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Heinemann Information Processes and Technology:
HSC Course
ISBN 0 86462 512 X
ISBN 0-86462-501-4
9 780864 625014
G.K. Powers
H e i n e m a n n
Information Processes
and Technology
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G. K. Powers
Heinemann
A division of Reed International Books Australia Pty Ltd
22 Salmon Street, Port Melbourne, Victoria 3207
World Wide Web hi.com.au
Email info@hi.com.au
Offices in Sydney, Brisbane, Adelaide and Perth.
Associated companies, branches and representatives throughout the world.
Gregory Powers 2000
First published 2000
2003 2002 2001 2000
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
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cataloguing-in-publication data:
Powers, G.K. (Gregory K.).
Heinemann information processes and technology:
preliminary course.
Includes index.
ISBN 0 86462 501 4.
1. Information storage and retrieval systems. 2. Electronic
data processing. 3. Information technology. I. Title
004
Disclaimer
All the Internet addresses (URLs) given in this book were valid at the time of
printing. However, due to the dynamic nature of the Internet, some addresses may
have changed, or sites may have ceased to exist since publication. While the authors
and publisher regret any inconvenience this may cause readers, no responsibility
for any such changes can be accepted by either the authors or the publisher.
The names, addresses and telephone numbers included in screen captures and sample
data in this book are fictitious and are intended for demonstration purposes only. Any
connection to real people or their contact details is coincidental.
Contents
Part 1
To the teacher
Heinemann Information Processes and Technology
and the Preliminary Course Outcomes
vi
Chapter 1
2
3
6
12
19
23
30
35
Chapter 2
37
38
48
52
55
62
70
79
87
Chapter 3
89
90
91
96
100
106
109
113
119
Chapter 4
4.1
4.2
4.3
Guidelines to projects
Personal information systems
Personal projects
Group information systems
Group projects
121
122
124
126
128
131
Part 2
Application software
Chapter 5
Word processing
5.1 Basic features
5.2 Editing text
5.3 Formatting text
5.4 Additional tools
Chapter review
Chapter 6
Databases
133
134
135
139
145
152
159
161
162
168
172
177
181
Chapter 7
183
184
190
197
202
207
Chapter 8
209
210
215
219
223
227
Chapter 9
229
230
235
243
248
253
Chapter 10
255
256
261
265
269
273
Chapter 11
275
276
280
285
289
294
296
302
310
311
Graphics
8.1 Basic features
8.2 Modifying a graphic
8.3 Bit-mapped graphics
8.4 Vector graphics
Chapter review
Desktop publishing
9.1 Basic features
9.2 Design elements
9.3 Page layout
9.4 Printing a publication
Chapter review
Multimedia
10.1 Basic features
10.2 Presentation software
10.3 Types of media
10.4 Multimedia design
Chapter review
The Internet
11.1 Basic features
11.2 Web browsers
11.3 Electronic mail
11.4 Internet publishing
Chapter review
Appendix: ASCII and EBCDIC codes
Glossary
Acknowledgments
Index
Function
To the teacher
This book has been written as a textbook for the New South Wales Information
Processes and Technology Preliminary Course. The aim of this course is to
enable students to become confident, competent, discriminating and ethical
users of information technologies and information processes. This book
addresses this aim and provides an excellent understanding of all aspects of
information technology.
There is no prerequisite study for this course. Students undertaking this
course will differ substantially in their knowledge, understanding and skills in
relation to information technology. This book has been written to cater for
students with a wide range of abilities. It is appropriate for students with a basic
knowledge of information technology and those with an extensive knowledge.
Teaching approach
Teachers can decide on the sequencing of the content depending on the ability
and knowledge of their students. This book caters for a range of approaches.
Application approach: The application chapters (Part 2) are taught separately
and integrated throughout the teaching program. All activities within the
application chapters refer to information processes. All applications are
taught before students complete their projects.
Information process approach: The application chapters are taught within the
topic Tools for Information Processes. Activities from appropriate
application chapters are taught within the context of the seven information
processes. Side headings (see opposite) included in the application chapters
provide cross-references to the information processes.
Project approach: The content of the course is taught through a series of
projects. Students apply their knowledge of information processing to
complete their projects using the application chapters.
collecting
Additional resources to support and extend this book are available at the
Heinemann World Wide Web site hi.com.au. These include a sample teaching
program, assessment advice, answers to exercises from the textbook and
additional literacy questions.
1, 2, 3, 4
1, 2, 3, 4
1, 2, 3, 4
1, 2, 3, 4
P3.1
1, 2, 3, 4
P4.1
1, 2, 3
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
P6.1
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
P6.2
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
P1.2
P2.1
P2.2
Functio
P5.1
vi
P7.1
P7.2
Part 1
Information processes and technology
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
1
2
3
4
chapter
INTRODUCTION TO
INFORMATION
SKILLS AND SYSTEMS
Outcomes
Overview
This chapter describes the impact of information technology. You will learn that an
information system requires participants,
data/information and information technology to
complete the seven information processes.
This chapter describes the nature of data and
information, and how it is represented digitally.
It concludes by examining the issues of data
security, data accuracy and copyright that arise
from the processing of information.
Function
1.1 Introduction
Information technology
Information technology (IT, pronounced eye-tea) refers to the electronic
hardware and software used to process information. Electronic computers,
which have been developed in the second half of the twentieth century, are a
major component of information technology. Their evolution is linked to
advances in integrated circuits and digital communication.
Integrated circuits are silicon chips containing transistors that can store and
process data. The first integrated circuit was built in 1958 and only contained a
few thousand transistors. Since then, the capacity of integrated circuits has been
doubling every couple of years. Todays integrated circuits contain tens of
millions of transistors. These advances in technology have resulted in computers
with greater speed and power. Personal computers have become available at a
cost that is affordable for many people. They are much easier to use than early
computers and do not require specialist computer training.
At the same time, developments in digital communication have increased our
ability to transfer data. Local area networks (LANs) allow computers to
communicate information and share resources. Global communication is
routinely achieved using the Internet.
Functio
4
Function
Exercise 1.1
1 Why have Australians been quick to adopt the latest developments in technology?
2 What is information technology?
3 How has digital communication improved the transfer of data?
4 What has been the impact of information technology on organisations?
5 Describe the recent changes in banking that have resulted from information
technology.
6 How do pilots use information technology?
Functio
Function
Purpose
Environment
The environment is everything that influences or is influenced by an information system and its purpose. It includes any factors that affect the system or are
affected by it. For example, the environment of the local library is not only the
building, but also factors outside the building, such as its location, electrical
power, air-conditioning, communications, and funding from the government.
The environment of a system is constantly changing. Managers of large information systems need to be aware of new factors that are affecting the system.
One of the main reasons for the environment to change is the progress in
information technology. Twenty years ago, organisations were largely restricted
by geographical boundaries. Today, the environment of many organisations is the
world. The Internet has provided a global marketplace for goods and services.
Organisations can transfer information around the world and move finance
easily between countries. Information technology continues to change at an
extraordinary rate and will continue to affect the environment of information
systems.
Information technology
Information technology is the set of tools used by an information system or its
participants to perform workit is the hardware and software used by
information systems. It is important to understand that information technology
has no effect unless it is used within an information process. To be effective, the
information technology must be able to support the information process.
Hardware
Hardware is the physical equipment involved in processing information, such as
a computer, network cables and data storage devices. It refers to objects that you
can see and hold. Computers often form the basic hardware of an information
system. Computers are electronic devices that can process data according to
stored sequences of instructions. They have five basic functions: input, processing, storage, control and output.
Input involves entering data into the computer. A device designed to assist
the entry of data is called an input device. Input devices include the keyboard, mouse, scanner, digital camera, video camera and microphone.
Processing changes data to produce information by following a series of instructions. Processing is performed by the computers central processing unit
(CPU). The CPU is the brain of the computer. It takes the data from an input device, changes it to produce information and sends it to an output
device to be displayed to the user.
Storage involves retaining data over a period of time. Before, during and after
processing, data and programs are held temporarily in memory. To retain data
more permanently, storage devices such as magnetic disks, magnetic tape,
optical disks and flash memory are used.
Control coordinates the operations of input, processing, output and storage.
The control unit is part of the CPU. The control unit is the organiser that
INPUT
PROCESSING
Functio
CONTROL
ST ORAGE
OUTPUT
OUTPUT
Function
directs the flow of data in the computer in the same way as traffic lights
control the flow of cars at an intersection.
Output involves the presentation or display of information to a person, or
the transfer of data to another computer. Common output devices are the
computer screen and the printer. The information presented is the result of a
participants work on the computer.
All the functions of computer hardware work together. Data is entered using
an input device and is processed in some way before being presented using an
output device. The computers power comes from its ability to perform these
functions with speed, accuracy and reliability. The concepts of input, process,
storage, control and output are used in a huge range of computers. They are
often classified according to their power and capabilities as: personal computers,
midrange computers, mainframes and supercomputers.
A personal computer (PC, also known as a microcomputer) is a single-user
computer that generally sits on a desktop. Portable computers such as laptops, notebooks and palmtops are also classified as personal computers. PCs
are suitable for individuals needs, such as word processing, spreadsheets and
graphics. In organisations, they can be joined together to form a network.
A midrange computer or minicomputer is a central computer that performs
the processing for a number of users working at terminals. A terminal is an
input/output device (usually a keyboard and screen). Midrange computers
are typically used for accounting, database management and specific industry
applications.
A mainframe computer is a central computer for a large number of users. It is
more powerful than a midrange computer and often has thousands of
terminals connected to it. Mainframe applications include payroll computations, accounting and airline seat reservations.
A supercomputer is the fastest, most powerful and expensive type of computer
(see Figure 1.5). Supercomputers are designed for applications requiring
high-volume and high-speed calculations, such as simulations of the weather
and aerodynamics design.
Advances in technology have blurred the differences between these types of
computers. Todays PCs use similar microprocessors to both mainframes and
midrange computers. However, using PCs for a mainframe-type application
requires the PCs to be linked in a network. While midrange and mainframe
computers are designed to accept input from multiple users simultaneously, PCs
do not support this type of application.
Figure 1.5 A
supercomputer.
ITITFact
Fact
The name Big Blue refers to IBM (International Business Machines
Corporation), whose identifying colour is blue. Deep Blue is IBMs
supercomputer that became known as the chess machine after winning
against world champion chess player Garry Kasparov.
Software
Software is the detailed instructions (computer programs) used to direct the
hardware to perform a particular task. A computer needs software to tell it what
to do and it needs hardware to carry out the actual work. There are two main
types of software: application software and system software.
Application software is a computer program used for a specific task. It allows
the computer to achieve the task for which it was designed. Application
software includes word processors, databases, graphics programs and
spreadsheets.
System software manages and controls the hardware so the application
software can perform the required task. It determines the way the participant
interacts with the information system. System software includes operating
systems and utility software.
Functio
Participants
10
Participants are the people who carry out the information processes within the
information system. They are the people who do the work. Participants need to
know what to do, how to do it and when to do it. All information systems have
participantseven the most automated systems rely on people if the system
fails. Participants have an essential role in an information system, and the success
or failure of the system depends on their skills, interests and commitment.
Participants are often referred to as direct users, or simply users. They
interact with, or are in control of, the information technology (see Figure 1.6).
For example, when you use a word processor to write a letter, you are a participant in an information system. Participants have different levels of skills, from
the novice experimenting with software to system specialists. System specialists
include people such as managers and operators. Managers oversee the information system and ensure that personnel and machines are working efficiently.
Information processes and technology
Function
Figure 1.6 Participants interact with, or are in control of, information technology.
Operators look after the information technology resources. In addition to participants (direct users), there are also indirect users. Indirect users, such as
customers, are not part of the system, but it is their needs that form part of the
purpose of the system.
Although information systems affect participants, the systems are often designed with little regard for them. The nature of the impact depends on the
individual characteristics of the participant. People come from different backgrounds and have different levels of expertise. Some participants may be able to
work in a very structured environment and complete repetitive tasks, while
other people will find this unsatisfactory. For example, the introduction of new
technology may provide a more challenging job and an opportunity to learn new
skills. On the other hand, it might deskill a participants job and make it boring.
Exercise 1.2
1 What is an information system?
2 Describe the purpose of an information system.
3 Outline one reason for the environment of an information system to change.
4 List the five functions of hardware.
5 What function is performed by the CPU?
6 What part of the computer coordinates the operations of input, processing, output and storage?
7 Describe four different types of computers.
8 How is system software different from application software?
11
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Which element of an information system does each of the following represent?
a product sales for the week
b the operating system
c a manager
d a manager producing the sales figures
e the keyboard and mouse
f an annual report.
2 A personal computer will work for many years if participants are careful and
perform basic maintenance. Outline some rules for the care and maintenance of
a computer.
3 Write a checklist that a person could use to ensure that they were correctly
setting up a personal computer.
4 Describe the information technology available on todays personal computers.
Obtain five advertisements for personal computers. Select the best value for
money and give reasons for your selection.
5 A personal computer can do wonderful things, but at times they cause problems.
Fortunately many of these problems are simple operating faults that can be
easily overcome. List some possible reasons for the following faults.
a
b
c
d
6 The first electronic computer, called ENIAC (for Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Computer), was developed in 1946 by John Presper Eckert and John William
Mauchly. Even though the capabilities of todays personal computers are many
times greater than ENIACs, they have the same five basic functions: input,
processing, control, storage and output. Do you think the basic functions of a
computer will remain for another 50 years? Why? What will computers be like in
the future?
Functio
12
Fifty years ago, sorting, finding and comparing information was all done
manually. It was often a lengthy and expensive process. Data was usually
represented on paper and stored in filing cabinets. Even deciding where to put
the paper could be a problem. Sorting and searching huge amounts of paper was
labour-intensive (see Figure 1.7). Information could not be easily transferred
from one form to another. Reports were created by copying the information into
a different form rather than transferring the data.
Developments in technology have been responsible for major changes in
information processing. Today, information processing refers to the creation of
information by processing data using information technology. This changing
of data into information involves seven steps called information processes.
These processes describe the procedures that an information system performs
to process data into information. The information processes start with the
Information processes and technology
Function
collection of data and conclude with the displaying of data. The steps are not necessarily
separate and sequential. Several steps may
occur at the same time, and they may occur in
almost any order. The rate at which these
information processes are carried out is critical
to the efficiency of an information system.
Collecting
13
Organising
Organising is the process that arranges, represents and formats data for use by
other information processes. It is carried out after the data is collected. The
organisation of data depends on the purpose of the information system. For
example, if the information system is used to store and search a large amount of
data, the data needs to be categorised. This will allow it to be stored in a
database. Organising gives some structure to the data.
When developing an information system it is essential to determine the
format in which the data will be represented. The format of the data determines
the most appropriate software application and the processing that can be carried
out. For example, if a text document is scanned and represented as an image, the
text cannot then be processed using a word processor. If data is poorly
organised, it may result in the use of inappropriate applications or the processing of unnecessary data.
Analysing
Analysing is the process that interprets data, transforming it into information. It
involves examining data and giving meaning to it. When data has been ordered
and given some meaning by people, it is called information. The particular type
of analysis depends on the format of the data and the information that is
required. For example, to obtain a report on all the sales in the past month
would involve searching, selecting and sorting data. Charts and graphs are often
used in the analysis of data. They make it easy to interpret data by making
instant comparisons and revealing trends. Charts help people to make quick and
accurate decisions.
Analysing data may involve the use of a model to represent some aspect of
the real world. When a model is used to simulate a real situation, people can
make predictions and examine the effect of their decisions. For example, an
organisation might want to know the likely impact on sales if their advertising
budget was increased by 10 per cent. In business there are many simulation
programs that help organisations make decisions about marketing and sales.
Functio
14
Storing and retrieving is a two-step process for retaining data: storing saves data
for later use; retrieving obtains data that has been previously saved. These
processes are important, since most information systems need to retain data for
further processing and to guard against data loss. Before, during and after
processing, data and programs are held temporarily in memory. To retain data
more permanently, storage devices such as magnetic disks, magnetic tape, optical
disks and flash memory are used.
The loss of data is a major concern in any information system. The costs of
replacing data that changes rapidly can be enormous. If a system crashes, the
data is retrieved from a secondary storage medium. If data is saved regularly,
then the information system can be rebuilt without a problem. However, if the
secondary storage medium is corrupted or damaged, the data may be lost. This
could occur if the information system was infected with a computer virus. A
backup is then needed to rebuild the system. A backup is a copy of data or software kept for the purpose of safety. It is usually kept in a fireproof safe or offsite. Secure and reliable backup procedures are vital to guard against data loss.
Processing
Processing is the manipulation of data and information. It occurs whenever the
data or information is modified and updated. Processing is carried out by the
central processing unit (CPU). The CPU accepts data from an input device,
changes this data according to the instructions given by the user, and then sends
the results to an output device (see Figure 1.9). These results are the information the user requires to solve the problem.
A processor consists of millions of
electrical components located on a thin
silicon wafer called an integrated circuit
or silicon chip. The speed of a processor
is measured in megahertz (mHz) and is
called its clock speed. Fast processors
can manipulate larger quantities of
data. In some information systems, the
processing is carried out by more than
one processor. This is called parallel
processing and is much faster than
using one processor. Parallel processing
divides the processing task among a
series of processors. This requires special
software that can recognise how to
divide up problems and bring the results
back together again.
Function
ITITFact
Fact
15
Displaying
Functio
Case study
16
Woolworths
Function
to
sell
food
and
other domestic products
information processes. The
barcode on each item is passed
over the scanner at the checkout. The product description
Information processes
and the price appear on the
scan
product
update product inventory
checkout display panel and the
search
database
display product information
customers receipt. The price of
the item is stored by the central
computer and is not part of the
Participants
Data/
Information
data contained in the barcode.
Information technology
The manager of the super store staff
bar code
electric cash registers
market determines the price of
computing
product
details
central computer
each item. Every time an item is
personnel
receipt
bar code reader
scanned, the central computer
INFORMATION SYSTEM
decreases the stock total by one
and thus keeps a running inFigure 1.12 Purchasing goods at Woolworths.
ventory. Once the stock of a
certain item reaches a minimum level, the computer auto transmitting and receivingtransmatically reorders that item. When the
ferring information between the POS
transaction is completed, the customer
terminal and the central computer
receives a receipt containing the date,
displayingshowing the product
the name of each item, the quantity
information on the POS terminal and
purchased, the price of each item, the
printing the receipt.
total price and the method of payment.
These processes do not operate in
The information processes involved are:
isolation. They are all interrelated and
collectinggathering data by scaneach one depends on the others. For
ning the barcode
example, storing information about
organisingensuring the data is in
each item is dependent on collecting
the correct format to be used by the
the data using the barcode reader.
database
Each of the components of the infor analysingsearching the database
mation system is important. The superfor the product description and price
market will only be efficient and effec storing and retrievingretaining
tive if participants are trained to carry
information about each item
out the information processes, the data
is appropriate, and the information
processingupdating the product
technology is reliable.
inventory and calculating the price
Exercise 1.3
1 Describe how information was processed 50 years ago.
2 List the seven information processes.
3 Describe the steps involved in the collection of data.
4 List some of the techniques used to collect primary data.
17
Functio
3 The majority of people in a random survey agreed that using a computer was an
essential skill. However, they also agreed that a personal computer is not as vital
as a car, television, telephone or microwave oven. Are these results inconsistent?
How would you rank the importance of computers compared to the other
appliances? Why?
18
4 Interview three people who use information technology in their jobs. Briefly describe the information system. How is information processed? Outline the data,
information and participants.
5 Woolworths provides a shopping service using the Internet. Investigate the
services provided by Woolworths and similar companies. Outline the information
processes used in these information systems. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of Internet shopping?
As we saw in the previous section, data is the raw material entered into an information system. It is the input of the system. Data can be thought of as unorganised facts that mean little by themselves. Information is data that has been
ordered and given some meaning. It is the output of the system. In an information system, information technology, participants (people) and information
processes combine to transform data into information. This information may be
used as the input for another information system.
The distinction between data and information is important. It explains why it
is possible for an information system to collect huge amounts of data but fail to
satisfy an organisations information needs. For example, an organisation may
perform thousands of transactions each day, and record them using an information system. Simply making a printout of every transaction, however, will not
provide useful information for managers.
The information processes of organising, analysing, processing and displaying
help to convert data into information using methods such as:
choosing data pertinent to the problem
deleting irrelevant data
combining data
displaying data in an understandable way.
Function
Data
Data is a vital ingredient of an information system. If the data collected is
meaningless, the information presented will be meaningless. Organisations need
to ensure that appropriate data is available at the correct time for processing.
Data will be appropriate if it is:
relevantuseful to the purpose of the information system
accuratecollected from a dependable source and entered without errors
timelycurrent, and kept up-to-date
secureprotected from deliberate or accidental damage or loss.
Data with the above characteristics needs to be entered into the information
system in the correct form. This depends on the input device, the application
software to be used to process it, and the type of information (output) that is
required. When the data is entered into the information system it is organised as
a particular data type. The data type describes the kind of data, such as images,
audio, video, text or numbers.
Images are data in the form of pictures, such as drawings, paintings or
photographs. They can be stored, edited and transferred in similar ways to
text. The meaning of an image is determined by looking at the image and
interpreting it.
Audio is data in the form of sounds. It may be a noise used to get a users
attention or a voice to explain the operation of a piece of software. The
meaning of audio data is determined by listening to and interpreting the
sounds.
Video is data in the form of pictures and sounds combined and displayed
over time. It may include text, graphics, animation and audio. The meaning of
video is determined by watching and listening to it over a period of time.
Introduction to information skills and systems
19
Text is data in the form of letters, numbers and other characters whose
meaning and format is not specified. For example, the characters entered into
a word processor are text. The meaning of text is determined by reading and
interpreting it.
Numbers are data in the form of predefined characters (usually numerals)
whose meaning and format is specified. Calculations are often performed on
this data type. For example, numbers may be defined as currency, date or time.
A collection of data can contain a combination of different data types (see
Table 1.1). For example, Web pages often contain both text and images.
Data type
Examples
Text
Sarah, M, Yes
Number
Image
Audio
Video
Film clips
Functio
20
Information
Information is an important factor in an organisations current and future
success. Companies require information on their products, employees,
competitors and general operation. Information is an asset and there are substantial costs associated with its collection, maintenance and storage. However,
organisations are prepared to make this investment because information is vital
to their decision-making. Information will be valuable if it is:
relevantuseful to the purpose of the information system
accurateverified to ensure it is correct
Information processes and technology
Case study
Function
Big V Video
21
Overdue videos
SURNAMES
FNAMES PHONE NO
TITLE
BORROWED
DUE BACK
OVERDUE
Ashforth
Leigh
729 8821
Cerlini
Kristen
870 4141
A Bugs Life
12-Jan-00
15-Jan-00
Sliding Doors
12-Jan-00
15-Jan-00
Bastion
Graham
738 2456
12-Jan-00
15-Jan-00
Clark
Natalie
818 1810
Ever After
13-Jan-00
16-Jan-00
Atta
Ahmed
720 2727
17-Jan-00
Jordan
Daniel
720 9191
16-Jan-00
18-Jan-00
Ho
Nguyen
701 8102
Titanic
16-Jan-00
18-Jan-00
Theoharis
Jim
638 2356
Blade
17-Jan-00
18-Jan-00
De Vincentis Giulia
215 1860
The Vanishing
17-Jan-00
18-Jan-00
Konstas
750 2709
18-Jan-00
Effie
Figure 1.15 Using the database, it is easy to produce a list of overdue videos.
Exercise 1.4
Functio
22
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 An information system for a fitness club crashed and some membership data
was lost. Who or what do you think is responsible for the error? What could be
done to ensure the error does not happen again?
Function
2 Data such as customer records, financial details and management plans are
targets for computer criminals. Why would they steal this type of data? How
could they get access to the data? List any security measures that would stop the
theft of data.
3 Choose a recent event that has been widely reported in newspapers and on TV,
radio and the Internet. Find three different data sources on this event and
compare the data in terms of accuracy, security, timeliness and relevance.
Determine whether the data from each source was complete and free from bias.
4 Managers can be daunted by the amount of information available from
information systems. This information overload can increase managerial stress
and force managers to spend more time organising information rather than
making important decisions. How could information overload affect decisionmaking? What could be done to reduce it?
5 Observe a large retail business and record the different types of data that is
collected. Which type of data would be used for decision-making? Why? Does
this retail business have a Web site? If so, does the business collect data from the
Web site? How is the Web site helping the business?
23
Functio
Digitising trends
24
Function
Digital data
Digital data is data that is represented using digits (numbers). The computer is a
two-state device that uses only two digits: 0 and 1. Two digits are easily
represented electronically by circuits in the computer being either on or off. The
digit 1 is used to represent the electronic state of on and the digit 0 is used to
represent the electronic state of off. Each on or off digit is called a bit (binary
digit). A bit is the smallest unit of data stored in a computer.
