Fundamental Research on

Underwater Welding
Effects of water environment
structures of welds

on

metallurgical

BY R. T. BROWN AND K. M A S U B U C H I

ABSTRACT. The study on which this

paper is based was conducted as part
of a systematic research on f u n damentals of underwater welding.
The entire program covered various
subjects including the heat transfer
and flow during underwater welding,
the mechanisms of metal transfer and
arc bubble formation, and the effects
of water environment on the metallurgical structures and the properties
of underwater welds. This paper
primarily discusses the last subject.
An experimental investigation was
made of the welding metallurgy and
microstructure of underwater shielded metal-arc welds. The paper discusses various topics including temperature histories and microstructural transformation, optimum welding current and speed, optimum weld
bead shape, and optimum hardness
profiles.
Introduction
Attempts to use underwater welding for the repair and salvage of ships
and other ocean engineering structures have been marginally successful since the early part of this century.
During the First World War period,
bare electrodes wrapped with some
waterproofing material were used.
Shielded metal-arc electrodes were
utilized in underwater welding soon
after their introduction into the welding industry in the late 1920's. Problems of underwater visibility led to the
adoption of a drag welding technique
for most underwater welding applications in the early 1930's. Iron powder
electrodes were developed in 1946
and were found to improve underwater drag welding. The quality of
R. T. BROWN is Graduate Student and
K. MASUBUCHI is Professor at the Department of Ocean Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139.
Paper was presented at the 55th AWS
Annual Meeting held at Houston, Texas,
May fi-70, 1074

178-s i J U N E

1975

even the best of these underwater

welds was still substantially less than
that of similar air welds. Underwater
welds were r e p o r t e d to p r o d u c e
about 80% of the tensile strength and
50% of the ductility of corresponding
air welds (Ref. 1). But these low weld
quality properties still provided for
joint integrity that was satisfactory for
the t e m p o r a r y repair welds and
salvage applications for which they
were used.
The expansion of the offshore oil
drilling and production industry has
led to the construction of large, permanent steel platforms, tanks, and
pipelines in the ocean. Repairs or
modifications requiring welded joints
have been hindered by the poor quality of underwater welds. This poor
weld quality has been especially limiting to pipeline welding. The need for
high quality underwater welds has led
to m u c h e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n and i n vestigation into both technical and
practical aspects of underwater welding (Ref. 2). In addition to the metalarc process, several approaches to
underwater welding have been investigated including chamber welding (Refs. 3-8), gas metal-arc welding
(Refs. 9-13), gas metal-arc welding
enclosed in a movable, diver held
chamber (Ref. 14), plasma arc welding (Refs. 15, 16) and explosive b o n d ing (Ref. 17). Although several of
these processes show potential for
improving the quality of underwater
welds, most research and investigation remains centered around the
shielded metal-arc process. Chamber welding techniques are limited by
the high cost of a suitable chamber
and the relatively few joint configurations which can be enclosed in a
chamber. Gas metal-arc welding processes have produced excellent u n derwater welds especially when used
in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a m o v a b l e
chamber.
The primary limitation of these
processes is their increased c o m plexity, both in equipment and tech-

nique. It may be that these sophisticated systems will solve the problem of producing high quality welds
for critical applications such as pipeline welding. However, for structural
repair, modification, and construction, the shielded metal-arc process
might be preferred because of its relative simplicity. As the job depth increases, the need to use saturation
diving and other engineering c o m plications will make it desirable to use
only the simplest and most versatile
welding processes and techniques
(Refs. 18-20).
Most of the developments and improvements in underwater welding
have come from trial and error investigations by those who actually
needed a more satisfactory underwater weld. But beginning in the early
1960's and continuing to the present
time, several w o r k e r s have been
studying the processes and phenomena of underwater welding on a
more fundamental scientific and e n gineering basis. Several workers in
Russia have r e p o r t e d on various
aspects of both shielded metal-arc
and thin wire (GMA) underwater welding processes (Refs. 21-35). A l though they have laid few theoretical
foundations for the phenomena they
have observed, their observations are
many and precise. Dr. E. A. Silva has
also done extensive work from this
technical perspective (Refs. 36-39).
During the last several years, a
series of research programs has been
c o n d u c t e d at the D e p a r t m e n t of
Ocean Engineering of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology under
the direction of Professor K. Masubuchi (Refs. 17, 40-47). The threeyear program on "Fundamental Research on Underwater Welding" was
initiated on July 1, 1971. The objective of the program is to better understand fundamentals of underwater
welding. The program covers the
following phases:
Phase 1: Survey of fundamental information on underwater

welding and cutting

Phase 2: A study of heat flow during underwater welding
Phase 3: Mechanisms of
metal
transfer in underwater
arc welding
Phase 4: Effects of water environment on metallurgical
structures and properties of welds
Phase 5: Development of new, i m proved underwater welding methods
The program has been supported
by the National Sea Grant Office of
the National Oceanic and A t m o spheric Administration, Department
of C o m m e r c e . The W e l d i n g Research Council and Ishikajima-Harima Heavy Industries have provided a
portion of matching funds for the program during the second and the third
year.*
This paper presents primarily the
work performed by R. T. Brown, and
represents a significant portion of
Phase 4. Details of the work are given
in the M. S. thesis by Brown.
A final report of the entire program
is under preparation.

Comparing Air and

Water Welds
Although the basic mechanisms of
structural change are known and u n derstood, the highly transient and
nonuniform nature of welding makes
accurate microstructural prediction
extremely difficult. Even if the weld
microstructure were completely determined, it is doubtful that the resulting mechanical properties could
be accurately predicted. Thus, experimental investigation and verification
would be necessary. Similar uncertainties in the physical manipulation
of the welding arc make a precise estimation of the welding heat input
from specified welding conditions not
possible. The specific nature of the
links from the optimum welding c o n ditions to the heat input and temperature histories to the microstructural
formations to the mechanical joint
properties are not fully understood.
The approach to determining how
the heat transfer phenomena and
microstructural transformations are
affected by underwater welding
and thereby influence joint properties has been to study the differences between air welding and underwater welding. Since the basic welding metallurgy in air has been well
studied (Refs. 48-53), much unders t a n d i n g of u n d e r w a t e r w e l d i n g
metallurgy can be gained by examining the dissimilarity between air and
"Nine other Japanese companies provided additional matching funds during the
third year to cover primarily the cost for
printing the final report.

