ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
FOREWORD
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Fig. 1-2
Some acoustic energy is reflected at each interface along the
transmission paths.
Fig. 1-1
Transmitter frequency effects on Variable Density Log (VDL)
recordings14
Fig. 1-4
Signal level and resolution as a function of transmitter-receiver
spacing10
Fig. 1-3
Slotted instrument sleeve12
TABLE 1-1
WALS Transmitter Diameter Max. Temp. Max. Press.
Series Frequency
in.
F
102 psi
No.
(kHz)
(mm)
(C)
(MPe)
TR Spacing
ft
(m)
1412
28
1.7
(43.2)
400
(204)
17
(117.2)
4
(1.22)
1415
20
3.5
(88.9)
400
(204)
20
(137.9)
35
(0.911.52)
1417
20
3.38
(85.8)
450
(232)
25
(172.4)
35
(0.911.52)
1423
20
2.75
(69.8)
350
(176)
20
(137.9)
2.53.55
(0.761.071.52)
1456
20
3.38
(85.8)
350*
(176)
20
(137.9)
35
(0.911.52)
Fig. 1-5
Greater distinction between casing and formation arrival times is
achieved with longer TR span.12
Fig. 1-6
Bond Attenuation Log instrument28
Wave Theory
For practical applications of the CBL waveforms, only
two types of wave motion are of primary interest. These
waveforms are shown in Fig. 1-8.
A compressional wave is transmitted through particle
motion forward and backwards in reference to the direction in which the wave travels. Compressional waves (Pwaves) may be transmitted through the mud column,
pipe, cement, and formation.
When acoustic energy is introduced into a formation,
the rock molecules are initially displaced in a compressive manner, producing shear vibration. In solid materials, the shear wave contains a very high percentage of
acoustic energy, but this wave travels at a much slower
rate than the compressive wave. Since fluid in the borehole cannot support a shear wave, energy from the transmitter travels to the side of the hole as a compressional
wave (P-wave). Each material possesses an acoustic
impedance (Z), which is the product of its density () and
propagation velocity (v); i.e., Zv. Whenever acoustic
energy reaches an interface between materials of different
acoustic impedances, some of the energy is reflected and
some may be transferred, depending on the direction of
the acoustic energy relative to this interface. At the cement/formation interface, both compressional and shear
waves are propagated into the solid; however, some energy is reflected because of the mismatch in acoustic
impedance. It should be mentioned that greater differences in acoustic impedance cause larger amounts of reflected energy.
The shear wave is transmitted through particle motion
perpendicular to the wave path and travel time is approximately 1.6 to 1.9 times longer than compressional travel
time (a different ratio is used in seismic work). Furthermore, the shear wave usually has a higher amplitude than
the compressional wave. Since gases and liquids have no
shear strength, they will not support a shear wave. Lowvelocity, uncompacted sands typically do not support a
shear wave.
The particle motion of the pseudo-Rayleigh wave follows an elliptical path; i.e., each particle moves forward
and backwards and from side to side in an approximately
circular path. The Rayleigh wave amplitude is strongest
near the borehole, and then rapidly diminishes outward
into the formation.
The mud wave is a compressional wave traveling
through the mud column from the transmitter to the receiver. Fortunately, transit time through the fluid column
Fig. 1-7
Composite of acoustic cement bond log signal paths12
Fig. 1-8
Compressional and shear waves12
Fig. 1-9
Recognizing fluid waves on VDL and signature presentations
GATING SYSTEMS
Gating systems and threshold bias settings play an important role in understanding cement bond logging measurements and instrumentation. Tool systems are gated to
measure a particular part of the wave train. With the
Western Atlas system, amplitude measurements are made
during the time period the gate is open, which is referred
to as gate width. Acoustic logging instrumentation uses
both fixed and floating gates.14 Fixed gates are currently
being used for primary bond amplitude measurements;
however, prior to development of full-waveform recordings, older generation CBLs used a floating gate amplitude measurement with a floating gate travel-time curve
Fig. 1-10
Fixed gate amplitude detection vs. floating gate travel-time detection
also interfere with the first positive arrival E1 casing response, which is the targeted measurement.
Floating Gates
The principle of the floating gate is that it remains open
across the entire acoustic spectrum until an amplitude
pulse having sufficient amplitude to extend beyond the
threshold bias setting is found. This response is then
recorded as the time of the first acoustic arrival pulse.
Correct bias setting is a very important parameter. If the
threshold level is set too low, the measurement could be
triggered by forerunners; setting the threshold level too
high would result in the measurement being triggered extremely late. The floating gate detection method is illustrated in Fig. 1-10. Evolutions in digital recording and
processing have eliminated many of the weaknesses previously stated. The digital CBL and SBL instrumentation
pick travel time from a waveform that is digitized downhole. Advantages of the floating gate are primarily for the
travel-time measurement, which will be discussed in a
later section.
A. A high amplitude indicates that the casing is relatively free to vibrate; hence, it is poorly bonded or
supported.
B. A low amplitude indicates that the casing is more
confined or bonded, causing absorption of the
wave energy by surrounding media.
C. Amplitude measurements between maximum and
minimum values are functions of the percentage of
casing bond.
This single measurement (amplitude), and the oversimplified interpretation of it, is frequently the source of much
of the controversy and error regarding cement bond log
analysis.
AMPLITUDE
In wireline acoustic logging, the amplitude measurement
relates to the magnitude of acoustic energy at the receiver,
which is positioned at a fixed distance away from the
transmitter. The term attenuation is the energy loss
from wave propagation during transmission. The primary
Peak Amplitude
Amplitude can be electrically measured with a high degree of accuracy; however, physical constraints of the
logging instrument and their relationship to the casing,
borehole, cement, and formation, and their physical relationship to one another complicates the amplitude response.3 Proper instrument centralization in the borehole
is critical to obtaining accurate peak amplitude measurements for indications of cement bond to pipe (Fig. 112).30 With only 1/4-in. (0.64-cm) eccentering, as much
as a 50% signal loss results. The reference data shown in
Fig. 1-12 are more than 25 years old. Eccentering is not
likely to be as severe with todays instrumentation; however, Fig. 1-12 shows the significance of instrument
centering.
Fig. 1-11
Generally accepted qualitative interpretation of the amplitude
curve12
Fig. 1-12
Effects of eccentering on amplitude30
Industry practice has been to arbitrarily scale peak amplitude in millivolts (mV). Methods of calibrating peak
amplitude response to known conditions are used in determining the relationship of log measurements in the
borehole environment. The calibration method used by
Western Atlas Logging Services will be discussed in a
later section. Western Atlas equipment is currently following the industry standard.
Alternate Area Measurement of Amplitude
From the mid-1980s until 1990, Western Atlas CBL systems did not measure peak amplitude, but instead measured the area under the positive portion of the signal
amplitude and presented a linearly scaled (0 to 100)
trace called CBL Amplitude or percentage Unbonded
Pipe Signal. The purpose of using this area method was
to lessen the effects of instrument eccentering, which do
occur. A laboratory experiment (to be described) has
shown (Fig. 1-13) the signal to spread in width, although
Fig. 1-13
Effects of centering and eccentering on signal amplitude and
wave shape
Fig. 1-14
Laboratory fixture for eccentering experiment16
peak amplitude is reduced and area measurements beneath the signal pulse partially compensates for the reduction in peak amplitude caused by the eccentering.
This integrated area measurement of amplitude remains
an optional alternative.
An initial experiment to determine the effects of instrument eccentering on signal amplitude utilized a standard 3.375-in. (85.8-mm) dual-receiver CBL instrument.
The instrument was suspended from a 30-ft (9.1-m) mast
and positioned in the center of 5.5-in. (140-mm) [4.95-in.
(124.7-mm) ID], 15.5-lbm/ft (23.1-kg/m) casing. The instrument was clamped into position on top of the casing
(Fig. 1-14) in such a manner that would only allow movement along one axis; i.e., the guide rails. The movement
along this axis was controlled by a 13-turns/in. screw.
Starting at the side, the screw was rotated one turn at a
time to move the instrument across the test assembly. The
test results were carefully plotted (Fig. 1-15) for several
Fig. 1-15
Test results of CBL areal amplitude experiment
Fig. 1-17
Positioning fixed electronic gate at the proper time
Fig. 1-18
Series 1456 CBL instruments formerly used the first negative arrival, E2, for bond determination.
Fig. 1-16
Data recording during CBL areal amplitude experiment
Formation Gates
A second fixed gate is occasionally used to evaluate formation amplitude when the relative separation of pipe and
formation arrival time is adequate (generally in low-velocity horizons). Formation fixed gates are, however, unreliable in many geological/geographical locales because
the normally encountered formation arrivals in a borehole
vary considerably from one formation to the next. A second gate can also be set in a floating (variable) mode,
which is sometimes advantageous for fast formation detection (Fig. 1-19). Recording of formation gates is
optional.
Fig. 1-20
Minimum amplitudes for well-bonded casing of different size and
weight
It is of the utmost importance to have an understanding of the time frame and mechanics of the well completion to thoroughly comprehend the message provided by
the log measurements. Examples of amplitude measurements that are either acceptable or unacceptable for interpretation of cement quality will be discussed in a later
section.
BOND ATTENUATION
Some of the physical problems outlined in the previous
section can be resolved by use of the Bond Attenuation
Log, a dual-transmitter, dual-receiver scheme that determines attenuation rate directly, while at the same time
providing some borehole compensation for slight instrument tilt or eccentering. As illustrated schematically
(Fig. 1-21), the BAL system uses the A1 and A2 amplitudes when the upper transmitter fires and corresponding
A3 and A4 amplitudes when the lower transmitter is
fired. The attenuation ratio of A2/A1 is not dependent on
transmitter strength; i.e., if the transmitter output was
doubled, both numbers double and the ratio would be
unaffected. Attenuation is calculated automatically as
follows,
20 log
A A
A
A
2
or
A2 A4
10 log
A2 A4
(1)
Attenuation calculated by this method does not depend upon receiver sensitivities; i.e., doubling the amplitudes at receiver 2 does not change the result since
both the numerator (A2) and the denominator (A3) are
doubled.29
When the signal level at the far receiver approaches
0.5 mV, the ratio becomes so small that it might be affected by noise. Therefore, the method for calculating attenuation is automatically changed to a method similar to
that used with standard tool configurations.29
Fig. 1-21
Schematic of BAL transducer locations12
Fig. 1-22
Threshold detection level is critical to floating measurement and is set low (inset) to avoid cycle-skips.
11
Fig. 1-23
Travel time vs. casing size for 2.5-ft compensated and conventional 3-ft transmitter-receiver spacings29
TABLE 1-2
Mineral
Sandstone
Limestone
Dolomite
Salt
Anhydrite
Polyhalite
Trona
Sylvite
Gypsum
Water (fresh)
Water (100.000 ppm NaCl)
Water (20015.000 ppm NaCl)
Oil
Air
Casing
Instrument Centering
If the logging instrument is properly centered in free or
poorly bonded pipe, the travel time should be a reasonably precise value. Charts used to determine the approximate 3-ft CBL travel time or the 2.5-ft BAL travel time
for various casing sizes are presented as Figs. 1-23a and
1-23b. A tf value of 210 sec/ft was used to construct
the charts. Several values typically used for fluid travel
time (tf) are shown in Table 1-2.3,14,15 As illustrated in
Fig. 1-24, a well-centered instrument will measure a nominal time value from one pipe joint to the next in free or
poorly cemented casing.3,12,15 Small variations in travel
Travel Times12
t (sec/ft)
55.5
47.6
43.5
67.0
50.0
57.5
65.0
74.0
52.5
200.0
189.0
182.0
222.0
919.0
57.0
time may occur from one joint to the next if pipe thickness/weight varies between the adjacent pipe joints.
These variations are apparent because the time reading
may be relatively constant over the duration of one pipe
joint and may vary, as each successive joint is encountered. Some gradual change can occur within individual
pipe joints due to mill tolerances.
The travel-time measurement is beneficial in determining instrument centralization if a sufficiently sensitive
scale is used (e.g., 10 sec per chart division). Another
method for checking centralization is a repeat logging
12
Fig. 1-24
Travel-time curve indicating centered tool in uncemented pipe.
pass. If the instrument is well centered, acoustic measurements should be very repeatable (Fig. 1-25); however,
good repeats often occur with eccentered instruments in
deviated boreholes. Travel time will occur early (Fig. 126) if an instrument is poorly centered. Eccentering reduces signal amplitude (Fig. 1-12), resulting in an erroneous indication of an optimistic bond condition. The
omnidirectional characteristics of transducers require
proper centralization to ensure simultaneous first arrivals
from all azimuths.