A group of eight bits is called a byte. A byte is the basic unit of measurement
for digital data. Using eight bits means that there are 256 possible values for a
byte (00000000, 00000001, etc.). When used to represent text, a byte stands for
a single character, such as a letter, a number, a punctuation mark or a space.
Because a byte is such a small unit, the prefixes kilo, mega, giga and tera are
added to create more useful units for measuring data storage (see Table 1.2).
Introduction to information skills and systems
25
Unit
Symbol
Meaning
byte
1 (20)
kilobyte
Kb
thousand bytes
1 000
1024 (210)
megabyte
Mb
million bytes
1 000 000
gigabyte
Gb
billion bytes
terabyte
Tb
trillion bytes
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
Value
64
32
16
Binary number
Functio
26
Example
Convert 10910 into binary.
Powers of 2
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
Value
64
32
16
10910 = 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 1
= (1 64) + (1 32) + (0 16) + (1 8) + (1 4) + (0 2) + (1 1)
= 11011012
So, decimal number 109 equals the binary number 1101101.
Information processes and technology
Binary numbers are ideal for computers but very difficult for people. Because
they use only two digits, they result in very long strings of 1s and 0s. For this
reason, many computers represent binary numbers in hexadecimal. The
hexadecimal number system, or hex, is to the base 16, and uses the sixteen
digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F. The numbers are often
preceded by the $ (dollar) sign to indicate that they are in hexadecimal code. So
$A = 1010, $B = 1110, and so on. Because 16 is 24, it is very easy to convert
binary numbers to hexadecimal and vice versa.
ITITFact
Fact
Function
The term hexadecimal was made up in the early 1960s to replace the
earlier sexadecimal, which was too racy and amusing for IBM. It has since
been adopted by the computer industry.
163
162
161
160
Value
4096
256
16
Binary number
163
162
161
160
Value
4096
256
16
27
Exercise 1.5
1 Describe some of the traditional methods used to represent and store data.
2 What are the advantages and disadvantages of digital data?
3 Describe four digitising trends.
4 What is a byte?
Functio
28
64
1
32
0
16
0
8
0
4
0
2
1
1
1
Decimal number
67
4
1
2
1
1
1
Binary code
0110111
Function
64
0
32
1
16
1
8
0
4096
0
256
0
16
1
1
12
Decimal number
28
29
4096
0
256
1
16
F
1
4
Hexadecimal
01F4
5 Count the number of characters used on a page of typed text and then calculate
the number of bytes necessary to store this data. How many pages of typed text
can the school computer store in RAM? (Assume your computer uses eight-bit
ASCII and all the RAM is available to store text.)
Functio
Data security
30
The security of data and information is a major issue in any organisation. The
cost of replacing data that is deliberately or accidentally damaged or lost can be
enormous. People who gain illegal access to information systems are referred to
as hackers. Hackers are often involved in information theft or financial theft.
Information theft involves stealing data from one organisation and selling it to
another organisation. Financial theft involves illegally transferring money from
one account to another.
Computer crime provides our society with a difficult issue. First, even though
hundreds of cases of computer crimes are reported each year, many crimes go
unreported. There are several reasons for this: organisations are reluctant to face
adverse publicity; publicising the event could give others ideas; and in some
cases, the crime is not discovered. Are organisations encouraging computer
crime by not reporting it? Are organisations that do not report a computer crime
guilty of a crime themselves?
Another issue is the fact that computer crime is not viewed in the same light
by the community as other crimes, such as burglary or armed robbery. Whereas
the community holds a burglar in fear or contempt, a hacker is often regarded as
clever and the crime is not regarded as dangerous or threatening. If a burglar and
a hacker each stole $200 000 from a business, does it make any difference how
the money was taken? Should the penalties for both crimes be the same?
Data security involves a series of safeguards to protect the data from
deliberate or accidental damage. Some of these are listed on the following page.
Information processes and technology
Function
Passwords are secret words or numbers that are typed on the keyboard to
gain access to a computer system. Good data protection systems require
users to change their passwords often, so that only authorised people can
have access to certain data.
Objects such as a key, plastic card or badge can be required to gain access to
the information system. They are often used together with a personal
identification number (PIN).
Biometric devices are used to verify personal characteristics such as fingerprints, hand size, signature, eye and voice.
Data encryption is used to prevent data from being intercepted and read
during transmission. The data is scrambled so that it is meaningless to
anyone other than the recipient, who uses the same encryption software to
convert it back.
Firewalls are used on computer networks to check all data coming from
outside sources (such as the Internet) for the purpose of verification and
authentication.
Waste is secured, since discarded printouts are potential sources of
confidential information. This kind of waste can be secured by shredding.
Backup procedures need to be secure and reliable. A regular plan of copying
and storing data will guard against data loss. It is good practice to keep at
least one backup copy in a fireproof safe or off-site.
The weakest link in the security of any information system is the people in it.
Employees need to be carefully screened. This can be difficult, as even wellrespected and otherwise honest employees can commit computer crimes.
ITITFact
Fact
Jails are used on computer networks to lure hackers and allow system
administrators to obtain some clues as to the hackers identity. Jails are
best housed on special servers that simulate a real and confidential
environment.
Data accuracy
In the past, publishing information was costly and there was less of it. Today,
there is a huge amount of information and it is relatively easy to publish on the
Internet. As a result, there is no guarantee that all information is accurate or
reliable, and it is difficult to check it in a reasonable amount of time.
Organisations can provide access to information they have not created, for
example by including a link on their Web site. This raises a difficult question.
Who is responsible for the accuracy of information? Is the creator the only
person responsible for the accuracy of data? Do organisations that provide
access to information also have a responsibility to verify its accuracy? Clearly, it
is necessary to compare data from a number of sources and determine which
data is accurate and relevant.
In addition to the issue of responsibility, there are also concerns about the
ethics of altering data. For example, photographs can be edited by adding,
changing or removing parts of the images. A person can be taken out of the
photograph and another person added. Is it acceptable to improve a photograph
by slightly altering the data? Would it be wrong for a newspaper to alter a
Introduction to information skills and systems
31
Data validation
Data is collected to solve problems, meet needs or help in decision-making. The
accuracy of the data must be checked before it is processed into information.
This is called data validation. It involves ensuring that the data is up-to-date,
current, complete and correctly entered. Data validation can be built into a software application. Some examples are listed below.
Range checks are used if the data is restricted to a small range of particular
values. For example, when a date is entered in the format 21/2/2001, the
software can check whether the first two digits are in the range of 1 to 31
and the second two digits are in the range of 1 to 12.
List checks are used when the data can be compared to a set of accepted
data. For example, when the data entered is an Australian state, NSW would
be accepted but NSX would not.
Type checks are used to determine whether the data type is correct. For
example, when the data entered is a persons family name, the software can
check if the data is text. It would not accept other data types, such as numbers.
A check digit is a number calculated from the digits of a code number and
then added to that number as an extra digit. The ISBNs (International
Standard Book Numbers) given to books include a check digit. For example,
in the ISBN 0 85859 921 4, the final 4 is a check digit. It is calculated by
applying a formula to the other numbers (085859921).
Functio
Copyright
32
Copyright is the right to use, copy or control the work of authors and artists,
including software developers. It is often indicated by the symbol. Copyright
is protected by law. In Australia, the Copyright Act regards any original work as
the intellectual property of the person who created the work. Copyright
ownership is automatic and applies whether or not the work is accompanied by
the copyright symbol. Most other countries have similar laws and have signed
international copyright agreements. It is against the law to use or copy the work
of another person without their permission. There are some exceptions. For
example, you are allowed to reproduce a small amount of someones work for
the purposes of study, criticism or review. However, it is always necessary to
acknowledge the creator of the work.
Information published on the Internet is protected by copyright, just as it
would be if it was in a book. Text and images obtained from a Web site should
not be reproduced without acknowledgment (see Figure 1.18). Images should
not be downloaded and used for other purposes without permission.
ITITFact
Fact
Salami shaving is a computer crime usually committed by a bank officer.
It involves the unauthorised transfer of small amounts of money from the
accounts of many individuals. These small amounts are often unnoticed
but over time add up to very large amounts.
Information processes and technology
Function
33
Exercise 1.6
1 Who are hackers?
2 What safeguards can be taken to protect data?
3 Why is it difficult to check the accuracy of data?
4 What is data validation?
5 List four different ways that data validation can be built into software.
6 What is copyright?
7 List the information needed to cite an Internet site.
8 Explain the difference between shareware and public domain software.
9 Why are software copyright laws difficult to enforce?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Which of the following data entry errors would be picked up by data validation?
a date of birth entered as 10/23/1990 instead of 23/10/1990
b date of birth entered as 02/04/1991 instead of 04/02/1991
c date of birth entered as 12/01/89 instead of 12/01/1989
d date of birth entered as 08/06/1992 instead of 08/06/1993
e state of Australia entered as NEW instead of NSW
f state of Australia entered as vic instead of VIC
Functio
2 A friend of yours has obtained access to a banks financial records. Do you think
this is clever? Has your friend committed a crime? What would you do if the
friend increased your account balance? What penalties are appropriate for this
sort of action? How can organisations reduce computer crime?
34
3 Web sites are available that offer essays for school students. Students can
download the essay and print it out as their own work. How can teachers prevent
students claiming the work of others as their own? Explain the difference
between using the Internet for research and copying an essay. What penalties
are appropriate for students caught plagiarising? Outline any reasons students
would have for obtaining copies of essays this way.
4 Use the Internet to find information about software copyright. Compare
Australian and overseas information.
5 Information technology is changing at an extraordinary rate. The only people
keeping pace with information technology are system specialists. Do you agree
with these statements? Why? What changes do you expect to occur in the
immediate future?
Chapter review
PART A
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best
answers the question or completes the
statement.
1 Which of the following is not an
element of an information system?
A participants
B social and ethical issues
C data and information
D information technology
2 The five functions of a computer are:
input, process, , control and output.
What is the missing function?
A data
B software
C information
D storage
3 A computer designed for a single user
is called a:
A personal computer
B midrange computer
C mainframe computer
D supercomputer
4 Which two-step information process
involves the retaining of data?
A storing and retrieving
B maintaining and receiving
C maintaining and retrieving
D storing and receiving
35
Chapter review
PART B
For each of the following statements,
select from the list of terms the one that
most closely fits the statement. Write the
letter corresponding to your choice.
Statements
1 The fastest, most powerful and expensive type of computer.
2 A central computer that performs the
processing for a number of users working at a terminal.
3 Letters, numbers and other characters
whose meaning and format is not
specified.
4 Data that has been ordered and given
some meaning by people.
5 The process that involves arranging,
representing and formatting data for
use by other information processes.
6 The process that involves transferring
data and information within and
between information systems.
7 The process that involves interpreting
data, transforming it into information.
8 The smallest unit of data stored in a
computer.
9 The basic unit of measurement for digital data. It represents a single character.
10 A number system using base two.
11 The electronic hardware and software
used to process information.
36
chapter
TOOLS FOR
INFORMATION
PROCESSES
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be
able to:
describe the hardware tools used in each
of the seven information processes
identify and use the most appropriate input
device to collect data
describe and use hardware devices for
storage and retrieval
describe the concepts and tools used to
transmit and receive data
describe and use a range of hardware to
display data
outline the software tools used in each of the
seven information processes
describe some of the non-computer tools
used in each of the seven information
processes
identify the social and ethical issues involved in the information processes.
Overview
This chapter outlines the tools used for
information processing in an information
system. The tools are categorised into the
information processes of collecting, organising,
analysing, storing and retrieving, processing,
transmitting and receiving, and displaying
data. However, in reality one tool may overlap
several information processes. For each information process you will investigate the
relevant hardware, software and noncomputer tools, and a range of social issues.
2.1 Collecting
Collecting is the information process that involves deciding what to collect,
locating it and collecting it. A range of hardware devices are used to collect
different types of data. Software is used to direct the hardware collection device.
Non-computer tools are used to collect data from particular sources.
Hardware
There are many types of hardware collection devices used for different types of
data. The devices that are used specifically to enter data into a computer system
are referred to as input devices. An input device should be convenient to use,
reliable and allow data to be entered accurately. The data may be in a number of
forms, including text, numbers, images, audio and video. Common input devices
include pointing devices, scanners, digital cameras, video cameras, microphones,
keyboards and optical recognition devices.
Functio
Pointing devices
38
Function
ITITFact
Fact
The mouse was developed in 1963 by Douglas Engelbart. The name
originated because it looked like a mouse with the connecting cable the
mouses tail. The first mouse was made of wood.
Scanners
Scanners are input devices that can electronically capture text or images such as
photographs and drawings. The scanner converts the image into digital data that
can be processed by the computer. The digital data can be printed, edited or
merged into another document. Scanners offer a range of resolutions such as
2400 dpi, 4800 dpi and 9600 dpi. The higher the resolution, the better the
quality of the final output. Single-pass scanners scan the image in only one pass;
multiple-pass scanners scan for each colour separately. Scanners use a software
standard called TWAIN (technology without an interesting name) that allows
Tools for information processes
39
Digital cameras
Digital cameras are input devices that capture and store images in digital form
rather than on film. They contain a viewfinder, a lens to focus the image and a
storage medium such as a memory card, hard disk or floppy disk to retain the
images. After a picture is taken, it is transferred to a computer and manipulated
using a graphics program. Digital photos are limited by the amount of memory
in the camera, the quality of the lens and the output device. The main advantage
of digital cameras is that making the photos is both inexpensive and quick
because there is no film processing. Most digital cameras compress and save
their images in standard JPEG or FlashPix format. Digitally captured photos are
extensively used in personal and business publishing applications such as Web
pages, magazines, business letters, ID cards and product catalogues.
Functio
Video cameras
40
A video camera is used to create a video clip in either analog or digital form.
Conventional (analog) video cameras capture images and sound on videotape.
This is converted into digital form using a video capture card. Each frame of the
video is interpreted as a bit-mapped image. Video capture cards compress the
video clip using a compression algorithm that analyses the changes from one
frame to the next. They encode the starting frame and a sequence of differences
between the frames.
Digital video cameras are input devices that capture video in a compressed
digital format such as MPEG (see Figure 2.4). These video files are transferred
directly to a computer. Digital video production software is used to edit the
video. There is an increasing range of video effects that can be achieved using
this software on a personal computer.
Function
Figure 2.4 A digital camera (left) and a digital video camera (right).
Microphones
Microphones are input devices that capture sound. Sound travels through the
air in wavesit is analog data. Digital audio is sound that has been digitised. A
sound card transforms the sounds from a microphone into digital audio.
Standard sound cards on personal computers are capable of recording and
playing digital audio at 44.1 kHz stereo or CD-quality sound. Sound cards also
support MIDI (musical instrument digital interface) sequences. This allows a
musician to use a MIDI instrument to play music which can be stored and
edited on a computer (see Figure 2.5).
Microphones are also used to enter voice
data into a computer. A technique called
voice recognition converts voice signals into
digital data. Basic voice recognition systems
are restricted to narrow vocabularies because
of the difficulty of understanding the grammatical meaning of many words and phrases.
Natural language voice recognition interprets
the data and makes an appropriate response.
For example, you could ask the computer to
open an appropriate file, edit the contents
and send it to a friend. Voice recognition is
predicted to be the most common way of Figure 2.5 Music is entered using a MIDI
devices such as this.
entering data in the future.
Keyboards
A keyboard is an input device consisting of series of keys in a standard layout. It
allows the entry of text, numbers, instructions and commands. There are many
different types of keyboards each designed to meet a particular need. For
example, the keyboard on an automatic teller machine (ATM) contains special
keys that allow the withdrawal of money. Each type of keyboard has a different
arrangement of letters, numbers and symbols, which is called its layout.
Tools for information processes
41
The most common keyboard layout for personal computers is the Qwerty
keyboard (see Figure 2.6). The Qwerty keyboard is named after the first six
letters of the second row. The order of the keys was designed from the layout of
keys on typewriters. The keyboard is divided into four major areas: alphanumeric keys, cursor control keys, special keys and function keys.
Alphanumeric keys are the letters and numbers on the keyboard. The
numeric keypad is located on the right-hand side of the keyboard. It is used
for quick entry of numbers.
Cursor control keys allow the cursor to be moved. They include the arrow
keys, Page down, Page up, Home and End.
Special keys include Enter, Return, Tab, Space, Caps Lock, Backspace, Delete
and Escape. Modifier keys (such as Shift, Control, Alt(ernate), Option and
Command) are used in combination with other keys.
Function keys (F1, F2, F12) allow instructions to be given to the computer. Their specific function depends on the software.
ITITFact
Fact
Functio
42
Function
cannot be read are usually indicated with a tilde (~) as this symbol does not
appear in normal English. Using the spelling checker of a word processing
program helps to find any errors made in character recognition.
Barcode readers are used extensively
in retail industries to input product
identification at point of sale (see
Figure 2.7). Supermarkets use a laser
to read barcodes and many firms use
hand-held barcode readers. Product
information (description, price and
code) is held on a central computer
linked to the point of sale computer.
Items passing the barcode reader are
entered quickly and accurately. The
description and price of the item is
displayed on the cash register and
printed on the receipt. Libraries and
many industries use barcode readers
to keep track of stock movement.
Portable barcode readers are used in
the field and the data can be downFigure 2.7 A barcode reader.
loaded on return to the office.
Software
Software used for collecting includes the software that interfaces with hardware
collection devices. This software is usually classified as part of the operating system.
Operating systems
The operating system is the software that supervises and controls the hardware.
It is responsible for controlling all the peripheral devices (input and output
devices). The operating system contains specific software for each type of
peripheral device. It is responsible for scheduling all the operations of hardware
in an efficient manner. The operating system also controls how the computer
relates to memory and the management of files. On a personal computer, the
operating system is usually stored on a hard disk and starts automatically when
the computer is turned on. Loading the operating system into the computers
memory is referred to as booting the system. Diagnostic checks on memory and
peripheral devices are performed when booting the system. A small program
that initiates the loading of the operating system is contained in memory.
The operating system provides a convenient interface between the hardware
and its user. This is referred to as the user interface. The first widely used
operating system was the OS/360 system. It was developed in 1964 for all
computers in the IBM System/360 family. UNIX (pronounced you-nicks) is a
popular operating system that can be used on everything from personal
computers to mainframes. Like many mainframe operating systems, UNIX
timeshares the host central processing unit (CPU) to be able to run multiple
tasks and support multiple users. MS-DOS is an operating system developed by
Microsoft in 1981 for IBMs 16-bit personal computer. It became an industry
standard and is still used to run some applications today. It is a character user
interface (CUI, also known as a command-line interface) that displays only
43
characters on the screen. The user types commands using a keyboard. The
graphical user interface was developed by the Xerox Corporation in the 1970s
and was popularised by Apple Macintosh computers in the 1980s. A graphical
user interface (GUI, pronounced gooey) allows the user to give instructions
using a mouse, by clicking on icons and menus (see Figure 2.8). GUIs are also
referred to as WIMP environments. This name comes from their four main
characteristics: windows, icons, a mouse and pull-down menus. GUIs provide an
easy-to-use and consistent interface for a range of applications. Microsoft
Windows and Apples Macintosh OS are two popular GUI operating systems.
Functio
Data entry
44
The collection of data involves entering images, audio, video, numbers and text.
The chapters in Part 2: Application software contain detailed information on the
collection of each of these types of data. The following is brief summary.
Images are created using graphics programs or are captured using a scanner,
digital camera, video camera or the Internet. Clip art refers to prepared
pictures that are grouped into topics such as technology, animals and education. There are millions of clip art drawings and photos available to suit most
purposes.
Video and audio are used in multimedia productions. Data collection should
be carefully planned before any data is entered. The user should clarify a
purpose, identify the audience and gather ideas.
Text and numbers are entered into most software applications. The collection
of data for a database often requires a great deal of research and the use of
non-computer tools such as surveys and interviews. Spreadsheets should be
carefully planned before data is collected. It is important to understand the
relationships between the data, and how a spreadsheet will solve the problem.
ITITFact
Fact
Marc Andreessen developed a Web browser called Mosaic in 1993 while
working at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications in the
USA. Mosaic was the first browser to offer a graphical user interface and
display hypertext documents. He left the NCSA and founded Netscape,
producing the Netscape Navigator browser.
Function
single document is called a Web page. In addition to the Web, data is collected
from newsgroups. A newsgroup is a discussion group on a specific topic. People
read newsgroups each day and they provide a large diversity of opinion and
knowledge. The Internet also allows data to be downloaded. It is possible to
download files containing text, graphics, animation, video, sound and software.
The Internet is discussed in detail in Chapter 11.
Non-computer tools
Information technology is not always a suitable tool for collecting data. A wide
range of non-computer tools are also used in many situations.
Literature (printed text) has been the main medium for spreading knowledge
since the beginning of the seventeenth century. It can take many different
forms, such as books, reports, newspapers, magazines, newsletters and
journals. The sheer quantity of printed information available today means
that an individual can absorb only a very small proportion. Searching
literature for particular information involves using tables of contents,
summaries and indexes. Reviews and abstracts also provide an indicator to
the contents of publications. Literature may be accurate at the time of
printing but it can quickly become out-of-date as society changes.
Surveys and interviews involve collecting sample characteristics, attitudes,
behaviours and opinions. A survey
questionnaire is delivered by mail, faceto-face or online. An interview is a
meeting of people face-to-face. Specific
questions are asked to determine the
interviewees opinions and feelings.
There are advantages and disadvantages
in using surveys and interviews to collect
data. These are outlined in Chapter 3.
Data can be collected manually by recording an event on paper or a predesigned table or form. Forms for data
collection need to be carefully designed.
It is necessary to try to anticipate the
range of possible responses. For example,
if a person is asked to state their
occupation, the form must be able to
accommodate people who have two
jobs, change jobs frequently or classify
Figure 2.9 Forms are used by many government agencies
their work differently (see Figure 2.9).
to collect data.
45
Functio
46
Exercise 2.1
1 What is a pointing device?
2 Explain the difference between a mouse and a trackball.
3 How does a touch screen work?
4 What is the difference between a hand-held scanner and a flatbed scanner?
5 Describe some of the features of a digital camera.
6 What is a digital video camera?
Information processes and technology
8 Explain the difference between basic voice recognition and natural language
voice recognition.
9 What is a keyboard?
10 Describe the four major keyboard areas.
11 Why did Christopher Sholes move the most commonly typed letters to positions
away from the typists index finger?
12 How do OCR devices read text?
13 Where are barcode readers used extensively?
Function
47
2.2 Organising
Organising is the process that arranges, represents and formats data for use by
other information processes. It is carried out after the data is collected. Data is
digitised using a hardware collection device. There is a range of application
software for organising data in a variety of formats. Non-computer tools for
organising include hard copy systems and pen and paper methods.
Functio
Hardware
48
Software
Application software organises data. The chapters in Part 2: Application software
contain detailed information on how different applications organise data. The
following is brief summary.
Paint and draw software is used to create graphics. A paint program creates a
bit-mapped graphic. It organises data by treating each pixel (dot) on the
screen individually and representing this by bits in memory. A drawing
program creates a vector graphic. It organises data by defining the graphic
Information processes and technology
Function
into objects such as a straight line, a curve or shape. Each object is defined by
its characteristics such as position, line width and pattern. These characteristics are stored as mathematical expressions and displayed on the screen
as pixels.
Multimedia is the presentation of information using text, graphics, animation, audio and video. It uses at least three of these media types. Data is
organised by combining data in different formats. Audio software is used to
organise audio and animation software for video.
Word processing is the most widely used application software. It allows
characters to be entered and documents to be created. Word processing is
used to write letters, reports, assignments, articles and books. Data is organised when creating and saving a document.
Desktop publishing is the use of specialised software to combine text and
graphics to create a document. It is used to create many different types of
publications such as magazines, newspapers and books. Data is organised by
combining data in different formats. Publications are built by arranging
different design elements such as headings, columns of text and graphics.
A spreadsheet uses a rectangular grid made up of rows and columns to
organise and store data that requires some type of calculation. A cell is the
intersection of a row and column. The organisation of data involves entering
data into a cell as a label, value or formula. Spreadsheets perform calculations
on values (numbers) and not labels (text).
A database is an organised collection of data. Data is organised into data
structures called files, records, fields and characters. The data structure is
defined in a data dictionary. This includes information about the characteristics of each item entered in the database, such as the field name, field
size, data type and field description. A table or list arranges data into columns
(fields) and rows (records).
Figure 2.10 A range of modern application software used to organise data in a variety of formats.
Tools for information processes
49
File converters are used to convert a file from one format to another so the
file can be used in another application. They are often available within a software application. For example, some word processors allow the user to save a
document as an HTML file that can be viewed on the World Wide Web.
Non-computer tools
Information technology is not always a suitable tool for organising data.
Common non-computer tools used for organising include hard copy systems and
pen and paper methods.
Hard copy systems involve organising data on paper. Examples include
telephone directories and card catalogues. A telephone directory organises
data alphabetically according to a persons family name. Large amounts of
data are organised using catalogue systems. Each item is classified according
to a number of categories. For example, in the library each book is classified
by authors name, title, publisher and date of publication. They are also
organised in subject categories.