water welds. Because most underwater welding has been performed

under emergency conditions for salvage or temporary repair to ships and
offshore structures, each situation
has been s o m e w h a t u n i q u e and
therefore not easily compared with
other underwater welding efforts or
with air welding results. Although
some workers have provided c o m parisons between air and water welds
(Refs. 16, 37, 41), the research reported here attempts to provide more
fundamental material upon which to
base general conclusions and insights into underwater welding metallurgy.
The first useful i n f o r m a t i o n to
emerge from this investigation concerns the optimum welding parameter values during underwater SMA
(shielded metal-arc) welding with different types and sizes of electrodes. A
comparison between these underwater optimum values and the corresponding optimum values in air
indicate that underwater welding requires a higher current for the same
arc voltage. The welding speed shows
no general trend between air welding
and water welding.
Another portion of the investigation involves the weld bead shape
characteristics of underwater welds
compared with air welds. The largest
variation in weld bead shape is
caused by changing the welding current from nonoptimum to optimum
values. Penetration remains a function of the welding current and is not
strictly dependent on the electrode
size or the welding medium. Undercutting is a problem for many of the
underwater welds. The weld bead size
is quite similar for corresponding air
and water welds, a l t h o u g h water
welds tend to be narrower with a
higher reinforcement. The general
shape of underwater welds does not

appear to be significantly different for

air welds. This suggests that the most
critical effects of the water do not
begin to affect the weld until the weld
puddle has formed and begins to
solidify.
The remainder of this investigation
covers the microstructure and hardness of u n d e r w a t e r S M A welds.
H a r d e n i n g b e c o m e s very critical
following welding. However, underwater welding does not result in a
weld metal quench that is beyond
modification and control. Larger weld
beads, resulting from a higher heat input, will give less hardening. Thus,
welding with a 1/8 in. electrode will
cause more severe hardening than
will a 3/16 in. electrode. Similarly,
higher heat inputs will decrease the
hardening effects. Localized martensite transformations appear in a l most all underwater welds i m m e d i ately adjacent to the fusion line and
extending for less than 0.5 m m . The

Fig. 1 Correlation of the maximum

temperature with regions in the heat-affected zone

3000

2500-

2000

I 500-

I 000-

500

TIME

Fig. 2 Possible microstructural transformations during welding

WELDING

RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT!

179-8

extent of the HAZ in underwater welds

is reduced by 30-50%, indicating a
more rapid dissipation of heat from
the weld bead into the base metal.
Although many of the observations
and conclusions of this investigation
were perhaps expected from previous
intuitive reasoning, their documentation and quantification is important
and necessary to the future development of underwater welding technologies.

Temperature Histories and

Microstructural Transformation
The solidification and microstructural transformations of any weld are
determined by the temperature history of that welded joint. The maximum temperature of a region in the
HAZ will govern the recrystallization
and grain growth phenomena. Figure
1 illustrates the correlation between
the maximum temperature, Tm, and
the distance from the fusion line. The
cooling rate from Tm will determine
the type of transformation process
that occurs. Slow cooling rates will result in the equilibrium crystal structure of pearlite within a ferrite matrix.
More rapid cooling will induce none q u i l i b r i u m t r a n s f o r m a t i o n struc-

tures of bainite and martensite or

mixed products such as Widmanstatten structures. Figure 2 illustrates the
basic transformations and modifications to the grain size and crystal
structure that may occur during a
welding cycle. Underwater welding is
subject of very severe quench conditions and therefore, often results in
the formation of the less desirable
nonequilibrium transformation p r o d ucts of m a r t e n s i t e a n d b a i n i t e .
Figures 3A and 3B show the differences in cooling rates between air
welding and underwater w e l d i n g .
While air welds may cool from melting to 200 F in 60 seconds, an underwater weld will cool down to 200 F
within 5 seconds. Thus, underwater
cooling rates are 10 to 15 times more
rapid than those in air.
Predicting the microstructure of
metal subjected to a particular heat
treatment (temperature history) has
been the theme of extensive metallurgical research. Isothermal Transformation (IT) diagrams record the
crystal transformations from austenite that will occur isothermally at a
specified temperature. The value of
\
-A
F \

(A ) Isotfrermol Tronsf or mol ion

Diagram ( 2 % C )

200-

\
\

-a- \

Cooling rate a i 2 5mm from the fusion Una

400-

.
X

^ ^ V Underwaler welding conditions

j - ^ " ^ \
(E60I3 5/32")
\
^-Air welding conditions

T I M E I Seconds)
100
IOOO
*
\
Me

ng

(6)

Underwater

\
500

/(2>

IOO0O0

Weld

(2)

- A j

tr

_1_

,^

/(|)\

IOOO -

IOO0O

(B) Continuous Cool.ng Trgnsformotio

O.agram I 2 % C )

Ro id Cooling Rotes

sX
I

25

Fig. 3 Temperature histories of air welds

compared to those of underwater welds

Experimental Procedure and

Results
A series of bead-on-plate welds
were made on 4 X 6 X % in. plates of
1020 steel u s i n g E 6 0 1 3 , E 7 0 1 4 ,
E6027, and E7024 electrodes of 1/8,
5/32, and 3/16 in. diam. The objective of the weld bead series was to:
1. Determine the optimum welding
conditions in air and underwater
for the electrodes studied;
2. C o m p a r e these c o r r e s p o n d i n g
sets of optimum welding conditions and obtain conclusions or
make observations about the effect of underwater welding on
these conditions;
3. C o m p a r e the g e o m e t r i c a l and
microstructural properties of the
resulting weld beads and determine those characteristics
which are changed or modified as
a result of underwater welding;
4. Attempt to correlate the modified
geometrical and metallurgical
properties of the underwater weld
beads with fundamental mechanisms of underwater welding.
Optimum Welding Current

20

such a chart is limited in welding

metallurgy because the metal is undergoing continuous cooling. C o n tinuous Cooling Transformation (CCT)
diagrams have been developed to aid
metallurgists in predicting the microstructure of a metal sample which is
continuously cooled from a specific
maximum austenitizing temperature,
Tm . These diagrams are more useful
than IT diagrams, but their value for
predicting the microstructure of a
weld HAZ is still incomplete because
of the nonuniform maximum temperatures across the HAZ and because of
the extremely short time at this maxi m u m t e m p e r a t u r e . Their relative
predictive power is illustrated by
Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Relationship between T and CCT

diagrams for 0.2% C steel

A 300 A ac-dc drooping characteristic welding machine was used

along with a strip-chart recorder to

AIR ISP)
S m i . l G I X AMPS

jjjjjjf^l
\

20

jm/fj.