It is easy to specify perfect centralization, but it is not
always easy to accomplish perfect instrument centering in
practice. Highly deviated boreholes present a particular
problem. Occasionally, it is necessary to lower the tool
through a restriction in the well (storm chokes, disaster
valves, collapsed pipe, production packer, etc.), prohibiting the use of proper centralizers. Sharp curvature or
doglegs in deviated wellbores often limit, or even prohibit, the use of the proper centralizers. In such conditions, the amplitude measurements may be meaningless.
A powered centralizer has been developed to alleviate
many of the centering problems encountered in deviated
wellbores.
Evidence of the tolerable limits of amplitude reduction
by observation of early travel-time arrivals was accumulated by Fitzgerald.15 He demonstrated that a 4 sec early
TT corresponded to a 28.5% reduction in peak amplitude.
Comparable calculations for the areal amplitude reduction indicated a tolerance of 5 sec for a similar reduction
in amplitude (Fig. 1-27). The data are calculated both
with and without Snells law, which states that
Fig. 1-25
Repeatability with well-centered instruments
where
i angle of incidence
r angle of refraction
v velocity of light in the first medium
v velocity in the second medium
n index of refraction
Eccentered Casing
Casing strings are often eccentered over long depth intervals. A misinterpretation of conditions can occur if
the analyst suspects lower amplitudes to be caused by
very slight eccentering of the instrument (Fig. 1-28).
Pipe amplitude response will often reach a minimal
value somewhat higher than amplitude values that are
normally considered indicative of good-to-excellent cement bond. This minimum amplitude reading may, however, exist over several feet (m) of depth (XX560XX620 and XX645-XX60 in Fig. 1-28). As a result,
conventional quantification of cement bond will lead to
13
Fig. 1-26
Effects of poorly centered instrument
14
Fig. 1-27
Test results of peak amplitude reduction vs. areal amplitude reduction due to eccentering
Fig. 1-28
Eccentered casing can affect interpretation of cementing.3
Fig. 1-29
Cement thickness vs. attenuation rate30
15
Fig. 1-30
Cycle skipping to later arrivals caused by attenuation of pipe arrivals12
Fig. 1-32
Severe cycle skipping example29
Stretch
Fig. 1-31
Cycle skipping noted on travel-time trace12
Cycle Skipping
When travel time indicates a higher time value than the
calculated casing time (excluding collars), it is usually the
result of well-bonded cement, and a function of threshold
detection level.2 Bias levels are set at less than 10% of the
peak free-pipe signal (typically 5%). Pipe size and
weight should be a consideration in selecting threshold
level. Cycle-skipping to later amplitude arrivals is caused
by the attenuation of pipe arrivals (see Fig. 1-30). These
later, stronger arrivals, which are detectable above the
bias level, often represent strong acoustic coupling to the
formation. In well-bonded intervals, cycle skips to arrivals as late as E11 have been observed on travel-time
measurements.3
A cycle-skipping travel-time trace is illustrated in Fig.
1-31. Note that a fixed gate pipe amplitude and Variable
Density Log are also illustrated. More severe cycle skipping is observed on the log of Fig. 1-32. Note the depths
from 1819 m to 1822 m, 1825 m to 1826 m, 1829 m to
1830 m, 1847 m to 1848 m, and from 1850 m to 1868 m.
If cycle skipping is only from the first to the second or
third arrival, it is not likely to be formation signal (with
the exception of moderately fast formations), but either
poor threshold level or an attenuated first arrival.29
Fast Formation
High-velocity (low travel time) formations are defined as
those that have formation arrivals occurring earlier than
or at approximately the same time as the pipe arrivals (see
Table 1-2).
Low-porosity limestones and dolomites are examples
of fast formations [45 to 50 sec/ft (148 to 164 sec/m)],
16
Fig. 1-33
Delay in travel time caused by attenuated pipe amplitude
Fig. 1-35
BAL example showing several instances of fast formation. Note
changes in formation transit time on the wavefront and excellent
agreement with the gamma ray. Pronounced formation and resultant interference with amplitude and attenuation curves occur,
and partial bonding is also indicated by the amplitude and attenuation curves. The log may not be properly interpreted from the
amplitude and attenuation curves only. The waveform confirms a
good acoustic path (cement) exists from the pipe to the formation
and back. The entire interval is well cemented.29
prove extremely helpful.3 Fast formation arrivals also occur in Fig. 1-32 from 1837 m to 1841 m.
Interpretation of the attenuation curve on a Bond Attenuation Log may be complicated by certain fast formations whose formation arrivals can affect the 3.5-ft spaced
receiver signals (A2 and A4) but not the 2.5-ft spaced signals (A1 and A3).28 Such circumstances occur (Fig. 1-36).
The Variable Density Log in the example indicates strong
formation signal, a prerequisite in verifying adequate cement-to-formation bond. Cycle skips and stretch are apparent on the travel-time curve. An amplitude gate that is
too wide could also cause the problem. Note the interval
4,170 to 4,180 ft where travel time is late despite fast formation signal on the VDL (Fig. 1-36).
Fig. 1-34
BAL travel time exhibits t stretch from 4,190 to 4,216 ft and from
4,306 to 4,345 ft29
both of which are the same physical measurement. A 5ft transmitter-to-receiver span is commonly used for either type of display, the difference being the presentation format. The Western Atlas slimhole instrument uses
a 4-ft span for all acoustic measurements. The following
discussion points out the advantages of both display
types.
Full Waveform Signature
The Full-Wave Signature is a display of the received signal as observed on an oscilloscope; i.e., an x-y plot. To accommodate the range of expected arrival times for pipe,
formation, and fluid waves, the x-axis is typically scaled
from 200 to 1200 sec and the amplitude (y-axis) may be
adjusted to afford maximum resolution. The Signature is
typically displayed every 1 or 2 ft (0.5 m or 1.0 m) of
depth and may be recorded in a full-wave or half-wave
format in which the negative portion of the waveform is
omitted (Fig. 1-37). A less frequent 5-ft (1.5 to 2 m) plot
is also possible.
The Signature format is considered advantageous to
some15 users because the amplitude of each pulse can be
observed. This amplitude is not, however, the same as
the 3-ft receiver measurement (Signature is measured at
the 5-ft receiver.), and the electronic detection of the 3ft amplitude is far superior to human observation.2,3 At
the same time, the Signature format can be more difficult to use, especially where more heterogeneous formation conditions exist. Such formations cause some intermixing of the waveforms. Signature is also the preferred
format inside two strings of casing because casing arrival for both the inner and outer strings can be more
clearly identified.
Fig. 1-36
The interval from 4,170-4,182 ft indicates fast formation reversals
in the attenuation measurements. In this case, formation arrivals
are strong in the 3.5-ft receivers but only just beginning to affect
the 2.5-ft receivers. The attenuation algorith indicates unbonding,
although the 2.5-ft amplitude measurements are only slightly affected. Formation amplitudes arriving late in the amplitude gate
are detected by the travel time. Good bonding is implied by the
waveform.29
Fig. 1-37
Available signature presentations
18
Waveform Interpretation
To study the features of a single-waveform Signature, the
wave theory discussed earlier is quite useful. For practical applications, however, it is necessary to examine vertical depth intervals adjacent to critical geological formations. Features that may not be recognized on a single
waveform are quite often identifiable when many waveforms are examined simultaneously.
A simplified and practical approach to identifying the
important features of a VDL is shown in Fig. 1-39. Although this figure is very generalized, it can be seen that
pipe, formation, and fluid signals are easily recognized. If
these three signals can be individually identified, a practical determination of the presence or absence of cement can
be ascertained.3,12 Formations with very consistent formation arrival times over a considerable depth interval are
more difficult for signal recognition (e.g., tight limestones). The VDL pipe signal will occur at a relatively constant time. An approximate value of VDL pipe-arrival time
can be determined by adding 114 sec (2 additional feet of
pipe travel) to the 3-ft pipe time estimate found on the 3-ft
travel-time charts (Fig. 1-23a). In the case of a BAL instrument, 2.5 ft of additional pipe travel (142 sec) would
have to be added to the estimate determined on the BAL
travel-time chart (Fig. 1-23b). The VDL and/or Signature
time scale is relatively insensitive; therefore, an approximation of pipe time is adequate for interpretative purposes.
Fluid or mud waves can also be recognized by their
rather constant time of arrival. Since the T-R span is fixed
and the borehole fluid acoustical properties do not normally change, an arrival will typically be indicated as a
straight line trace. Instrument movement, while ascending through the fluid, will create some interference causing some slight trace distortion. Changes in casing size
also have a significant effect on fluid arrival time and its
amplitude. There is also a direct relationship between the
casing ID and the fluid/mud amplitude. A general method
for determining approximately where fluid/mud waves
occur on the spectrum is:
Fig. 1-38
Translating the acoustic signature log to a Variable Density Log
FLUID
FLUID
ARRIVAL
TRANSIT
TIME
TR
SPACING
(2)
Fig. 1-39
A practical approach to identifying the important features on a
VDL display3
19
Fig. 1-40
Characteristics of formation compressional arrivals and shear
arrivals3
Fig. 1-41
VDL formation signal correlates in mirror image to openhole
acoustic log3
Fig. 1-42
VDL first arrival changes in time vs. depth, an indication of strong
formation coupling
Fig. 1-43
Signature superimposed on Variable Density Log
Fig. 1-44
Comparison of signature and variable density presentation
21
Fig. 1-46
W reflection pattern opposite casing collar12
Fig. 1-45
Energy transfer in a free casing collar12
plexity in the display (Fig. 1-43). A two-track, side-byside presentation of the full-wave Signature and Variable Density is an alternative approach (Fig. 1-44).
Computer software is required to provide the combination display.
Fig. 1-47
In free pipe, casing collars affect travel time and amplitude for 3ft intervals and VDL over 5-ft intervals.3
CASING COLLARS
Casing collars are identified as a decrease in the amplitude, a slight increase in TT, and/or clear chevron (W)
patterns on the VDL.12,41 These anomalies are caused by
the attenuation and reflection of sound energy as it encounters the threaded connections of a casing collar as
shown in Fig. 1-45. Furthermore, the slight increase in
travel time is the result of the longer travel path as indicated. It should also be mentioned that collars will be
much more obvious in free, unsupported pipe.
The distance between the W pattern corners on the
VDL represents the transmitter-receiver spacing (see
Fig. 1-46).12 The Fig. 1-47 log illustrates that T-R spacing is also indicated by the TT increase vs. depth and by
amplitude reduction vs. depth, in addition to the chevron
patterns on the VDL. Tool systems utilizing a wide gating system will exhibit a more rounded-off pattern.
The location of the collars is assumed to be at the mid-
in holes cased with non-ferrous materials is primarily dependent on the waveform for formation detection, the assumption being that good bond to formation indicates
zone isolation. Amplitude measurements are generally
very low in non-ferrous pipe because the instrument does
not recognize any pipe presence. A floating gate detection
system will not reach threshold detection level until formation or fluid arrivals occur, so travel-time measurements occur very late. For cement evaluation in non-ferrous pipe, other wireline instrumentation (Appendix D)
should also be considered.
LINERS
When a liner is used in lieu of a long production string
of casing, the liner is usually extended upward for some
distance into a shallower intermediate pipe string, which
was cemented prior to drilling deeper. Several factors
must be considered; i.e., liners are often run without
centralizers and other exterior apparatus. Also, liner
hangers are not always used, and when they are employed, the hanger is not always set successfully. The
annular space between the liner and the casing (where
they overlap vs. depth) is often quite small and makes
Fig. 1-48
BAL instrument in 5-in., 18-lbm/ft flush-joint pipe
Fig. 1-49
Effective cementation is necessary between two pipe strings in the overlapping depth interval.
23
cementing between the two pipe strings difficult. Effective cementation needs to exist between the two pipe
strings in the overlapping depth interval to eliminate
communication problems in that area of the borehole
(Fig. 1-49). Interpretation of acoustic cement bond log
response is particularly difficult in this situation, because the cement sheath may be thin and the liner may
be eccentered inside the larger casing. Gate width, both
for amplitude and travel time, is often critical in obtaining meaningful responses.
Occasionally, a liner may be run in a borehole that is
not much larger than the liner diameter; i.e., the annular
space will be small. A cement sheath less than 3/4 in.
(19 mm) in thickness might result. Figure 1-50 is an example showing a CBL recorded in a 5.5-in. (127-mm)
liner, which was set in a 5.875-in. (149-mm) borehole.