There are numerous pen and paper methods for organising data. It is common for data to be organised into tables, represented diagrammatically,
summarised and put into lists. When designing a publication, people often
use pen and paper to outline the basic structure of the document. This is
often easier, faster and more flexible than using a computer.
Functio
50
1 What is digitising?
2 How is text converted into binary data?
3 What is the sampling rate?
4 List six main categories of application software used to solve most problems.
5 How is data organised in a spreadsheet?
6 How is data organised in a database?
Function
Exercise 2.2
51
2.3 Analysing
Analysing is the interpretation of the data. It involves examining the data and
giving meaning to it. When data has been ordered and given meaning by people
it is called information. The hardware requirements for analysing data depend
on the type of analysis and amount of data. There is a range of software applications to analyse image, audio, video, text and numeric data. Non-computer tools
for analysing include searching manual filing systems and creating simulations
using models.
Hardware
Hardware requirements for analysing depend on the type of analysis. When
analysis involves large amounts of data or complex simulations, the hardware
must perform a large number of computations very quickly and with a high
degree of precision. If the simulations are complex, such as in scientific applications, then a supercomputer or mainframe may be required. Analysis depends on
the storage and processing capabilities of the information system.
Large amounts of storage are needed to receive and retain data over a period
of time. If the primary storage (memory) and secondary storage (storage)
resources are abundant, then fast processing is possible.
Fast processing is needed to complete the many calculations often required
for analysis. This is performed by the central processing unit (CPU).
Applications requiring complex analysis use parallel processing. This is the
simultaneous processing of instructions using multiple processors or CPUs.
Parallel processing is much faster than using one CPU. This type of processing
is examined later in this chapter.
Functio
Software
52
Function
Non-computer tools
Information technology is not always a suitable tool for analysing data. It is often
necessary to compare and contrast computer and non-computer tools for
analysis on the basis of speed, volume of data and cost. The following are some
of the non-computer tools used for analysis.
Searching manual filing systems to retrieve documents depends on how
accurately the data has been organised and sorted. If the filing system has not
been regularly updated and irrelevant material removed, searching may be
time-consuming and frustrating. An appropriate organisation of files is
needed if data is to be easily retrieved and analysed.
Simulations often involve using complex mathematical processes. A set of
rules, relationships and procedures are specified. During the simulation these
mathematical processes are analysed. In addition to gaining an understanding
of the system, the simulation may result in new rules or even a new situation.
Simulations range from using simple pen and paper models to complex interactive computer systems. For example, researchers may use simulation techniques to carry out experiments instead of using rare materials or expensive
equipment.
53
Functio
Figure 2.12 As more and more transactions are carried out online, privacy of data is becoming
an important issue for suppliers and consumers.
54
Exercise 2.3
1 Describe two hardware requirements for analysis.
2 What type of processing is needed for complex analysis?
3 What are modelling and simulations?
4 What type of computers are used for advanced simulations?
5 Describe the process of using what-if questions to analyse spreadsheet data.
6 List two non-computer tools used for analysis.
7 How can your privacy be eroded if databases are linked for analysis?
Information processes and technology
Function
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 We use models to help us understand ourselves and our world. They can be used
to demonstrate and predict behaviour based on our assumptions and beliefs, the
information we use and how we interpret it. Outline a model for:
a deciding what to eat for lunch
b choosing a person to marry.
3 Modelling and simulation have been used in the genetic manipulation of animals.
The models are used by scientists to breed animals with desirable characteristics.
Do you think this information technology should be applied to humans? Why?
4 The use of modelling and simulators makes life too predictable for everyone. Do
you agree with this statement? Give reasons for your answer.
5 Open the database file called CD, which you created in Exercise 2.2. Sort the data in
ascending order by CD title. Search for all the titles with the letter e in their name.
6 Open the spreadsheet file called FUEL, which you created in Exercise 2.2. What
would be the effect on the cost per kilometre if the price of petrol increased by
10 cents per litre? What would be the effect if the number of kilometres
travelled was halved?
Hardware
The hardware used for storing and retrieving data is called secondary storage, or
simply storage. Data stored on a storage medium must be read into memory
before the CPU can access it. A backup is a copy of data held on a separate
storage medium for security purposes. Backups should be performed regularly.
Information systems need to store data because memory is limited in size and
volatile. Volatile means that when the computer is switched off, or the power
supply is interrupted, the contents of memory are lost. Secondary storage
provides a non-volatile and more permanent storage area than memory.
The hardware involved in storing and retrieving includes devices such as
magnetic disks, magnetic tape, optical disks and flash memory.
Magnetic disks
Magnetic disks are the most widely used storage medium for personal
computers. A magnetic disk consists of a circular piece of metal or plastic whose
Tools for information processes
55
surface has been coated with a thin layer of magnetic material. Magnetic disks
use random access (or direct access) to retrieve data. This form of access allows
an item of data to be found directly without having to access all the data that
comes before it. Random access allows data to be retrieved much faster than
sequential access, which is used on magnetic tapes.
A disk drive is a device on which a magnetic disk is mounted. The disk drive
spins the disk and uses one or more heads to read and write data. If the disk is
permanently attached to the drive, it is called a fixed disk (hard disk). A disk
needs to be formatted to store data. Formatting organises the disk into sectors
and tracks, removes any data on the disk, analyses the disk for faults and creates
a directory to record information about files. This directory is called the file
allocation table (FAT) on personal computers. It stores the filename, file size,
time and date the file was last modified, and the address of the file. The address
of the file is its track and sector number. If a sector has a flaw, it is called a bad
sector and cannot be used to store data.
ITITFact
Fact
Functio
Head crash occurs when the head in a magnetic disk drive touches the
rapidly spinning disk and causes permanent damage and loss of data. It is
caused by excess heat, moisture or a drop in pressure.
56
Function
Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape is a long, thin strip of
plastic coated with a thin layer of
magnetic material. The tape is wound
onto reels, sometimes inside a cartridge.
Tape is read and written on a tape drive
that winds the tape from one reel to the
other, causing it to pass a read/write
head. Tape can store large quantities of
data inexpensively and is often used as a
backup medium (see Figure 2.14).
The main disadvantage with magnetic tape is that it uses sequential
access to retrieve data. This form of
access starts at the beginning of the
tape and reads all of the data until the
required item is found. Sequential
access is slow, making magnetic tapes
unsuitable for data that is updated
often. Magnetic tapes come in a variety
of sizes and formats.
57
QIC tapes (quarter-inch cartridges) look like audio tape cassettes and are
inexpensive. There are many different formats of QIC tapes with capacities
ranging from 80 Mb to 5 Gb.
DAT cartridges (digital audio tape) are a 4 mm tape that can store between
2 Gb and 24 Gb. They require relatively expensive tape drives and have slow
data transfer rates of 2 Mb per second.
8 mm cartridges use the same helical-scan technology as VCR tapes to write
data at very high densities. They have capacities ranging between 5 Gb and
50 Gb and have a transfer rate of 6 Mb per second. These cartridges require
an expensive tape drive.
ITITFact
Fact
Magnetic tape was first used to record data and programs in 1951 as part
of the UNIVAC computer system.
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Optical disks
58
An optical disk is a storage medium on which data is read and written using
laser technology. They are polycarbonate plastic disks whose surface is coated
with a reflective layer of metal. The data is written to the disk by a highpowered laser that burns millions of tiny holes called pits on the surface. Optical
disks are portable and use random access to retrieve data. There are several
different kinds of optical disks.
CD-ROM (compact disc read only memory) disks are 12 centimetres wide
and capable of storing 650 Mb. However, once the data has been stored on
the CD, is it read onlyit cannot be changed or added to (see Figure 2.15).
A CD-ROM drive is needed to read data from a CD. They are slower than a
hard disk drive but are becoming progressively faster and cheaper. The higher
the drive speed, the faster the data access. CD-ROMs are convenient for
storing data that remains constant, such as encyclopedias, reference material,
educational titles, games and multimedia applications.
CD-R (compact disc recordable) disks
allow data to be written once but read
many times. They are also called WORM
disks (write once, read many). A CD-R
drive, or CD burner, is required to write
the data. CD-R has become a popular
storage medium as the price of CD-R
drives has dropped. A CD-R drive allows
users to create CD-ROMs and audio CDs,
and to archive large amounts of data. Their
disadvantage is that the writing process is
permanent.
CD-RW (compact disc rewritable) disks
allows the user to write, erase and rewrite
data. Erasing the disk is achieved by
heating the surface and quickly cooling it.
A CD-RW is slower than a hard disk and
after frequent use areas of the disk tend to
become inaccessible.
Figure 2.15 A CD-ROM drive.
Information processes and technology
Function
DVD (digital versatile disk) is a disk format that can store large amounts of
data. A DVD-ROM is the same size as a CD-ROM but provides storage of
between 4.7Gb and 17 Gb. DVD drives are compatible with CD-ROMs and
audio CDs. One of the major advantages of a DVD is that data, video and
audio have the same file structure. This file structure is called UDF (universal
disc format). This overcomes problems of incompatibility with multimedia
applications. DVDs can store full-length movies.
Flash memory
Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip that retains its data when the power
is removed. Flash memory is erased and written in fixed blocks ranging from
512 bytes to 256 Kb. Flash memory cards look similar to a credit card and come
in a variety of formats such as PC cards, CompactFlash and SmartMedia. They are
widely used in digital cameras, modems, mobile phones and portable computers.
Software
Software directs and controls the hardware storage
sector
devices. To store data to a magnetic disk it needs to
be formatted. Formatting a disk prepares a disk to
accept data by organising it into tracks and sectors
(see Figure 2.16). A track is a band formed by concentric circles, and a sector is a section of a track that
can store data. The number of tracks and sectors is
determined by the operating system and the storage
medium. A 31/2 inch floppy disk is capable of storing
1.44 megabytes consisting of 80 tracks on each side
and 18 sectors per track. Each sector has an address,
track
so that the computer can go directly to a specific
area (direct access). Formatting a floppy disk usually
Figure 2.16 A disk showing tracks and sectors.
takes a couple of minutes. When a disk is formatted,
you can read and write data as files to that disk.
Application software stores data to a storage medium using the Save
command. The first time data is saved, it must be given a filename. The Save As
command allows the user to change the filename, location and file format of the
data. To retrieve the data, the user selects the Open command and chooses the
required filename. Storing data should be performed frequently so that the data
is not lost. Software used for storage and retrieval includes the following types.
Hardware interface software controls the hardware devices used for storage.
It is usually classified as part of the operating system. Each storage device has
particular specifications that are controlled by the hardware interface software.
File management software organises files on a storage medium such as a hard
disk. It is usually part of the operating system. In general, a file is recognised
by a filename and contains either a program or data. Depending on the
operating system, the filename can be between 8 and 255 characters long.
There may be thousands of files on a hard disk and to work effectively the
user will need quick access to these files. The files are stored and organised in
folders or directories. There can be many levels of folders. The folder at the
top level contains other folders for specific purposes. Each of these folders
contains other folders or files at the next level. File management software
performs allows the user to create, delete, open, close, rename, copy and
move files and folders (see Figure 2.17).
Tools for information processes
59
Functio
Non-computer tools
60
Information technology is not always a suitable tool for storing and retrieving data.
The following are some of the non-computer tools used for storing and retrieving.
Paper-based storage systems include folders, boxes, bookcases and filing systems. They are often a convenient method of data storage. However, paper
storage systems require a large amount of space and specific data is often
difficult to retrieve.
Microfiche are transparent sheets of film about 10 15 centimetres that
store around 200 pages of print. They were a popular method of storing
documents for several decades, particularly in libraries. Back issues of
newspapers and magazines were stored and retrieved using microfiche.
People could retrieve data directly without having to start at the beginning of
the document. Microfiche has largely been replaced by optical disks.
A library is a storage and retrieval area for information in a variety of forms,
such as books, newspapers, magazines and CDs. Many countries have established national libraries to ensure an orderly collection and storage of data.
Libraries store data using the Dewey classification system. It classifies books
into 10 main subject areas using decimal numbers. Data is retrieved using the
attributes of the book, such as the authors name, title, publisher, subject and
date of publication.
Information processes and technology
Function
Exercise 2.4
1 What is storage and retrieval?
2 How is data retrieved from a magnetic disk?
3 Describe some of the information stored by the file allocation table.
4 Outline the advantages and disadvantages of floppy disks.
5 What is a hard disk?
6 Describe a Zip disk.
7 What is the purpose of virtual memory?
8 What is magnetic tape?
9 What is the main disadvantage of magnetic tapes?
10 List three different types of magnetic tapes.
11 How is data written to a CD?
12 Describe a CD-ROM disk.
13 Outline one of the major advantages of DVD.
14 Describe flash memory.
15 What does formatting a disk involve?
16 Describe some of the functions performed by file management software.
17 How is information retrieved from the Web?
18 How is microfiche used in libraries?
19 List two issues related to the storing and retrieving of data.
Tools for information processes
61
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 IBM invented the first floppy disk in 1967. The 3 1/2 inch floppy disk is still
packaged with many computer systems but other manufacturers have phased
them out. Will the floppy disk continue to be an important storage medium?
Explain. What storage medium will be used in the next 10 years?
2 A CD-ROM cookbook allows users to search for recipes that meet certain criteria
and provides video demonstrations. Outline some of the advantages and disadvantages of a CD-ROM cookbook over a traditional cookbook.
3 Optical disks are being used to store images of famous paintings. The images are
very clear, portions are magnified and works can be displayed instantly based on
particular criteria. Do you think national galleries will take advantage of this
technology? Explain. Who would use the optical disk? What are the advantages
of a real art gallery compared to an optical disk?
4 A large amount of memory enables a computer to retrieve and store data quickly
and thus operate at a high speed. However, memory is more expensive than
storage. When purchasing a computer, what factors need to be considered to
decide on the amount of storage required?
5 David deleted a file by reformatting his disk. Is this an appropriate method of
deleting a file? Why? Outline a reason for formatting a disk that contains data.
6 The manager of a local furniture store wants to target people who have recently
applied for an extension to their house. By sending these people a personalised
letter outlining the latest deals he will increase sales. He has offered a councillor
$2000 for a disk containing the names and addresses of all people who have proposed building extensions. The manager has stressed that no one will ever know
where he obtained the information. Outline the ethical issues involved in this
situation.
7 In the future, people will carry around a single disk or card that contains all the
data about their life. This would include medical records, finances, test results
and lifestyle choices. Do you agree with this statement? Why? Outline the
possible impact of this technology on your life.
2.5 Processing
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62
Hardware
Processing is performed by a computers central processing unit and is measured
by the clock speed. Processing is dependent on the memory capabilities of the
system. The system unit is the collection of hardware components that includes
the central processing unit, memory and associated electronics.
Function
computer. The CPU accepts the data from any input device, changes this data
according to the instructions given by the user, and then sends the results to an
output device.
The CPU consists of tens of millions of electrical components located on a
thin silicon wafer called an integrated circuit or silicon chip. There are several
different types of chips including those from Intel (Pentium) and Motorola
(PowerPC). In a personal computer, the CPU is contained on a single integrated
circuit and is called a microprocessor. In more powerful computers, the CPU
may consist of more than one integrated circuit. These integrated circuits are
located on a flat printed circuit board inside the computer called the motherboard or main board (see Figure 2.18). The motherboard also contains other
integrated circuits for special functions such as storage, video, arithmetic
and sound.
floppy disk
drive
power
supply
hard disk
drive
motherboard
CPU
Figure 2.18 Inside a personal computer.
63
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is part of the CPU that carries out all the
arithmetical and logical calculations. Arithmetical calculations include
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical calculations have a
true or false answer and include relational operators (>, <, =, >=, <=, and <>)
and logical operators (AND, OR and NOT). The ALU contains several types
of registers. A register is a temporary storage area for small amounts of data
or instructions needed for processing. It provides fast access to data.
The fetch-execute cycle, or machine cycle, is a cycle of events on a single
instruction carried out by the CPU to process data. Before an instruction is
processed, the instructions and data are placed in memory. The CPU performs
the following steps for each instruction.
1 The control unit fetches the instructions from memory.
2 The control unit decodes the instructions (works out what to do) and makes
the data available to the arithmetic logic unit. The first two steps are called
the instruction time or i-time.
3 The arithmetic logic unit performs the operation on the data.
4 The control unit places the result of the operation into memory or a register.
Steps 3 and 4 are called the execution time or e-time.
2 Decode
3 Execute
i-time
e-time
1 Fetch
4 Store
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64
In the past, the CPU waited until an instruction completed all four stages of
the fetch-execute cycle before beginning work on the next instruction. However, most processors today use pipelining. In pipelining the CPU fetches a new
instruction as soon as the preceding instruction moves onto the next stage. Pipelining speeds up the fetch-execute cycle as several instructions are being processed at the same time. For example, as one instruction is being fetched, a second
is being decoded, a third is being executed and a fourth is storing the result.
Processing speed
All computers have an electronic clock to regulate the fetch-execute cycle. The
clock generates a sequence of regular electrical pulses that the control unit
synchronises with the fetch-execute cycle. The clock speed is the number of
electrical pulses per second and is often measured in megahertz (mHz). The
higher the clock speed, the faster the CPU can execute a particular instruction.
A speed of 500 mHz means the clock is generating 500 million electrical pulses
per second.
Information processes and technology
Function
Memory
Memory is the part of the computer that holds data and programs before and
after they have been processed by the CPU. Memory is internal storage as it uses
integrated circuits (silicon chips) located on the computers motherboard.
Secondary storage is external storage as the data is kept away from the motherboard and the CPU. Memory is also known as main memory, primary memory,
main storage or primary storage. Memory consists of RAM, cache and ROM.
RAM (random access memory) is where data and instructions are held
temporarily. It depends on a supply of electricity to maintain data storage. When
the power to the computer is shut off, everything in RAM is lost. In other
words, RAM is volatile memory. The data in RAM can be accessed randomly.
That is, a byte of memory is accessed without touching any of the other bytes.
There are two main types of RAM.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM, pronounced dee-ram) is memory that must be
constantly refreshed. The contents of DRAM must be updated a thousand
times a second as the capacitors used to store the data quickly lose their
electrical charge. Most memory uses DRAM chips as they are small,
inexpensive and relatively simple. Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM, pronounced ess-dee-ram) is a type of DRAM that is synchronised with the
CPU. It is faster than ordinary DRAM.
Tools for information processes
65
Static RAM (SRAM, pronounced ess-ram) is memory that does not have to be
updated or refreshed. SRAM chips have a faster access time (10 nanoseconds)
compared to DRAM chips (60 nanoseconds). However, SRAM chips are much
more expensive than DRAM as they contain more electrical components.
SRAM chips are often found in portable computers and the cache.
A computers performance is dependent on its RAM. For this reason RAM
manufacturers are continually inventing new designs to provide the fastest
possible access times at the lowest possible cost. This has resulted in different
types of DRAM and SRAM chips. A computers memory can be upgraded by
inserting additional DRAM chips into special slots on the motherboard (see
Figure 2.21). These slots are limited and require specific types of DRAM chips.
For example, a memory slot with a 72-pin socket needs a DRAM chip with the
same number of pins. It is also necessary to make sure the DRAM chips are the
appropriate speed. If DRAM chips with different speeds are installed they will
slow down the computer.
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66
Cache (pronounced cash) is a temporary storage area used to store frequently requested data and instructions. It makes the computer operate at a
much faster speed. The larger the cache, the faster the computer will operate.
There are two types of caching.
Cache memory is high-speed memory located between the CPU and RAM.
It improves performance by using SRAM and reducing the need for the CPU
to access the slower DRAM chips.
A disk cache works in a similar way to cache memory. It stores the most
recent data from the hard disk in RAM. When the CPU needs access to data
from the disk it first checks the disk cache. Disk caching improves the
computers performance because accessing data from RAM is a thousand
times faster than accessing a disk.
The effectiveness of the cache is dependent on the number of times the CPU
finds the data in the cache. This is called the hit rate. Programmers are improving
the hit rate by developing strategies to anticipate data a user might request
based on their current use.
ROM (read only memory) holds data and instructions that are fixed at the
time of production and cannot be changed by the user or the computer. It is
permanent memory that only allows data to be retrieved (read) and not entered
into storage (written). The instructions stored in ROM are called firmware
because they are somewhere between software and hardware. Storage of data
within the ROM protects it from being damaged or changed. Most personal
computers contain a small amount of ROM that stores important programs such
as booting the computer and checking for input and output devices. The
instructions that allow the computer to communicate with input and output
Information processes and technology
Function
devices are called the ROM BIOS (basic input/output system). The computer
manufacturer sets the actual contents of ROM and it is non-volatile. Nonvolatile memory does not lose its contents when the power to the computer is
turned off. There are a number of different variations of ROM.
Programmable ROM (PROM, pronounced prom) chips allow data and
instructions to be entered only once and cannot be reprogrammed. The
difference between PROM and ROM is that PROM is manufactured as blank
memory while with ROM the firmware is entered during the manufacturing
process.
Erasable programmable ROM (EPROM, pronounced ee-prom) chips can
be erased and reprogrammed by the manufacturer. Exposing the chip to
ultraviolet light clears the memory in the EPROM. EPROM chips are used in
personal computers and many games devices such as arcade machines and
poker machines. They enable the manufacturer to change the contents of
ROM to cater for new versions of the firmware and remove any errors.
Types of processing
An information system should reflect the methods used to process information. If
people are working individually and rarely share work they use a non-networked
information system. However, if people work in a group and need to share data
and resources, they require a networked information system. There are three
types of processing used with networks to increase a computers performance.
Centralised processing is controlled
by a central computer. The central
computer is a mainframe or midrange
computer that performs all the processing (see Figure 2.22). It allows
data and resources to be shared.
Centralised processing is used by
organisations that require online
access to a central database but are
geographically spread, such as an airline. Centralised processing is totally
dependent on the central computer.
If this computer malfunctions, the
entire system goes down.
Figure 2.22 Centralised processing controlled by a mainframe.
Distributed processing consists of
workstations connected to shared
data and resources at a local site. People do their own work on a PC or workstation but have the ability to share work and resources. Distributed
processing will continue to operate even if some of the workstations are not
functioning. However, security can be a problem as the data is spread out.
Parallel processing is the simultaneous processing of instructions using
multiple processors or CPUs. It is much faster than using one CPU. Parallel
processing divides the processing task between a series of processors. This
requires special software that can recognise how to divide up problems and
bring the results back together again. Parallel processing is used by Internet
search engines to convert a single query into several separate queries that can
be performed simultaneously. It also has significant applications in artificial
intelligence. Parallel processing performs many processes simultaneously like
the human brain.
Tools for information processes
67
Software
Each piece of application software processes data. It involves editing and
manipulating data. The chapters in Part 2: Application software contain detailed
information on how data is processed in different applications. The following is
brief summary.
Text and numbers are edited in many different ways such as deleting,
inserting, moving and copying. In a spreadsheet, calculations are performed
using formulas. Errors in text are corrected using a spell checker and a grammar checker. The structure of a database can be modified to take into
account new requirements.
Images are edited using graphics tools. Graphics can be positioned, cropped,
resized and distorted. When you enlarge a bit-mapped graphic, you also
enlarge each pixel and create a jagged staircase pattern called aliasing. Vector
graphics are easily edited using a drawing program.
Video and audio are edited using digital video production software and audio
software. Editing video involves adding text, audio and graphics to the video
clip. Sounds are edited in many different ways such as deleting sounds,
changing the speed, adding effects such as echo, overlaying (mixing) sound
files and altering the quality of the sound file.
Non-computer tools
Non-computer tools are used to assist understanding of how the processing in
an information system transforms data into information. The following noncomputer tools are used for processing.
Documentation is written to explain the procedures for processing. It may be
a detailed description of the processes or a set of steps to be followed. Documentation in the form of user manuals is provided by software companies to
explain their products.
Data flow diagrams (DFDs) are a graphical method of representing a system
using a number of processes together with inputs, outputs and storage. DFDs
focus on the flow of data between information processes in a system. A
system flow chart is a graphical method of representing both the flow of data
and the logic of a system. It documents the essential details of the system
such as the sequence, processes and precise rules for selecting particular
actions (see Chapter 3).
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68
Exercise 2.5
Function
sell us things. Who owns this data? How is data about us being combined,
sold and exchanged? For example, if you apply to a building inspector for a
permit to extend your house, who owns this data? Does the building
inspector have the right to sell this processed data to a bricklayer? Would it
be a benefit or an intrusion of privacy if you were contacted by a bricklayer
offering to quote for laying bricks?
Bias in processing can be caused by biased data being collected, or incorrect
manipulation of that data.
69
5 Research the increases in the processor speed of personal computers over the
past five years. What do you predict will be the processor speed of a personal
computer in three years time?