SETT inn MO AVS

nvfrt*'

ff^taff

5SBS.
$

Mre

II)

TIME ISECMIDS)

Fig. 5 Voltage and current recordings during air and underwater welding. (A) E7014 (1/8 in.) electrode: (B) E6027 (3/16 in.) electrode
180-s I J U N E

1975

measure and record the voltage and

the current during welding. The current ranges for the air weld specimens were approximated by c o n sulting the manufacturer's suggested
values. The current ranges for the u n derwater welds were assumed to be
10-20% higher based on previous
published information. These
previously suggested current values
are summarized and compared with
the values obtained from this study in
Table 1. The optimum welding current was obtained for each electrode
by examining the weld beads as they
appeared on the plate and by examining the geometrical characteristics of
the cross sections. Visual inspection
of the welded plates involved examining the regularity and consistency of
the weld beads. The cross-section
analysis involved m a x i m i z i n g the
p e n e t r a t i o n to w i d t h ratio and
minimizing undercut and reinforcement.
The welding current ranges for air
welds recommended in this study
tend to be in the manufacturer's suggested ranges. The underwater current ranges are in all cases higher
than the air welding ranges. For the
E6013 ( 1 / 8 , 5 / 3 2 , 3/16 in.) electrodes, this increase is 10-20 A. For
the E7014 (1/8, 5/32, 3/16 in.) electrodes, the increase is 20-30 A. For
the E7024 (1/8, 5/32 in.) electrodes,
the increase was not determined because actual welding currents above
the air welding current range of 170220 A were not obtainable due to the
limiting effect of the elongated arc
length which occurred. Similarly, it
was impossible to specify the o p timum underwater welding current for
the E6027 (5/32, 3/16 in.) electrodes.
The effect of an elongated arc
length on the actual welding current
can be demonstrated by noticing that,
for air w e l d i n g with E6013 electrodes, there is no difference between the machine setting and the
m e a s u r e d current values. Underwater welding with E6013 produces
only slightly elongated arc lengths
and the differences between the machine settings and the m e a s u r e d
values are 10-20 A. For E7014 air
welds, the actual current is identical to
the machine setting values. For u n derwater E7014 welds, the decrease
in observed current is 10-30 A, with
larger current lags for the larger electrode (3/16 in). This effect becomes
more noticeable for E7024 and E6027
electrodes which both have a much
thicker flux covering. For E7024 (1/8
in.) electrodes welded in air at a machine setting of 190 A, the observed
current was 170 A, a decrease of 20 A.
For the same electrode welded u n derwater at 200 A machine settings,
the observed currents are only 150
and 100 A for straight polarity and reverse polarity, respectively.

TABLE I
SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDED WELDING PARAMETERS
Air

Welding

Underwoter

Current
( amps)
I/8"

E60II
E60I3
E70I4
E7024

General
8/32"

{ Airco)
( R.T. Brown , 1974 ) I I - 1 6 , p m
(Westinghouse)
( R.T B r o w n , 1974) 1 3 - 1 5 i p m
(Westinghouse)
( R.T. B r o w n , 1974 ) 1 2 - 1 4 ipm

I/8

E60I I
E60I3

1 2 0 - 190

( W e s t i n g house)

150-170
120-190
170-190
E7024 1 8 0 - 2 5 0
240-280
1 70-210
E6027 180-250
250-300
1 30 +
General 5 / 3 2 "

( R.T B r o w n , 1974 )
(Airco )
( R.T B r o w n , 1974)
( Westinghouse)
( S i l v a , 1971)
( R.T B r o w n , 1 9 7 4 )
( West mg house )
( S i I V O , 197 1)
(R, T B r o w n , 1 9 7 4 )

E70I4

5/16"

E60I3

100-210

E70I4

190-260
220-260

E6027

250-325

12 - 1 3 I pm

1 1 - 1 5 ipm

1 0 - 11+ipm

(Westinghouse)

190-210 +
3/16

1 5 - 1 9 ipm

( W e s t i n g house )
( R.T B r o w n , 1 9 7 4 ) 1 5 - 1 7 ipm
( Westing house )
( R.T B r o w n , 1 9 7 4 ) I I - 13 ipm

180-200

General

Speed

(ipm)

(amps)
1 60

50-120
95-125
1 15-150
150-170
140-180
130-170

(R.T

Brown,1974)

'

1 0 - 1 3 ipm

Welding

Current

Speed
(ipm]

----^

( B u r k e s , 1950)

1 15-150

( R. T B r o w n ,

1974 )

1 7 -24

1 5 0 - 170

( R.T. B r o w n ,

1974)

11-15

.pm

170 +
140-150

(R.T. Brown,
1974)
(Levin , K i r l e y , 1972)

200
170-190
200-260
2 0 0 - 250
190-210
160-190
200-250
170-210

(Burkes, 1950)
( N a v y , 1968)
13-16
ipm
(Silva,
1971)
(Brown,
1973)
(Meloney , 1973)
1 2 - 1 5 ipm
( R. T B r o w n ,
1 9 7 4 ) 1 4 - 2 3 ipm
( Brown, 1973)
( R.T. B r o w n , 1 9 7 4 ) 1 1 - 1 7 ipm

200-260
170 +

( S i l v a , 1971 )
( R.T. B r o w n ,
1974) II

2 4 0 - 280
140 +
180-200
200-220

( S i l v a , 1971 )
( R. T, B r o w n , 1 9 7 4 )
( Levin, Kirley, 1972)
( A v i l o v , 1955)

220-260
200-240

( N a v y , 1968)
( R.T. B r o w n ,
1974)

220 +

( R.T.

180 +

( R.T

ipm

15 - 1 6 + ipm

13+ipm

'
12-14

ipm

15-16

ipm

Brown,

1 974)

7 -

8-Hpm

Brown ,

1974)

8 1 0+ipm

( A v i l o v , 1955)
(Craf tweld)

220-270
225-280

TABLE 2
rlLLD BEAU WIDTH VARIATIONS FROM THE OPTIMUM OR 3EST CONDITIONS

ELECTRODE

WATER (S?)

AIR (S?)