The borehole was in gauge through a tight, limestone
reservoir. In such circumstances, the casing collars
would likely center the pipe. It must be recognized,
however, that the amplitude responses will be mislead-
Fig. 1-51
Zone isolation can be accomplished if mud properties are
adequate.
ing due to the thin cement sheath. Pipe signal will likely
be evident on the VDL due to the minimal muffling effect of the cement sheath in comparison to the metal volume of the pipe. Collars will, in all probability, affect all
the measurements. Fast formation signals should, however, be apparent on the travel-time trace. Strong formation signals, including shear arrivals, will likely occur
where adequate acoustic coupling to the formation is
found. The interval (Fig. 1-50) shown was interpreted as
well cemented, and initial production tests confirmed the
log analysis.
Another situation that occasionally complicates cement bond analysis is illustrated in Fig. 1-51. The example shows a 7-in. (179-mm) liner centered in an 81/2-in. (216-mm) borehole, but with a 1/4-in. (6.4-mm)
mudcake buildup. The cement sheath is too thin (see inset) and, as a result, cement bond to the pipe would appear to be poor.
If, for some reason, a cement bond log is run over a
portion of an intermediate string of casing after logging
the deeper liner, the instrument will probably not be adequately centered for the larger internal diameter of the
intermediate casing. This type of logging condition
should only be interpreted qualitatively, and then with
some knowledge of well mechanics and cement times
and conditions.
Fig. 1-50
Amplitude and VDL behavior in a borehole not much larger than
the pipe diameter
24
Fig. 1-52
Acoustic coupling can exist in concentric pipe strings.
25
Fig. 1-53
Openhole caliper and porosity/lithology data can help explain CBL responses.
26
bond log (Fig. 1-54). If a bond log is run before the cement cures, it may only be useful in monitoring the cement curing time.12,30
Fig. 1-54
Effects of curing time on CBL responses12,21
TABLE 1-3
Cement Type
Pozzolan Cement 5050, 2% Gel
Slo-Jet, 4% Gel
Class A Cement, 5% Gel
Slo-Set
Class F
Class E, 4% Gel
Pozzolan Cement 5050,
2% Gel, 2% CACL
5050 Pozzolan Cement, 3% Gel
Pozzolan Cement, 2% Gel
Slo-set
Class A
Class A
Slo-set with Perlite, 4% Gel,
3% lignine retarder
Pozzolan Cement 5050
Slo-set
Class A
C17g
Time
Curing
Temp.
Casing Size
Spacing
Minimum
Amplitude
Computed
Comp. Strength
Theoretical
Comp. Strength
48 hrs.
54 hrs.
168 hrs.
42 hrs.
24 hrs.
36 hrs.
42 hrs.
112
140
110
162
243
220
110
4-1/2 9-1/2#
5-1/2 14#
10-3/4 45-1/2#
5-1/2 20#
5 18#
5-1/2 17#
10-3/4 40-1/2#
3
3
3
3
3
4
3
0.5
0.5
1.5
0.8
0.8
0.2
3.2
1400
2600
2800
5000
5000
2700
1000
1400
3000
3000
5000
5000
2800
1000
64 hrs.
Workover Well
19 hrs.
Workover Well
After Squeeze
11-1/2 hrs.
115
140
195
120
150
188
4-1/2 9-1/2#
7 26#
5 18#
5-1/2 14#
7 23#
9-5/8 47#
3
4
3
4
3
4
0.6
1.2
1.4
0.2
1.5
1.0
1300
1400
4000
1600
1900
2800
2000
2600
3800
6000
6500
1000
39 hrs.
36 hrs.
Workover Well
120
234
130
4-1/2 9-1/2#
7 29#
5 14#
3
3
4
0.4
1.1
0.4
1700
5000
1500
1600
5000
6000
27
as casing diameter changes. It is known that the transducers couple signal sound more efficiently as the casing diameter decreases, and hence casing diameter must be considered for interpretation purposes. As shown in Fig.
1-55, the casing wave frequency is higher on the VDL in
smaller diameter pipe.2,12
Fig. 1-56
Nominal thickness for different casing sizes and weights12
Fig. 1-55
Pipe size affects frequency of pipe ringing.3
Bond Index
The bond index (BI) is numerically determined from the
following equation,
Attenuation Measured Bond Index
Bond Index
Maximum Attenuation
(3)
Fig. 1-57
Cement compressive strength from Series 1423 Bond Attenuation Log
29
Fig. 1-58
Cement compressive strength from Series 1456 dual-receiver bond log
30
Fig. 1-59
Cement compressive strength from Series 1412, 1415, and 1417 cement bond log instruments
31
Amplitude Measured
20
Attenuation log
Free-Pipe Amplitude . (4)
Equation 4 is the commonly accepted definition of attenuation. The value of D is the T-R span; three is substituted for the dual-receiver CBL tools, and four would be
used in the equation if interpretation was made from a Series 1412 instrument.
When metric measurements are used, the BI ratio is
unaffected since it is dimensionless. Different operators
select various BI values as an acceptable bond indica-
TABLE 1-4
(Valid ONLY for Series 1456 instrument)
TRAVEL TIME
(SEC)
FREE PIPE
SIGNAL
#CLASS H#*
3,000 PSI CEMENT
#POZ MIX#
1,500 PSI CEMENT
100
60
100
60
INTERVAL
REQUIRED
FOR ISOLATION
CASING SIZE
WT.
4-1/2
9.5
11.5
13.5
213
95 mV
.2 mV
.7 mV
1.2 mV
2.6 mV
5.4 mV
8.2 mV
.6 mV
1.5 mV
2.3 mV
4.7 mV
9.5 mV
12.9 mV
15.0
18.0
21.0
222
83 mV
1.0 mV
2.4 mV
4.0 mV
6.1 mV
11.1 mV
16.6 mV
2.3 mV
5.0 mV
7.7 mV
11.1 mV
17.7 mV
22.1 mV
.8 mV
1.1 mV
2.3 mV
3.8 mV
5.2 mV
6.5 mV
9.7 mV
14.1 mV
1.8 mV
2.6 mV
4.4 mV
6.5 mV
8.7 mV
10.8 mV
18.3 mV
19.5 mV
1.1 mV
1.8 mV
2.5 mV
3.5 mV
4.2 mV
5.3 mV
6.4 mV
5.8 mV
8.0 mV
9.9 mV
13.8 mV
14.9 mV
15.9 mV
18.0 mV
2.5 mV
3.5 mV
5.1 mV
6.4 mV
7.7 mV
9.0 mV
10.6 mV
9.9 mV
13.8 mV
15.9 mV
18.0 mV
19.1 mV
21.2 mV
23.4 mV
1.2 mV
1.9 mV
2.8 mV
3.7 mV
5.9 mV
8.0 mV
10.6 mV
13.8 mV
2.7 mV
3.7 mV
5.3 mV
6.9 mV
9.6 mV
12.8 mV
16.0 mV
18.1 mV
2.0 mV
2.5 mV
3.0 mV
4.5 mV
7.6 mV
9.5 mV
10.0 mV
13.4 mV
3.5 mV
4.9 mV
5.6 mV
7.6 mV
11.3 mV
14.5 mV
15.8 mV
17.8 mV
1.9 mV
2.3 mV
2.7 mV
2.9 mV
3.0 mV
1.3 mV
7.0 mV
8.2 mV
8.6 mV
9.1 mV
9.5 mV
5.5 mV
3.3 mV
4.1 mV
4.5 mV
5.2 mV
5.4 mV
2.5 mV
10.3 mV
11.9 mV
13.0 mV
14.0 mV
15.1 mV
5-1/2
7-5/8
9-5/8
10-3/4
15.5
17.0
20.0
23.0
23.0
26.0
29.0
32.0
35.0
38.0
40.0
26.4
29.7
33.7
39.0
40.0
43.5
47.0
53.5
40.5
45.5
48.0
51.0
54.0
55.0
231
255
78 mV
69 mV
268
66 mV
297
59 mV
319
54 mV
* Amplitude data derived from chart published by G.D. Pardue et al., SPE, May 1964
32
11
12
15
8.6 mV
18
Fig. 1-60
Empirical determinations of bond index15
Fig. 1-61
Minimum cemented interval required for zone isolation vs. casing
size for an 0.8 BI.7
Fig. 1-62
BAL attenuation rates in free pipe will be slightly higher than calculated attenuations.
33
A new parameter called Bond Rating (BR) was introduced to account for this difference in attenuation rates
determined by the two methods.29 The BR ratio is defined as
(5)
Fig. 1-63
Bond Ratio above 0.75 highlighted for ease in recognizing wellbonded intervals
Amplitude
Measured
Free Pipe
2
0
Attenuation Log Attenuation . (6)
Free Pipe
2.5 ft
Amplitude
Fig. 1-64
Internal electrical calibration for peak amplitude measurements23
CALIBRATION
An internal electrical calibration for the peak amplitude
measurement is utilized to calibrate the instrument. The
transducers are normalized as explained in Fig. 1-64.
Each instrument is placed into a shop calibrator and adjusted to a fixed, known output. An electrical calibration
signal is generated in the downhole electronic cartridge to
34
this periodic test, the size of the calibration pulse is adjusted to produce the proper ratio for that instrument type.
Shop calibrations are required monthly or more frequently as needed. A BAL shop calibration is shown as
Fig. 1-65. Another shop calibration fixture is also being
designed and tested.
Fig. 1-66
Before and after log calibrations are recorded and presented.
Fig. 1-65
BAL shop calibration example
Well-site Calibration
A complete calibration sequence requires BEFORE and
AFTER records, including Signature (or VDL) and
travel-time calibrations. A copy of the shop calibration
should also be attached to the log. The calibration sequences (Fig. 1-66) should show the calibration pulse
value for the prescribed instrument and the instrument
zero setting.
If possible, a free-pipe reading should be made showing the calibration pulse amplitude and a free-pipe waveform. In addition, all nuclear logs run in conjunction with
the cement bond log device should have BEFORE and
AFTER calibrations recorded and presented.
Fig. 1-67
CBL Ledex relay calibration
In this section, a number of typical cement bond conditions will be discussed. Actual field examples will be
used to show the behavior of cement bond logs in these
various conditions.
GOOD BOND TO PIPE AND FORMATION
Low-to-Medium Velocity Formations
Good bond to both the casing and formation creates a favorable acoustic coupling condition between casing, cement, and formation, as shown in Fig. 2-1. An effective
shear coupling at the casing-cement interface allows most
of the acoustic energy received at the casing to be
absorbed by the cement. The energy is efficiently transmitted through the cement to the formation with both
compressional and shear coupling because of favorable
acoustic impedance conditions between the materials. As
a result, maximum energy is transferred to the formation.
Fig. 2-2 presents a CBL recorded under these ideal conditions (in a low-to-medium velocity formation), the
characteristics of which include:
A. Very weak or missing casing arrivals on the VDL
or Signature
B. Very low fixed gate pipe amplitude (If instrument
is centered, cement sufficiently cured, and other
well mechanics are tolerable.)
C. Travel time possibly cycle skipping to a later arrival or indicating stretch
D. Strong formation compressional arrivals on VDL
or Signature
E. Shear arrivals might be detected (In very low velocity formations, they probably would not be
seen.)
High-Velocity Formations
Dense, high-velocity formations (i.e., limestone,
dolomite, anhydrite, gypsum), especially those with low
porosities, will exhibit openhole transit times less than 57
sec/ft (187 sec/m). Such formations are said to be fast
because the formation signal arrives earlier at the receiver
than the casing signal, as illustrated in Fig. 2-3.
When high-velocity formation conditions are encountered, the fixed-gate pipe amplitude may not identify a
good bond. Strong formation compressional arrivals
might also be received within the pipe gate time frame.
Favorable coupling from the pipe, through the cement, and
to the formation is available. The formation signal can
arrive prior to the pipe signal only if the cement is well
bonded to the casing and formation. As shown in Fig. 2-4,
bond log characteristics under these conditions are:
Fig. 2-1
Good bond to casing and formation results in favorable acoustic
coupling as shown by the waveform and VDL.
37
Fig. 2-2
Acoustic energy is efficiently transferred when good bond to pipe
and formation exists.
Fig. 2-3
Fast (high-velocity) formation signals12
38
Fig. 2-4
Bond log characteristics in a fast formation
Fig. 2-5
Acoustic signal and VDL behavior when only good bond to pipe
exists.12 (A similar response can occur in shallow unconsolidated
gas sands.)