Communication concepts
Functio
There are two main types of digital data tranmission: serial and parallel. Serial
transfer transmits data one bit at a time through a single line. Parallel transfer
transmits more than one bit of data simultaneously using separate lines (see
Figure 2.23). Obviously parallel transfer is much quicker than serial transfer
because it can send more than one bit at a time. However, parallel transfer is
used only for distances less than a few metres, otherwise errors occur in transmitting the data and the cabling is too expensive. It is used both inside the
system unit and for connecting peripheral devices such as printers and disk
drives. Serial transfer is used to connect
peripheral devices such as modems and
Serial transfer 1 bit at a time
printers, and is used over longer distances
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
through telephone lines, coaxial cables,
mission has occurred. Synchronous transmission requires all the data to be sent at
1
the same rate. It is faster and more effiFigure 2.23 Serial and parallel data transfer.
cient than asynchronous transmission, and
is used on larger computer systems.
The direction of data flow is either simplex, half duplex or full duplex.
Simplex mode allows transmission in one direction only, from the sender to the
receiver. It is limited and is not widely used in telecommunications. Half duplex
mode allows transmission in both directions but not at the same time. This
means the sender and the receiver take turns. Full duplex mode allows transmission in both directions at the same time (see Figure 2.24).
70
one way
both ways
one at a time
Function
simplex mode
The speed of data transfer is measured either by its baud rate or by the
number of bits per second (bps). Baud rate is a measure of the maximum
number of data symbols or electrical signals that can be sent per second over the
communication link. The number of bits per second is another way of
measuring the transmission rate. It can be different to the baud rate because a
data symbol may contain more than one bit of data. For example, a 2400 bps
device might operate at 600 baud.
Hardware
Hardware for transmitting and receiving includes modems and networks as well
as the internal components of the computer.
71
ITITFact
Fact
The Gang of Nine is a group of nine companies (AST Research, Compaq,
Epson, Hewlett-Packard, NEC, Olivetti, Tandy, Wyse Technology and
Zenith Data Systems) who joined forces in 1989 to maintain the industry
standard architecture and develop Extended ISA (EISA).
mouse
USB
ports
speaker, microphone
and line in
MIDI
Functio
power
72
parallel port
serial ports
monitor
keyboard
network
Function
Modems
A modem is a device that enables data to be transmitted from one computer to
another. The word modem stands for modulator/demodulator. A modem
converts (modulates) digital signals sent from a computer into analog signals
suitable for transmission on a telephone line. Analog signals are pulses in the
form of waves. Depending on the medium used, they can be electrical pulses or
light pulses. When the signal is received by another modem, it reverses the
process by converting (demodulating) the analog signal into a digital signal
suitable for the receiving computer (see Figure 2.26). A direct connect modem
is the most common type of modem as it is connected directly to a telephone
line. Most modems use a command set developed by Hayes and are described as
Hayes compatible.
Computer
Digital signal
1 1
1 1
0 0 0 0 0
Modem
Analog signal
Phone line
Modem
1 1
1 1
0 0 0 0 0
Digital signal
Computer
73
Functio
Networks
74
When a number of computers (or terminals) and their peripheral devices are
connected, it is called a network. The simplest form of a network is when one
computer is connected directly to another computer using a cable. However, a
network can also consist of hundreds of computers connected together. The
devices used to send data to a computer system or receive data from a processor
are called terminals. Terminals can be either dumb, smart or intelligent.
Dumb terminals do not contain a processor and usually consist of a keyboard
and monitor.
Smart terminals can do some low-level processing such as text editing.
Intelligent terminals have both memory and processing capabilities. Most
personal computers are classified as intelligent terminals and are called
workstations on a network.
Networks are classified according to the distances they cover and include
local area networks and wide area networks.
Local area networks (LANs) connect computers (or terminals) within a
building or group of buildings on one site. LANs operate in a small geographical
area and the terminals are linked together by cables (coaxial or fibre optic).
They are found in offices, hospitals, schools and tertiary institutions. LANs often
contain a central computer called the network server. File servers are computers
that perform a function for other computers on the network such as sharing
hardware resources.
There are three advantages in using a LAN:
They allow limited hardware resources such as printers, hard disks and
modems to be shared.
They allow application software (word processing, databases, spreadsheets
and graphics programs) to be shared.
They improve communication among users on the network by allowing messages to be sent and received.
Wide area networks (WANs) connect computers (or terminals) over
hundreds or thousands of kilometres. WANs rely on links such as coaxial cables,
fibre optic cables and microwave devices. WANs often consist of a main
computer system called the host and a number of terminals (workstations or
nodes). A WAN may use a private leased line, the normal telephone network or
a combination of both. A private leased line is dedicated to the network and
offers higher transmission speeds than those available through the Public
Software
All application software transmits and receives data within an individual computer. Special communications software is used to send and receive data over
networks and using modems. The following is brief summary.
Communications software manages the transfer of data, files and commands
between computers. It uses protocols to establish a connection. A protocol is
a set of rules that governs the transfer of data between computers. It defines
how the information is transmitted and how errors are detected. Two computers must use the same protocols, otherwise the data transfer may be
unsuccessful. There are a number of different protocols for networks, the
most popular being Ethernet and Token Ring.
Compression reduces the number of bits required to represent data. It compacts the data so that it takes up less space on a disk and requires less time to
download. Compressed data must be decompressed in order to extract the
original information. The amount a file is compressed is measured by the
compression ratio. Compression is either lossy or lossless (see Chapter 10).
Electronic mail (email) allows communication with other users by sending
and receiving electronic messages using a computer. Email messages are often
short and are typed quickly. Messages are written offline and sent when the
user logs onto the LAN or the Internet. Attachments are computer files sent
with email messages, such as image, audio, video or text files (Chapter 11).
Data encryption is used to prevent data from being intercepted and read
during transmission. The data is scrambled so that it is meaningless to anyone other than the recipient, who uses the same encryption software to
convert it back. One popular encryption method is Secure Socket Layer (SSL).
Function
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). PSTN links are relatively cheap if workstations do not require constant connection but the link is not guaranteed and
can be interrupted. WANs are slower than LANs at transferring data because
they are not directly connected.
Non-computer tools
Non-computer tools used to transmit and receive include conventional mail,
telephone, facsimile (fax), radio and television. It is important to compare and
contrast computer- and non-computer-based communication systems.
The mail system makes it possible to send a letter or package to the address
of any person around the world. Delivery of mail is dependent on road, rail
and air transportation systems. Mail systems have improved steadily,
especially with the development of machines that can sort letters. Further
advances in technology have given rise to faster methods of postal handling
and delivery.
The telephone system transmits sounds or speech between distant places
along telephone lines. It is a convenient method of communicating with
people around the world. The telephone depends on the receiver being
available to accept a phone call.
Fax machines transmit and reproduce documents by means of signals sent
over telephone lines. The fax machine scans the document and converts it
into a bit-mapped image. This image is compressed and transmitted along the
75
Functio
76
Function
Figure 2.29 Amazon.com is an Internet book business that trades entirely online. Its lower
prices are challenging traditional bookshops. Despite its huge turnover, it is yet to make a profit.
Tools for information processes
77
Exercise 2.6
1 Why is parallel transfer much quicker than serial transfer?
2 Where is serial transfer used?
3 Explain the difference between asynchronous and synchronous transmission.
4 Describe the three modes of transmission.
5 What is the baud rate?
6 Describe a bus within a computer system.
7 What is the difference between an internal bus and an expansion bus?
8 How are peripheral devices linked to the CPU?
9 Describe the actions taken by a modem to transfer data between two computers.
10 Outline some of the functions performed by a fax modem.
11 What is a network?
12 List the advantages of a LAN.
13 What is a WAN?
14 What is the purpose of communication software?
15 What is data encryption?
16 List five non-computer tools for transmitting and receiving.
17 How does a fax machine work?
18 What is a cookie?
19 What is the impact of the Internet on traditional businesses?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Discuss the expression Two wrongs dont make a right with reference to parity
checking.
2 Human communication can be classified in the same way as communication
between computers. Make a list of the different ways people communicate and
classify them as simplex, half duplex or full duplex.
Functio
3 A parity bit is used to check for errors in data transmission. Research other
methods of error detection such as CRC and checksum. Compare and contrast
each method.
78
Hardware
Hardware for displaying includes screens, printers, speakers and plotters. They
are commonly referred to as output devices.
Function
2.7 Displaying
Screens
A screen is a display surface that provides immediate feedback about what a
computer is doing. It can display text, numeric, image and video data. All images
on the screen are made up of tiny dots called pixels. A pixel (picture element) is
the smallest part of the screen that can be controlled by the computer. The total
number of pixels on the screen is called its resolution. There are several standards for screen resolution and most screens are capable of displaying more than
one resolution. For example, a screen could display 640 480 (VGA), 800 600
(SVGA) or 1024 768 (XGA) pixels. The space between the pixels is called
the dot pitch. It is also important in determining the clarity of the image. In
general, the greater the number of pixels and the smaller the dot pitch, the
better the resolution. The monitor and flat screen are two common types of
computer screens.
ITITFact
Fact
Bodyware refers to any hardware device that is worn by the user for the
purpose of improving data retrieval or communications. It includes glasses
that function as small data screens (eyeware) and watches that function as
remote control devices and television sets.
A monitor is a screen that uses cathode ray tube (CRT) technology similar to
a television. Images are produced by firing a beam of electrons onto the inside of
the screen, which contains a coating of phosphor. The electron beam usually
starts in the upper left-hand corner and moves from left to right and top to
bottom in a series of zigzag lines called a raster scan. Monochrome monitors use
one beam and colour monitors use three beams to strike red, green and blue
phosphor (see Figure 2.30). The raster scan is repeated to maintain the image as
the phosphor only glows for a short time. This is called refreshing. Interlaced
monitors speed up refreshing by first scanning the odd lines from top to bottom
and then the even lines. However, this can cause the monitor to flicker. Noninterlaced monitors refresh the screen by scanning every line up to 72 times per
second.
Monitors come in a range of sizes. The most widely used monitors are 15 to
19 inches (38 to 48 cm) in size and have a swivel base that allows the angle of
the screen to be adjusted. Colour monitors are essential for most modern
software applications. Most are capable of displaying millions of colours. The
number of colours depends on the amount of memory installed on the computers video card.
Tools for information processes
79
Functio
80
Printers
A printer is a device that represents data on paper. It can display text, numbers
and image data. The paper containing the data is called a hard copy or printout.
The cost of a printer can vary from less than two hundred dollars to many
thousands of dollars for large colour laser printers. Printers are classified as
impact and non-impact printers. Impact printers make an image on the paper by
using some sort of physical contact. Non-impact printers make an image using
some other method. Impact printers include dot matrix printers. Non-impact
printers include laser and inkjet printers. The quality of output of a printer is
Information processes and technology
Function
81
minute. Most laser printers offer 6001200 dpi output and use standard size
paper. The highest quality models produce output to rival commercial printing
processes.
Even though the initial cost of a laser printer is higher than an inkjet printer,
the difference in cost per copy quickly makes up the difference for a highvolume user. Laser printers are fast, quiet and produce waterproof output.
Colour laser printers are much more expensive than black and white ones and
the copy cost is also much greater. High-speed laser printers are finding
increasing use in the business field.
Speakers
Functio
Sounds are produced using a speaker. A small speaker is usually located in most
personal computers inside the system unit. However, high-quality stereo
speakers are often connected to the computer using a port and a sound card.
The speakers are sometimes built into the sides of the monitor. In addition to
sounds and music, speakers work with voice output. Voice output is achieved in
two ways:
A person talks into a voice input device such as a microphone (see Figure
2.33). The words are converted and stored as digital data. This digital data is
changed back to voice so that the user can hear the words.
Voice synthesis is the artificial production of human speech. The words in a
text document are analysed and sounds are generated for the letter
combinations. Rules are applied for intonation to make the voice sound
realistic.
82
Plotters
A plotter is an output device used to produce high-quality drawings such as
maps, charts and building plans (see Figure 2.34). The drawings are often larger
than the available paper sizes of a standard printer. Plotters are operated using
commands from the computer and can be used to draw an amazing array of
Information processes and technology
Function
shapes and figures. There are two different types of plotters: pen plotters and
electrostatic plotters.
A pen plotter produces images using coloured ink pens on the surface of the
paper. Depending on the output, pen plotters are either flatbed or drum. A
flatbed plotter looks like a drafting table with pens suspended over it. The
movement of the pens is controlled by the plotter software. Most flatbed
plotters have different coloured pens of different widths. They are used in
engineering and drafting applications. A drum plotter works in the same way
except that the paper is rolled around a drum or cylinder. The pens only
move to the left and right as the drum rotates. The drawings from a drum
plotter are restricted to the width of the printer but are unlimited in length.
An electrostatic plotter creates images by moving paper under a row of wires.
When the wires are given an electrostatic charge they touch the paper and
create the drawing. Electrostatic plotters produce high-quality output and are
faster than pen plotters.
Software
Each piece of application software displays data. The chapters in Part 2: Application software contain detailed information on the display features of various
applications. The following is brief summary.
Reporting is used to organise and display data from a database for printing.
Database management systems allow complete control in the design of a
report in either a tabular or column layout. It is possible to insert headings,
sort data, choose fields, switch fields, change column width and select
records. The purpose of the report determines its content, format and style.
Formatting changes the appearance of the data. Text is formatted by
changing the font, alignment, tabs, indenting, bullets, numbering and style.
Additional design elements include headers and footers, colour, drop caps,
text effects, callouts and borders. Numbers in a spreadsheet are displayed
Tools for information processes
83
using built-in formats such as currency, percentage or fixed. Page layout is the
arrangement of text and graphics on a page. A publication that is well
designed will convey its message effectively and efficiently.
Spacing between lines of text is altered to improve the appearance and
readability of a document. Character spacing refers to the spacing between
individual letters. It is changed in a number of ways such as scale, points,
position and kerning.
Mail merge combines a letter written on a word processor with data from
another document such as a database. It saves time and makes final documents more personal.
Tables are rows and columns of cells that are filled with text and graphics.
Text can be displayed horizontally or vertically, and the width or height of
the rows and columns can be altered. Tables can be sorted in alphabetic,
numeric or date order.
Charts are a graphical representation of numerical data. They convert data in
rows and columns into a picture that can be read at a glance. Charts make
data easy to understand.
Non-computer tools
Functio
Information technology is not used to display all types of data. Information has
been displayed using non-computer methods for many years. Some of the noncomputer tools used for the displaying information are described below.
A storyboard is a series of frames each representing a different action or
screen image. It tells the story of a presentation. Storyboards are drawn on
paper and are changed frequently. A storyboard includes sketches and captions like a cartoon strip but in greater detail. Storyboards can be used to
outline a multimedia production. A full-length movie could require several
hundred sketches. There are four types of storyboard layouts: linear,
hierarchical, non-linear and combination (see Chapter 10).
Traditional methods for displaying different types of data have changed as a
result of developments in technology. Text and images are displayed using
paper in many different forms such as reports, newsletters, books, newspapers
and magazines. They are also displayed using devices such as the blackboard,
whiteboard and overhead projector. We also see information in the form of
text and images displayed on billboards, T-shirts, drawings, paintings and
photographs. Audio information is displayed when we speak or use a variety
of devices such as musical instruments, radios, tape recorders or CD players.
Video and animation is displayed using a television, video recorder or at the
movies.
84
Function
Current trends in display are changing the way people interact with computers. Fifteen years ago screens were small and unable to handle different
font sizes and graphics. Today larger monitors can display text, graphics,
photographs and video. Display technology using large flat screens is
becoming more common.
Visually impaired people need appropriate displays. This issue is a concern
on the Internet. Web page designers should consider how people with disabilities will be able to access their information. For example, it may be
necessary to provide text alternatives to audio information for the hearingimpaired. All people with a disability are entitled to access technology.
Special devices have been developed to help people with vision, hearing,
mobility and dexterity impairments.
Offensive material available on the Internet such as pornographic, racist and
violent material is a major concern. Children with Internet access can
potentially view inappropriate material, either deliberately or unintentionally.
There is a significant amount of offensive material on the Internet and it is
easy to find. Some people believe that offensive material should be banned,
while others argue that banning any materials compromises our free society.
Clearly, parents and schools need to prevent children from accessing
offensive material. Censoring software such as Net Nanny can also be used to
screen out inappropriate material. Chatting on the Internet is also an issue.
Some people can behave in ways that is offensive and threatening, and may
even have criminal intentions. In order to be safe, it is advisable never to
disclose any identifying personal information to anyone over the Internet.
Figure 2.35 Censoring software such as Net Nanny can be used to screen out inappropriate material.
85
Exercise 2.7
1 What is a screen?
2 List two factors that affect the clarity of the image.
3 How are images produced on a monitor?
4 Explain the difference between interlaced and non-interlaced monitors.
5 Describe the most common type of technology used in flat screens.
6 What is the difference between an impact printer and a non-impact printer?
7 Outline the advantages and disadvantages of dot matrix printers.
8 How does an inkjet printer produce an image?
9 Why advantages do laser printers have over inkjet printers?
10 Describe two ways of achieving voice output.
11 What is a pen plotter?
12 Explain the difference between a flatbed plotter and a drum plotter.
13 What are the advantages of electrostatic plotters over pen plotters?
14 Describe some of the ways of formatting text for display.
15 List some of the traditional ways of displaying different types of data.
16 Outline some of the current trends in display.
17 How can parents prevent children from accessing offensive material?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 People predicted a paperless office when computers were first used in business.
However, todays offices use more paper than in the past. Why do businesses still
use large amounts of paper? How can they reduce their paper consumption?
2 The resolution of computer screens has increased during the past few years.
Compare the resolution of a screen to that of a printout obtained from a laser
printer.
Functio
3 Young people today spend too much of their spare time staring at computer
screens playing computer games. They should be out playing sports and getting
more exercise. Comment on these statements.
86
4 Penny wants to buy a new laser printer for her home office. Investigate four
different printers and make a recommendation based on value for money.
Display this information in the form of a table listing the advantages and disadvantages of each printer.
5 Which type of printer will increase its market share in the next few years? Give a
reason for your choice.
6 Offensive material should not be allowed on the Internet. Do you agree with
this statement? Investigate what the federal government is doing about
offensive material on the Internet.
Chapter review
PART A
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best
answers the question or completes the
statement.
1 Which of the following is not an example of an input device?
A a scanner
B a mouse
C a plotter
D a digital camera
2 Which of these keys is used in combination with other keys?
A Function
B Escape
C Shift
D Capslock
3 Which of the following terms is not
related to digitising?
A file conversion
B sampling
C bit-mapping
D ASCII
4 The processing of instructions using
multiple processors is called:
A microprocessing
B distributed processing
C parallel processing
D centralised processing
5 Which item in the list does not belong?
A RAM
B ROM
C CPU
D cache
6 Which of the following storage media
offers the fastest access?
A hard disk
B DAT cartridge
C floppy disk
D CD-ROM
7 Which of the following is a non-volatile
memory device similar to an EPROM
memory chip?
A cache memory
B flash memory
C SRAM
D DVD
8 A transmission mode that allows
communication in both directions but
not at the same time is called:
A half simplex
B full simplex
C half duplex
D full duplex
87
Chapter review
11 A long, thin strip of plastic inside a cartridge used as a storage medium.
12 A storage medium on which data is
read and written using laser technology.
13 A common type of removable cartridge.
14 A device that enables the transmission
of data from one computer to another.
15 A socket used to connect peripheral
devices.
16 A set of rules that governs the transfer
of data between computers.
17 A circuit board inserted into the
motherboard to extend the capabilities
of the computer.
18 An output device that can display text
and graphics using CRT technology.
19 A type of printer that is fast, quiet and
produces waterproof output.
20 An output device that produces highquality drawings.
List of terms
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
88
application software
compact disc
digital camera
digitising
expansion card
laser
magnetic tape
microphone
modem
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
r
s
t
monitor
mouse
plotter
port
protocol
Qwerty
register
ROM
system software
word size
Zip disk
PART C
Write at least one paragraph on each of
the following questions.
1 Describe the following pointing devices:
a a mouse
b a touch screen
2 Outline some of the key features of a
graphical user interface.
3 Explain the difference between RAM
and ROM.
4 Outline some of the methods used to
measure a systems performance.
5 Describe the following types of storage
by comparing their advantages and disadvantages:
a hard disk
b magnetic tape
6 Describe some of the uses of a serial
port.
7 Compare and contrast three different
types of printers.
chapter
PLANNING,
DESIGN AND
IMPLEMENTATION
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be
able to:
outline the stages of the traditional system
development cycle
understand the principles of planning,
design and implementation
create Gantt charts and complete a feasibility study
represent systems using context diagrams,
data flow diagrams and system flow charts
compare and contrast conversion methods
understand the importance of testing and
evaluating a system
identify the social and ethical issues related
to system development.
Overview
This chapter describes the way a system is
developed. It examines the five stages of the
traditional system development cycle. You will
gain an understanding of the techniques and
issues involved in each of the stages in the
development of a new system.
3.1 Introduction
The development of a new information system to solve a problem is similar for
all types of organisations and individuals. It involves planning, design and
implementation. There are many reasons why an information system may need
to change, including the introduction of new management, new technology or
new products. The creation of a new information system is based on the belief
that it will result in some benefits to the organisation. However, in some cases
the planning results in a modification of the existing information system. In a
large organisation the development of a new information system is the responsibility of a systems analyst or a group of people called a project team. Project
teams consist of systems analysts, programmers and participants. An organised
approach to system development saves time and money.
There are different models used in the development of new information
systems. This course adopts the traditional method for developing systems. It is
Understanding
the
problem
Statement of problem
Change
in purpose
Making
decisions
Type of new system
Change type
of system
Designing
solutions
New system
Change
system
Functio
Implementing
90
Change use
of system
Function
called the system development cycle or system life cycle and consists of five
broad stages:
understanding the problemidentifying the requirements of a system that
would solve the problem
making decisionsdetermining the feasibility of a new system to solve the
problem
designing solutionscreating the new system
implementingusing the system to solve the problem
testing, evaluating and maintainingthe ongoing operation of the system.
The system development cycle is important as it results in an information
system that is as efficient and error-free as possible. In each stage there are
certain tasks to be completed and builds on the conclusions of the previous
stages (see Figure 3.1). However, in the development of a new system there is
often a good reason to return to the previous stage. For example, if there is a
problem in implementing a solution it may require some modifications to the
design.
Preliminary investigation
A preliminary investigation determines
whether a quick fix of the existing system
will solve the problem or a new system is
necessary. The fundamental operations and
problems of the existing system must be
understood. Each of the information processes are examined and any deficiencies in
the existing system are recorded. The preliminary investigation takes into account the
needs and concerns of all the participants.
Participants play an important part in
developing a workable system. These views
are gathered using different data collection
methods.
Data collection
Data and information are gathered throughout the system development cycle. Data is
used to understand the problem and develop
an appropriate solution. It is also needed to
assess the feasibility of a proposal, design a
new system and evaluate the system. There
Planning, design and implementation
91
92
Probing (further
questioning) is allowed.
Data can be obtained
from all sectors.
Further explanations of
answers are possible.
Greater depth of
questioning.
Consumer choices
Telemarketers
Research studies
Example
Questionnaires/Surveys
Australian census
Telemarketers
Guest books on Web sites
Face-to-face
Advantages
Features
Delivery
Interviews
Functio
Electronic measurement is
usually expensive.
Further questions cannot be
asked.
Time-consuming.
Important events may be
missed due to a limited time
frame.
Electronic or manual
Measurements
Observation
Observation
Function
are several methods used for data collection, such as interviews, surveys,
observations and measurements (see Table 3.1).
Data collection is very important. If the data is incorrect, the new system
may not meet the needs of the participants. Data should be gathered in an
organised way to ensure nothing is omitted. During an interview or survey, a
person has the right not to answer a question. The interviewer must take care in
writing questions that do not discriminate on the basis of gender, religion, age or
political preferences.
After the data is collected it must be carefully interpreted to ensure that the
resulting information is valid. For example, can the results of a survey be generalised to a large group of people. The reliability of the data is also an issue. If a
similar research were conducted at another time and place, would the results be
the same?
Data collected needs to be documented for it to be analysed. A diagrammatic
method of documenting data is often used, such as a context diagram, data flow
diagram or system flow chart. These methods are examined later in this chapter.
The analysis of the existing system should determine how the system works,
what it does and who uses it.
Requirement report
The requirement report is a statement about the needs of a new system. It
outlines the aims and objectives of the new system and how it will help the
organisation. The requirement report is based on data collected from the
participants. It must match the goals of the organisation to ensure that
management are satisfied with the solution. The requirement report also provides an overview of the new system in terms of the data/information to be
used, the information processes and the information technology required. The
requirement report is used to develop potential solutions to the problem.
ITITFact
Fact
Web designers use a technique called click streaming to collect data. It
records where individual users click on a Web page and how they navigate
through a Web site.
Project plans
If the preliminary investigation recommends further examination of a new
system, a project plan is developed for the system. A project plan organises the
project by specifying who, what, how and when. It includes Gantt charts,
scheduling of tasks, journal and diary entries, a funding management plan and a
communication management plan. The project leader starts by breaking down
the development of a new system into smaller tasks. They identify all the tasks,
an estimate for the cost of each task and a schedule for each task. Project leaders
use information management software and project management software to
construct and manage a project plan.