33

3.2-6.4
5,5-8
5.6-8,6

53

80

75

6.4-3
6.4-9,6
6,4-12,8

80

78

6.4-8
4.8-8
9,6-12,8(0)

89

4.8-12.8

37

6,4-9.6

7
57

3,2-4
6,3-3
6,3-8

80

83

E7014 3/16"

3-9.6
8-9,6
11,2-14.4

E7024 1/8"

12,8-14.4

E5013 3/16"

E7014 1/8"
E7014 5/32"

1,6-4,8
4-6,4
6.4-9.6

W i DTK
VARIATION

E6013 5/32"

! %

WIDTH

tll.H 7
MAX

E60I3 1/8"

WATER (RP)
WIN %

WIDTH
VARIATION

80
80

83

62
65

60

70
64

67
50

E7Q24 5/32"

9.5-12,8

85

8-11.2(0)

72

6.4-11.2

E6027 5/32"

9.6-12.8

75

6.4-9,6(0)

67

9,6-14.4

65

29

6.4-11.2

57

E6027 3/16"

12,8-17.6

3.2-11,2(0)

73

Figure 5a is the strip chart recording for E7014 (1/8 in.) electrodes and
shows the initial underwater current
readings equal to the machine setting
but the s u b s e q u e n t decrease to
values limited by the long arc lengths
(due to the elongated flux barrel).
Figure 5b further illustrates this effect with E6027 (3/16 in.) electrodes.
Even in air, the elongated arc column
results in a significant current difference of 130 A at a machine setting of
300 A. Underwater welding intensifies
this effect and the chart recordings
show the accompanying variability in
the arc length. This difficulty in maintaining a constant arc length at a sufficiently high current results in very
WELDING

unsatisfactory weld deposits when

underwater welding with either E7024
(5/32 in.) or E6027 (5/32 in. and 3/16
in.) electrodes.
The variability in arc length induces inconsistencies in the weld
bead deposit. The weld bead size and
penetration become irregular. This effect is easily observable by comparing various 5/32 in. electrode weld
deposit widths. The minimum weld
bead width for the best E6013 (5/32
in.) air weld is 80% of the maximum
width. But for underwater welds, this
width variability increases so that the
minimum width is only 64% of the
maximum width. Values for E7014
width variations increase from 83% in

RESEARCH

SUPPLEMENT!

181-8

TABLE 3
WELDING SPEED, CURRENT, AND POWER INPUT

ELECTRODE

CURRENT (AMP)

VOLTAGE (VOLT)

(KILO
POWER WATTS)

SPEED (IPM)

HEAT
INPUT (KJ/ IN)
9-10
9-10
9

6013 AIR
1/8" SP
RP

9 0 - II 0
1 30-150
1 30-140

20-23
25 - 27
26-27

2-2 5
3 4 -4
3 4

12-16
24 - 2 5
1 7 -22

6013 AIR
5/32"SP
RP

1 30-170
1 60-190
1 50-180

23 - 2 7
25 - 29
2 1-24

3.5 - 4 . 2
4-5
3 6-4

17-19
20-25
19-23

11-13
11-12
10-1 1

6013 AIR
3/l6"SP
RP

160-180
18 0 - 2 1 0
160-180

20-23
23 - 3 0
27-28

3 4 -3.8
4.6-5 4
4 6 - 4.8

15-17
16 - 18
22-23

14-17
13- 18
15-24

7014 AIR
1/8" SP
RP

1 3 0 - 150
1 50-160
140-150

24 - 2 6
27 - 2 8
27 - 2 8

3.5
4 - 45
4.3 - 4 . 7

13-15
19-21
22 - 2 5

14-1 5
11-12
13-15

7014 AIR
5/32"SP
RP

160-180
1 70-190
1 30-170

23-26
27
27-30

4-43
4 6-5
4-4 8

12-13
12-17
1 1 -13

17-19
18-23
20-23

7014 AIR
3/l6"SP
RP

200-240
160-190
120-180

23 - 26
28-35
30 - 4 5

4 8-5 8
5.8
4. 5 - 5. 5

11-13
12
7-8

23-26
34-36
38-48

6 0 2 7 AIR
5/32"SP
RP

1 20-180

32 - 42

10-11

28-32

80-130

38-42

4 3-54
4 5-55
5 -5.5

6 0 2 7 AIR
3/16" SP
RP

140-170
1 50-190
100-160

34 - 3 9
35 - 4 5
34-40

5-5.5
4 - 5,5
4-5.5

7 0 2 4 AIR
1/8" SP
RP

120-150
1 50-160
50-100

26-31
3 0 - 35
37-43

7 0 2 4 AIR
5/32"SP
RP

140-160
130-180
8 0-200

30-35
35-40
35-45

air to 60% underwater. E7024 electrodes are exceptionally smooth in air

(86%) but become irregular underwater (57%). E6027 electrodes are not
as steady in air (75%), but become
quite inconsistent underwater where
the arc may actually stop and have to
be reignited. (Table 2).
Optimum Welding Speed
When employing the drag technique, the welding speed is almost
entirely a function of the welding current. The power input of the arc will
result in a specific "digging power"
which is the ability of the arc to penetrate the base plate and to cut the
weld crater. It is best to keep the tip of
the electrode resting on the lip of the
weld crater. Slowing down the electrode may cause it to fall into the weld
crater and result in melt through.
Speeding up the electrode will cause
it to move ahead of the weld crater
and result in a discontinuous weld
bead.
Data from E7014 electrodes show
the effects of increased power to increase the 'natural d r a g ' welding
speed and of larger electrode diameters to decrease the 'natural drag'
welding speed in air and underwater.
The most obvious effect is the decreasing speed with larger electrode
diameters. An E7014 (1/8 in.) electrode with a 3.5 kW power input will
give a speed in air of 15 i p m . An
E7014 (3/16 in.) electrode welded
182-s I J U N E 1 9 7 5