FREE PIPE
If the casing is free and unsupported, and not in contact
with the borehole wall (Fig. 2-8), it will vibrate and
transmit strong casing signals to the receiver. Very little
acoustic coupling can occur between the casing and
annular liquid because their acoustic impedances are
quite different. This acoustic impedance is given by v or
b 1,000,000/t. For iron, b7.8 g/cc and t57
sec/ft; for water, b 1.0 g/cc and t 189 sec/ft.
Most of the acoustic energy therefore remains in the
casing, which results in large, multiple (echo) ringing.
39
Fig. 2-6
BAL log in conditions of good pipe bond and poor formation bond
Fig. 2-8
Signature and VDL characteristics in free pipe12
Fig. 2-7
BAL log in a shallow, high-porosity, gas-bearing zone
40
Fig. 2-9
Free-pipe signals
Fig. 2-10
Signature and VDL characteristics where poor bond or partial
bond exists
Channeling
Consistent amplitude measurements, indicating partial
bonding over long depth intervals, are usually related to a
microannulus. Channels in the cement sheath are not
likely to remain uniform in size or shape, and therefore
cause some variation in the amplitude responses (Fig. 211). An example of VDLs before and after a successful
squeeze job are shown in Fig. 2-12.
Microannulus
A microannulus is defined as a very small annular gap,
about 510 mils in size, located between the casing and
cement sheath. The cement is not bonded to the pipe, but
the annular space between casing and the formation is
well cemented. The cement job, under normal production
conditions, is sufficient to form a hydraulic seal and prevent fluid migration behind pipe. A microannulus may be
caused by several factors such as:
Holding pressure on the casing until the cement has
set, and then allowing the pipe to contract after pressure release
Thermal expansion of the pipe while cement cures
Thermal contraction of the pipe as a result of filling
the borehole with cooler fluids prior to logging
Contaminants such as mill varnish or grease on the
external surface of the casing
Squeeze cementing
Reduction of fluid density when logging.
Fig. 2-11
Channels in the cement sheath usually cause some variation in
amplitude responses.
Fig. 2-12
Elimination of channel by cement squeezing12
Fig. 2-13
Field example showing microannulus effect on amplitude and
VDL.12
42
TABLE 2-1
Type of Microannulus
Be prepared to pressure-up to
Thermal
Produced
Induced
Squeeze
Limited by:
Burst pressure of casing
Casing pressure test
Liner top test
1,000 psi
Pressure held 1,000 psi*
Reduction in hydrostatic 1,000 psi
Maximum squeeze pressure*
Fig. 2-14
Pipe expansion due to internal pressures
Fig. 2-15
Lightweight foam cements tend to cause higher than normal
minimum amplitudes.
44
Fig. 2-16
An annular cement sheath less than 3/4 in. in thickness exponentially reduces pipe attenuation rates.
45
Fig. 2-18
Variation of attenuation with casing wall thickness29
Fig. 2-17
Effect of poorly centered tool on amplitude12
Fig. 2-19
SRT and VDL in 13-3/8-in., 88-lbm/ft casing3
46
Fig. 2-20
Gas (air) bubbles in borehole fluid dampen or even kill acoustic
signals.12
cement. Extensive field tests have been carried out to determine the effects on cement bond log measurements.14
The test results showed that a thick resin coating (50 to 70
mils) with numerous air bubbles trapped within the resin
resulted in poor indications of bond. When thinner applications of the resin coating (10 to 30 mils) were applied,
wireline measurements were not adversely affected.
Examples (Fig. 2-21) of these conditions have been
demonstrated in earlier publications.14
SMALL-DIAMETER PIPE CEMENTED IN A
MUCH LARGER BOREHOLE
Circumstances occasionally require setting small pipe in
a relatively large borehole. Figures 2-22 and 2-23 are
CBL examples using a slim-hole instrument in 2-7/8-in.
(73-mm) pipe. The pipe was set in a 7-7/8-in. (200-mm)
borehole. Note that the VDL was scaled from 100 to 1100
sec to accommodate the earlier pipe arrivals. Both
gamma ray and neutron were recorded simultaneously
with the CCL, Amplitude, travel time (SRT), and VDL.
In Fig. 2-22, formation signals and no pipe arrivals
occur over the interval from 6,290 to 6,510 ft. Also, the
Amplitude is near zero, and the travel-time curve is off
the page due to cycle-skipping over the well-bonded
section. Fluid waves can be observed on the VDL at
approximately 750 sec, and low-frequency Stoneley
waves can be observed from 800 to 1100 sec. The
shaded area in Track II represents zones where Bond
Index greater than 0.8 occurs.
Fig. 2-21
Effects on signal frequency with different instruments and various thicknesses of resin sand coatings14
48
Fig. 2-22
Slim-hole instrument example of a well-cemented interval
Fig. 2-24
Identifying the cement top
Fig. 2-23
Example of a poorly cemented interval and a poorly centered
slim-hole instrument
49
RECOGNITION OF CHANGES IN
BOREHOLE FLUID
A change in borehole fluid can be recognized (Fig. 2-25)
if the analyst is cognizant of the fact an interface occurs.
At about 2000 m, the fluid column changed from water to
oil. Note the change on travel time, peak amplitude, and
VDL curves. The log was recorded in 177-mm casing.
The travel-time shift at the fluid change is excessive and
might be due to an improperly set gate.
Fig. 2-26
Displacing cement by rotation25
Fig. 2-25
Recognizing changes in borehole fluid
Fig. 2-28
Turbulators are used on pipe in highly deviated to horizontally
drilled holes.
The general discussion of mechanical devices is an important consideration when analyzing a cement bond log.
A detailed discussion of the numerous devices used and
their purposes are beyond the scope of this document;
however, it is important that this well information be
made available and recorded on the log heading for future
reference.
Fig. 2-27
Array of scratchers and centralizers installed on the bottom joints
of casing.37,38
51
0.1
37.4
4557
1.07
11.6
1.5
1.9
2.26
2.98
2.8
5.8
Fig. 3-2
SBT acoustic pad array
Fig. 3-1
Transducers positioned in a wraparound configuration
between the two receivers is a direct measurement of attenuation, and infers cement quality for a 60 segment of
the pipe periphery. The subcycle is completed, and a compensated measurement is accomplished by firing the
transmitter on a fourth arm as those two receivers (arms 2
and 3) measure amplitude (Fig. 3-3). Thus, in each of the
six subcycles, four measured amplitudes are used to derive attenuation (Fig. 3-4). Differences in receiver sensitivity and/or transmitter power cancel since the data are in
both the numerator and denominator of the calculation.
Therefore, each of the resultant attenuations measured for
each of the six subcycles are fully compensated over the
entire 25 dB/ft (82 dB/m) range.
SBT Presentations
The primary SBT presentation (Fig. 3-5) is similar to the
Bond Attenuation Log format; i.e., attenuation and amplitude traces, Signature or Variable Density display,
CCL, a correlation curve, and line tension. The correlation trace may be a gamma ray, or a neutron, or both. The
two attenuation traces are an average of the six segmented
measurements, and a minimum attenuation trace representative of the 60 segment with the least attenuation.
Both traces are presented alongside one another, and the
highlighted separation of the two attenuation curves indicates a cement void on one side of the casing. A continuing wide separation over a considerable depth interval infers the presence of channeling within the cement sheath.
The amplitude and X5 amplitude traces are calculated
from the average attenuation and are similar to those observed on traditional cement bond logs.
A secondary SBT presentation (Fig. 3-6) displays all
six compensated attenuation measurements and the Variable Attenuation Log (VAL) or cement map of the casing periphery versus depth. VAL shadings range from
dark to white, with five 20% increments of intensity. The
Fig. 3-3
Two-transmitter/two-receiver combination provides compensated
measurement.
54
The downhole hardware is self-diagnostic, selfcalibrated, and microprocessor controlled. Digital measurements are collected and transmitted to the surface by
means of a duplex telemetry link. In addition, special
methods are employed to reduce road noise and improve
signal levels. The logging engineer remotely controls all
aspects of the operation from the surface.
SBT Specifications
All the combined SBT measurements are digitized downhole. Data are transmitted to the surface through a digital
telemetry link, preserving measurement accuracy. Instrument specifications are given in Table 3-1.
TABLE 3-1
Length (with G/R-CCL)
with in-line centralizers
with slip-on centralizers
Diameter w/gamma ray
Temperature rating
Pressure rating
Minimum casing diameter
Maximum casing diameter
Maximum casing deviation from vertical
Dynamic range
Attenuation measurement accuracy
Azimuthal measurement accuracy at 1 dev.
53 ft (16.2 m)
45 ft (13.7 m)*
3.625 in. (92 mm)
350F (177C)
20,000 psi (138 MPa)
4.5 in. (114 mm)
13.375 in. (340 mm)
50**
25 dB/ft (82 dB/m)
0.75 dB/ ft (2.4 dB/m)
5
55
Fig. 3-4
Each subcycle provides four amplitudes to derive compensated
attenuation data.
Fig. 3-6
Secondary SBT presentation
Fig. 3-5
Primary SBT presentation
56
Fig. 3-7
Six separate compensated attenuation measurements are
provided.
57
Fig. 3-8
SBT test results at EPA test well24
58
Fig. 3-10
SBT log in free pipe
Fig. 3-9
SBT log at Amocos test well
59
Fig. 3-11
Comparison of SBT primary and secondary presentations to a conventional dual-receiver CBL
60
Fig. 3-12
Comparison of a BAL log with the secondary presentation of an SBT log
61
CHANNELING
In depth interval from X002 to X076 m, the Primary presentation shows low amplitude, and the VDL reflects essentially no pipe signal (Fig. 3-13). As with any traditional interpretation of CBLs, an analyst would most
likely consider the interval to be well cemented. Additional perspective is provided, however, with the wide
separation of the minimum and average attenuation traces
over several portions of the interval.
Fig. 3-13
Channeling condition shown on the Primary and Segmented Array presentation.
62
Fig. 3-14
Gradational cement top
63
LARGE-DIAMETER CASING
These examples demonstrate the effective evaluation of
cement integrity by the SBT pad-type assembly in casing
as large as 16 in. (406 mm). Channeling is indicated from
X400 to X680 ft in Fig. 3-15. Overall, a well-cemented
interval is generally indicated from X800 to X1100 ft in
Fig. 3-16.
Fig. 3-15
Channeling indicated in 16-in. (406-mm) casing.
64
Fig. 3-16
Well-cemented interval in 16-in. (406-mm) casing
65
BRINE WELL
This well was drilled through a salt plug and cased with
9-5/8-in. (244-mm) casing. A storage cavern will be
leached out below the casing point. The hole was filled
with saturated brine for logging. A section of log from
this well (Fig. 3-17) graphically demonstrates the ease
with which the SBT log can be interpreted. The Segmented Array presentation and cement map indicate good
cement in all six segments for the interval below X085 m.
A similar interpretation results from the SBT Primary
presentation where average and minimum attenuation are
high and almost of equal value; i.e., the derived amplitude
curve is low, and the VDL indicates loss of pipe arrival
and replacement with formation character below X098 m.
The remainder of the displayed interval has low attenuation rates and the VDL indicates essentially free pipe.
DENSE BOREHOLE FLUID
The SBT example in Fig. 3-18 was recorded in 7-in. (178mm), 32-lbm/ft (47.6-kg/m) casing filled with 16.1lbm/gal mud. The interval from X850 to X010 ft shows
good to excellent bond on both the SBT Primary and Segmented Array presentations. Average and minimum at-
Fig. 3-17
Intervals of good and poor cement bonding in a brine well
66
Fig. 3-18
Good-to-excellent bond conditions demonstrated by SBT log recorded in dense borehole fluid.
Fig. 3-19
Channeling demonstrated by SBT log recorded in dense borehole fluid.
67
SBT REPEATABILITY
Fig. 3-20 shows the Primary Log presentation over the
depth interval from X900 to X940 m with a repeat section. In spite of the fact that conditions varied through the
interval, the logs show good repeatability. Since the SBT
measurements are segmented, it is reasonable to assume
that exact repetition of the six attenuation curves is unlikely on subsequent log passes. The Primary Log presentation, however, shows acceptable repeatability.
ADVANTAGES OF THE
SEGMENTED BOND TOOL SYSTEM
The instrument description and field examples presented
illustrate the advantages of this second-generation radial
cement evaluation system over previous measuring systems. These advantages include:
HORIZONTAL WELL
The SBT instrument has been run successfully in a horizontal well using coiled-tubing-conveyed methods. The
subject well was completed with 5.5-in. (140-mm) casing
and the hole filled with lease water. The borehole was
kicked off at X600 ft and built to 90 deviation over an
1,100-ft (335-m) interval. The well was essentially horizontal for 1,300 ft (396 m) from that point to the total
measured depth of the well.
