they have to
pay but they also use free, uncontrolled media. Coverage in the latter
is an important means of establishing the credibility of the
organisation as a whole. According to Johnston and Zawawi (2000)
much of the power of public relations comes from such independent
third party endorsement.

Paragraph 2

Within the class of non-renewable resources the distinction between

fossil fuels (coal oil and gas) and other minerals (iron ore,
aluminium) is important. First, the use of fossil fuels is central to an
industrial economy. Second fossil fuel combustion is an irretrievable
process in that there is no way that the input fuel can be even partially
recovered after combustion. In so far as coal, oil and gas are used to
produce heat, they cannot be recycled. Other non-renewable
resources such as iron ore can be recycled. This means that whereas
in the case of minerals there exists the possibility of delaying the time
before they run out, in the case of fossil fuels there does not. Given
the key role of fossil fuels in industrial economies, this is clearly
important.

(Source: Adapted from Common, M 1995, Sustainability in Sustainability and policy limits to
economics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 34.)

C3.2.2 Variation in structure

A variation of the above structure occurs where the paragraph does not contain examples but consists of a
main idea followed by elaboration, explanation or critique. This structure is shown in the paragraph
below.

Mandatory sentencing aims to reduce crime by preventing offenders from

continuing to offend but critics claim it is ineffective. Mandatory sentencing is
based on the assumption that individuals who have already committed a crime are
most likely to offend in the future. Imprisoning known offenders is therefore one
way to prevent them from continuing with their criminal behaviour (Sherman et
al. 1998). However, high rates of recidivism show that imprisonment does not
have a significant reforming effect (Forer 1994). In terms of reconvictions, a
custodial sentence is no more effective than a non-custodial sentence (Walker
2000, p. 44). Further, critics of mandatory sentencing argue that if imprisonment is
to be pursued as a sentencing policy, judges are in a better position than politicians
to identify offenders who will continue to offend because judges can make a
prediction based on evidence about an individual offenders background and the
circumstances of the offence (Roche 1999).
Activity 3.6

Write a paragraph about the welfare state. Remember that you will need to
give the paragraph a main point which does more than state a simple fact.
Make sure that the main point is clear and that everything in the paragraph
develops the main point. Aim to write about 150 words.
You should base what you write on relevant readings but you must wrote in
your own words. Please do not base what you write on your personal
experience or your personal opinion. We want you to concentrate on
paragraph structure and for this reason you do NOT need to give in-text
references.

C3.3 Using other writers ideas referencing

Most of the ideas, on which your assignments at the undergraduate level are based, will not be your own
ideas and it is an important part of university culture that you acknowledge the use of other peoples work
through employing a standard referencing system. The fact that you use other peoples ideas extensively
does not mean that your work is not your own. What makes your response to a task unique is firstly, the
particular ideas you select from the literature to use in your answer and secondly, how you put these ideas
together in response to the question.
If you do not provide references to the source of the ideas you have used then you are presenting someone
elses work as if it is your own. This is called plagiarism and is regarded by university academics as a
form of cheating.
At the beginning of your undergraduate career you may be unsure of when you need to include a
reference. Remember that as an undergraduate you are commenting on or using other peoples research so
you will need to reference extensively. Your lecturers understand and expect this.

C3.3.1 In-text referencing

Learning activity C3.7

Look at the second page of the Giddens reading (reading C3.2). Find the sub-heading Marshall:
citizenship rights. At the end of the paragraph you will find an example of in-text referencing.
Other examples can be found in the first sentence under the sub-heading Esping-Andersen:
three worlds of welfare, and at the end of the section on welfare dependency. Note that the first
two examples are paraphrase (indirect quotes) and the third example is a direct quote.