28-42

10
9
8

29-36
36-44
36-52

3.5-4.3
3 5-55
3 7

12-14
15-16
4- 9

18-30
2 1 -22
23-32

5-5.2
3 6-6.3
4-5 3

1 3-15
1 3
7

24-27
33-36
35-44

with 5-6 kW will result in a speed of 12

ipm in air. Underwater welding induces two modifications. The power
r e q u i r e d for o p t i m u m w e l d bead
appearance is increased, and the
resulting 'natural d r a g ' speed is
higher. Underwater, an E7014 (1/8 in.)
electrode with 4 kW results in a speed
of 20-23 ipm. Underwater, an E7014
(3/16 in.) electrode with 5-6 kW will
result in a speed of 8-11 ipm. This
suggests that the optimum current
was not achieved for the 3/16 in. electrodes, as this would have given a
more efficient (lower) power/speed
ratio.
This inability to reach the optimum
welding current is further illustrated
by examining data from the E6027 underwater electrodes. Because the
elongated arc barrel in underwater
welding limited the current to 150-175
A, which was less than the air values,
the power input was limited to below
5.5 kW and the speed in underwater
welding was limited to below the o p t i m u m . The natural tendency to lower
the welding speed when the power input is limited acts to maintain a constant heat input, but does not fully
compensate for the decreased heat
input due to the elongated arc length
and r e d u c e d current w h e n using
E6027 and E7024 electrodes underwater. Optimum underwater welding
speeds are 5-10 ipm faster for 1/8 in.
electrodes while they are only 2-5 ipm
faster for 3/16 in. electrodes.
The higher optimum power input in

underwater welding is a stronger effect than the increase in speed and so

the net effect is to increase the heat
input to an optimum underwater weld.
Table 3 summarizes this data.
Optimum Weld Bead Shape
Underwater welds have previously
been reported to be more spread out
and less penetrating than air welds,
due in part to the rapid cooling rates
in underwater welding (Ref. 39). The
present experiments provide more
data for evaluating these shape
characteristics in underwater welds.
M a c r o p h o t o g r a p h s of the underwater and air weld beads were made
and c o m p a r e d . The following shape
factors were considered in addition to
the bead size:
1. The weld penetration-shape factor (width divided by penetration)
indicates the degree of relative
penetration obtained.
2. The percentage of reinforcement
(% filler metal divided by total weld
bead) indicates the relative
amount of fusion that has taken
place.
3. The relative depth of penetration
(penetration divided by total bead
height) indicates the relative height
of reinforcement and depth of
penetration.
In measuring these shape characteristics, it must be remembered that
there are three separate factors influencing changes in the weld bead
shapes:
1. The weld bead shapes are changing as a result of moving from a
nonoptimum welding current to
the o p t i m u m or best o b t a i n e d
welding current.
2. There are changes due to varying
electrode size and due to different
flux c o v e r i n g c o m p o s i t i o n and
thickness.
3. Finally, there are various changes
which result in switching from air
welding to underwater welding
conditions.
The effects from underwater welding
conditions are masked behind these
other two factors. However, by c o m paring the weld beads obtained at or
near the optimum welding current, it
appears that the shape of air and underwater weld beads are very similar
for the same welding current.
For an E6013 (5/32 in.) air weld at
175 A and 13 k J / i n . heat input, the
penetration was 2.2 mm (Fig. 6). For
an E6013 (5/32 in.) underwater (SP)
weld at 180 A with a heat input of 11
kJ/in., the penetration was 2.3 m m .
An E6013 (5/32 in.) water (RP) weld at
175 A with a heat input of 11 k J / i n .
had a penetration of 2.3 m m . Thus, for
the same current, the penetration was
identical between air and water welds.
For this same electrode, the air
speed was 17 ipm while the two un-

derwater speeds were 22 ipm (SP)

and 19 ipm (RP). Thus, the underwater speed was slightly increased.
The air weld had a width of 8.5 mm,
and thus a width/penetration shape

factor of 3.9. The underwater SP weld

was narrower (5.5 mm) and gave a
shape factor of 2.4. The underwater
RP weld was not as narrow as the underwater SP weld (7.5 mm), and thus

gave a shape factor very similar to the

air weld of 3.3 The % reinforcement
values for these weld beads were
35%, 42%, and 49%, respectively.
This indicates that the air weld was

\(2024)
Curvent i ^ ^
HeatVnput;
Penetration
Width.\
Reinforcement
Shape f a c t o *
WM a r e a :
\
Max. h a r d n e s s

CurrE
Heat
Penet
Widt
Reinforcement
Shape factor
W M area ;
Max h a r d n e s s

9 0 amps a.
2 KJ/m
mm
Q5.2 mm
LJ

1.7 mm
2.2

I-

I 6 mm^
4 3 0 KHN

2 2 mm

y /

23 mm2
^ ^ I 9 5 \ a r r * s \ .
19 V j / i n
1 9/r\m
SJS m\n
/ l
m i
/5.0
\
/
39 mmn
/ 221 KHN\

Curren
Heat tn
Penetra
Width :
Reinforcement
Shape factor
W M ar ea ;
M a x hardness

'

/05amp4
1 9 Kj/n
2.7 m A
8 . 7 ohm
2. 1 / n m
3.2/
4 0 mm2
20pKHN

o_
">
-,

2.0
4.0
24
mm'
3 2 5 KHN

J20I3)
7 mm
Current
H e a t inp
Penetra
Wid th'
Reinforcement
Shape factorWM a r e a ;
Max. h a r d n e s s

Current\
Heat input - \ .
Penet ration^ ^"*-
Width
Rein f o r c e m e n t ;
Shape factor
WM a r e a :
Max. hardness :

2.4
3 3
30
590 KHN

Fig. 6 Weld bead shape characteristics for E6013 (5/32 in.)

electrodes. X 7.5, reduced 51%

I4
CuXrent ;

Hea K i n p u t :
PenetYation
Width
\
Remforcernpnt
Shape factoNc
WM a rea :
Max. hard ness'

1 2rrm2

.
\jrf0
S2y*>
.9
7.8
1 .5
8.7
1 7
500

aVp s
KJyjn
mm\.
mm
\*^
mm
mm2
KHN

JS

1 80
Ao
1. 6
8.2
2.4
5 1
2 7
435

a m p s a.
KJ/m*
mm or
mm UJ
mm
t

mm2
KHN

Fig. 7 Weld bead shape characteristics for E7014 (5/32 in.)

electrodes x 7.5, reduced 51%

mm2

15 m m '
I 9 5n m p s
zY
KJ/in
j^-fiLO mm
<
9.5 mm
2.0 mm
4.7
30 mm2
230KHN

I95
27
I.7
I 1.6
2.1
4.3
3 8
I80

amps
K J / m Q_
mm
y
mm
or
mm
mm2
KHN

Fig. 8 Weld bead shape characteristics for E7024 (5/32 in.)

electrodes. X 7.5, reduced 51%

Fig. 9 Weld bead shape characteristics for E6027 (5/32 in.)

electrodes. X 7.5, reduced 51%
WELDING

RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT!