Fig. 3-20
SBT log repeatability
When necessary, the SBT log can resolve the ambiguity of CBLs
SBT log not affected by borehole fluid type or gas
SBT log can be used in most common casing sizes
above 4.5 in. (114.3 mm)
68
Fig. 3-21
SBT log over a portion of a horizontal well
69
Fig. 3-22
SBT log over a second selected depth interval in the same horizontal well as shown in Fig. 3-21
70
Fig. 3-23
Cement compressive strength from segmented bond tool log
71
BIBLIOGRAPHY
13. Carter, L. G. and Evans, G. W.: A Study of CementPipe Bonding, JPT (February 1964).
14. Cheung, P. R. and Beirute, R. M.: Gas Flows in Cements, JPT (June, 1985).
3. Bigelow, E. L.: A Practical Approach to the Interpretation of the Cement Bond Log, JPT (July 1985).
16. Dresser Atlas Acoustic Cement Bond Log and Prolog CBL. Dresser Atlas Publication 2206 (1985).
17. Dresser Atlas Well Logging and Interpretation Techniques The Course for Home Study, Dresser Atlas
Publication 9333 (1985).
7. Bigelow, E. L.: Effective Evaluation of Well Mechanical Integrity, Trans. Symposium on Class II
Injection Well Management and Practices, UIPRF
and USDOE, Houston, Texas (1992).
8. Bigelow, E. L.: Confirmation of a Wells Mechanical Integrity, paper OTC 7344 presented at the 1993
25th Annual Offshore Technology Conference,
Houston, TX, May 36.
23. Havira, R. M.: Ultrasonic Cement Bond Evaluation, Trans. SPWLA 23rd Annual Logging Symposium, Corpus Christi, TX (1982).
10. Broding, R. A.: Application of the Sonic Volumetric Scan Log to Cement Evaluation, paper presented
at the 1984 SPWLA Annual Logging Symposium,
New Orleans, LA, June 1013.
26. Leigh, C. A. et al.: Results of Field Testing the Cement Evaluation Tool, paper presented at the 1984
SPWLA 25th Annual Logging Symposium, New Orleans, LA, June 1013.
37. Pilkington, P. E.: Pressure Needed to Reduce Microannulus Effect on CBL, Oil & Gas J. (May 30,
1988).
27. Leslie, H. D., De Selliers, J., and Pittman, D. J.: Coupling and Attenuation: A New Measurement Pair in
Cement Bond Logging, paper presented at the 1987
SPE Production Operations Symposium, March 810.
28. Lester, R. A.,: The Segmented Bond Tool: A PadType Cement Bond Device, paper presented at the
1989 Symposium of the Canadian Well Logging Society, Calgary, Alberta, September 2628.
39. Pilkington, P. E.: CBLs Can Evaluate Cement Integrity Between Two Casing Strings, Oil & Gas J.
(December 10, 1990).
30. McGhee, B. F. and Vacca, H. L.: Guidelines for Improved Monitoring of Cementing Operations,
Trans. Annual SPWLA Logging Symposium,
Lafayette, LA (1980).
31. Morris, R. L., Grine, D. R., and Arkfeld, T. E.: Using Compressional and Shear Acoustic Amplitudes
for the Location of Fractures, JPT (June 1964).
32. Nayfeh, T. H., Wheelis, W. B., Jr., and Leslie, H. D.:
The Fluid Compensated Bond Log, Proc., SPE
Formation Evaluation, (August 1986) 335341.
44. Tyndall, J. H.: Segmented Bond Log A New Generation Cement Bond Logging Device, paper presented at the 1990 CIM International Technical
Meeting, Calgary, Alberta, June 1013.
45. Walker, T.: A Full Wave Display of Acoustic Signal in Cased Holes, JPT (August 1968).
73
75
PROBLEM 1
Well location: Texas, U.S.A.
Borehole conditions: 5.5-in., 14-lbm/ft casing in a 7-7/8-in. borehole
Observe the Travel-time, Peak Amplitude, Bond Index, and Attenuation traces and compare them to the Variable Density
Log. Is the cement sheath adequate to isolate the following two zones from the interval 4,278 to 4,311 ft?
(1) 4,240 to 4,248 ft
Describe the phenomenon that occurs on the Travel-time trace, and indicate the depth intervals.
Indicate the depth intervals where you believe shear arrivals occur.
Amplitude?
76
PROBLEM 2
Well location: Illinois basin, U.S.A.
Borehole conditions: Unknown.
Determine the depth where you think the cement top occurs.
Amplitude differently from the Signature?
77
PROBLEM 3
Well location: Persian Gulf
Borehole conditions: 4.5-in. liner, 11.6-lbm/ft pipe
Would you consider the cement job over this interval to be adequate or better?
where you believe cement quality is lesser in quality than in other depth intervals?
If so, what
depth interval(s)?
Indicate the compressional arrivals on the VDL.
Also indicate those depth intervals where you believe shear arrivals are detected on the VDL.
78
PROBLEM 4
Well location: Indonesia
Borehole conditions: Unknown
What is the cement condition in the interval shown? Explain why.
79
PROBLEM 5
Using the proper chart (Fig. 1-59), determine the compressive strength of this conventional cement at the following intervals.
80
4,308 - 4,314 ft
psi
4,348 - 4,352 ft
psi
4,395 - 4,398 ft
psi
4,458 - 4,462 ft
psi
PROBLEM 6
Well location: Texas, U.S.A.
Borehole conditions: 4.5-in., 9.6-lbm/ft casing filled with formation water
Give a general interpretation of cement quality from 3,450 to 3,900 ft.
81
PROBLEM 7
Well location: Permian basin, U.S.A.
Borehole conditions: 5.5-in., 14-lbm/ft casing set in a 7-7/8-in borehole; the CBL was recorded with 1,000-psi surface pressure applied to the casing.
Give your analysis of the cement job from 3,350 to 3,540 ft.
Do you recognize any shear arrivals on the VDL? If so, identify the depth interval(s).
82
PROBLEM 8
Well location: Permian basin, U.S.A.
Borehole conditions: Unknown
From the given BAL data, what type of cement job is present between 8,408 and 8,550 ft?
83
PROBLEM 9
Well location: Oklahoma, U.S.A.
Borehole conditions: Unknown
In the zone from 4,694 to 4,750 ft, does the VDL indicate
good bond to the formation?
Does the
Amplitude indicate good bond to the casing?
84
PROBLEM 10
Well location: Offshore, Gulf of Mexico
Borehole conditions: 7-in., 32-lbm/ft casing cemented in 10-5/8-in. borehole with 910 sacks of Class H cement plus additives (extenders/retarders). Borehole drift was greater than 30. CBL instrument was centralized with three Gemco centralizers.
Is the cement job adequate over the depth interval shown?
Explain.
If an 11-ft interval is needed for effective zone isolation, identify those intervals where Bond Index is high enough to isolate
one zone from another.
85
PROBLEM 11
Well location: Permian basin, U.S.A.
Borehole conditions: 5.5-in. casing set in a 7-7/8-in. borehole
Explain your description of cement condition over the depth interval shown.
86
PROBLEM 12
Well location: Offshore, Gulf of Mexico
Borehole conditions: 4.5-in. casing
Explain the cement condition between 4,550 ft and 4,730 ft.
Indicate depth intervals where fluid arrivals and shear arrivals occur.
87
PROBLEM 13
Well location: Offshore, Louisiana
Borehole conditions: 7-in., 29-lbm/ft pipe Following two squeeze jobs, the CBL was recorded after allowing more than 3
days setup time.
Describe the condition of cement over the interval given.
88
PROBLEM 14
Well location: Alberta, Canada
Borehole conditions: 140-mm, 20.8-kg/m casing
What is your overall interpretation of cementing conditions across the interval given?
89
PROBLEM 15
Well location: Canada
Borehole conditions: 7000-kPa pressure at the wellhead
Give your analysis of cement condition over the interval
from 775 m to 825 m.
90
PROBLEM 16
Well location: U.S. gulf coast
Borehole conditions: 7-in. casing cemented in a 9-7/8-in. borehole
Give an overall description of cement conditions for the interval presented.
91
PROBLEM 17
Well location: Italy
Borehole conditions: 7-in., 29-lbm/ft casing in 8-1/2-in. borehole
Give a quick analysis of cement condition over the interval shown.
92
PROBLEM 18
14,196 - 14,204 ft
14,209 - 14,211 ft
14,212 - 14,214 ft
14,216 - 14,220 ft
14,230 - 14,250 ft
psi
psi
psi
psi
psi
93
PROBLEM 19
Well location: Permian basin, U.S.A.
Borehole conditions: 7-in., 26-lbm/ft casing The first logging pass was recorded with no pressure at the wellhead.
Give your overall impression of the cement condition from this logging pass.
The second logging pass was recorded with 2,000 psi at the wellhead. Does this pass confirm a microannulus condition?
Using the appropriate chart (Fig. 1-58), determine the cement compressive strengths for both logging passes over the following intervals and compare:
94
Run 1
with 0 psi
Run2
with 2,000 psi
9,2109,220 ft
9,3159,320 ft
9,3209,324 ft
9,3809,390 ft
From the text material discussing microannulus, would you now recommend the logging procedure used on this well?
Why or why not?
95
PROBLEM 20
Well location: North Sea
Borehole conditions: 7-in., 29.0-lbm/ft casing in 8-1/2-in. borehole
Approximately 50 cement bond logs were obtained from Western Atlas locations worldwide for this text. This North Sea
field example provided the most extensive information regarding borehole conditions; however, it too lacked information on
scratchers, centralizers, and other mechanical apparatus that might have been used in the well completion.
The log was run 3 days after cementing. Based on the information given, and the log data presented, what is your opinion of
the cement job over the given depth interval?
96
97
PROBLEM 21
Well location: Oklahoma, U.S.A.
Borehole conditions: 5.5-in., 17-lbm/ft casing in 7.875-in. borehole
98
The Segmented Bond Tool was discussed in Chapter 3 of the text. Give your analysis of the cement over the SBT depth
intervals given.
99
PROBLEM 22
Well location: Oklahoma, U.S.A.
Borehole conditions: 5.5-in., 17-lbm/ft casing in 7.875-in. borehole
100
Give your opinion of the cement job over the depth intervals shown with this Segmented Bond Tool log.
101
PROBLEM 23
Well location: Canada
Borehole conditions: 139.7-mm casing, 7000-kPa pressure at the wellhead
Describe the cement condition across the interval shown.
102
If so, where?
CEMENTINGAN OVERVIEW
APPENDIX A
Fig. A1
Diagram of cementing job20
103
damage. Complete cement coverage is, however, required in some environmentally sensitive areas; e.g., to
protect potable waters. Surface casings across fresh-water aquifers are commonly cemented to the surface, and
the same may be true with some intermediate strings. In
areas where formation damage/fracturing is of concern,
long intervals are frequently cemented in stages.
In todays deep wells, economic considerations, and
occasional steel shortages, have resulted in the more common use of liners. A liner may be hung through the productive interval or perhaps utilized for well repair where
the casing has been damaged. Successful cement jobs
with a liner are often difficult to accomplish because of
small annular clearances and the inability to use centralizers. The interval of overlap between the liner and the
casing string from which the liner is hung is especially
critical because the annular clearance between the two
pipe strings is typically small.
A basic problem in cementing is to fully displace the
fluid in the casing annulus. Displacement efficiency is defined as:
Fig. A3
Schematic of a remedial squeeze cement job12
Cements are broadly classified as being neat or tailored. Neat cement generally has properties that are inflexible. Tailored cements are almost always used in oilwell cementing operations due to their flexibility and
cost.
Portland cements are finely ground mixtures of calcium
compounds. The mix is usually made from limestone (or
other rock high in CaCO3) and clay or shale. Iron and aluminum oxides are often added if necessary. After the material is thoroughly mixed and finely ground, it is subjected to intense heat in a rotary kiln. The resulting
Fig. A2
Flowing velocity profile9
104
material is then ground with a controlled amount of gypsum to form the cement. All API classes of cement are produced in this general way, but oilwell cementing requirements demand different properties and different particle
sizes for specific purposes. High temperatures, high pressures, particular rock type, etc. dictate different admixtures of cement to provide the necessary casing support
and zone isolation. Cement cures through a process of
crystal growth. Once cement is in place around the periphery of a casing string, it is important that the crystallization process proceed quickly to reduce exposure time
to mechanisms that could interfere with the desired results.