93
example, all messages from the project leader could be put into a separate
folder. Appointments, events and meetings are entered into an electronic
calendar. These activities can be viewed by the day, week or month. Information
management software allows users to store the names and addresses of individuals and organisations. All activities for each contact are recorded to form a
journal. Journal entries are organised on a timeline to quickly locate information. Tasks in the project are assigned, sorted and organised so that the progress
made on a task can be seen at a glance.
Functio
Implementing
94
Testing, evaluating
and maintaining
4 5 6
Time (weeks)
Function
Exercise 3.2
95
Feasibility study
A feasibility study is a short report that analyses potential solutions and makes a
recommendation. It does not attempt to find a detailed solution. Feasibility
studies are an extension of the preliminary investigation and are divided into
different sections (see Table 3.2).
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Section
96
Content
1 Title page
2 Contents
3 Problem definition
4 Requirement report
5 Summary of investigation
6 Alternative solutions
7 Recommendations
8 Project plan
9 Appendix
The initial sections of the feasibility study state the nature of the problem
and give an overview of the existing system. They identify problems or requirements that are not satisfied in the existing system. The feasibility study outlines
any constraints on the development of a new system. It also restates the aims
and objectives of the new system more precisely than the requirement report.
Function
The middle section of the feasibility study analyses the data collected in the
preliminary investigation. It often requires more data to be gathered about each
potential solution. After analysing the data, each solution is briefly described
with its expected advantages and disadvantages. These descriptions are written
in terms of the aims and objectives of the new system.
The result of the feasibility study is the recommendation. The recommendation is based on a number of criteria, such as economic, technical, schedule and
organisational.
Economic feasibility compares the costs of developing the new system with
the expected benefits. A financial analyst is often used to assess economic
feasibility. Economic feasibility is also called cost/benefit analysis.
Technical feasibility determines the information technology requirements of
the new system and the technical demands that will be placed on the new
system.
Schedule feasibility determines whether time is available to implement the
new system.
Organisational feasibility determines whether the new system will fit into
the organisation and meet its current goals. It determines if the new system
will have enough support to be successfully implemented.
A feasibility study can make one of three recommendations: no change,
develop a new system, or investigate other solutions. The decision to proceed
with a new system is made by the managers of the organisation.
Analysis
If the feasibility study recommends a new system, a more detailed analysis is
required. The existing system is investigated in greater depth to ensure all
current operations and problems are understood. The systems analyst must also
further clarify the needs of the new system. This requires more data to be
gathered using interviews, surveys, observations and measurements (see Figure
3.3). When the data is collected it must be organised and analysed. It is
necessary to understand the flow of data through the system and how the data is
processed within the system. A range of
tools are used for this purpose, such as
data flow diagrams, context diagrams
and system flow charts. These tools are
described in the next section.
Organisational charts are a good
way of understanding a system. They
show the intended structure of a solution using different levels (see Figure
3.4). The main module is at the top
level and it is refined into lower levels
as more detail is required. Control
passes from the top level down through
to the lower levels. Each module contains a single entry and a single exit.
97
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Case study
98
A1 Designs
2 Making decisions
The systems analyst started the feasibility study by organising another
meeting with Melissa to determine the
constraints on the system. Melissa specified a budget for developing a system
and accepted the need to hire a new
person to operate the system. The systems analyst investigated some of the
information technology requirements
and how the system would fit into the
business. He determined a possible
solution and completed an economic
feasibility. There were five advantages
of a new system:
increased accuracy and reduction of
time spent on payroll and accounts
automatic generation of reports for
taxation purposes
efficient payment of bills
accurate and timely payments to
staff
increased time for Melissa to spend
on projects.
The disadvantages of the new system
included the cost of acquiring the information technology, wages for a new
person to operate the system, new
furniture, office space and the training
of all staff.
Function
Exercise 3.3
1 What is a constraint?
2 List four different types of constraints.
3 What is contained in the initial sections of a feasibility study?
4 What is contained in the middle sections of a feasibility study?
5 Describe four different criteria used to make a recommendation in a feasibility
study.
6 What is involved in a more detailed analysis of a new system?
99
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100
When the detailed analysis is completed, the new system is designed. Systems
analysts often use a top-down approach to design a new system. This approach
divides a large, complicated problem into a series of smaller problems that are
easier to solve. The smaller problems are solved and brought together to solve
the larger problem. There are various tools used for analysis and design.
Design tools
When developing a new system, it is essential to understand how the information processes will operate. It is often a lot easier to design a solution if a
diagram can be drawn. There are a number of diagrammatic tools that describe
the information processes within a system, including context diagrams, data flow
diagrams and system flow charts.
Process
Meaning
Single process: A circle is used to represent the
entire system.
External
entity
Function
Symbol
Borrower
book details
Search
call number
Borrower
Context diagrams
A context diagram is a graphical method of representing a system using a single
process together with inputs and outputs (external entities). There are only
three symbols in a context diagram: the process, the data flow and the external
entity (see Table 3.3). The external entities are linked to the process by data
flow arrows. A context diagram is often the starting point of a data flow
diagram. The context diagram in Figure 3.5 shows the method for finding a
book in the library. It clearly shows the flow of data in the system.
101
Symbol
Meaning
Process: A circle is used to represent the processes
or actions that transform inputs to outputs.
Process
External
entity
Data
store
Borrower
book details
Search
call number
Borrower
call
number
book
details
Library
database
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102
with a simple diagram and then add some more details. If the DFD becomes too
complicated it should be broken down into a smaller DFDs to create different
levels. The top-level DFD identifies the major processes while lower-level DFDs
add more detail.
DFDs and context diagrams are easy to understand as there are only three or
four different symbols used. Participants can see the tasks that are completed by
the information system. Context diagrams and DFDs often identify issues of
responsibility before the system is designed. However, the simplicity of a DFD
creates certain limitations. DFDs do not show the sequence of operations or
decisions that are needed by a programmer. For this reason, they are often converted into system flow charts.
Information processes and technology
A system flow chart is a graphical method of representing both the flow of data
and the logic of a system. It documents the essential details of the system such
as the sequence, processes and precise rules for selecting particular actions. A
system flow chart also shows the hardware used to process data, such as the
peripheral devices, storage media and processing units.
System flow charts use standard flow charting symbols plus special symbols
for peripheral devices (see Table 3.5). Some of these symbols have become out
of date, such as the punch card symbol. Each symbol contains labels and is
linked by lines called flowlines. Flowlines do not need an arrow if the flow of
control is in the main directionstop to bottom or left to right. For example, in
Figure 3.7 the flow of control is from top to bottom so there are no arrows on
the flowlines.
Symbol
Meaning
Symbol
Function
Meaning
Input/output
Manual operation
Paper document
Magnetic tape
Online display
Direct access
storage device
Online input
Flowline
Punched card
Telecomunications
link
Process
Predefined process
Terminal
Decision
System design
The new system is designed in line with the feasibility study and analysis report.
It is important to focus on the aims and objectives of the new system during the
system design. This ensures that time and effort are not wasted. The system
Planning, design and implementation
103
Begin
Enter book
details
Library
software
Library
database
Search
results
False
Need
printout?
True
Search
report
False
Are you
finished?
True
End
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104
Information technology
The external and internal specifications provide a basis for the information
technology. The software requirements of the new system may be satisfied by
application software that is readily available. Software packages can be bought
to cover most requirements. They may be specific to a type of organisation, such
Information processes and technology
Function
ITITFact
Fact
A clone is a piece of software or hardware that is almost the same as the
original. The term IBM clone refers to a PC that performs in the same way
as an IBM personal computer. The word clone comes from a Greek word
klou for propagation.
105
Exercise 3.4
1 List the symbols used in a context diagram.
2 What is a data flow diagram?
3 How are data flow diagrams drawn?
4 Describe a system flow chart.
5 Explain the difference between external and internal specifications.
6 What is the advantage of custom software compared to a software package?
7 How are technical specifications used?
8 Why is a new system tested before implementation?
9 Real data is used to test a system prior to implementation. What properties of
the system are tested by this strategy?
10 What is user documentation?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 The development of different types of technology has created some problems for
society. List some of the problems for society by the invention of the motor
vehicle. How has society tried to overcome these problems? Now do a similar
analysis of the introduction of information technology.
2 Many technical factors affect the design of a new system. Describe at least two
technical factors. Identify how these factors affect the system.
3 A marking system is a process used to determine the result of an assessment task.
Students complete the assessment task and receive a mark from the marking
system. A teacher constructs a marking scale for the assessment task and receives
each students mark. Construct a context diagram for the marking system.
4 The marking system in question 3 is extend to include a spreadsheet to store and
moderate the marks. Construct a data flow diagram to show the marking system.
5 A teacher uses a spreadsheet in the marking system from question 4 by following
the processes: enter student marks, store marks, calculate statistics, moderate
marks, print moderated marks. Construct a system flow chart for the system.
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3.5 Implementing
106
Conversion
Conversion involves changing from the old system to the new system. It must
be carefully planned and executed to avoid errors. The actual method chosen for
Information processes and technology
conversion depends on the nature of the work and the characteristics of the new
system. There are four methods of conversion: direct, parallel, phased and pilot.
Direct conversion involves an immediate change to the new system. A date is
chosen on which the old system ends and the new system begins. All data from
the old system is transferred to the new system. Direct conversion is not popular
even though there are minimal transition costs. It does not allow time to check
whether the new system will operate correctly and that participants understand
the system. If the new system fails or problems occur, the old system is not
available as a backup.
Parallel conversion involves the old and new systems working together for
some time. Participants can compare the two systems and obtain a good understanding of the differences between them. If there are any problems with the
new system they can be solved before the old system is discontinued. However,
parallel conversion results in additional workloads for participants as they must
operate both systems. It may also result in confusion about which system has the
correct data.
Phased conversion involves the gradual implementation of the new system.
Certain operations of the new system are implemented while the remaining
operations are completed by the old system. When one operation of the new
system is successful, another operation is implemented until the new system is
Name
Direct conversion
Parallel conversion
Function
ITITFact
Fact
Old system
New system
Old system
New system
Phased conversion
Old system
New system
Pilot conversion
Old system
New system
Old system
New system
107
Training
Training ensures that participants can use the new system and understand its
benefits. The type of training depends on the knowledge of the participants and
the features of the new system. The suppliers of the hardware and software may
carry out some training. Training manuals and presentations are used to explain
the new system and any changes in the information processes. Initial training is
completed before the old system is converted to the new system.
Exercise 3.5
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108
Function
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 The implementation of a new information system can raise many problems, such
as obtaining staff support for the changes. Imagine you are the manager of an
organisation about to implement a new information system. How would you
ensure staff support? One of the employees is reluctant to change to the new
system. Outline a specific strategy that could be used to gain their acceptance.
2 An organisation has just decided to increase its use of information technology.
This will result in staff redundancy and retraining. Describe some of the methods
that could be used for retraining. What method would you choose? Why?
3 Write an outline of a training program to help computer users develop good
ergonomic habits.
4 Most people find it stressful to use a computer at work. Work in groups and
present your views for class discussion on this statement.
5 Discuss each of the four methods of conversion in terms of their implications for
the participants of a new system.
6 Construct a table to compare and contrast the four methods of conversion:
direct, parallel, phased and pilot. Give an example of a situation in which each
method might be appropriate.
109
Maintenance
Maintenance is the modification of the system by making minor improvements.
During the operation of the system, participants may discover deficiencies and
suggest improvements. For example, a secretary may suggest a change in the
format of an input screen. Maintenance may also involve installing new hardware and upgrading software packages. The longer the system has been
operational, the more difficult it is to change. However, good documentation
makes it easier to complete maintenance without causing problems elsewhere.
Simple changes in a large information system are often complex and require
retesting of other parts of the system. This often results in starting the system
development cycle again. The tasks in this stage are ongoing and continue until
the system is terminated or another system is developed.
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Case study
110
A1 Designs
A systems analyst was given responsibility to develop a new system using the
analysis report. It contained changes to
the business procedures and specifications for outputs such as a payroll
report, pay slips, journals, invoices and
yearly tax reports. Input screens were
required for employee data, payroll
data, accounts and tax information.
Designing solutions
To design a solution the systems analyst
created many different data flow
diagrams to understand every part of
the new system (see Figure 3.12). He
also constructed system flow charts to
specify the required hardware devices.
time sheets
Owner
checks
sheets
time sheets
Calculate wage
Pay
pay
employee
time
worked
wage
Payroll
database
personal
data
Function
Employee
Employer
database
Implementation
Melissa hired a person to operate the
system. The systems analyst trained this
111
ITITFact
Fact
Diagnostic programs test components and report on problems in order to
check that the computer system is operating correctly. POST (POwer SelfTest) executes automatically every time a PC is turned on and before any
other action is taken.
Exercise 3.6
1 List the tasks performed by a computer operator.
2 Why should a new system be evaluated?
3 How is the requirement report used in an evaluation?
4 What happens if a major upgrade is required?
5 What is maintenance?
6 List two tasks that may be performed during maintenance?
7 Describe the new system designed for A1 Designs.
8 List some of the tasks completed by the systems analyst in setting up the new
computer system for A1 Designs.
9 How was the new system for A1 Designs implemented?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Carry out some research to identify software packages that have recently been
upgraded (released in a new version). Find out the technical requirements to run
the new versions. Will this new software run on your schools computer system?
Explain your answer.
2 The systems analyst in the case study chooses a computer with a fast processor
and large amounts of memory and storage. What are the technical specifications
required to meet those needs? Investigate the cost of purchasing a computer
with these specifications. List the available prices and options.
3 An accounting software package is part of the solution in the case study.
Investigate the latest accounting software. Suggest the most appropriate
packages for the situation described in the case study. Justify your answer.
Functio
4 Peripheral devices are not specifically mentioned in the case study. What
peripheral devices would be required by the system? Investigate the options and
costs of each device. List these details.
112
5 A system that is correctly designed should not need any ongoing evaluation and
maintenance. Outline your views on this statement.
ITITFact
Fact
Outrage occurs when a system refuses service to at least one user for a
period of time. The period of time depends on the applications requirements.
Information processes and technology
Function
Work environment
The implementation of a new system may result in major changes in the work
environment. The Occupational Health and Safety Act requires employers to
maintain a safe working environment and protect workers against foreseeable
risks. It requires both employers and employees to establish and maintain a safe
environment.
Ergonomics refers to the relationship between people and their work
environment. It is the process of designing or arranging workplaces, products
and systems so that they fit the people who use them. The work environment,
and in particular the way a computer is used, can have an affect on the body
(see Figure 3.13). The work environment includes the desk, chair, hardware,
software, keyboard, work routine and indoor climate. The participants relationship with all these factors affects health and efficiency. If computers are being
used in the correct way, the working environment is safe and the participant will
be able to work at maximum efficiency. Conversely, incorrect use of computers
can cause health problems such as eyestrain, headaches, backaches, fatigue,
muscle pain and repetitive strain injury
(RSI). Carpal tunnel syndrome and tenosynovitis are two common forms of RSI.
Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is a
pinching of the nerve that passes
through the wrist. It is produced by
repeating the same small movements
many times. Typical symptoms are
numbness or burning in the fingers or
wrist. CTS can cause permanent nerve
damage.
Figure 3.13 The work environment.
Planning, design and implementation
113
Furniture
Furniture needs to be adjusted to suit each persons body, otherwise problems
may develop in the back, neck, shoulders, arms and legs. The desk and chair
need to be positioned so that these body parts are used effectively without strain
and undue fatigue.
Desk height should be between 660 mm and 680 mm for a fixed desk, and
between 610 mm and 720 mm for an adjustable desk. The depth of the desk
should be 900 mm with at least 50 mm for the wrists between the front edge
of the desk and the keyboard. This reduces the strain on the forearms when
typing.
Chairs should have an adjustable seat height that ranges from 370 to
520 mm from the floor. This allows a clearance of 200 mm between the seat
and the desk. An adjustable backrest should be between 170 to 250 mm
above the seat and fit snugly into the small of the back. The seat should be
flat, well padded and slanted slightly backwards. This forces the participant to
lean against the backrest and maintain good posture.
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Information technology
114
Hardware and its placement are an important ergonomic factor. The system unit
bought as a tower or mini-tower can be placed away from the screen, keyboard
and mouse to provide increased desk space. The recommendations for the
screen, keyboard and mouse are outlined below.
The screen should be about an arms length away with the user looking
down on the screen. It should also be between 15 and 30 degrees below eye
level and adjusted so that it is at right angles to the line of sight. Adjustments
of angle, brightness and contrast should be possible to cater for individual
differences.
The keyboard must be detachable and positioned so that the forearms are
parallel to the floor. The angle of the keyboard relative to the desk should be
between 5 and 18 degrees with the keys requiring a minimum of pressure.
The mouse must fit the hand and be easily moved. The button should
require a minimum of pressure. The sensitivity of the mouse should be easily
adjusted to suit the operator.
Software should be ergonomically designed to make the user feel relaxed and
comfortable. A range of software has been developed to meet the needs of
everybody, depending on their level of software understanding and their task
5
1
Function
Environmental factors
The work environment is affected by environmental factors such as lighting,
indoor climate and noise.
Incorrect lighting can cause eyestrain, double vision and headaches, and
reduce visual powers. Lighting needs to be uniform and bright enough for all
text to be read easily on the screen, keyboard and paper. All parts of the work
environment should have non-reflective surfaces to minimise glare. Glare is
reduced by using shades on windows, diffusers on overhead lighting and antiglare filters on screens.
If the climate of a room is uncomfortable, it can cause weariness, sleepiness,
loss of performance and increased errors. The comfortable temperature range
varies depending on many factors. For a clothed and resting person, the
temperature should range between 20 and 23C. If the relative humidity of
the air is between 30 and 70 per cent it will not create any discomfort. Air
movements such as draughts are unpleasant if they exceed 0.2 m/s.
Excessive noise in the work environment can be a significant distraction.
Noise levels should not exceed 55 decibels, as this makes communication
with others difficult and can affect concentration. Protection from noise can
be obtained by sound-insulating a room, enclosing the source of the noise
with sound-absorbing materials, or by using headphones, ear plugs and soft
music.
115
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Use of skills
116
Function
Meaningful work
Social relationships
People need to be able to communicate with others. Social interaction may change when a new
system is implemented. For
example, a new information system
may mean that a process that was
once done by face-to-face interaction is now done via a computer
network. People who spend most of
the day looking at a screen tend to
have less time for social interaction.
On the other hand information
systems can improve social relationships. Electronic mail has provided
opportunities for social relationships to develop between people
who are separated geographically.
117
Exercise 3.7
1 Explain the difference between a machine-centred system and a human-centred
system.
2 List the ergonomic factors that affect health and efficiency.
3 What health problems are caused by the incorrect use of computers?
4 Describe the recommendations for desk and seat height.
5 How does the screen cater for individual differences?
6 Outline the ergonomic recommendations for a keyboard.
7 Why should software be ergonomically designed?
8 What are the effects of incorrect lighting?
9 List factors that affect the climate of a room.
10 What may be some of the negative results of work pressure?
11 What does it mean when a person becomes deskilled? Provide an example.
12 Why is computer work not always meaningful?
13 What are the advantages and disadvantages of telecommuting?
14 How has the nature of the workplace changed as a result of information technology?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 The manager of an organisation would like to replace many of its staff with
computers. The manager argues that machines never stop work, go on holidays
or waste work time discussing the football. Do you think machines should replace
people? Give reasons to support your argument. List any jobs where people
cannot be replaced.
2 You are offered a job in an office without ergonomic furniture. The manager
believes that ergonomics is incorrectly blamed for many health problems. Outline
your view on the importance of ergonomics.
3 People have been doing repetitive jobs for centuries without knowing about
ergonomics. A persons attitude to work is more important than their work
routine. Comment on these statements.
Functio
118
Chapter review
PART A
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best
answers the question or completes the
statement.
1 During the development of a new system, the details of the time frame for
each task would appear in the:
A requirement report
B project plan
C feasibility study
D data flow diagram
2 The purpose of a feasibility study is to:
A describe the information processes
within a system
B outline the aims and objectives of
the new system
C show intended structure of a solution
D judge the appropriateness of a solution
3 In a context diagram, a person who
receives data would be represented by:
A a process
B a data flow
C an external entity
D an online output
4 The second stage in the development
of a system involves writing the:
A requirement report
B internal specifications
C technical specifications
D analysis report
5 In which stage in the development of a
system is the staff trained?
A making decisions
B designing solutions
C implementing
D testing, evaluating and maintaining
119
Chapter review
PART B
For each of the following statements,
select from the list of terms the one that
most closely fits the statement. Write the
letter corresponding to your choice.
Statements
1 The stages involved in the development
of a new system to solve a problem.
2 A statement about the needs of a new
system.
3 It provides a quick method of determining whether a project is on schedule.
4 A short report that analyses potential
solutions and makes a recommendation.
5 The general hardware configuration of
a new system and designs for both input and output.
6 It represents a system using a single
process together with inputs and outputs.
7 It represents both the flow of data and
the logic of a system.
8 It is carried out by participants of the
system using real data.
9 It involves the old and new systems
working together for some time.
10 It involves trialling a new system in a
small part of an organisation.
11 It determines whether a system is
working as expected or if changes are
required.
12 The modification of a system by making minor improvements.
List of terms
a beta test
b context diagram
c design specifications
d evaluation
e feasibility study
f Gantt chart
g maintenance
h pilot conversion
i parallel conversion
j requirement report
k system development cycle
l system flow chart
PART C
Write at least one paragraph on each of
the following questions.
1 Describe the five stages in the system
development cycle.
2 Name and describe the four elements
of a data flow diagram.
3 Explain the use of the following tools
in the design of a new system:
a a context diagram
b a data flow diagram
c a system flow chart
4 Direct conversion is one method of implementing a new system.
a Explain the process of direct conversion.
b What are the advantages and disadvantages of direct conversion.
5 Documentation is required throughout
the system development cycle. For each
stage in the cycle, list and briefly
describe some of the documentation
that needs to be written.
6 A barcode system is to be installed in
the school canteen. Outline the impact
of this system on the participants.
120
chapter
PERSONAL AND
GROUP SYSTEMS AND
PROJECTS
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be
able to:
develop a personal and group information
system to solve an information problem
apply the stages in the system development
cycle
apply project management tools to develop
a system
recognise and apply management and
communication techniques to project work
generate ideas and alternative solutions to a
problem.
Overview
Students are required to complete two projects
worth 20 per cent of their assessment. This
chapter includes guidelines for completing the
projects. The projects are classified as either a
personal information system or a group
information system.
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Developing a solution
122
Written report
In addition to an electronic copy of the information system, a written report
should be submitted for each project. The written report is prepared using a
word processor. It must be kept short and to the point. The quality of your work
is more important than the quantity. Your written report could divided into the
following sections: cover page, contents, stages in developing systems, social and
ethical issues, journal and bibliography. These are only a guide; they can be
changed with approval from your teacher.
It is suggested that students maintain and submit a journal as part of the
written report. The journal is to be completed in the last five minutes of every
lesson. The journal concludes with a brief report on the success of the project.
The written report should also contain a brief description of the social and
ethical issues that result from the new system. You may have to describe
possible issues and steps to address these issues.
The main section of the written report is a description of the five stages in
the system development cycle. A checklist for each stage is provided below as a
guide to some of the documentation that is required. The type of information
problem and your solution will determine the specific documentation submitted
under each stage.
Function
Making decisions
A feasibility study must be submitted to analyse potential solutions and make a
recommendation.
Constraints
Detailed analysis
Feasibility study
Analysis report
Recommendation
Designing solutions
The system must be represented using a context diagram, data flow chart or
system flow chart. Specifications for the new system are to be stated.
Context diagram
Specifications
Data flow diagram
Information technology
System flow chart
Test data
System design
Documentation
Personal and group systems and projects
123
Implementing
Screen dumps, printouts and reports that illustrate important parts of the new
system are to be submitted.
Methods of conversion
Demonstration (to the teacher)
Training
Documentation
Functio
Personal information systems are those with only one participant. Their purpose
is to meet the needs of the individual. Personal information systems often involve
a personal computer with appropriate software. There are many examples of
personal information systems, such as a scriptwriter using a word processor to
produce an episode of a television program.
124
ITITFact
Fact
Rafting refers to a person taking on new projects in the technology
industry when they are finding it difficult to cope with the fast pace of
change.
Angus Trading
Department
. (number of calls)
Units
Hardware
4320
Jewellery
4300
Menswear
3700
Ladies wear
3420
Automotive
3120
Gardening
2700
Kitchen
2561
Function
Case study
Value to be altered
= $B$5*B9
Formulas filled down
Formatted for currency
= SUM(C9:C15)
= AVERAGE(C9:C15)
125
Exercise 4.2
PERSONAL PROJECTS
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126
1 Students in Year 11 have decided to have a formal party at a local venue. You
have been given the responsibility of choosing the venue. Investigate a number
of different venues and gather data such as the name and address of the venue;
the cost per head; the initial deposit required; details of meals; and available
dates. Store this data in an information system and create reports that allow you
to compare venues. Design a survey for Year 11 students that will decide on the
venue. Students will vote on the venue if they are committed to attend. The
survey should also decide on possible dates and meal arrangements.