183-s

TABLE I
PENETRATION COWARISO!

E60I 3 - 1/8
VICKERS
MICROHARDNESS
( 1 0 0 grams)
Air
SP

E6013 AIR
SP
HA1ER RP

200

600

200

600

200

200

600

dend ri te

I I I
(ION)

( 1012)

coarsening
refining

I -

I I I

2-

de ndr i te

dendrite

base metal

coarsening
refining
i l l

base metal

I I I

(1013)

(1014)

I I I

base meta

coarsening
refining

I I I I

base metal

36.4 K J / i n

4-

Water
SP

0 KJ/in

9.7 K J / i n

9 KJ/in

2-

(1214)
Fusion
Distance
From
Fusion
Line
(mm)
10 K J / i n

Water
RP

dendrite
(1114)

Fusion

t-H

Distance
From
Fusion
Line
(mm)

Jrtensi te
r e f i n ing
ireaking
I I I
base metal

5.5 K J / i n

4-

Fig. 10 Hardness

profiles

1 975

9.0 K J / i n

for welds made with E6013 (1/8 in.)

fused deeper than either water welds,

while the water welds tended to have
more reinforcement than the air weld.
This effect is also reflected in the relative depth of penetration values. The
air weld value was 0.54 and the underwater values were 0.53 (SP) and
0.49 (RP).
Although these differences can be
noted, the overall impression is that
the E6013 weld bead deposits are
very similar between air and underwater welding conditions. A clear difference exists in the extent of the HAZ
of these welds. The air weld bead has
an HAZ width of 3 mm while the underwater weld HAZ widths are both
only 1 mm wide. This shows clearly
that although the weld puddle formation processes may be quite similar in
underwater or air welding, the heat
dissipation processes in underwater
welding are much more rapid than
in air.
Figure 7, showing the cross sec184-s I J U N E

5.2 K J / i n

1.2-3."."

3/16"
.6-1.9nn

.5-1.7

l,2-2.i(

1,7-2.8

).9-2.1

1,6-2.3

2.0-2.7

.8-1.9

1.1-2.7

1.3-2.H

1.2-1.9

1.2-2.1

1,3-2.0

HATER RP

1.2-1.8

.9-1.6

1.8-2.4

,9-1.6
1.2-1.9
.9

1.2-2.1

dendrite

I I I

coarsening
refining

5/32"

.5-1.2.IM

HATER SP

E70W AIR

2-

Fu sion
Distance
From
Fusion
Line
(mm)

600

1/S"

9.3KJ/in

electrodes

tions of E7014 (5/32 in.) welds, illustrates some further ideas concerning
underwater welding. The welding currents and the heat inputs for these
welds were very similar. However, the
penetration is better in the air welds.
The speed in air of 12-13 ipm corresponds with speeds of 12-17 ipm (SP)
and 11-13 (RP) in the underwater
welds. The weld bead size appears
decreased in the underwater welding
case. The narrowing effect remains
present in the underwater welds.
Taken together, these observations
may indicate that, although the underwater welds are a p p r o a c h i n g the
shape of corresponding air welds, the
water medium surrounding the arc
bubble and the weld puddle necessitates a slightly higher o p t i m u m
welding current, an optimum value
that was not obtained here. The reason for this again appears to be due
to the arc flux barrel elongation. This
elongation severely limits the pene-

E7021 AIR

.9-2.0
.9-1.1
.6-1.7

1,7-2.11

HATER SP

1.3-1,5

1.1-2,0

HAILR RP

1.3-1,'

1.3-2,1

E6027 AIR

tration.
Figure 8 illustrates the E7024 (5/32
in.) weld bead cross sections. The
penetrations of all these welds are
limited by the elongated flux barrel.
Although the sizes of the welds are
similar to other electrode deposits,
the width is increased and the weld
shapes are poorer. The increased
reinforcement due to this loss of
penetrating power accompanying the
drop in the arc current is especially
apparent in the cross sections of
E6027 (5/32 in.) welds (Fig. 9).
Table 4 summarizes the penetration data for the best weld beads obtained d u r i n g these e x p e r i m e n t s .
Penetration is a function of the current and heat input and is not strictly
dependent on the electrode size. It
also does not appear to depend on
the surrounding medium except indirectly through the decreased heat input in water welding.
A type of undercutting is observed
in most of the underwater weld specimens. It results f r o m the rapid
solidification of the weld puddle and is
perhaps the most severe weld shape
effect from underwater welding.
The size of the weld beads made in
air and underwater at the same current settings are very similar. No large
decrease in the melting power of an
arc is experienced in welding underwater. However, underwater welds do
appear to be slightly more narrow
with more reinforcement than similar
air welds. Besides the "undercutting"
tendency, no major problems with underwater w e l d i n g will result f r o m
changes in the weld shape.
Optimum Hardness Profiles
Microhardness profiles were made
across all of the weld bead samples
using a Wilson Tukon Microhardness
tester with a 100g diamond indenter.
The results were recorded on a series
of charts such as those shown in Figs.
10 through 12. The base metal hardness was between 160 Hk (100g) and
200 Hk (100g). For practical purposes of comparing hardness profiles, 200 Hk (100 g) is considered as
base metal hardness and higher
values are considered hardened.