Pozmix cement combines Portland cement with pozzolan, a siliceous material, which reacts with lime and
water to form calcium silicates, resulting in good cementing properties. Pozmix cements are in common use because they are less expensive.
Calcium aluminate cements are manufactured by
heating limestone and bauxite until liquefied, then cooling and grinding. Cements high in alumina are used to
cement casing through depth intervals where extreme
temperatures are encountered. Their use is limited due to
expense.
Gypsum cements cure rapidly and expand significantly after setup. These cements tend to deteriorate in
contact with water; therefore, they are seldom used except
as an additive to Portland.
TABLE A1
105
tion. They are effective in lowering the viscosity of highdensity cement slurries.
Lignosulfonates are probably the most common retarder, and when treated with specific chemicals; e.g., borax can be used to very high temperatures (600F or
315C). At lower temperatures, cellulose retarder additives are more common.
Extenders
When it is necessary to reduce cement density, extenders
are used. Cementing across weaker, less competent formations often requires their use to avoid breaking down
the formation and causing a loss of circulation. Extenders reduce the amount of cement needed and lessen expense.
Water extenders allow an addition of water to the
slurry while ensuring the suspension of solids. Bentonite
is probably the most common water extender; however,
cement compressive strength suffers. Sodium silicate is
also used as a water extender since it produces a viscous
gel.
Pozzolans are used as low-density aggregates. They
are found in the form of volcanic ashes and diatomaceous
earth. Pozzolans reduce slurry density and increase compressive strength.
In the late 70s, high-strength foam cements were introduced to the industry. By injecting nitrogen at a controlled rate into specially formulated cement slurries, a
foamed cement column with uniform density and compressive strength can be achieved. The nitrogen gas
replaces the use of water for density reduction, and
allows cement integrity to be maintained without substantially reducing its strength or substantially increasing the cements permeability. As a result, hydrostatic
pressure across weak formations is substantially reduced, coverage over long depth intervals can be accomplished in a single stage, and costs are generally
less.
Alternative approaches to foam slurries might include
air-filled glass balls or beads, which are light weight and
inhibit permeability in the cement sheath. These are considered by many to be the most efficient, low-density aggregate available as they preserve cement compressive
strength and reduce slurry density without the necessity
for adding much water. Cement additives designed for
specialized applications can also be applied to foam or
air-filled bead slurries.
A comparison of slurry density to compressive
strength for several extenders is given in Fig. A4.
CEMENT ADDITIVES
Oilwell cements typically contain some additive(s) to
modify the basic cement properties for a particular downhole condition. Additives may be used for a variety of
reasons:
To vary cement density
To increase or decrease compressive strength
To accelerate or retard the setting time
To control filtration rate
To reduce slurry viscosity
To bridge for lost circulation control
To improve economics.
Accelerators
Cement setup is accelerated by use of additives (accelerators) that speed up early stages of hydration. CaCl2 is the
most common accelerator and is typically added in
concentrations of 2 to 4 percent by volume, with higher
concentrations shortening cement thickening time. Compressive strength of the cement also develops faster. Accelerators are more commonly used in shallower, lowtemperature wells.
Retarders
Additives used to slow the cement setting time, called retarders, are typically used in deep, hot wells to allow the
slurry to be placed properly. Retarder technology is well
established, and several types of retarder additives have
been developed for specific conditions.
Recently, organic phosphate retarders, which are effective at high temperatures, have been developed and
have the ability to tolerate variations in cement composi-
Dispersants
Cementing jobs are successfully achieved when mud has
been adequately removed. Cement is usually pumped at
turbulent flow, but dispersants control the rheology to induce turbulence at low pump rates.
106
Fig. A4
Comparison of slurry density to compressive strength for different
types of extenders
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
RECOMMENDED PROCEDURES
TO MINIMIZE MICROANNULUS
Special Additives
Agents to prevent gas migration or foaming that can destroy a cementing operation are also used. Special lattice
agents have been developed to form an impermeable
membrane and coagulate gas. Polyethylene glycol is often used to prevent foaming.
Weighting Agents
High-pressure formations often create problems with
low-density cement slurries; i.e., the cement loses stability. Weighting agents are added to the slurry to increase
its density across potentially high-pressure zones.
High-Temperature Additives
Thermal recovery methods, geothermal wells, and the
deeper, hotter oil wells drilled today present a challenge
107
If the cement head cannot withstand the pressure, preplan the job to hang off the casing. Then close the blind
rams and pressure test before the cement sets.
It should be remembered that it is not necessary to test
up to 80% of the casing yield strength if the pressure exceeds the fracture pressure of the formation below the
shoe. Fracture gradient considerations will normally result in testing the casing to a lower pressure, provided that
regulatory requirements are met.
To ensure that unanticipated pressure problems will
remain below the casing, casing test pressure should exceed the minimum fracture pressure expected below the
casing shoe by a few hundred psi (less than 3 MPa). Make
a bit and scraper run, and displace the water with completion fluid prior to running wireline cement evaluation services. This will increase hydrostatic pressure in the
casing.
Wireline cement evaluation services should then be
run without pressure across the zones of interest. It might
not be necessary to log with surface pressure if the increase in hydrostatic pressure has minimized the thermal
microannulus.
If the cement job is good, then the completion fluid in
the casing will now eliminate the microannulus during the
production life of the well. This simple procedure should
be useful in gas wells where migration up a microannulus
can occur.
It could still be necessary to run the log under pressure
if the increase in hydrostatic head does not eliminate the
microannulus effect on the bond log in the intervals of interest. How much pressure should be applied? This may
vary if there are zones of interest over a long depth interval. The increase in hydrostatic pressure at the shallowest
zone of interest will be less than at deeper zones of interest, and more pressure may be required across a shallow
zone. The pressure and logging procedure to use is described under the microannulus portion of the text.
The preceding discussion on cementing and methods
to decrease or eliminate microannulus effects is meant
only as a broad overview, but is sufficient for an understanding of cement and well mechanics with respect to
their influence on wireline cement evaluation services.
108
SKETCHES OF
DIFFERENT INSTRUMENT CONFIGURATIONS
Instrument sketches are provided in this section for convenience of the user. A number of different lengths and
configurations can be accomplished for each of the cement evaluation instruments discussed in the text. For example, a gamma ray, a neutron, or both gamma ray and
neutron may be added to an instrument string. A casing
collar locator is normally included in the instrument
makeup in conjunction with downhole electronics and
centralizing apparatus.
It is common practice to place centralizers just above
and below the transducers to ensure centering of the transmitter(s) and receiver(s). A minimum of three centralizers
should be used to log boreholes that are nearly vertical,
including a third at the top of the instrument assembly.
Deviated boreholes require a minimum of five centralizers, and should be of the rigid metal, rubber or plastic fin,
or rigid aluminum roller-type design.
When logging deviated wells, the centralizers should
again be located at the top of the instrument string, just
above and below the transmitter-receiver section, at the
top of the acoustic section, and near the center of the
gamma ray or neutron instrument. Fin-type standoffs
should be placed in such a way that the fins are randomly
oriented around the instrument circumference. As many
as 12 centralizers have been used to properly center instruments in high-angle (greater than 55) boreholes.
It is important to place a centralizer at the top of the instrument string because the upper portion of the instrument (typically a collar locator) acts as a lever to create
centering problems. Recall that the instrument is operating in a dynamic mode. Still photos or illustrations of the
instrument configuration do not demonstrate the problems caused by instrument movement.
The centralizer type may differ due to specific downhole well mechanics. In-line centralizers are available
with some of the cement evaluation instruments. Rigid
metal and fin-type standoffs usually accomplish their
mission if they are sized properly for the casing internal
diameter, but both the metal and fins wear with use and
should be replaced as needed.
In-line centralizers are more applicable for liners
where it may be necessary (in vertical boreholes) to log a
portion of the casing above the liner. Liners do require
centralizers that fit the pipe interior.
Considering the many possible instrument configurations, several manifestations have been given. However,
every possible combination or condition for the downhole
instrument has not been covered.
APPENDIX B
109
Maximum diameter
Maximum temperature
400F (204C)
Maximum pressure
Transmitter frequency
20 kHz
Maximum temperature
350F (177C)
Maximum pressure
VDL Transmitter
frequency
20 kHz
110
Maximum temperature
350F (177C)
Maximum pressure
Transmitter frequency
20 kHz
111
Maximum temperature
500F (260C)
Maximum pressure
Transmitter frequency
20 kHz
112
Maximum diameter
Maximum diameter
Maximum temperature
350F (177C)
Maximum temperature
450F (232C)
Maximum pressure
Maximum pressure
Transmitter frequency
20 kHz
Transmitter frequency
20 kHz
113
APPENDIX C
Information Forms
A suggested form for recording such pertinent information as well name, location, depth and elevation references, borehole fluid, pipe strings, borehole deviation,
depth intervals where centralizers, scratchers, packers,
cement baskets, etc., is given in Fig. C2. A form to provide information on the cement job(s) is shown in Fig.
C3. Many user groups have similar forms. These forms
are suggested in lieu of the user having no set guidelines
to provide such information to the service contractor.
Well Sketch
A simple sketch of the borehole, including bit diameters,
sizes and lengths of tubular goods, and indications of
depths where external apparatus is placed on the different
pipe strings is extremely useful information (Fig. C1).
Fig. C1
Example of a well sketch and other pertinent information
115
Fig. C2
Example form for information critical to CBL interpretation
116
Fig. C3
Example form of cement data critical to CBL interpretation
117
In retrospect, it can be said that the overwhelming majority of cement evaluation services seldom have pertinent information recorded on the log heading, although
adequate space is provided for such information (Figs. C4
and C5). The user of wireline cement evaluation services
should provide this information to the logging engineer
and insist it be recorded on the log header.
Many bond logs are referred to after a well has been
producing for several years. The people initially involved
with the interpretation of that log are, at best, occasionally
available. At a later date, the information discussed previously is often prerequisite to an accurate analysis of the
log data.
Fig. C4
Cement data can be critical to log evaluation.
Fig. C5
Log heading information should be complete as possible.
118
APPENDIX D
Wireline services other than acoustic are also used to determine the presence or absence of cement behind pipe.
Protection of freshwater aquifers, ensuring zone isolation
in or adjacent to hydrocarbon reservoirs, and identifying
channels in the cemented annular space did not begin with
the environmental protection agencies, nor with acoustic
cement bond log devices. Most operators policed themselves and recognized the dangers of polluting specific
horizons long ago.
Many of the methods utilized to detect cementing
problems in the past are still practiced today. Temperature
profiles, radioactive tracer surveys, and listening devices
are often employed to determine how borehole conditions
are related to the cement sheath.
tion to another within a given area. A sketch of a temperature profile (Fig. D1) shows a low gradient through materials with high-thermal conductivities and a steep gradient when materials with low-thermal conductivities are
encountered.
The slope of the geothermal gradient typically ranges
from about 0.6F to 2.0F per 100 foot of depth (Fig. D2)
and is representative of formation temperatures undisturbed by production or injection of fluids or gases. The
gradient should therefore be derived from a base temperature log, which was recorded prior to production from or
injection into the well.
TEMPERATURE LOGS
Temperature logs play a definite and important role in detecting communication and evaluating casing mechanical
condition. The log is a continuous recording of temperature vs. depth and is usually subject to numerous temperature anomalies over an appreciable depth interval. Differential temperature traces are often recorded as an
additional interpretative aid.
Geothermal Gradient
The geothermal gradient is caused by the continuous flow
of heat from the interior of the Earth. The magnitude is
dependent on the difference between surface temperature
and the heat source in the interior of the Earth, and the
thermal conductivities of the materials in between.
The in-between materials include the geological formations penetrated by a borehole and different types of
rock, fluid, and gas, which exhibit their own peculiar thermal conductivities. Cement and steel casing also exhibit
thermal conductivities. Table D1 lists thermal conductivities for a few materials commonly encountered in a cased
borehole. As is evident from the list, the gradients may
vary widely from one geographical area to another, and
may also vary considerably from one geological forma-
Fig. D1
Comparison of temperature gradient steepness and lithology
TABLE D1
Thermal Conductivity (10 3 calories/s/cm/ C)
Shale
Sandstone
Porous Limestone
Dense Limestone
Dolomite
Quartzite
2.85.6
3.57.7
47
68
913
13
Gypsum
Anhydrite
Salt
Sulphur
Steel
Cement
119
3.1
13
12.75
.6
110
.7
Water
Air
Gas
Oil
1.21.4
.06
.065
.35
cal heat flow will also tend to smear the heat anomalies
we are looking for in reference to cement. It is therefore
critical to run the log soon after cementing when the
slurry is still generating heat.