2 Matthew Law works for the tourist bureau. He has been asked to collect and
organise data on all Australian beaches. The data collected should include the
location, physical characteristics, surf rating, surf club, amenities and usage
patterns. Develop a solution for Matthew. It requires a questionnaire to be
designed and sent to all councils that are responsible for a beach. Store real or
fictitious data and produce various printed reports to highlight the beach with
the best surf rating and amenities. Create a sign to promote this beach.
Information processes and technology
4 The principal would like to promote the positive features of your school outside
the local community. She is presenting these features at a conference centre.
Develop a solution for the principal. It requires a presentation containing
numerous slides describing the characteristics and best features of the school (see
Figure 4.3). The presentation should contain different media types.
Function
3 Tony Costa is considering purchasing a nightclub in the local area. Each week the
nightclub buys $5000 of stock for the bar and bistro. This stock is sold at a profit
of 70%. The wages bill for the week is $6500 and he needs to repay a loan of
$4000 per month. The nightclub attracts about 700 people each week. Tony
needs to analyse this data to determine the cover charge for the patrons and its
relationship to any profits he would receive. Tony wants to create and cost
promotional material for the nightclub. Develop a solution for Tony. It should
provide information about whether to buy the nightclub and the possible effects
of the cover charge and increasing or decreasing the number of patrons. Create
promotional material for Tonys nightclub.
5 Keith Senter is a local firefighter who needs information on the types and
quantities of chemicals stored by organisations in the local community. This will
enable him to deal more effectively with an emergency. Develop a solution for
Keith. Create a survey to collect data for the system. Store fictitious data from
the survey on the organisations name, contact person, address, phone number
and operating hours, and the type and quantity of the chemicals. Create forms
and reports to display the most dangerous sites.
6 Jane Cummins is a political analyst employed by a major political party. She needs
to determine the impact of different issues on an election. For example, what
will happen if there is an increase in unemployment? What if the Prime Minister
supports an issue that is unpopular with one group of people but popular with
another? There are many things that might make a difference to the way people
vote. Develop a solution for Jane. A survey is to be created, conducted and
analysed on current issues in the local community. For example, if the party supports legalising marijuana, 2 per cent of men and 3 per cent woman will switch
to another party. However, the party gains 8 per cent of the people aged
between 18 to 35 but loses 7 per cent of the people aged between 50 and 65.
The results of the survey are to be displayed using charts.
Personal and group systems and projects
127
7 The school computer coordinator needs to update the schools Web site. He wants
to add Web pages about the latest information technology resources in the school.
Develop the Web pages for the computer coordinator. Data needs to be collected
regarding the schools hardware and resources. The Web page must outline how
this information technology is used in administration and computing courses.
8 Dennis Spring is an author who won the best book award for Night Sea Crossing.
It is a childrens book that deals with the journey to a mysterious island. Dennis
needs to promote the book to the local community. Develop a solution for
Dennis. Store fictitious data on residents in the local community, such as their
name, address, postcode, and whether they have children. Mailing labels are to
be created for those residents with children only. Create a flier containing
graphical images to encourage the residents to buy the book.
9 Neil Woods is a landscape gardener who has operated a business for the past 10
years in your local community. He is willing to take on any job, large or small.
Neil would like to work as a subcontractor for the local municipal council. He
believes a more active promotional campaign is required to promote himself to a
wider audience. Develop a solution for Neil. It must include advertising
brochures, a business card, advertisements for newspapers and a monthly
newsletter for clients.
10 The student council has decided to submit a proposal for a school dance to the
executive at their weekly meeting. They have appointed you to do the
presentation. The project requires you to create a multimedia presentation. It
should outline the advantages and disadvantages of the dance, a budget that
specifies the expenses (security guard, disc jockey and stationery), and the
proposed date, time and dress regulations. The presentation should contain
different media types.
11 Eleanor Rigby is a self-employed artist who works primarily in the clothing
industry. She works in Sydney and has experience in designing garments, tags,
logos, brochures and promotional plans. Eleanor is having difficulty organising
and accessing data about her clients. She was recently asked to create a logo for
Wave Clothing to appear on a series of T-shirts. Develop a solution for Eleanor. It
must store fictitious data about her clients, such as their name, address, contact
person, phone number, email address, invoice number and job details. Create a
logo and invoice form for Wave Clothing.
Functio
12 David Lee wants to produce a personal Web site about himself. The Web pages
are to be a multimedia product. Develop a solution for David. Create a fictitious
family, friends, hobbies, likes and dislikes, sporting achievements and musical
interests. The Web pages are based on this data and should contain a minimum
amount of material sourced from the Web.
128
Function
Case study
Description
Greenfingers
Nursery
Plants
Hire
Bonsai
Plants
Palms
Plus
11005
LeafLustre (5 litre)
24
48
76
43
11025
12005
MealyRid (5 litre)
21
20
34
42
12025
13003
36
20
16
11
Description
February
sales
11005
LeafLustre (5 litre)
191
11025
20
12005
MealyRid (5 litre)
117
12025
11
13003
83
Total of
product sales
for the month
of February
Description
Projected min.
monthly stock level
Stock
balance
11005
LeafLustre (5 litre)
200
34
11025
25
12005
MealyRid (5 litre)
150
45
Stock balance
at end of
February is
below the
projected
monthly
requirement
129
to ensure that stocks are always maintained at adequate levels (see Figure
4.4). These reports are used to determine production levels and timelines for
the next month. They assist the
manager to implement appropriate
processes to meet the demands of the
customers.
Monthly sales
80
70
Sales
60
20%
50
44%
3%
40
28%
30
5%
20
10
0
Greenfingers
Nursery
Plants
Bonsai
Hire
Plants
Customer
Palms
Plus
Leaf Lustre (5 L)
Leaf Lustre (25 L)
Mealy Rid (5 L)
Six-monthly sales
250
200
Sales
150
100
50
0
Dec
Functio
Nov
130
Leaf Lustre
Jan
Feb
Month
Mealy Rid
Mar
Apr
Mite Rid
ITITFact
Fact
A honky tonk is a person who disguises the fact that they are a computer
expert by not boasting about their competence.
A group should consist of three to five students. Your teacher will decide on the
formation of these groups. All students must function as part of a group. The
success of the project depends on group members working cooperatively
together. Each group will have different characteristics and must follow these
two rules:
1 Group members work together: Each student must contribute to all sections
of the project. For example, it is not satisfactory for one student to design the
system while another writes the written report. All students must be
involved in journal writing.
2 Role of group members: Each student is given a role in the project. They
contribute to all sections of the project but have specific responsibilities
depending on their strengths and weaknesses. For example, one student
might have good organisational skills and be responsible for the project
management. Each student needs to negotiate and understand his or her role
in the group. They need to complete their tasks according to a deadline,
otherwise the project might be delayed.
Function
Exercise 4.3
GROUP PROJECTS
Solve one of the following information problems. It involves using more than one
software tool and a combination of data types.
1 The local library consists of childrens and
adult sections, fiction and non-fiction,
magazines, encyclopedias, videos and audio
CDs. It uses an information system but it is
command driven and not user-friendly.
Borrowers are demanding a faster and more
efficient method to access materials (see
Figure 4.6). Develop a solution for the library.
It must store fictitious data for each item in
the library, such as title, author, classification
number, category (section), publisher, date of
publication, subject and keywords entered
into a database program. Create tables and
reports that classify the data according to its
type, subject and time of publication. The
library needs to promote the benefits of the
new system to its borrowers. Create a letter
for borrowers that explains the new system.
131
end of the year. Investigate the local community to obtain appropriate living
expenses. The solution must provide Peter with an analysis of his finances. The
analysis is to be written as a formal report. Printouts that illustrate what if
questions are required. Create a number of charts to illustrate Peters finances.
3 A local club provides a hospitality service to its 854 members and their guests. It is
open every day of the year for 14 hours, except Christmas Day. The club is
currently undergoing the initial stages of building a new clubhouse at the cost of
$3 million. It is planning to install a new information system to cope with the
increase in business. Develop a solution for the club. It must store fictitious data
on members and be able to produce letters (such as reminders for membership
fees) and a newsletter. Mailing labels are to be created for the letters and the
newsletter. Create promotional advertising for the new clubhouse.
4 A local supermarket is open seven days a week and employs 21 people on a fulltime or part-time basis. It has a POS system and EFTPOS facilities. The supermarket is having problems with stock records and needs a new information
system. Develop a solution for the supermarket. It must store fictitious data for
each item, such as name, product description, price, brand, quantity and universal product code. Create relevant queries, forms and reports. The supermarket
maintains its prices are lower than the competitors. Investigate the prices of a
range of goods in your local community. Create a flier for the local supermarket
to promote its lowers prices.
Functio
5 Townbank needs the approval of the local council for a personal banking centre.
It is to be staffed by two people with a team of branch managers located in head
office. The personal banking centre has multimedia terminals with touch screens
that provide information on the banks products, such as credit cards and interest
rates. A laser printer provides a high-quality printout of requested information.
Video-conferencing booths allows the customer and banker to see each other on
the screen. The personal banking centre allows decisions such as an approval for
a loan to be made immediately by the head office staff. The technology is taking
some of the frustration out of banking. Develop a solution for Townbank. Create
a multimedia presentation to seek approval of the local council. Also create
advertisements for the local newspaper and a flier to be distributed to local
residents advertising the service.
132
6 Your teacher would like to promote each student in your class to the wider
community by producing a class Web site. The Web pages are to be a multimedia
product. Develop a solution for your teacher. Investigate some of the
characteristics (family, friends, hobbies, likes, dislikes, etc.) of each person in your
class. Create the Web pages using this data. Do not include data about a student
without their approval. Personal phone numbers and addresses should not be
included. The Web pages should be stored on a hard disk, not uploaded to a
Web server.
Part 2
Application software
Chapter 5 Word processing
Chapter 6 Databases
Chapter 7 Spreadsheets
Chapter 8 Graphics
Chapter 9 Desktop publishing
Chapter 10 Multimedia
Chapter 11 The Internet
chapter
W O R D P RO C E S S I N G
Outcomes
Overview
This chapter will help you to become an
accomplished user of a word processor. It
examines the basic features of word processors and the major information processes
involved in their use. It explains the different
ways of editing text, such as moving text and
using a spell checker. You will learn to use a
variety of word processing tools to format
characters and paragraphs.
Word processing is an application that can be used across most of the seven
information processes. In creating and using a word processing document, the
information processes are often not distinctthe user switches back and forth
between different processes.
Word processing emphasises four information processes:
Collecting: Data can be gathered using hardware and software or using
non-computer techniques (such as a survey or literature search). Text can
be entered into the word processor using a scanner and optical character
recognition software, or by typing using the keyboard. (See section 5.1.)
Storing and retrieving: A word processing document can be saved to a
storage device, such as a hard disk. Documents should be saved frequently
and backed-up to a second storage device so that valuable work is not lost.
(See section 5.1.)
Processing: Text can be edited, sorted and modified. (See section 5.2.)
Displaying: Text is displayed on the screen and can be formatted in various
ways. Word processing documents are often displayed using a printer. (See
sections 5.3 and 5.4.)
Function
Information processes
Figure 5.1 The menu bar and toolbars are used to select commands.
Word processing
135
collecting
Creating a document
A new word processing document can be created from scratch using the New
command from the File menu. The document window is empty, like a blank
piece of paper, and the user simply starts typing. Most modern word processors
display the document on the screen as it will be printed. This feature is called
WYSIWYG (pronounced wizzy wig), which stands for what you see is what
you get. Some other basic word processing features are wordwrap, scrolling,
moving the cursor, and selecting different views.
Wordwrap means that when a line is full, text is automatically moved to the
next line. There is no need to press the Return key at the end of every line,
as you need to do on a typewriter. This is very useful if the document is
edited or reformatted. For example, if you change the margins in a
document, wordwrap will automatically reflow the text to the new line
length. The Enter or Return key should be used at the end of a paragraph.
When the Enter key is pressed, a special non-printing symbol (generally or
) appears and the cursor moves to the start of the next line. The symbol
character is called a paragraph marker.
Scrolling is the method of moving within a document to view the writing.
The word processing screen only allows a portion of the document to be
seen. The document can be moved (scrolled) up, down, left and right using
the scroll bars. Scroll bars are located at the bottom and side of the
document window. Scroll tips that show the current page and section help
the user to move through the document.
In word processing, the cursor takes the form of an insertion point, which is
indicated by a flashing vertical line. The insertion point is where new text
will appear if the user types on the keyboard. The cursor is moved around
the document using a mouse or the arrow keys on the keyboard. The arrow
keys move the cursor one character or one line at a time in the chosen direction. Holding down the arrow key will repeat the movement. The space bar
should not be used to move the cursor. The word processor regards a space as
a character, so typing spaces is just like typing any other character.
Some word processors allow you to view the document in several ways. In
Microsoft Word, normal view is recommended for entering and editing text.
In this view you cannot see multiple columns, drawing objects, headers and
footers or page margins. Because of this, the word processor operates more
quickly. Page layout view is recommended when you want to see the document as it would be printed.
&
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storing
retrieving
136
Application software
displaying
Function
Printing a document
Exercise 5.1
1 List the main information processes involved in word processing.
2 What is a word processor?
3 What are three advantages in using a word processor over other methods of
writing?
4 Describe a WYSIWYG word processor.
5 What is wordwrap?
6 Explain the difference between the Save and Save As commands.
Word processing
137
2 Use a word processor to create the document shown in Figure 5.4 and save it
with the filename FEATURES.
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138
3 The computers of tomorrow will become easier to use because they will reflect
the way humans think and work. Use a word processing program to write an
essay describing the computer of the future. Save your essay with the filename
TOMORROW.
4 Open the file you created called EDIT.
a Analyse the page setup of the document. What are the margins, paper size
and orientation?
b If your word processor has a Print Preview function, use it to view the document. If your word processor does not have a Print Preview function, view the
document by zooming in and out.
c Print the document.
Application software
Function
Correcting text
processing
Moving text
processing
Cut and paste are commands used to move a block of text to another place in
the same document or to another document. To cut a block of text, select the
Word processing
139
Cut or Move command from the File menu. This command removes the
block of text from the screen and brings back the remaining text to fill the gap.
The text is not permanently removed, but is stored in the computers memory.
This temporary storage area is often called the clipboard. After the selected text
has been cut it is necessary to move the cursor to the new location where the
text is to be inserted or pasted. To paste a block of text, select the Paste
command from the File menu. The text in the clipboard is inserted at the cursor
location and the remaining text moves down.
Copy and paste are the actions required to copy a block of text to another
place in the same document or to another document. To copy a block of text,
select the Copy command from the File menu. This command copies the
block of text into the clipboard but does not remove it from the document as
the Cut command does. The text is then pasted into a new position using the
Paste command.
Drag and drop is an easy way to move or copy a block of text a short distance using the mouse. To move a block of text using drag and drop editing,
point to the selected text and hold down the mouse button. Drag the text to the
new location and release the mouse button. Copying text using drag and drop
editing is similar to moving text except that the Ctrl key (Windows) or Option
key (Macintosh) is pressed when pointing to the selected text.
Most operating systems allow users to cut a block of text or an object from
one application and paste it into another application. For example, a table or
chart from a spreadsheet program can be copied into a word processing
document using the Copy and Paste commands in the two applications. The
user can usually choose one of two ways of copying the text or object. It can be
copied in an active way, so that if the original object (the spreadsheet) is later
modified, the copy of it (in the word processing document) is automatically
updated. Or it can be copied in a static way, so that the pasted text or object is
fixed and does not change. In Windows applications, these options are called
object linking and embedding (OLE). Linked objects automatically change if
the source object is changed. Embedded objects are fixed and do not change if
the source is changed. In Macintosh applications, the Publish and Subscribe
commands carry out a similar function.
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processing
140
Application software
Function
word tall with the word high throughout a document. If he or she does not
select the option of whole words only, the word processor will also change the
word stall to shigh (see Figure 5.6).
processing
Spell checker
A spell checker checks the spelling of words in the document and provides the
user with correct spellings. It works by comparing every word in the document
with an in-built dictionary. If a word cannot be found in the dictionary, it is
highlighted in some way. The user is given the options of correcting it, ignoring
it or adding the word to the dictionary. Some word processors will correct
typing or spelling errors as you type, such as replacing bcak with back. This
feature is called AutoCorrect (see Figure 5.7). The AutoCorrect feature also
corrects errors in capitalisation by adding and removing capital letters to
appropriate words such as the names of the days.
When using a spelling checker it is important to remember the following
points:
Spelling checkers do not check meanings. If the word exists in the dictionary
it will not be identified as wrong. For example, David is a buoy would not
be identified as an error.
Word processors are packaged with different dictionaries for different
countries. An American dictionary will have different spellings to an
Australian dictionary (such as computerized instead of computerised). You
should make sure your word processor uses an Australian dictionary.
Word processing
141
Figure 5.7 The AutoCorrect feature fixes commonly misspelt words as you type.
Thesaurus
Most word processors also come with a thesaurus to improve the precision and
variety of your writing. The thesaurus provides synonyms (words with the same
meaning) and sometimes antonyms (words with opposite meaning) for the
selected word. Using a thesaurus is similar to using a spell checker except that it
displays a list of synonyms (or antonyms). A thesaurus is useful if a word is overused in a document and needs to be replaced with a more interesting word. It
should be used with care because the actual meaning of a word can vary with its
context.
Functio
Grammar checker
142
The English language is very complex, with many different rules for grammar.
Modern word processors include grammar checkers to examine some basic
aspects of grammar, such as word duplication, homophones, overuse of words,
punctuation errors and long sentences. Homophones are words with the same
pronunciation but different spellings and meanings, such as there and their.
Grammar checkers provide some indication of the readability of the text by
analysing the average word length and the average number of words in a
sentence. It is also possible to customise grammar checkers for a particular
purpose, such as formal, business or casual writing.
Exercise 5.2
1 Describe some of the ways of editing text.
2 How are recent mistakes corrected?
3 How is text inserted?
4 Explain the difference between the Backspace key and the Delete key.
Application software
Function
2 Create the document shown in Figure 5.9 and save it with the filename SALES.
The document should include the intentional typing mistakes.
a Delete the upper case letter S in the word figuresS.
b Delete the extra the in the sentence the the final sales figures.
c Change the upper case N to lower case in the word FinaNcial.
d Insert the word Super between the words Pear and microcomputer.
e Insert the phrase for our new Pear Super microcomputer after the word
quarter at the end of the second paragraph.
f Remove one copy of the sentence Sales for the fourth quarter were up 21%
for an overall years increase of 17%.
g Replace the word recieved with received.
h Replace the word steared with steered.
i Replace the phrase overall years increase to overall annual increase.
j Cut and paste the last paragraph so that it appears as the third paragraph.
Word processing
143
3 List eight places you would like to go for a holiday. Enter this data into a word
processing document. Press the Enter key after each place so that the next place
starts on a new line. Save the document with the filename HOLIDAY.
a Cut and paste these places so that they are in order of preference.
b Write a reason next to each place explaining why you would like to go there
for a holiday.
c Delete the last four places.
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144
5 Read the following text: Their is a spell checker in most word processors. It
cheques the spelling of words and suggests the correct spelling. It compares
every word in the document with its dictionary. If a word cannot be found, it is
highlighted with red wavy under lines so that it can be corrected, ignored or
added to the dictionery.
a List the mistakes that would be found by a spell checker and grammar
checker.
Application software
6 Using a word processor, write a poem or short story about technology. It should
be at least 10 lines of text.
a Run a spell checker and grammar checker.
b Correct any mistakes and save any other words that are not recognised by the
spell checker into the user dictionary.
c Use a thesaurus to replace at least three words.
d Save the document with the filename POEM or STORY.
Function
b What mistakes in this text would be missed by the spell checker and grammar
checker?
c Enter the text in a word processing document and run a spell checker and
grammar checker. Compare the results with your answers to questions a and b.
d Use a thesaurus to replace the words corrected, ignored and added.
e Save the document with the filename SPELL.
Formatting characters
displaying
Fonts
Modern word processors allow users to select different fonts for the text. A font
is a set of characters in one typeface with a particular type size, type style and
stroke weight. In word processing, the term font is commonly used to refer only
to the typeface: this is technically incorrect.
A typeface is a set of characters with a particular design, such as Times New
Roman. Within the Times New Roman typeface there are many different
fonts that can be chosen by changing the size and style. Typefaces can be
divided into two main groups: serif and sans serif (sans is French for
without). Serif typefaces are those that have little tails (serifs) at the ends of
the characters; Times New Roman and Century Schoolbook are common
examples. Sans serif typefaces have smooth characters without serifs; Arial
and Helvetica are common examples (see Figure 5.11).
The type size or font size is a measure of the physical size of a character. The
height of characters is measured in points, where one point is equal to
0.351 mm or 1/72 of an inch.
The type style describes the general shape of the typeface, such as italic or
outline.
The stroke weight is a measure of the thickness of the lines used to construct
the characters. A typeface is usually available in light, medium, regular, bold
or extra bold weights.
Word processing
145
Some word processors use the term font style to refer to a combination of
type style and stroke weight. Fonts can also be altered by a range of effects, such
as underlining, changing the colour, strikethrough and embossing.
ITITFact
Fact
The confusion between fonts and typefaces is a result of the electronic
manipulation of fonts. In the past, typesetters needed to have separate sets
of characters in every size and weight of a typeface. Each set was a font.
The computer, however, is able to create characters in any size from a
single typeface.
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146
There are some generally accepted principles about fonts that help to produce
effective documents.
A serif typeface is easier to read than a sans serif one in the body of the text.
The body of the text should be in plain (regular) text, using lower case, with
a type size of 10 to 12 points, depending on the typeface and printer used.
Font variations, such as bold or italics, should be used sparingly in the body of
the text for emphasis.
Headings can be formatted in either serif or sans serif typefaces, as the
difference in legibility is not as great.
Only a small number of fonts should be used in a single document. Frequent
changes of fonts distract the reader from the meaning of the words.
Character spacing
Character spacing refers to the spacing between individual letters. It can be
changed in a number of ways, such as scale, points, position and kerning.
Application software
Function
Formatting paragraphs
displaying
Alignment
Alignment refers to the way the text lines up. It involves positioning text in
relation to a fixed reference point, usually the right or left margin. There are
four types of alignment (see Figure 5.12).
Left-aligned text is perfectly aligned with the left margin. The left margin is
straight and the right margin is uneven or ragged.
Right-aligned text is perfectly aligned with the right margin. The right
margin is straight and the left margin is ragged.
147
Justified text is aligned with both the left and right margins. Space is
automatically added between words so that both margins are straight.
Centred text is aligned with an imaginary line down the middle of the page.
Both the left and right margins are ragged. Centred text is often used for
headings.
In general, it is easier to read documents that are aligned on the left-hand
side, so left-aligned or justified should be used for body text.
ITITFact
Fact
The word alignment comes from the French word aligner, meaning into
line.
Line spacing
Line spacing or leading (pronounced ledding) refers to the spacing between
lines of text. It improves the appearance and readability of a document. Word
processors allow the line spacing to be specified for any paragraph. Users can
specify a measurement (usually in points) or can choose from the predefined
settings.
Single spacing consists of the actual size of the font plus a small amount of
extra space. It is usually set at 20 per cent leading, or 120 per cent of the font
size. For example, a type size of 10 points would have an extra 2 points of space
between the lines (20% of 10) giving a total line spacing of 12 points. Double
spacing is twice single spacing and triple spacing is three times single spacing
(see Figure 5.13).
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148
Tabs
Tabs align the text to set horizontal positions called tab stops. When the Tab
key is pressed the cursor moves to the next tab stop. A non-printing tab
character () is inserted in the empty space on the screen. The next text that is
entered will be aligned at this tab stop. It is important to use tabs and not the
space bar to position text on a line. Positioning text using the space bar does not
ensure the correct alignment in a printout.
In most word processors, tab stops are shown on a ruler. The word processor
usually has a default set of tabs stops that apply to all paragraphs. These are set
every half inch (1.27 cm) from the left margin. The user can override these and
set tab stops at particular locations.
Application software
Indenting
Indenting moves text a certain distance from a margin. All the lines in a paragraph can be indented or only the first line. There are three main types of indents:
Left indent and right indent move a paragraph from the left margin, right
margin or both margins. They are used to draw attention to the paragraph or
show that it is a subsection.
First line indent moves the first line of each paragraph to the right so that
readers can pick out the start of each new paragraph (see Figure 5.14). First
line indents are created by pressing the Tab key or by moving the first-line
indent marker.
Hanging indent is the reverse of the first line indent. The first line is aligned
with the left margin and the succeeding lines are all indented a specified
amount from the left margin. Hanging indents are often used in glossaries,
rsums and other types of lists.
For any of these types of indents, specifying a negative indent moves a
paragraph into the margin.