Of all the air weld samples, E6013

(1/8 in.) welds produced the highest
hardness values over the largest
region. This is because the heat input
to the weld beads was the smallest
(6-10 kJ/in.), giving the most rapid
cooling rates and hardening that was
at least 275 Hk (100g). This indicates
that transformation products other
than pearlite are present. The hardened HAZ extends for about 1.5 m m .
The underwater (SP) welds were
extremely hardened to values above
400 Hk (100g). The grains adjacent to
the fusion line are very large and
hardened to 600 Hk (100 g). Hardening occurs in the weld metal itself giving an entire weld bead that is extremely hard and brittle. The underwater (RP) welds appear less severely hardened than the SP welds with a
hardness of 300-400 Hk (100g). The
m a x i m u m hardness in the grain
coarsened region is less than 500 Hk
(100g). The heat input values for the
air and underwater welds were very
similar, being 5-10 k J / i n . The underwater quench environment explains
the hardened underwater welds, but
does not account for any differences
between SP and RP welds. However,
the RP welds were in this case larger,
indicating more of a heat input than
was perhaps measured. The larger
weld beads will cause a slightly slower
cooling rate and thus, give lower
hardness readings.
Figure 11 shows the E6013 (5/32
in.) series of microhardness profiles.
In the air welds, the size of the weld
b e a d s a n d the c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y
higher heat inputs are large enough to
reduce the hardening to below a value
of 250 Hk (100g). Underwater (SP)
welds resulted in weld metal hardening of 400 Hk (100g). The HAZ region
adjacent to the fusion line reached a
hardness of 500 Hk (100g) and is predicted to contain martensite grains.
The hardness drops to base metal
hardness values within 0.5-1 m m , indicating the extremely localized deposits of martensite. The entire HAZ
widths are more narrow than the air
welds because of the steepness of the
isothermal field lines in underwater
welding. Although the heat inputs to
both the air and underwater welds
were 10-13 kJ/in., the extent of heat
spreading in the water welds was only
50-70% of the spatial extent in air. The
underwater (RP) welds were slightly
more hardened than the SP welds,
due again to a slightly lower heat input and smaller weld bead size.
The air hardness profiles of the
E6013 (3/16 in.) welds are very similar
to the 5/32 in. welds except that the
extent of the HAZ is larger, corresponding to the higher heat inputs
of 14-17 kJ/in. The HAZ widths were
1.5-2 m m . The underwater weld profiles show a striking decrease in
hardening from the previous 1/8 and

5/32 in. electrode series. Underwater

(SP) welds, with heat inputs of 13-18
kJ/in. gave only moderate hardening
in the weld metal of 200-300 Hk
(100g). Although the characteristic
"martensite spike" adjacent to the f u sion line was present with a hardness
of 600 Hk (100g), this hardening decreases to 250 Hk (100g) within 0.5
m m . Underwater (RP) welds had
slightly higher heat inputs of 11-24
kJ/in., and gave even less hardening
than the SP series. The martensite
spike region was hardened to only
400-500 Hk (100g). The HAZ widths of
the underwater welds were 1-1.5 m m ,
again showing the narrower HAZ due
to the rapid dissipation of heat u n derwater.
Emerging from these specific
E6013 profiles, and also from those of
the other weld series, are several general trends providing insight into the
hardening process in u n d e r w a t e r

VICKERS
E60I3-5/32
MICROHARDNESS
(IOO grams)
200
600

welding.
1. The most basic observation is
that larger heat inputs normally produce larger weld beads and that together they produce less hardening in
the weld metal and the HAZ. The effect remains unchanged between air
and underwater welds.
2. The HAZ widths in air welds are
20-50% wider than the corresponding water weld HAZ. This shows that
the temperature gradients across the
underwater HAZ are steeper, which
results from the more rapid heat dissipation rates.
3. L o c a l i z e d m a r t e n s i t e t r a n s formations appear in almost all underwater welds immediately adjacent to the fusion line, but extending
for less than 0.5 m m .
4. The primary mechanism of heat
dissipation from the weld bead appears to be conduction through the
base plate rather than heat transfer

200

600

200

Fig. 11 Hardness profiles of welds made with E6013 (5/32 in.) electrodes
WELDING

RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT!

185-8

;*
E60I3-3/I6
VICKERS
MICROHARDNESS
(IOO g r a m s )

200

600

Ve r t i c a I
Traverse

200

600

200

600

200

Ai r
SP

dendrite

dendrite

I I I
Fusion
D istance
From
Fusion
Line
(mm)

1031
I I I
coarsening
refine

coarsening
refine

base metal

base metal

14.7 K J / i n

Water
SP

dendrite

I I

I I
,_32_

16

KJ/in

1033

-t-

coarsening
r e f i ne

base

metal

14 K J / i n

dendri t e

Fusion
mart.
D istance
From
Fu s i o n
Line
( mm)
18 K J / i n

Fig. 13 Heat-affected zone microstructure of E7014 (5/32 in.) underwater weld

made at 150 A, reverse polarity, 21 kJ/in.
x 100, reduced 48%

Water
RP

dendrite
1134

Fu s ion

mart.
refine

D istance
From
Fu s ion
Line
(mm)

grouping

I I
No Data

Fig. 12 Hardness

profiles

of welds made with E6013 (3/16 in.)

directly into the surrounding water.

This can be further deduced by examining the dendritic structure of u n derwater weld beads which clearly
show that the primary direction of
heat flow was through the HAZ into
the base plate.
5. The best comparative measure
for predicting cooling rates comes
from measuring the heat input by the
weld size. This is because the average heat input value calculated from
the average current, voltage, and
speed may be less indicative of the
actual instantaneous heat input than
the weld bead size.
6. The critical heat input that results in an HAZ that extends to the
bottom of the 1/4 in. plate for an air
weld is 25 k J / i n . For a water weld, it
takes 40 k J / i n . to extend the HAZ to
the bottom of the plate. This shows
186-S I J U N E

1975

electrodes

that underwater welding requires

more heat to extend the maximum
temperature profiles a given distance. (This type of quantitative inform a t i o n is v a l u a b l e for c h e c k i n g
n u m e r i c a l models of underwater
welding.)
Several microphotographs of underwater weld microstructures are included as representative examples of
the peculiar structures found in underwater welds, and are not primarily
intended for quantitative analysis.
Figure 13 shows the HAZ of microstructure (100x) of an E7014 (5/32 in.)
underwater (RP) weld. The heat input
to this weld was 21 k J / i n . The very
coarse grains near the fusion line and
the directional segregation in the dendritic weld metal are evidence of the
rapid cooling rates.
Figure 14 shows the microstruc-

ture of an E7014 (5/32 in.) underwater weld with a slightly lower heat
input of 18 k J / i n . The martensitic
grains are clearly seen adjacent to the
fusion line and also dispersed in a
portion of the grain refinement region
of the HAZ. Underwater welds show
striking changes in structure across
the HAZ, unlike air welds which tend
to be much more homogeneous. The
hardness reading of 610 Hk (100g)
indicates the severe hardening that
does occur, while the lower readings
of 390 and 380 Hk (100g) on either
side show the very localized extent of
this hardening. Figure 15 provides yet
another example of an underwater
weld HAZ. This E6013 (5/32 in.) weld
has a heat input of only 11 k J / i n . and
the extent of the HAZ is much smaller.
But the martensite grains are still
observable adjacent to the fusion line.
Although not explicitly shown in
these photographs, a complete analysis of all underwater weld bead cross
sections made in this study have revealed no porosity problems. Porosity
has been reported to be a major difficulty with underwater welds, but this
was not experienced in the present
work. The other c o m m o n underwater
weld defect, underbead cracking, was
not observed either, in spite of the
martensite grains that were p r o duced directly under the weld beads.
This may be explained in part by the
lack of restraint during bead-on-plate

testing.