C3.3.2 The Harvard system

There are a number of different referencing systems. At university you must use the referencing system
specified by your lecturer for that particular course. Unfortunately you may find that different lecturers
require you to use different systems. We require you to use the Harvard system.
Referencing with the Harvard system requires you to give an in-text and end-text reference every time
you use an idea or ideas of another writer. In this module we will deal only with in-text referencing.
Remember that what you are acknowledging with a reference is the use of someone elses research or
ideas. Therefore you must include a reference whether you put the writers ideas into your own words,
which we call paraphrase, or quote the writers exact words. At university, lecturers value paraphrase
more than direct quotes because it indicates that you have understood the material and have been able to
integrate it into your own work.

Learning activity C3.8

Turn to USQ Library's Guide to referencing the Harvard style . Read to the end of the section
entitled Textual references. You will need to use this guide in activity C3.13.
You can also read and listen to a USQ Library Breeze presentation on Harvard referencing.

Learning activity C3.9

Turn back to the paragraph in section C3.2.2 on mandatory sentencing. Underline the in-text
references and notice the form they take. Note that the references contain only the authors
surname, the year of publication and (where applicable) the page number.
Learning activity C3.10

Go back to the Giddens reading (reading C3.2). Underline the three sentences that contain an intext reference. Read each sentence and notice how the source material is introduced. Notice the
different formats depending on whether the authors name is included in the sentence or not.

C3.4 Reading
C3.4.1 Welfare reform
Reading C3.2 is by an academic in the field of sociology. It is an edited version of a chapter from
Anthony Giddens book Sociology, a popular textbook for first year students. We have edited the chapter
to cut out some sections which were not relevant and to make it shorter. For this reason you may find it a
little disjointed.

The welfare state

In contrast to the readings from module C1, this modules reading looks at welfare states in general and
tries to isolate their key characteristics. It then tries to categorize welfare states on the basis of some key
differences. These attempts to explain, classify and rethink are characteristic of the way that academics
approach issues.

Learning activity C3.11

Using the Giddens reading (reading C3.2), write a paragraph which explains the difference
between welfare states which are based on universal benefits and those that apply means tests to
benefits. Indicate in your answer which form of the welfare state you think is preferable. Note
that universal benefits depend on high levels of tax.
Structure your answer as a paragraph in the following way. First, write a general sentence which
indicates that there are differences between welfare states. Then, write two sentences on
universal benefit welfare states. Next, write two sentences on means tested welfare states.
Finally, write two sentences on which type you think is preferable. For these last two sentences
do not say I think.... Begin with Universal benefits are preferable . OR Means tested
benefits are preferable.
Learning activity C3.12

Welfare dependency arguments assume that it is the fault of welfare recipients that they are
unemployed or on benefits. Based on your reading of the Giddens chapter (reading C3.3) and
Tony Abbotts speech (reading C2.1) do you agree?
If you agree, write four sentences explaining welfare dependency. Use the following as your

first sentence:
Welfare recipients are unwilling to take responsibility for themselves.
Notice that this sentence does not begin I agree that
OR
If you disagree, write four sentences in which you set out the reasons Giddens suggests are
responsible for some people needing to access the welfare system. Use the following as your
first sentence:
The factors which make welfare benefits necessary are often beyond the control of the
individual.
Learning activity C3.13

Write a paragraph about the role of the welfare system in modern western societies. Use the
Giddens reading (reading C3.2) and the Abbott reading (reading C2.1). Aim to write about 120
40 words.
The paragraph must have a clear main idea and follow the structure which we learned about in
this module. The main idea should reflect your individual response and be written in your own
words. You should not need to reference the idea in this sentence because it should always be
your own idea. However, when you explain, analyse or elaborate on the main idea you will need
to paraphrase material you have found in the readings. When you paraphrase you will need to
give an in-text reference. For this activity we are asking you NOT to use direct quotes.
Please do not attempt to remember how to reference. Always use the referencing guide.
Begin by revising the different ways an in-text reference can be incorporated by looking at the
examples under the heading Textual references in your USQ Librarys Guide to referencing:
the Harvard style.
For this exercise you do not need to give an end-text reference list.