Indents can generally be set using the ruler. The users selects the paragraph
and drags the indent markers to the appropriate position. Some word processors
also have increase and decrease indent buttons. These buttons move a paragraph
to the next (or previous) tab stop.
Function
Tabs can also have different alignments, such as left tab, centre tab, right tab
and decimal tab. These work in a similar way to paragraph alignment. For
example, a left tab aligns the left-hand edge of the text at the tab stop; a right
tab aligns the right-hand edge of the text at the tab stop. When starting a new
document, it is useful to set the tabs for the first paragraph. Subsequent
paragraphs will then have the same tab settings.
left
indent
right
indent
left and
right indent
first line
indent
hanging
indent
Figure 5.14 Examples of paragraph indenting.
Word processing
149
Figure 5.15 A bulleted list. The ruler indicates the hanging indent.
Exercise 5.3
1 What is the difference between a font and a typeface?
2 List the two main groups of typefaces.
3 What is the type size of a character?
4 List the accepted design principles for producing effective documents.
5 List four ways to change character spacing.
6 Describe right-aligned text.
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150
8 Explain the difference between a first line indent and a hanging indent.
9 Why do people use bulleted and numbered lists?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create a document similar to Figure 5.16 using eight different typefaces. Save the
document with the filename FONTS.
a Change Times New Roman in 10 point to bold.
b Change Century Schoolbook in 12 point to italics.
c Change Arial in 14 point to underlined text.
Application software
Function
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
Word processing
151
e Format the fifth list using 1, 2, 3, etc. Delete the second and sixth names from
the list.
f Format the sixth list with double line spacing.
g Format the seventh list with triple line spacing.
h Format the eighth list with a multiple of 1.5 line spacing.
i Format the ninth list with a multiple of 4 lines line spacing.
j Delete all the paragraph markers from the tenth list. Set the first tab stop to
6 cm and the second tab stop to 12 cm. Display the nine people in three
columns using these tab stops.
Functio
4 Create the document shown in Figure 5.17 and save it with the filename
INVITATION.
a Format the text as Times New Roman 12 point, aligned left.
b Format Invitation as Arial 16 point, bold and italic, centred.
c Format From: Social Organisers as Bookman 14 point, blue, underlined.
d Expand Dear: Friends by 5 points.
e Left indent Dress informal to the first tab stop.
f Left indent Venue Mounties to the second tab stop.
g Align Date: 26th February to the right.
h Centre Time: 7.00 p.m..
152
displaying
Styles
A style, or style sheet, is a set of properties that can be applied to a paragraph
(or in some cases a word). These properties can include the font, line spacing,
indentation and justification. Styles are used to define the appearance of
Application software
Function
recurring text elements such as headings, body text and bulleted lists. A style is
chosen using a style name from a drop-down list or a dialogue box (see Figure
5.18). There are three main reasons to use styles:
Styles make a document easier to format. For example, you might set up a
long document and individually format each heading to Arial 14 point bold.
If you later decided to change the headings to 16 point, you would need to
reformat each heading individually. If you had named and defined a style
(such as Heading 1) and applied that style to each heading, you would
simply redefine the style as 16 point. All text with the Heading 1 style
would automatically change.
Styles provide a document with a
consistent look. All other documents created with this style will
have the same appearance. This
provides uniformity for large
organisations.
Styles can be imported into other
applications, such as desktop
publishing programs. This makes
the layout and design of documents much easier.
Word processors include a range
of predefined styles for different
types of text and headings. Users can
Figure 5.18 The Style dialogue box shows the properties of the
use these styles, modify them or
selected style (in this case Heading 5).
create their own.
ITITFact
Fact
The term leading comes from the time when type was set by hand using
individual letters cast in lead. Additional strips of lead were added
between lines to increase the line spacing.
Hyphenation
displaying
Word processing
153
displaying
Page setup
Page setup options are those that affect the entire page. They include the printer
options described in section 5.1 and information about margins, page breaks,
headers and footers. In some word processors these options are referred to as
document formatting.
Margins
Top margin
Margins
Left
margin
Bottom margin
Right
margin
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Page breaks
154
A word processor adds a soft page break automatically when text reaches the
bottom of the page. It adjusts the soft page breaks as the text is edited and
formatted. A hard page break, or manual page break, is one inserted by the user.
It forces the text to break to a new page at a
particular position, such as the beginning of a new
section. In normal view, a soft page break appears
as a dotted line. In page layout view, the pages are
shown as they will print.
When the word processor updates the page
breaks it is called repagination. This occurs automatically during pauses in typing, when switching
to page layout view, or when printing a document.
displaying
Function
contain recurring information, such as the page number, date, title of the
document or section, and author (see Figure 5.20). It is also possible to specify
different headers and footers for odd and even pages. Initially, headers and
footers are connected. If one header is changed, all other headers of the same
type will also change. Headers and footers usually do not appear in normal view
but are shown in page layout view.
Figure 5.21 A survey created in two columns using check boxes as bullets.
Word processing
155
collecting
Although word processors are a writing tool, they also include a range of tools to
create graphics and make documents more interesting. In some word processors
these tools are built-in. In others they are provided as separate but integrated
drawing and painting modules.
Drawing tools: These include basic tools for drawing lines, arrows, rectangles
and ovals. Options are available to use different fill colours, line colours or
shading effects. Objects can be grouped, cropped, resized or distorted.
Word art: This feature allows the user to
add attractive text effects, such as curving
the text or aligning it along a diagonal line.
Shapes: These are ready-made shapes used
to create graphics or charts. In addition to
lines there are basic shapes, block arrows,
flow chart elements, stars and callouts.
Symbols: These are characters and small
graphics that are available in special fonts
such as Wingdings Zapf Dingbats or
Cairo. These symbols can be edited in
the same way as other characters.
Figure 5.22 Some of the text effects available in Microsoft
In addition to graphic tools, word proWord.
cessors are usually packaged with a range of
pictures called clip art. Clip art refers to
prepared pictures that are grouped into topics, such as technology, animals and
education. They can be inserted into documents and changed to suit different
purposes. Clip art pictures can be moved, resized, rotated, distorted and cropped
and can have text wrapped around them.
collecting
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156
Application software
Function
Exercise 5.4
1 What are the reasons for using styles?
2 What is hyphenation?
3 How can hyphenation affect the way text is read?
4 Describe the effect of increasing the margins in a document.
5 When does repagination occur?
6 What are headers and footers?
7 Explain the difference between a table and a column.
8 List some of the drawing tools available in a word processor.
9 What are symbols?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create the table shown in Figure 5.24
and save it with the filename TABLE.
a Format the table by changing the
shading and borders.
b Use an autosum feature to find the
totals.
c Create a footer that contains a page
number.
2 Enter the following items from a shopping list into a word processor. Insert a
semicolon (;) after each item, as shown: eggs; $3.70; ice cream; $4.30; rice; $2.45;
toothpaste; $2.10; tomatoes; $2.50; honey; $2.29; bananas; $1.90; sugar; $2.90;
soft drink; $1.60. Save the document with the filename SHOPPING.
a Convert the text to a table with two columns and nine rows.
b Format the table using borders and shading.
c Create a header containing the date and time.
3 Create an advertisement for a school disco using the following data: name of
your school; time (7.00 p.m. to 11.00 p.m.); todays date; the schools address; cost
($3.00). Enter this data into a word processing document. Save the document
with the filename DISCO.
a Set all four margins to 3 centimetres.
b Centre the text horizontally and vertically on the page.
c Format the document to improve its appearance by changing the typeface,
type size and type style.
d Insert an appropriate clip art picture.
e Edit the graphic by resizing or distorting it.
4 Enter the details from five different clothing labels into a word processor
document. Press Enter at the end of each item so the next label starts on a new
line. Save the document with the filename CLOTHING.
a Format the text in a sans serif typeface at 18 points, aligned left and bold.
b Insert hard page breaks so that each clothing label appears on a new page.
c Insert a header that contains your name.
d Format the header in a serif typeface at 14 points, aligned right and italic.
Word processing
157
a
c
e
g
h
6 Enter an article from a magazine into a word processor document. Save the
document with the filename MAGAZINE.
a Format the heading as Arial 14 point, bold, centred.
b Format the body text as Times New Roman, 12 point, aligned left.
c Display the body text in two columns.
d Justify the text.
e Insert a clip art picture into one of the columns.
f View the pages using page layout view or print preview.
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Chapter review
PART A
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best
answers the question or completes the
sentence.
1 Wordwrap is a basic feature of a word
processor that:
A changes the appearance of a document
B displays the document on the screen
as it would be printed
C automatically moves words to the
next line when a line is full
D allows the user to move through a
document to view the writing
2 When a page is taller than it is wide it
is called:
A portrait orientation
B landscape orientation
C full page view
D page layout view
3 The easiest way to move or copy a
block of text a short distance is using:
A drag and drop
B find and replace
C copy and paste
D cut and paste
4 Spell checkers:
A check the meaning of words
B provide synonyms (and antonyms)
C check for word duplication
D compare words to a dictionary
5 Italic and underline are examples of:
A typefaces
B fonts
C type styles
D stroke weights
Word processing
159
Chapter review
PART B
List of terms
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
Statements
1 Store text to a disk.
2 Change the text of the document.
3 Delete the last action, such as typing a
word.
4 Searches for text.
5 Removes text from a document.
6 A combination of type style and stroke
weight.
7 The design of a set of characters.
8 Aligns text to set horizontal positions.
9 Rows and columns of cells that are
filled with text.
10 Vertical area reserved for text.
11 Method of moving within a document.
12 A section of text, such as a word, phrase,
sentence or paragraph, that is selected
by the user.
13 A measure of the size of a character.
14 The spacing between lines of text.
15 A symbol used at the beginning of an
item in a list.
16 The amount of extra space added to
the margin for binding.
160
Application software
column
delete
edit
find
font style
save
tab
table
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
typeface
undo
type size
bullet
gutter
block
leading
scroll
PART C
Write at least one paragraph on each of
the following questions.
1 Describe the steps taken to create a
word processing document. Your description should include the fundamental features of a word processor.
2 Describe some of the methods used to
edit text.
3 Briefly explain the following terms:
character spacing, line spacing, bullets
and numbering.
4 Describe the purpose of a table and
some of the formatting options for
tables.
5 Computers are not intelligent and do
not understand language. Explain how
spell checkers and grammar checkers
work. Are these tools always correct?
Explain your answer.
chapter
DATABASES
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be
able to:
describe the advantages of electronic databases over manual databases
understand and distinguish between the
data structures (files, records, fields and
characters)
design and display data in forms and tables
edit data and amend the design of a database
sort records in a database
create search specifications using relational
and logical operators
create and print reports based on a selective
query
create a mail merge document.
Overview
This chapter will help you to become an
accomplished user of a database. It examines
the basic features of databases and the major
information processes involved in their use.
You will learn how to modify a database,
search and sort data, construct a query and
generate a report.
Information processes
Electronic databases can be used across most of the seven information
processes. These processes are not distinct, and tasks often involve a
combination of processes. The development of a database emphasises the
following information processes:
Organising: Data structures can be described and data can be arranged in
tables. (See section 6.1.)
Analysing: Data can be interpreted by sorting and searching. (See section 6.3.)
Processing: Data can be modified. (See section 6.2.)
Displaying: Reports can be generated to present data. (See section 6.4.)
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162
ITITFact
Fact
DBASE is one of the leading database management programs for personal
computers. Wayne Ratliffe originally designed it because he needed a
program to help him calculate the odds in a football tipping competition.
Application software
organising
Data is the raw material entered into the information system. Databases store
data in data structures called files, records, fields and characters. The telephone
book is used to illustrate these data structures (see Figure 6.1).
A file is a block of data. When you have done some work on the computer it
is stored in a file. The LZ telephone book would represent a file. A file in a
database is divided into a set of related records.
A record is a collection of facts about one specific entry in a database.
Information about a person in the telephone book is a record. A record is
divided into one or more related fields.
A field is a specific category of data. The family name, address and telephone
number in the telephone book are all fields. Fields are also known as data
items or categories, and are made up of characters.
A character is the smallest unit of data that people can handle, and includes
letters, numbers and special symbols.
Function
Data structures
CHARACTER
CHARACTER
RECORD
La M
40 Pauls St
Ermington
823 5961
Space
FIELD
Laan H
CHARACTER
J
FILE
LZ
Telephone book
RECORD
Laan H
4 John St
Balmain
605 8231
FIELD
CHARACTER
4 John St
Balmain
FIELD
CHARACTER
H
Labab J
7 Mary St
Raby
821 4391
605 8231
CHARACTER
Other records
CHARACTER
Space
Other characters
Figure 6.1 The telephone book as an example of a database.
Databases
163
collecting
Creating a database
A database is created for a particular purpose. For example, large organisations
create a database for personnel records to provide faster access to addresses,
telephone numbers, salaries and service details. All databases are created to meet
a specific need; however, they are not the solution to every problem. Clearly, a
database would not be used if you had to write a letter or draw a map.
Collecting data to be entered into the database may require a great deal of
research or may involve the development of a questionnaire. It may be more
appropriate to use oral questioning or interview techniques to collect data. If a
database is to remain current, the collection of data and the checking of data
will be ongoing.
organising
Data dictionaries
A data dictionary is a comprehensive description of each field in a database. It is
information about the characteristics of each item entered in the database, such
as the field names, field sizes, data types and field descriptions (see Table 6.1).
The field name is the name of the field. It should be carefully selected to avoid
confusion. Field names should be relatively short, clear and unambiguous.
The data type or field type is the kind of data in the field. Each field stores
data of a single data type. Some common data types are text, number, currency, yes/no and date/time.
The field size, or field width, is the number of characters in each field. To
keep the size of the database small and to help it work faster, the field size
should be limited to the smallest number of characters that can be expected
for that field.
The field description specifies the contents of the field.
Field name
Data type
Field size
Description
Family name
Text
25
Given name
Text
20
Street
Text
30
Name of street
Suburb
Text
20
Name of suburb
Postcode
Numeric or text
Postcode of suburb
Home phone
Numeric or text
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164
organising
Database keys
The organisation of data often involves a key. Keys are fields that are used to
sort and retrieve information. It holds a data item that is unique for each record
(such as a student ID number). When the records are sorted, the key is used so
that not all the data is read. There are different types of keys:
A single key is a field where each item of data is unique. Care must be taken
when choosing a single key, as some fields (such as family names) are not
always unique.
Application software
organising
Function
displaying
A form, or label, is used to view, enter and change data in a table. It is often
used to display the data for every field in a single record (see Figure 6.3). In
most databases, the layout of the form can be changed. The user can position
fields, headings, instructions and graphics. A well-designed form provides
information explaining the required data and any
rules that apply to particular fields. For example, a
field name Sex (M/F) leaves no confusion about its
required data. Fonts need be carefully chosen to
ensure the screen is easy to read. The type size, stroke
weight and colour of the font will have an impact on
the user and the accuracy of the data that is entered.
When entering data into a table or form, the user
types the data for the first field and presses the
Enter or Tab key to move to the next field. After
entering the data for the last field of a record, the
next record will appear. This process continues until
Figure 6.3 A form showing fields in the
ADDRESS database.
all the data has been entered.
Databases
165
Exercise 6.1
1 What is a database?
2 Describe the advantages of electronic databases over manual databases.
3 What is the purpose of a DBMS?
4 What is a flat file database?
5 List the four data structures used in databases.
6 What is a data dictionary?
7 Explain the difference between a table and a form.
8 Describe a well-designed form.
9 A database is to be created containing student information. Construct a data
dictionary using these fields: Family name, First name, Sex, School year, Class,
Street, Suburb, Postcode, Phone, DOB (date of birth) and Age.
10 The following questions refer to the ADDRESS database shown in Figure 6.2.
a How many fields are there in the database?
b How many records are contained in the database?
c What is the name of the third field?
d Write down the data in the second record.
e What is the last entry in the Suburb field?
f What is the maximum number of characters needed for the Postcode field?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create the EFTPOS database using the data in Figure 6.4. Save the database with
the filename EFTPOS. Set the data type of the Balance field to currency.
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166
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
2 Create a customer database using the data in Figure 6.5 and save it with the
filename CLIENT. Set the data type of the Last bill and Amount owing fields to
currency, and the Date of bill field to date/time.
Application software
Function
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
3 Create a database of the students in your class using the following field names:
Family name, Given name, M/F, Age, Height, Hair colour. Describe their height as
tall, medium or short. Save the database with the filename STUDENTS.
a Enter the data into a table.
b Design a form that displays all the fields.
c How many fields are in the STUDENTS database?
d How many records are contained in the STUDENTS database?
e What is the data type of the Height field?
f What is the third entry in Family name field?
g What is the maximum number of characters needed for the M/F field?
4 Create a database of movie or sports stars using the following field names:
Family name, Given name, M/F, Age, Famous film/sport. Save the database with
the filename STARS.
a Enter the data into a table.
b Design a form that displays all the fields.
c How many fields are in the STARS database?
d How many records does the STARS database contain?
e What is the data type of the Famous film/sport field?
f What is the fifth entry in the Given name field?
g What is the maximum number of characters needed for the Age field?
Databases
167
processing
Editing data
There are many reasons why data may need to be edited. For example, the user
may need to change a persons address or include a new employee in the address
database. Editing data involves inserting data, deleting data and moving data.
ITITFact
Fact
Data diddling is a computer crime that involves the unauthorised editing
of data. Data diddlers are people who modify data for their own benefit,
such as changing university results.
Functio
Data is inserted into a field in a table or form by placing the cursor in the
desired location. New records are inserted by moving to the last record and
typing in the new data. The user can insert new records by choosing an
appropriate command. It does not matter where the new records are inserted, as
the records can be rearranged by sorting.
Data is deleted from a field in a table or a form by placing the cursor to the
right of the character to be deleted and pressing the Backspace key. A block of
characters can be deleted by selecting the data and pressing the Delete key. The
user can replace existing data by selecting the data and typing in the new data.
To delete a record, the user selects the record and then presses the Delete key
or chooses an appropriate command (see Figure 6.6).
168
Application software
processing
After a database has been put into use, the design may need to be changed. The
structure of the database can be modified to accommodate new requirements.
The data dictionary and the layouts of tables and forms can be redesigned.
To add a field, the user must first decide on
the field name, field size and data type. The
user will then need to go back to each record
and enter data into that field. Remember, it is
convenient to use a table to enter new data
into a single field across many records. Deleting
a field should be done with caution. If a field is
deleted, all its data from every record is gone.
Furthermore, if a field is inserted or deleted,
the user will probably need to edit existing
forms, queries or reports. If a field name is
confusing, it can be easily changed.
The layout of forms and tables can be easily
amended. In a form, the user can move fields,
headings, instructions or graphics anywhere on
the screen. In a table, the user can change the
width of a column, rearrange the columns or
hide a column. In addition to making these
changes, the look of the text in forms and
tables can be changed by selecting different
fonts, styles or colours (see Figure 6.7).
Function
Data is edited using the cut, copy and paste commands. These commands can
be used on a block of text, one or more fields, whole records or the entire table.
The actions are the same as in a word processor. First select the data and then
use the Copy and Paste or Cut and Paste commands. It is possible to copy
data from more than one field, or copy an entire record. Most databases have a
spell checker that will check for spelling errors in fields whose data type is
defined as text.
169
Exercise 6.2
1 What is data integrity?
2 List three ways of editing data.
3 Describe how new records are inserted into a database.
4 Describe how records are deleted from a database.
5 Why would it be necessary to modify the structure of the database?
6 Describe how to add a field in a database.
7 Why should care be taken when deleting a field?
8 How is the layout of forms and tables amended?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create the inventory database using the data in Figure 6.8. Save the database
with a filename of INVENTORY. Set the data type of the fields Date purchased
to date/time and Purchase price to currency.
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170
a Enter the data into a table and design a form that shows all the fields.
b The serial number was entered incorrectly for the following records. Amend
the data.
Amplifier, Technics: 0982233
Heater, Haan: DA25900002
Tuner, Technics: 55673800
c The following purchases were made after the database was created. Insert the
new records.
Television, Phillips, NE-FR24, 76392965, 26-Jun-00, $650.00
Calculator, HP, CFX-9850, N7898, 9-Jul-00, $35.00
Coffee maker, Sharp, GP-484123, 4898341, 27-Jul-00, $90.00
d The radio alarm clock was accidentally damaged and could not be repaired.
Delete this record from the database.
e The place of purchase is a useful piece of information for an inventory
database. Add a field called Place purchased. Insert the data into this field if
all the items purchased before 1999 were bought at Grace Bros and those
purchased after 1999 were bought at David Jones.
Application software
Function
2 Create a library database using the data in Figure 6.9. Save the database with the
filename LIBRARY.
a Enter the data into a table and design a form that shows all the fields.
b The subject was entered incorrectly for the following records. Amend the data.
Skills and Tactics, Motor car
Todays Music, Rock music
c The following books were purchased after the database was created. Insert
the new records.
Australian Technology, Johnson M, Computer, 001.75, 0 86421 674 X, Rigby
Modern Tennis, Norman C, Sport, 768.4, 0 97843 434 X, Reed
d The books on travel were given to a friend. Delete any books on travel from
the library database.
e Delete the Publisher field and all its data.
3 Open the file called CLIENT and amend the data.
a The amount owing for the following clients needs to be changed. Amend the
data.
Advance Cellars, $200.00
Holmers Computer, $0.00
Hanil Restaurant, $500.00
b There are two regular clients to be added to the client database. Insert the
new records.
Central Motors, 200 High St, Penrith, $600.00, October 23 2000, $400.00
Julias, 2 Iluka St, Rose Bay, $1000.00, November 12 2000, $600.00
c Add a field called Postcode and insert the postcodes of all the suburbs.
Ashfield 2131, Balmain 2041, Bondi 2026, Bronte 2024, Coogee 2034, Darlinghurst 2010, Hunters Hill 2110, North Parramatta 2151, North Sydney 2060,
Penrith 2750, Rose Bay 2029, Sydney 2000, Ultimo 2007, Wentworthville 2145
d Delete Tonys Fruit.
4 Open the file called STARS and amend the data.
a Add a field called Nationality. Insert each stars nationality and save the file.
b Insert the following records:
Mel Gibson, M, 42, Mad Max, Australian
Cathy Freeman, F, 26, Athletics, Australian.
Databases
171
analysing
Sorting
Database information is always easier to use when the records are arranged in a
meaningful order, not randomly, as they were entered. Sorting is the process of
arranging data in a particular order. It is a way of organising the data. Sorts can
be performed in either ascending or descending order. Ascending order arranges
data from smallest to largest (09) or from first to last (AZ). Descending order
is the reverse: from largest to smallest (90) or from last to first (ZA).
To carry out a sort, the user first chooses the field on which the sort is to be
based and then selects ascending or descending order. Data can be sorted on more
than one field so that records are arranged in a precise order. For example, the
data shown in Figure 6.10 is sorted on two levels: Suburb is the primary sort
field and Family name is the secondary sort field. The result is that the records
are arranged alphabetically by suburb; where there are multiple records with the
same suburb, they are arranged alphabetically by family name. A telephone
directory is an example of a three-level sort based on family name, first initial and
second initial. A filter is used to limit the records viewed in the database. Records
are filtered by selecting the records or specifying a certain condition.
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analysing
&
storing
retrieving
Searching
One of the major advantages of an electronic database is that data can be
retrieved quickly and easily. Searching is the process of examining a database to
retrieve data. For example, you could step through each record using a form
view or browse in a table. Most DBMSs have a Find or Search command (see
Figure 6.11). The user types in a word or a string of characters and the DBMS
searches through the data looking for a match. It is often possible to limit the
search to a particular field.
Application software
analysing
Function
&
storing
retrieving
Operators
A query is constructed using an operator such as those in Table 6.2. The
operator represents the action to be performed in the query. Operators are
classified as either relational or logical.
Relational operators (=, <>, <, >, <=, >=) are characters or symbols indicating
the relationship between two expressions. They are used for simple queries.
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173
Operator
Description
Relational
=
Equal to
<>
Not equal to
<
Less than
>
Greater than
<=
>=
contains
does not contain
begins with
ends with
is blank
Functio
is not blank
174
Logical
AND
together
OR
either one
NOT
exact opposite
Application software
Function
Exercise 6.3
1 Explain the difference between ascending and descending order.
2 What is a sort on two levels?
3 Describe a simple way to search a small database.
4 What is a query?
5 What is the usual form of a simple query?
6 List three methods of entering a simple query.
7 What is a query language?
8 What are the advantages of using a query language?
9 Describe two common wildcard characters.
10 Explain the difference between the AND operator and the OR operator.
11 Write the meaning of the following queries:
a Class = 11IPT
b Mark > 50
c Sex = F
d Family name begins with B
e Given name = Mi*
f Postcode = 276?
g Suburb = Cabramatta AND Given name = Penny
h Price > $100 AND Colour = Blue
i Postcode = 2457 OR Family name = Brown
j Bill < $100 OR Street number = 5
12 Write out queries using relational operators for each of the following. You can
make up appropriate field names.
a All the girls in the school.
b Year 11 girls in the school.
c Customers who live in either Parramatta or Bankstown.
d Boys in the basketball club who are eligible to play in 16 and under teams.
e All customers who owe more than $20 000 for the month of March.