Summary and Conclusion

f- '
t. . J

Ke a i

Continuing with research at M.I.T.

on the basic processes and m e c h a n isms of underwater SMA welding, the
weld bead shape and microstructural
hardness were investigated and correlated with the welding parameters
of current, voltage and s p e e d . C o m parisons between air and water welds
were m a d e in an effort to provide a
fundamental understanding of the
causes behind the c o m m o n l y o b served modifications and defects in
underwater welded joints. Although
many of the results obtained have
been predicted and were expected,
the documentation of the rapid c o o l ing, hardening and other heat flow related information is important. It was
found that almost all water welds p r o duced a small region of hard martensite immediately s u r r o u n d i n g the
weld bead. Hardness values in this
region approach 600 Hk (100g) a l though the extent of this zone is less
than 0.5mm. The HAZ hardening in
u n d e r w a t e r w e l d i n g is not totally
beyond control, since higher heat i n puts associated with the larger 3/16
in. e l e c t r o d e did p r o d u c e less
hardening. The weld bead shape of
underwater and air welds was f o u n d
to be very similar at the same w e l d ing current and speed. The similarity
of the weld bead shape along with the
almost identical volt-ampere r e c o r d ings suggest that the primary effect of
the water medium is to p r o d u c e very
rapid solidification and cooling once
the weld p u d d l e has been f o r m e d ,
and that the water does not have a
major effect on the penetration or
other aspects of the weld puddle formation.

References
1. "Underwater Cutting and Welding,"
U.S. Navy
Technical
Manual,
U.S.N.
Supervisor of Diving, Naval Ship Systems
Command.
2. Brown, R. T., Masubuchi, K., "Latest
D e v e l o p m e n t s in U n d e r w a t e r W e l d i n g
Technologies," Underwater
Journal, Vol.
5, No. 5, 1973.
3. Gilman, "The Application of Hyperbaric Welding for the Offshore Pipeline Industry," OTC 1970, Vol. 2, No. 1252, pp.
243-248, 1970.
4. Lynch, Pilia, "Pipeline Hot-tap W e l d ing under 110 feet of Sea Water," Welding
Journal, Vol. 48, (3), March, 1969, pp. 183190.
5. Pilia, "Underwater Pipeline Welding,
110-Feet Down," Symposium
on Underwater Welding, Cutting and Hard Tools,
Battelle Memorial Institute, 1967, pp. 3340.
6. Robinson, "Underwater Welding in a
Dry Environment," Symposium on Underwater Welding, Cutting and Hard Tools,
Battelle Memorial Institute, 1967, pp. 2 1 29.
7. Wallace, K. W., Morrissey, G., " D r y -

%'

... f%
*.Ms-j-

J*' ^

'"

58'

:%

[ .

S i

:.: ':

^*lf

';$

Martens> :: e

**?

Fig. 15 Heat-affected zone

microstructure ot E6013 (5/32 in.) underwater
weld
made at 180 A, straight polarity, 11 kJ/in.
x 100, reduced 48%
Fig. 14 Heat-affected
zone
microstructure ot E7014 (5/32 in.) underwater
weld
made at 160 A, straight polarity, 18 kJ/in.
x 100, reduced 48%

Weld Modes in an Underwater Habitat,"

Offshore,
Vol. 28, No. 10, 1968, p. 67.
8. Warren, Angel, Gray, "Saturation
Diving, A Tool for Offshore Pipelining,"
OTC 1971 #1436.
9. Billy, A. F., "Investigation of Underwater Semi-Automatic Arc Welding for
Naval Salvage and Seafloor Construction," NCEL Preliminary, 1971.
10. Billy, A. F., "The Effects of Gas MetalArc Parameters in Seawater on Welding
Current, Arc Voltage, Bead Geometry, and
Soundness," NCEL Preliminary, 1971.
11. Madatov, Potapevskii, "Features of
Underwater Thin Wire Welding," Welding
Production, Vol. 14, No. 2, February 1967,
pp. 51-55.
12. Savich, I. M., "Underwater Welding
with C o r e d E l e c t r o d e W i r e , "
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Development
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WELDING

"Saturation Diving A Tool for Underwater Welding and Cutting," Presented at

the Symposium on Underwater Welding,
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Arc in Underwater Welding,"
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RESEARCH

SUPPLEMENT!

187-8

Welding, Vol. 18, No. 12, 1965, pp. 25-29.

29. Madatov, N. M., "Energy Characteristics of the Underwater Welding Arc,"
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AWS D10.10-75
Local Heat Treatment of Welds in Piping
and Tubing
In the manufacture of welded articles or structures in the shop or in
the field, it m a y be desirable, for a variety of reasons, to h e a t the weld
regions before welding (preheating), between passes (interpass heating),
or after welding (postheating). This document presents in detail the
various m e a n s commercially available for h e a t i n g pipe welds locally,
either before or after welding, or between passes. The relative a d v a n t a g e s
and d i s a d v a n t a g e s of each method are also discussed. Although the
document is oriented principally toward the h e a t i n g of welds in piping
and tubing, the discussion of the various h e a t i n g methods is applicable
to a n y type of welded fabrication.
Topics covered include the following:
Measurement of Temperature
Induction H e a t i n g
Electric Resistance H e a t i n g
Flame Heating
Exothermic H e a t i n g
Gas-Flame Generated Infrared H e a t i n g
R a d i a n t H e a t i n g by Quartz L a m p s .
The price of AWS D10.10-75, Local H e a t T r e a t m e n t of Welds in
Piping a n d Tubing, is $3.50. Discounts: 25% to A a n d B members; 20% to
bookstores, public libraries a n d schools; 15% to C a n d D members. Send
your orders to the American Welding Society, 2501 N.W. 7th Street,
Miami, F L 33125. Florida residents add 4% sales tax.

188-S |

JUNE

1975