C3.4.2 Sustainable development

Your next reading in this module is a chapter from a book on environmental studies (reading C3.3). We
have edited the chapter by splitting it into two parts to enable you to focus on particular issues. The first
part of the chapter discusses limits to growth and the concept of sustainability.
The chapter is in a text by Sharon Beder. The reading for this module is the first part of chapter 1, which
is reading C3.3. You will be directed to the other part of this Beder chapter when you reach module C5.

Learning activity C3.14

Read from the beginning of chapter 1 of reading C3.3 to the end of the section Limits to
growth. Compare the two approaches to the limits to growth argument. Complete the following
table to help you clarify the two positions.

Points in favour of limiting

growth

Points in favour of economic

growth

Learning activity C3.15

Read the section Sustainability in the 1980s in reading C3.3. Note the change in attitude to the
environment and economic growth. Explain in a couple of sentences and in your own words
your understanding of sustainable development.
Learning activity C3.16

Read the section Carrying capacity in reading C3.3.

Diagrams can be a helpful way to summarise complex relationships although sometimes they
are only included by the editor to break up the text. When you are reading, look carefully at the
diagrams and make an assessment of whether or not they sum up what is in the text.
In reading C3.3, look carefully at the figure 1.1. Do you think it is successful in summing up
what is in the section? You do not need to write anything for this activity.
Learning activity C3.17

In reading C3.3, reread the section Carrying capacity. In Australia a high material standard of
living is an important personal goal. Most Australians aspire to drive a late model car, take
overseas holidays, eat out at cafes or restaurants on a regular basis and increasingly, to own
more than one house. These are all economic goals which are satisfied by buying things.
The section discusses issues relating to the relationship between economic goals and the
environment. Examine table 1.1. Some environmentalists and some economists argue that
Australians place too much emphasis on personal economic goals and not enough on
environmental concerns. Having studied table 1.1, write one to two sentences in which you state
your agreement or disagreement with this argument.
Follow the same instructions for writing and referencing that you were given in activity C3.13.
Activity C3.18

Write a paragraph about the effects of economic growth on the

environment. Remember that you will need to give the paragraph a main
point which does more than state a simple fact. Make sure that the main
point is clear and that everything in the paragraph develops the main point.
Aim to write about 150 words.
You should base what you write on the course readings but you must write
in your own words. Use paraphrase and do NOT include any direct quotes.
Remember how to use the Harvard system on in-text referencing. Please do

notbase what you write on your personal opinion and do not fill up the
paragraphwith examples of environmental destruction.

Feedback
You will find feedback for activity C3.4, and activity C3.12 at the end of this module.

Feedback for activities

Feedback for activity C3.4, and activity C3.12 is given below.
Activity C3.4

The individual rights approach makes individual freedom more important than the welfare of particular
groups in society. Advocates of individual rights argue that individuals possess natural rights which
should not be restricted by governments or other individuals (Jones 2002). According to Heywood
(2004), in contemporary liberal democratic societies, rights are frequently interpreted as freedom of
choice. This choice is limited when governments intervene in individuals lives through such
measures as taxation and setting minimum wages and conditions. Advocates of individual rights argue
that there is a need to limit the powers and responsibilities of governments in order to protect the natural
freedom of the individual (Ryan, Parker & Hutchings 1999, p. 234).
The underlined sentence contains the main idea. The sentences in bold explain and elaborate upon it, and
the sentence in italics illustrates what has already been said with a quote.
Activity C3.12
Welfare recipients are unwilling to take responsibility for themselves. There are jobs available but some
recipients choose to live off social security payments. They are unwilling to acquire the skills or do not
have the motivation to get a job. Governments have responded to welfare dependency by making benefits
more difficult to access in an effort to force people to support themselves by working.
OR
The factors which make welfare benefits necessary are often beyond the control of the individual. Most
people who access social security do so because they have been made redundant, have lost their partner or
are too ill to work. The majority of unemployed people would prefer to have a job and support
themselves. Most people who have to live on social security payments find it difficult to manage
financially and find that their standard of living has decreased.