Channeling in the Cement Sheath
Temperature logs have been used for more than 25 years
to detect upward or downward fluid and gas movement
behind casing. However, it is important to understand that
temperature log interpretation cannot be based on a firm
set of rules. The condition of each well must be studied
individually. The principles of heat flow, fluid mechanics, and reservoir engineering can then be applied. In addition, specific procedures are recommended for running
the log, and these procedures should be tailored to resolve
the specific well conditions.
The complexity of detecting channels in numerous
specific sets of circumstances is beyond the scope of this
text. More detailed data associated with temperature
logs is recommended (Western Atlas Logging Services,
Publication No. 9441, Interpretation Methods for Production Well Logs, 3rd Edition). A simple example
(Fig. D5) is, however, given here to illustrate the effectiveness of comparing several temperature log passes.
The well was first shut-in for about 48 hours, allowing
it to return to a geothermal gradient. A cooling effect
was then accomplished by injecting 200 bbl of 50F water over a two-hour period. The water becomes a temperature tracer, and the subsequent shut-in temperature
logs recorded after injection clearly identify the channeled area behind pipe.
Fig. D2
Variation of geothermal gradient as a function of geographical
location
TRACERLOG
Radioactive tracer surveys are also used to determine the
mechanical integrity of a well and to locate communication problems behind pipe. The instrument is comprised
of an injector assembly, used to release a small volume of
short half-life radioactive material into a fluid or gas
stream, and two gamma ray detectors, which are located
at fixed and known intervals from one another and the
ejector port. A casing collar locator ensures depth control.
The tool is in motion during a Tracerlog application. The
same instrumentation can also be utilized for other cased
hole purposes.
The function of the Tracerlog is to locate radioactive
materials in the wellbore, in perforations, or behind pipe.
The radioactive material may be released by the instrument or purposely emplaced hydraulically during a cementing operation.
Radioactive Cement Top Location
When radioactive material is emplaced in the cement, it is
relatively simple to detect the hot zone with the gamma
ray detection system. Materials with a short half-life (a
120
Fig. D3
Importance of openhole caliper data to interpretation of temperature logs used for locating cement
Fig. D4
Using temperature logs to locate cement top
121
Fig. D6
Identification of radioactive cement top by Tracerlog
Fig. D5
Detecting channeling behind the pipe with temperature logs
Fig. D7
Timed-run Tracerlog indicates channeling below perforations.
temperature logs. Channeling in the cement was suspected. The crossplot (Fig. D8) of temperature and noise
data was obtained with the well producing. Geothermal
gradient is also plotted. The temperature log, under dynamic flow conditions, departs from the geothermal gradient at 10,050 ft, and as depth decreases above that point,
temperatures exceed geothermal. This indicates that water production commences at approximately 10,050 ft.
The plots of noise recordings also indicate a channel below the perforations. Levels of sound energy are low below 10,100 ft, but the sound level increases above 10,000
ft due to water being forced through varying restrictions
in the channeled cement. At 9,825 ft, noise plots peak
sharply, characteristic of a leak and, in this specific instance, occur at the perforations.
The temperature log interpretation is water production
from 10,050 ft upwards, but this information does not recognize if water movement occurs behind pipe or within
the casing. The noise data show flow to be behind pipe.
Noise recordings alone, however, cannot detect the depth
where water movement begins.
Obviously, an interpretation could have been made
with only one log available, but a more complete analysis
is made possible with a combination of data. The problem
of excessive water production was solved with a cement
squeeze below the perforations.
Fig. D8
Temperature and noise data for a producing well
123
APPENDIX E
TABLE E-1*
Casing OD
in.
4.0
4.5
mm
101.6
114.3
Casing Wt.
lbm/ ft kg/ m
11.6
17.3
Casing ID
Thickness
Casing OD
in.
in.
in.
3.428
mm
87.1 0.286
103.9
102.9
101.6
100.5
99.6
97.2
95.4
93.9
92.4
88.9
85.9
82.3
mm
9.5
10.5
11.6
12.6
13.5
15.1
16.8
17.7
18.8
21.6
24.6
26.5
14.1
15.6
17.3
18.8
20.1
22.5
23.8
26.3
28.0
32.1
36.6
39.4
4.090
4.052
4.000
3.958
3.920
3.826
3.754
3.696
3.640
3.500
3.380
3.240
0.205
0.224
0.250
0.271
0.290
0.337
0.373
0.402
0.430
0.500
0.560
0.630
5.21
5.69
6.35
6.88
7.37
8.56
9.47
10.20
10.92
12.70
14.22
16.00
8.48
120.6
16.0
23.8
5.0
127.0
11.5
13.0
15.0
17.7
18.0
20.3
20.8
21.0
23.2
24.2
17.1
19.3
22.3
26.3
26.8
30.2
31.0
31.3
34.5
36.0
4.560
4.494
4.408
4.300
4.276
4.184
4.156
4.154
4.044
4.000
115.8
114.2
112.0
109.2
108.6
106.3
105.6
105.5
102.7
101.6
0.220
0.253
0.296
0.350
0.362
0.408
0.422
0.423
0.478
0.500
5.59
6.43
7.52
8.89
9.19
10.36
10.72
10.74
12.14
12.70
13.0
14.0
15.0
15.5
17.0
20.0
23.0
26.0
28.4
32.3
36.4
19.3
20.8
22.3
23.1
25.3
29.8
34.2
38.7
42.3
48.1
54.2
5.044
5.012
4.974
4.950
4.892
4.778
4.670
4.548
4.440
4.276
4.090
128.1
127.3
126.3
125.7
124.3
121.4
118.6
115.5
112.8
108.6
103.9
0.228
0.244
0.263
0.275
0.304
0.361
0.415
0.476
0.530
0.612
0.705
5.79
6.20
6.68
6.99
7.72
9.17
10.50
12.01
13.46
15.54
17.91
15.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
23.0
26.0
22.3
23.8
26.8
29.8
34.2
38.7
5.524
5.500
5.424
5.352
5.240
5.132
140.3
139.7
137.8
135.2
133.1
130.4
0.238
6.05
0.250
6.35
0.288
7.32
0.324
8.23
0.380
9.65
0.434 11.02
6.0
139.7
152.4
lbm/ ft kg/ m
Casing ID
Thickness
in.
mm
in.
mm
7.26
4.75
5.5
mm
Casing Wt.
125
6.625 168.3
17.0
20.0
22.0
24.0
26.0
28.0
29.0
32.0
25.3
29.8
32.7
35.7
38.7
41.7
43.2
47.6
6.135
6.049
5.989
5.921
5.855
5.791
5.761
5.675
155.8
153.6
152.1
150.4
148.7
147.1
146.3
144.2
0.245
6.22
0.288
7.32
0.318
8.08
0.352
8.94
0.385
9.78
0.417 10.59
0.432 11.00
0.475 12.06
7.0
177.8
17.0
20.0
22.0
23.0
24.0
26.0
28.0
29.0
30.0
32.0
35.0
38.0
40.0
41.0
44.0
49.5
25.3
29.8
32.7
34.2
35.7
38.7
41.7
43.2
44.6
47.6
52.1
56.6
59.5
61.0
65.5
73.7
6.538
6.456
6.398
6.366
6.336
6.276
6.214
6.184
6.154
6.094
6.004
5.920
5.836
5.820
5.720
5.540
166.1
164.0
162.5
161.7
160.9
159.4
157.8
157.1
156.3
154.8
152.5
150.4
148.2
147.8
145.3
140.7
0.231
0.272
0.301
0.317
0.332
0.362
0.393
0.408
0.423
0.453
0.498
0.540
0.582
0.590
0.640
0.730
7.625 193.7
20.0
24.0
26.4
29.7
33.7
39.0
45.3
29.8
35.7
39.3
44.2
50.2
58.0
65.5
7.125
7.025
6.969
6.875
6.765
6.625
6.435
181.0
178.4
177.0
174.6
171.8
168.3
163.5
0.250
6.35
0.300
7.62
0.328
8.33
0.375
9.53
0.430 10.92
0.500 12.70
0.595 15.11
7.75
196.8
46.1
68.6
6.560
8.625 219.1
24.0
28.0
32.0
36.0
38.0
40.0
43.0
44.0
49.0
52.0
35.7
41.7
47.6
53.6
56.6
59.5
64.0
65.5
72.9
77.4
8.097
8.017
7.921
7.825
7.775
7.725
7.651
7.625
7.511
7.435
8.75
49.7
74.0
222.3
5.87
6.91
7.65
8.05
8.43
9.19
9.98
10.36
10.74
11.51
12.65
13.72
14.78
14.98
16.25
18.54
205.7
203.6
201.2
198.8
197.5
196.2
194.3
193.7
190.8
188.9
0.264
0.304
0.352
0.400
0.425
0.450
0.487
0.500
0.557
0.595
6.71
7.72
8.94
10.16
10.80
11.43
12.37
12.70
14.15
15.11
mm
Casing Wt.
lbm/ ft kg/ m
Casing ID
Thickness
Casing OD
in.
mm
in.
mm
in.
mm
13.0
330.2
40.0
45.0
50.0
54.0
13.375 339.7
13.5
228.6
34.0
38.0
40.0
45.0
55.0
50.6
56.6
59.5
67.0
81.9
8.290
8.196
8.150
8.032
7.812
210.6
208.2
207.0
214.0
198.4
0.355
0.402
0.425
0.484
0.594
9.02
10.21
10.80
12.29
15.09
9.625 244.5
29.3
32.3
36.0
40.0
43.5
47.0
53.5
58.4
61.1
71.8
43.6
48.1
53.6
59.5
64.7
69.9
79.6
86.9
90.9
106.9
9.063
9.001
8.921
8.835
8.755
8.681
8.535
8.435
8.375
8.125
230.2
228.6
226.6
224.4
222.4
220.5
216.8
214.2
212.7
206.4
0.281
0.312
0.352
0.395
0.435
0.472
0.545
0.595
0.625
0.750
7.14
7.92
8.94
10.03
11.05
11.99
13.84
15.11
15.87
19.05
9.75
247.7
59.2
88.1
9.875 250.8
62.8
93.5
10.0
33.0
49.1
254.0
10.75 273.0
7.82
32.75
40.0
40.5
45.0
45.5
48.0
51.0
54.0
55.5
60.7
65.7
71.1
76.0
81.0
38.0
42.0
47.0
54.0
60.0
65.0
71.0
56.6
62.5
69.9
80.4
89.3
96.7
105.7
11.875 301.6
71.8
12.0
40.0
11.75 298.5
304.8
11.150
11.084
11.000
10.880
10.772
10.682
10.586
283.2
281.5
279.4
276.4
273.6
271.3
268.9
0.300
0.333
0.375
0.435
0.489
0.534
0.582
7.62
8.46
9.53
11.05
12.42
13.56
14.78
7.82
Casing Wt.
Casing ID
Thickness
in.
mm
in.
mm
59.5
67.0
74.4
80.4
12.438
12.360
12.282
12.220
315.9
313.9
312.0
310.4
0.281
0.320
0.359
0.390
7.14
8.13
9.12
9.91
48.0
54.5
61.0
68.0
72.0
77.0
80.7
83.0
85.0
86.0
88.0
92.0
98.0
71.4
81.1
90.8
101.2
107.2
114.6
120.1
123.5
126.5
128.0
131.0
136.9
145.8
12.715
12.615
12.515
12.415
12.347
12.275
12.215
12.175
12.159
12.125
12.075
12.031
11.937
323.0
320.4
317.9
315.3
313.6
311.8
310.3
309.2
308.8
308.0
306.7
305.6
303.2
0.330
0.380
0.430
0.480
0.514
0.550
0.580
0.600
0.608
0.625
0.650
0.672
0.719
8.38
9.65
10.92
12.19
13.06
13.97
14.73
15.24
15.44
15.87
16.51
17.07
18.26
342.9
81.4
13.625 346.1
88.2
14.0
355.6
50.0
16.0
406.4
55.0
65.0
75.0
84.0
109.0
18.625 473.1
78.0
87.5
96.5
lbm/ ft kg/ m
81.9
96.7
111.6
125.0
162.2
15.375
15.250
15.125
15.010
14.688
390.5
387.4
384.2
381.3
373.1
0.313
7.95
0.375
9.53
0.438 11.13
0.495 12.57
0.656 16.67
20.0
508.0
90.0
94.0
106.5
133.0
133.9
139.9
158.5
197.9
19.190
19.124
19.000
18.730
487.4
485.7
482.6
475.7
21.5
546.1
92.5
103.0
114.0
24.5
622.3 100.5
113.0
126
8.33
0.405
0.438
0.495
0.635
10.29
11.13
12.57
16.13
127
PROBLEM 1
(1) 4,240 to 4,248 ft: Isolated both above and below the
zone, and isolated from the zone
below (4,252 to 4,268 ft).
128
PROBLEM 2
The cement top occurs at 1,510 ft. In this example, the
Amplitude depth would not be chosen differently from
the Signature, although some analysts might choose the
cement top as being as much as 1 ft different from the example given.
129
PROBLEM 3
The cement job over this interval would be considered excellent. There are no intervals where cement quality is
lesser in quality than in other depth intervals. The intervals 6,852 to 6,855 ft and 6,942 to 6,948 ft are dominated
by early formation arrivals.
130
PROBLEM 4
The cement condition is free or unsupported pipe in the
interval shown. Strong pipe ring appears on both the VDL
and Amplitude; Travel time tracks the Predicted Pipe
Time (PPT); casing collars are very obvious on TT, CBL
Amplitude, and VDL; formation signal is essentially absent from the VDL; and there is no cement to allow for
acoustic coupling to the formation. Knowledge of the cement type is very important. In Dubai, U.A.E., several
wells were cemented with very low compressive strength
cements (50 to 300 psi) and resulted in similar CBL,
VDL, and SRT responses.
131
PROBLEM 5
4,308 to 4,314 ft 4,000 psi (Using 1 for CBL Amp.)
132
PROBLEM 6
Free or weakly supported pipe is present from 3,450 to
3,570 ft. A partial cement top is located at about
3,570 ft. The pipe is poorly cemented from 3,570
to 3,820 ft. Cement is good to excellent below 3,820 ft,
with the exception of a possible channel from 3,880 to
3,890 ft. This log was recorded with 0 psi at the wellhead. If the apparent channel is located in an interval
133
PROBLEM 7
In the interval from 3,330 to 3,450 ft, a generally good cement job exists. Fast formation arrivals occur over most
of the interval. The interval (3,520 to 3,470 ft) demonstrates a transition in formation transit time on both the
VDL and gamma ray. Formation arrivals are driving the
3.5-ft amplitudes and not yet affecting the 2.5-ft amplitudes, thus giving a reversal on attenuation from 3,470
to 3,482 ft.
Shear arrivals occur in the following intervals: 3,360
to 3,415 ft, 3,440 to 3,480 ft, and 3,506 to 3,524 ft.
134
PROBLEM 8
From the given BAL data, the type of cement job between 8,408 ft and 8,550 ft is probably good to excellent.
The Travel-time curve indicates that early formation
arrivals, cycle skips, and stretch all occur throughout the
interval from 8,408 to 8,550 ft. Strong pipe readings, typical of poorly cemented pipe, are never apparent.
The VDL shows that strong formation coupling occurs
throughout the interval.
At 7,550 ft is the top of a liner. The sudden shift in
travel time at that depth is not a cycle skip, but a shift due
to the longer arrival time in larger casing. Cement from
7,550 to 7,570 ft in the overlap of the two pipe strings is
probably adequate to prevent communication between the
concentric strings.
The amplitude and attenuation traces show alternate indications of good bond and poor bond. Bear in mind, the
numerous pitfalls that affect amplitude type responses.
Fluid waves occur in the following intervals: 7,425 to
7,445 ft, 8,392 to 8,406 ft, and 8,490 to 8,550 ft; shear
waves occur in the following intervals: 7,435 to 7,450 ft,
7,470 to 7,485 ft, 8,422 to 8,435 ft, and 8,530 to 8,546 ft.
Stoneley waves occur in each of the two log intervals.
Well-cemented intervals in high-velocity (low t) formations often exhibit a high-amplitude value because the
pipe ring and formation signal occur at or nearly the same
time. Travel time will usually occur before but occasionally at the same time as pipe signal. Strong formation coupling (good cement conditions) will exhibit a strong formation signal on the VDL.
135
PROBLEM 9
Several depths for the location of the cement top could be
selected by different individuals; e.g., 4,470 ft, 4,512 ft,
4,522 ft, or 4,545 ft. Cement quality improves progressively going downward in the well. Excellent cement conditions exist below 4,545 ft, while cement in the intervals
above that depth becomes progressively worse.
In the zone from 4,694 to 4,750 ft, the VDL indicates
good bond to the formation. Yes, the Amplitude indicates
good bond to the casing. CBL Amplitude is approximately 2 to 3.
136
PROBLEM 10
The cement job is adequate over the depth interval shown.
There are no pipe arrivals on the VDL and very little pipe
ring on the Peak Amplitude. The Travel-time trace indicates some instrument eccentering occurs, but Predicted
Pipe Time is 255 sec, and for the most part, pipe arrivals
occur at about 255 sec. Pipe time on the Variable Density should be about 370 sec, but no signals occur that
137
PROBLEM 11
The cement job is good throughout the interval shown.
High amplitudes coincide with early formation arrivals
on the Travel-time trace and are likely the result of strong
formation amplitude signal, not casing response. Shear
arrivals are also more apparent on the VDL at those intervals where peak amplitude increases.
138
PROBLEM 12
The cement job is good to excellent (between 4,550 and
4,730 ft). The CBL Amplitude is less than 10 throughout
the interval shown. Formation signals on the VDL are
mostly weak, but stronger formation signals occur at the
4,680 to 4,705 ft depth.
Fluid arrivals appear throughout the interval shown.
Shear arrivals occur from 4,580 to 4,600 ft and 4,676 to
4,715 ft.
139
PROBLEM 13
Following two squeeze jobs, the CBL was recorded after
allowing more than 3 days setup time. Apparently, there
is a good bond to pipe from 6,656 to 6,770 ft. Bond is poor
below 6,770 ft, and from 6,644 to 6,656 ft. Bond to formation may be weak, but the lack of VDL formation arrivals could be due to high-porosity, gas-bearing formations. Openhole log data could enhance the CBL analysis.
140
PROBLEM 14
Strong casing signal and poorer quality cement occur in
the intervals from 627 m to 630 m, 652 to 656 m, and
664 m and below. The other depth intervals exhibit low
amplitude and cycle skipping on the Travel-time recording, but the Variable Density displays essentially no
signal.
Over most of the interval, good bond to pipe and poor
bond to formation exists.
141
PROBLEM 15
Cement quality is good from 775 m down to 800 m; poor
quality cement exists, probably channeled, from 800 to
811 m. Below 811 m, the casing is essentially unsupported with cement.
Shear waves occur at the following depth intervals:
775 to 790 m, 793 to 798 m, and 800 to 805 m.
Fluid waves occur in the 775 to 807-m depth intervals.
Free or unsupported pipe signal is 230 sec as indicated on the Travel-time trace. The pipe ID was determined to be 6.2 in. (157.5 mm).
The 6.2-in. ID is reasonably close to the thicknesses
found with 7-in. (177.8 mm) casing (Table 1-4). Two
142
PROBLEM 16
No information is given as to whether the log was run under pressure; therefore, it must be concluded it was not.
From 1,540 to 1,556 ft, pipe signals occur on the CBL
Amplitude and Variable Density. Travel time is apparently reading pipe signal. Bond is probably inadequate.
Similar reasoning can be applied to the intervals from
1,576 to 1,580 ft, 1,592 to 1,612 ft, 1,644 to 1,648 ft, and
1,678 to 1,712 ft. Formation compressional waves, although difficult to distinguish, appear at about 500 sec.
143
PROBLEM 17
Cement is probably excellent from 1424 to 1438 m, 1442
to 1446 m, and 1449 to 1460 m. Although pipe signal occurs at the other depth intervals, formation signals also
occur, and with relatively low CBL Amplitude responses,
those intervals are also probably cemented adequately.
144
PROBLEM 18
Below the concentric pipe strings, cement is poor to excellent. Using the appropriate chart (Fig. 1-59), the compressive strengths (conventional cement) for the following intervals are:
14,196 - 14,204 ft
14,209 - 14,211 ft
14,212 - 14,214 ft
14,216 - 14,220 ft
14,230 - 14,250 ft
Your answers will vary somewhat if you used a different number for CBL Amplitude. The compressive
strength numbers given are approximate values.
The cement condition within the concentric pipe
strings from 14,080 to 14,150 ft is probably marginal.
Both strong pipe signal and weak-to-moderate formation
signal appear, and travel time occasionally cycle skips,
but CBL Amplitude is consistently between 20 and 40.
The 7-in. casing may be eccentered inside the 9-5/8-in.
casing, which would create a relatively high minimum
amplitude. The cement is possibly better than indicated
by the CBL Amplitude. More information on the wells
mechanical makeup would enhance the log analysis.
145
PROBLEM 19
The overall impression of the cement condition from the
logging pass with no pressure is that it is a poor cement
job with the exception of the intervals from 9,228 to 9,244
ft, 9,260 to 9,282 ft, 9,310 to 9,332 ft, 9,352 to 9,372 ft,
and 9,392 to 9,400 ft.
146
9,2109,220 ft
9,3159,320 ft
9,3209,324 ft
9,3809,390 ft
Run 1
with 0 psi
Run 2
with 2,000 psi
147
PROBLEM 20
Based on the information given and the log data presented, the cement job over the given depth interval is
probably an excellent cement job. The type of additional
cement, instrument, and casing information provided is
often essential to making a bond log interpretation with
confidence.
148
149
PROBLEM 21
The known conditions for this test well are illustrated in
the depth track of both the Primary and Secondary SBT
presentations. All fabricated channels are detected on the
two log displays. The easy-to-read segmented array pre-
150
to be cemented. The remainder of the displayed depth interval is well cemented. The clear advantages of this second-generation radial cement evaluation device are
apparent.
151
PROBLEM 22
The three fabricated channels are located from 707 to
727 ft, 772 to 792 ft, and 837 to 857 ft. All three channels are readily identifiable on both the Segmented Array presentation and the Primary SBT presentation. The
152
153
PROBLEM 23
The cement job across the interval shown is excellent, except from 1684 to 1688 m where bond to pipe is good but
there is no bond to formation.
154
INDEX
Accelerators, 106
Accelerometers, 55
Acoustic, 14
impedance, 4
log, 20
measuring system, 13
signal processing, 4
ADA Test Wells (EPA), 5758
Additional Log Measurements, 22, 25
casing collar locator, 22
gamma ray, 25
neutron, 25
Additives, Cement, 105107
accelerators, 106
dispersants, 106
extenders, 106
fluid loss agents, 107
high-temperature additives, 107
lost circulation agents, 107
retarders, 106
special additives, 107
Amoco Test Well, 5759
Amplitude, 711
area measurement, 89
peak amplitude, 7
Array Presentation (SBT), 5455, 60
API Cement Bond Log Advisory Board, 3
API Cement Classification, 105106
Attenuation, 7, 11, 2834, 46, 5357
Calibration, 3436
previous method, 35
well site, 35
shop, 3435
Caliper, Openhole, 2526
Casing Collars, 2223, 25
Casing Collar Log (CCL), 22
Casing Dimensions, 10, 2728, 46, 6465, 125126
Casing Thickness, 10, 28, 46, 6465, 125126
CBL Area Amplitude Measurement, 89
Gamma Ray, 25
Gas, 3940, 47, 53
Gas Effects, 3940, 47, 53
borehole, 47, 53
high porosity formation, 3940, 53
Gating Systems, 611
amplitude detection, 69
travel time detection, 1117
Geothermal Gradient, 119120
Glass Bead Cement, 106
Good Bond to Pipe and Formation, 3738, 66
Good Bond to Pipe Only, 39
Gradational Cement Top, 63
Guide Shoe, 103
Half-Wave Acoustic Waveform, 18
High Temperature, 106107
cements, 105107
cement additives, 106107
Horizontal Well, 6870
Hydraulic Integrity, 103104
Impedance, Acoustic, 4
Induced Microannulus, 4344
Information Forms, 115118
cement, 117118
well mechanics, 116, 118
Instrumentation, 109113
Large Casings, 46, 6465
Light-Weight Cements, 42, 44, 105106
Lignosulfonate, 106
Liners, 2324
Lithology Effects, 12, 2526
Lost Circulation Control, 107
Low-Velocity Formation, 3940
Magnetostrictive Transducers, 1
Mechanical Apparatus, 5051
Microannulus, 4244, 107108
causes, 42
procedures to minimize effect, 107108
types of, 4244
Mud Systems, 24, 53, 67
156