13 The following questions refer to the ADDRESS database shown in Figure 6.2.
a Write down the second record if sorted on Postcode in ascending order.
b Write down the fourth record if sorted on Given name in descending order.
c Which of the Johns would come first if the primary sort field was Given name
and a secondary sort field was Home phone in ascending order?
d Write down the second record if the primary sort field was Suburb and a
secondary sort field was Family name in descending order.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Open the EFTPOS database and construct the following queries.
a All the people who live in Five Dock.
b All the people with a given name of Doug.
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175
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
Functio
176
Application software
Function
6.4 Reporting
A report is the formatted and organised presentation of data. Examples of
reports are mailing labels, invoices, sales summaries and telephone lists. DBMSs
allow complete control of the design of a report in tabular (column) layout. It is
possible to insert headings, sort data, choose the fields, switch fields, change
column width and select records. The purpose of the report will determine its
content, format and style. Most DBMSs allow different reports to be created
from the database for different purposes. For example, the user might create one
report that groups data and calculates totals, and another report for printing
mailing labels (see Figure 6.13).
Creating a report
displaying
Before creating a report, the user needs to select the required records. For
example, when generating mailing labels you may not need a label for every
person in database. Reports are often constructed using a query or the Find
command.
The next step is to select the fields to be included in the report. These fields
are placed in appropriate positions, formatted and sorted. For the mailing labels
shown in Figure 6.13, the fields chosen were:
<Given name> <Family name>
<Street>
<Suburb> <Postcode>
Reports can include functions such as count, sum and average that perform
calculations on selected fields. Reports typically have a number of standard
sections.
Report sections
Most DBMSs allow the user to define the
following sections in a report:
The report header appears once at the
beginning of a report. It is used for items
such as a company logo, the report title
and the date (see Figure 6.14).
The page header displays information
such as a title, column headings or any
other information needed at the top of
every page. A page header appears after
the report header on the first page of
the report.
177
Most of the information will be displayed in the detail section. The user has
a variety of tools to manipulate and format fields.
The page footer displays information such as the date, page number or any
other information the user wants at the bottom of every page.
The report footer appears once at the end of the report. It displays items
such as report totals. The report footer appears after the page footer on the
last page of the report.
Report format
Before a report is printed, it is necessary to ensure the report has the correct
format. When formatting a report, the user needs to adopt the following good
design principles:
Use headings that identify the purpose of the report.
Use layouts (such as tabular or column) that present the information
effectively.
Balance text on the page either vertically or horizontally.
Ensure styles are consistent throughout the report and suit its purpose.
Ensure columns have clear and descriptive headings.
Use white space appropriately to improve readability.
Include page numbers and the date in the header or footer.
ITITFact
Fact
Online databases are databases that can be accessed via the Internet. They
typically provide current information on news, sport, shares and other
areas of special interest. Online databases are updated daily.
Functio
displaying
178
Mail merge
Organisations often send the same letter to more than one person. For example,
an organisation might want to inform its customers of a new service. One
solution is to write a letter, photocopy it and type in the required names and
addresses. A more efficient solution is to use mail merge. Mail merge combines a
letter written on a word processor with data from another type of file, such as a
database. Mail merge saves time and makes the final documents more personal.
There are three basic steps in carrying out a mail merge:
set up a data source (or database document)
set up a word processor document (or merge document)
merge the two documents.
The mail merge is generally carried out in the word processing application.
The user selects the mail merge command from the relevant menu and is then
prompted for the name of the data source. The user positions the cursor in the
word processor document where the data is to be inserted and chooses a merge
field from the data source. The process is repeated when more than one field is
to be included (see Figure 6.15). Finally, the user selects a command to merge
the documents. The selected fields are replaced with information from the data
source. Each row of information from the data source produces a unique version
of the word processor document.
Application software
Function
Figure 6.15 A mail merge document showing the field names that will
be replaced with data from the database.
Exercise 6.4
1 What is a report?
2 What determines a reports content, format and style?
3 How are records selected for a report?
4 List five sections of a report.
5 What sort of information generally appears in a report header?
6 Why is white space used in a report?
7 What are the advantages of mail merge?
8 How is a mail merge document created?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Open the CLIENT file and create the following reports:
a A tabular layout of all the records sorted by suburb.
b A tabular layout of clients that are restaurants.
c A tabular layout of all the records, containing only the Company and
Amount owing fields.
d A column layout to be used as a mailing label that contains only the
Company, Address and Suburb fields.
2 Open the STARS file and create the following reports:
a A tabular layout of all the records sorted by family name in ascending order.
b A column layout that contains only stars first names and family names.
c A tabular layout of all the stars who are male.
d A column layout showing all the fields, sorted by age in descending order.
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179
3 Open the file called EFTPOS and create the mailing labels shown in Figure 6.16.
4 Create the letter shown in Figure 6.17 and save it with the filename PAYMENT.
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180
a Insert the merged fields from the CLIENT database into the letter.
b Merge the letter and the database so that each person receives a payment
letter.
c Create a query so that only clients with an amount owing will receive the payment letter.
5 Create personalised invitations for your next birthday party.
a Write an invitation to your party using a word processor and save it with the
filename BIRTHDAY.
b Insert the relevant fields from the STUDENTS database into the letter.
c Merge the letter and the database so that a personalised letter is printed for
each person.
Application software
Chapter review
PART A
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best
answers the question or completes the
statement.
1 Electronic databases cannot:
A search and sort data quickly and
accurately
B perform recalculations on data quickly and accurately
C correct and update data
D present data in a variety of ways
2 Which of the following lists are in order
from smallest to largest?
A field, character, record
B field, record, character
C character, field, record
D record, field, character
3 Which data type in a database stores
alphabetic characters?
A word
C field
B text
D record
4 A field that contains unique data in
every record is a:
A primary key
C secondary key
B field key
D compound key
5 Layouts in forms and tables of a database are easily amended by:
A deleting a field
B constructing a query
C designing a report
D moving fields, headings or instructions
6 The most effective way of searching a
large database is to:
A use a search or find command
B print a report
C browse a table
D construct a query
Name
Birthday
Briggs, Teena
07/02/85
Lopez, Paul
25/07/85
Tang, Hu Long
01/11/85
Young, Patsy
25/02/85
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181
Chapter review
PART B
List of terms
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
Statements
1 The process of arranging data in a particular order.
2 The kind of data in the field.
3 A specific category of data.
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
sort
table
field size
search
data integrity
operator
filter
key
PART C
182
data dictionary
data type
database
field
form
query
record
report
Application software
chapter
SPREADSHEETS
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be
able to:
describe the uses and advantages of an
electronic spreadsheet
create a spreadsheet by entering labels,
values and formulas
use a spreadsheets built-in arithmetic, statistical and logical functions
move and copy data from one location to
another in a spreadsheet
use absolute and relative referencing of
cells
format a spreadsheet
use a spreadsheet to create a chart of each
type from numerical data
identify and describe the purpose of each
type of chart.
Overview
This chapter will help you to become an
accomplished user of spreadsheet software. It
examines the basic features of spreadsheets
and the major information processes involved
in their use. You will learn how to enter
formulas and functions, format a spreadsheet
and create an appropriate chart to convey
particular kinds of information.
Information processes
Spreadsheets can be used across all the seven information processes. The
processes are not distinct and tasks often involve a combination of processes.
The development of a spreadsheet emphasises the following information
processes:
Organising: Data is arranged into rows and columns, and formulas are
developed. (See section 7.1.)
Processing: The cells in a spreadsheet can be edited. (See section 7.1.)
Analysing: The user can ask what if questions and identify trends using
charts. (See sections 7.2 and 7.4.)
Displaying: Cells can be formatted and information presented in charts.
(See sections 7.3 and 7.4.)
Functio
184
organising
Structure of a spreadsheet
All spreadsheets consist of rows that run horizontally across the screen and
columns that run vertically down the screen. Rows are usually numbered 1, 2, 3,
4, and so on, while columns are often named in alphabetic terms: A, B, C, up to
Application software
cell
reference
Function
Z; then AA, AB, AC up to AZ; then BA, BB, and so on. Some spreadsheets use
numbers for both rows and columns, so that the rows are referred to as R1, R2,
R3, etc. while the columns are referred to as C1, C2, C3, etc. It is not possible to
view all the rows and columns on the screen at one time. However, the user can
scroll up, down, left, or right in the spreadsheet window to view other sections
as required. Some spreadsheet programs create a workbook made up of one or
more spreadsheets, called worksheets or sheets. These sheets allow the user to
organise related information in a single file. Different sheets are accessed by
clicking the sheet number on a tab.
A cell is the intersection of a row and column (see Figure 7.1). The position
of the cell in the spreadsheet is called its cell reference (or cell address). Clearly,
every cell in a spreadsheet has a unique cell reference. For example, the cell
reference of the highlighted cell in Figure 7.1 is C4, because it is at the intersection of column C and row 4.
If a cell is highlighted in a spreadsheet it is called the selected cell or active
cell. Data can be entered or changed in the selected cell. A cell is selected by
clicking the mouse inside it, and is indicated by a frame around the cell. The
Tab key selects the next cell to the right (i.e. in the next column) and the
Enter key selects the next cell down (i.e. in the next row). Holding down the
Shift key together with the Tab or Enter key reverses the direction of the
selection.
formula bar
row 2
selected
cell C4
worksheet
column E
Spreadsheets are very particular about the type of data that is entered into
each cell. There are three main types of data:
A label is text entered into a cell to explain part of the spreadsheet. This data
is not used in carrying out calculations. Labels are used for the headings of
rows and columns.
Values are numbers stored in a spreadsheet. This data is used in carrying out
calculations.
Formulas are instructions to perform a calculation. The answer to the calculation appears in the cell that contains the formula; the formula itself is not
shown. The user can create a formula or select from predefined functions.
Spreadsheets
185
collecting
Creating a spreadsheet
Time should be spent planning the spreadsheet before any data is entered. The
user should ask themselves:
How is the spreadsheet going to solve the problem?
What data needs to be entered?
How will I obtain the data?
What will be the headings and titles?
How will the numbers look?
What is the relationship between the items of data?
Does it require a calculation? What formulas are to be used? What results are
required?
collecting
Entering data
Data is entered into a cell as a label, value or formula. The first step is to decide
into which cell the data is to be entered. Once this cell is selected, the user
types the text and presses the Enter or Return key. The text appears in the
selected cell. Most spreadsheets treat anything they cannot interpret as a value
(number) or label. Labels that do not fit in one cell, such as a heading, the text
will be displayed in the next cell. The #### symbol in a cell indicates that the
cell is not wide enough to display the number it contains. The user must either
widen the column by dragging the border in the column heading or adjust the
type size. In Figure 7.2 a spreadsheet has been created to calculate the total cost
of items purchased by a sporting goods store. Labels have been entered in all
cells containing words; values have been entered for the number of units and
their cost price (cells B5 to C10); and formulas have been entered to calculate
the totals (cells D5 to D10 and D12).
=B5*C5
=B6*C6
=B7*C7
=B8*C8
=B9*C9
=B10*C10
Functio
=SUM(D5:D10)
Figure 7.2 A spreadsheet containing labels, values and formulas.
processing
186
Editing data
Data in spreadsheets may need to be edited, to correct mistakes or update
values. The simplest way to edit data in a cell is to highlight the cell and make
the changes in the formula bar. Data is inserted or deleted as in a word processor. The new data will replace the old data after pressing the Enter key. It
may also be possible to double-click the cell and modify the data directly in the
cell. In addition to correcting mistakes, editing may include moving data and
replacing data.
Application software
Function
It is possible to copy values, labels, cell references and formulas from one cell
to another, or to a range of cells. The action of moving data in a spreadsheet is
similar to the actions in a word processor. The user can cut and paste, copy and
paste, or drag and drop. First the cells to be moved are highlighted and the Cut
or Copy command is selected. The content of the cells, including their formatting, is transferred to the clipboard. If the user is moving values and labels, these
are inserted into the new location using the Paste command. To copy the
contents of a cell into a range of adjacent cells, select the Fill down or Fill
right commands. The Fill down command copies cells down the column, while
the Fill right command copies cells across a row.
ITITFact
Fact
Financial spreadsheets are used to manage money and are the most
common application of spreadsheet software. Financial spreadsheets can
be used to calculate budgets and loan repayments, produce profit and loss
statements, and monitor investments on the stockmarket.
A spreadsheet allows users to search for specific data that is part of a label,
value or formula and, if required, replace it. For example, you could find all cells
that contained a particular cell reference or all cells whose contents match the
selected cell. The Find and Replace functions are similar to those of a word processor except that the user can search for values or formulas by row or by column.
Spreadsheet layout
displaying
187
Exercise 7.1
1 What is a spreadsheet?
2 Outline the advantages of electronic spreadsheets over manual methods.
3 How are rows and columns named in a spreadsheet?
4 Describe the three main types of data in a spreadsheet.
5 Describe some of the planning that should take place before data is entered into
a spreadsheet.
6 What is the simplest way to edit data in a cell?
7 List four identifiable areas of a well-designed spreadsheet.
8 If the following data were entered into a spreadsheet, would it be classified as a
label, a value or a formula?
a New South Wales
b =D1+E2
c 12
d B1-B7
e 2003 World Cup
9 Write down the data stored in these cells of the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.2.
a A6
b B8
c A1
d D4
e C12
f D10
10 What is the cell reference for the following data in the spreadsheet shown in
Figure 7.2?
a Golf shoes
b $80
c 110
d Units
e =B8*C8
f =SUM(D5:D10)
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Start up a spreadsheet program.
a View the entire spreadsheet by scrolling.
b What is cell reference of the cell in the last row and the last column?
c How many cells make up the spreadsheet?
d Move to the following cells in order: A14, S45, Z1, AD33, AA100.
e Move to cell A1 and type in your name.
Functio
2 Create the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.4 and save it with filename EXPENSES.
a List the cells that contain labels.
b List the cells that contain values.
188
=SUM(C5:C11)
Figure 7.4 The EXPENSES spreadsheet.
Application software
2 Create the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.5. Use the Fill command to copy the
formulas. Save the spreadsheet with the filename PLANTS.
Function
c
d
e
f
g
h
=B6-C6
=SUM(B6:B10)
=AVERAGE(B6:B10)
Figure 7.5 The PLANTS spreadsheet.
Spreadsheets
189
=AVERAGE(C6:E6)
=MIN(C6:E6)
=MAX(C6:E6)
Figure 7.6 The MARKS spreadsheet.
4 Create a spreadsheet to analyse your time management. For each day of the
week, enter the amount of time (in hours) you spend on sleep, eating, television,
homework, study and other activities. Use the spreadsheet to total the hours for
each activity and find their weekly averages.
7.2 Formulas
A formula is an instruction to perform a calculation. Formulas are what give
spreadsheets real power. Whenever values (numbers) are changed, the formulas
recalculate and produce new results. A formula usually starts with a particular
symbol, such as the =, @or + signs. Some examples of formulas are:
=4+3
=A4*2
=SUM(A1:A5).
The asterisk (*) is used for multiplication to avoid confusion with the letter x.
organising
Creating formulas
Formulas consist of four main elements: numbers, cell references, operators and
functions.
Functio
Cell references
190
A formula refers to a cell using a cell reference, such as A2. For example, if you
wanted one cell to contain the same value as another cell, you would enter an =
sign followed by the cell reference. Cell references allow formulas to refer to
other cells in the same sheet, or even to cells in other sheets.
Formulas can contain a range of cells, such as =SUM(A1:A5). A range is a
group of adjacent cells in a single row or column, or in several adjacent rows and
columns. For example, the range B7:C9 refers to the cells B7, B8, B9, C7, C8
and C9. Names are sometimes used to replace a cell reference and a range in a
formula. After the formula is entered, the result of the calculation appears in the
spreadsheet. The formula for the selected cell is usually displayed in the formula
bar. If a formula refers to itself, either directly or indirectly it is called a circular
reference. For example, if the contents of cell B4 was =B4+1, this is a circular
reference. It will result in an endless loop and an error message will be displayed.
Application software
Function
Operators
Operators are used to perform a process, and are used to create formulas.
Operators can be grouped as arithmetic, relational and text (see Table 7.1). For
example, =A1*A2 multiplies the values in cells A1 and A2. If several operators
are combined in a single formula, the operations are carried out according to
mathematical rules. Multiplication and division are carried out before addition
and subtraction unless parentheses are used to group the operations. For
example, the formula =4+8/2 gives an answer of 8, but =(4+8)/2 gives 6.
Operator
Description
Example
addition
=6+2 gives 8
subtraction
=6-2 gives 4
multiplication
=6*2 gives 12
division
=6/2 gives 3
exponentiation
=6^2 gives 36
per cent
equal to
<>
not equal to
<
less than
>
greater than
<=
>=
text joining
Arithmetic
Relational
Text
&
191
Functions
Functions make calculations easier. Spreadsheet programs contain about 100
built-in formulas known as functions. Functions are used to perform simple or
complex calculations. To use a function you must follow special rules or syntax.
Functions consist of a function name such as SUM, a set of parentheses ( ) and
arguments. Arguments are values on which the functions operate. Arguments are:
numbers such as 2,3 in the formula =SUM(2,3).
cell references such as B4, B5,B6,B8 in the formula =SUM(B4,B5,B6,B8).
a range of cells such as B4:B8 in the formula =SUM(B4:B8).
other functions such as MAX(B5,B9) in the formula =SUM(B4,MAX(B5,B9)).
Functions are more efficient than making up your own formula. For example, to
add cells from A1 to A10 the formula is =A1+A2+A3+A4+A5+A6+A7+A9+A10
or =SUM(A1:A10). In addition to being quicker to enter, functions allow you
insert or delete rows or columns. For example, if you deleted row 3 the first
formula would be incorrect and require editing. However, the formula that uses
a function would remain correct. Functions can be grouped as arithmetic,
statistical or logical (see Table 7.2 opposite).
processing
Functio
When a formula is copied from one cell to another, you may want the cell
references in the formula to stay the same, or you may want them to change to
coincide with the new destination cell. Spreadsheets allow for this by providing
two ways of referring to cells: absolute referencing and relative referencing.
Absolute referencing (or absolute addressing) means that the cell references
in a formula do not change if the formula is copied or moved. The formula is
copied exactly, with the cell references remaining the same. The $ sign is used to
indicate an absolute cell reference. For example, cell E5 may contain the
formula =$B$5*$D$5, which multiplies the contents of cells B5 and D5. If this
formula is copied to cell E6, the formula remains =$B$5*$D$5, and the result of
the formula stays the same.
Relative referencing (or relative addressing) allows you to copy the mathematical processes in a formula (such as the operators and functions) while
changing the cell references so that they relate to the new destination cell.
Relative referencing is the default option, so no special symbol is required. For
example, cell E5 may contain the formula =B5*D5, which multiplies the
contents of cells B5 and D5. If this formula is copied to cell E6, it would change
to =B6*D6, which multiplies the contents of cells B6 and D6. The cell
references have changed to coincide with the destination cell (see Figure 7.7).
192
=B5*D5
=B5*C5
=E5-F5
Description
Example
ABS
absolute value
=ABS(-12) gives 12
INT
integer part
=INT(2.99) gives 2
LOOKUP
=LOOKUP(B6,A9:C14)
PI
mathematical constant
=PI()
ROUND
rounds to a number of
decimal places
SQRT
=SQRT(144) gives 12
SUM
=SUM(B4,B5,B6,B7)
AVERAGE
=AVERAGE(2,4) gives 3
COUNT
=COUNT(5,1,12,5) gives 4
MAX
=MAX(3,6,1,4) gives 6
MEDIAN
=MEDIAN(8,3,10) gives 8
MODE
MIN
=MIN(3,6,1,4) gives 1
STDEV
standard deviation
=STDEV(5,10,15) gives 5
AND
=AND(2+2=4,2+3=5)
gives TRUE
=AND(2+2=5,2+3=5)
gives FALSE
FALSE
=FALSE()
IF
=IF(5<7,1,2) gives 1
=IF(8<7,1,2) gives 2
NOT
OR
TRUE
=TRUE()
Arithmetic
Function
Function
Statistical
Logical
Spreadsheets
193
Functio
collecting
194
Templates
A template is a kind of master document or blueprint that is created for repeated use. A spreadsheet template contains labels and formulas to solve a
particular problem. The user enters the values to obtain the required solution. If
numerous spreadsheets need to be created to solve similar problems, a template
can save time and effort. Many spreadsheet programs contain standard templates for a range of uses, such as budgets, profit and loss statements, loan repayments and stock investments. There are four advantages in using a standard
template:
predetermined layoutthe labels and formulas are already entered
ease of usedetailed understanding of formulas is not required
reliabilitythe templates are fully tested, so it is unlikely that they will
produce errors
adaptabilitytemplates can be modified to suit specific needs.
Figure 7.8 shows an example of a simple
template used to calculate the daily income from
each type of room in a motel. A single room costs
$50, a double room $70 and a suite $100. The
income is determined by multiplying the number of
rooms in use by their appropriate rates. These
formulas have been entered into cells D5, D6 and
D7. They show a result of $0.00 until the number
of rooms in use has been entered into cells B5, B6
and B7. The spreadsheet allows the manager to
Figure 7.8 The MOTEL spreadsheet.
quickly determine the total income for each day
and helps make decisions about room rates.
Creating a template involves the following steps:
Understand the problem: Determine the precise requirements of the
template. How is the spreadsheet going to solve the problem? What data
needs to be entered? What information needs to be calculated?
Design the template: Determine the solution to the problem using a spreadsheet. What will be the headings? How will the numbers look? What is the
relationship between the data? What formulas are to be used? What will the
spreadsheet layout be? Remembera problem can have more than one
correct solution.
Construct the template: Enter the labels and formulas and format the
template.
Test the template: Make sure the template is perfect. Test the template with
a variety of values and make modifications if necessary.
Document the template: Make the template easy to use. Add instructions on
the screen or provide a manual for users of the template.
Application software
Function
Exercise 7.2
1 What is a formula?
2 Write the following cells as a range of cells:
a C3, C4, C5, C5, C6, C7, C8, C9, C10
b D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, D7, D8, D9, D10, D11
c A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, B3, C1, C2, C3
3 What is a circular reference?
4 List three different types of operators.
5 Give the results of the following formulas:
a =8*2
b =2^4
d =17-10/2
e =(20-12)/2
g =4^2/4
h =(23-7)/(2*4)
j =((24-4)*(13+7))
c =21%
f =4+2*4+7
i =50%+40%
c =5+8<15
f =6*5>=35-5
Spreadsheets
195
=B5*(1-C5)
=IF(B5<50,10%,15%)
Figure 7.11 The DISCOUNT spreadsheet.
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196
Application software
Function
a Use the template to calculate total vegetable prices for October, November and
December for two different years. The September prices (per kilogram) were:
i potatoes $1.29, onions $1.59, carrots $1.99, beans $2.29, peas $2.99, mushrooms $5.99
ii potatoes $1.19, onions $1.79, carrots $2.09, beans $2.19, peas $3.49, mushrooms $5.89.
b Add a row after Beans so that it appears as row 9.
c In row 9, enter the following data: zucchini; September price of $1.99;
decrease of 3% in price for each of October, November and December.
d The supply of vegetables for next season will be affected by a drought. The
expected percentage increases on the September prices are as follows:
potatoes 25%, onions 17%, carrots 12%, beans 10%, zucchinis 10%, peas 8%,
mushrooms 5%. Modify the formulas in the template using this data.
displaying
Spreadsheet programs allow the user to adjust the height of rows and the width
of columns. This is necessary to accommodate headings, larger type sizes or
wrapping text. Row height and column width are changed in several ways:
Drag the border in the row heading or column heading to the required width.
Redefine the default row height or column width. This adjusts all rows and
columns to the same width. Different spreadsheet programs have different
defaults for row height and column width.
Adjust the row height and column width to the minimum necessary to
display the contents of the selected cells.
Hide selected rows and columns. Hiding rows and columns does not delete
them from the spreadsheet.
In a spreadsheet, it is often necessary to add or delete rows and columns.
When a row is inserted, all the rows below it are moved down one place. When
a column is inserted, all the columns to the right are moved to the right one
place. Including empty rows and columns to add spacing can improve the
readability of the spreadsheet. Deleting rows and columns from a spreadsheet
reverses this process. The rows below move up and the columns to the right
move to the left. Cell references are automatically changed when adding and
deleting rows and columns unless they are absolute cell references.
Cells
displaying
197
Number
Cells that contain numbers are formatted using the toolbar or a command from
the menu bar. Modern spreadsheet programs automatically apply a built-in
format based on the data the user has entered. Number formats for selected
cells include the following:
General: The number is displayed exactly as it is typed. No specific number
format is applied.
Fixed: The number is displayed to a specified number of decimal places. For
example, if two decimal places are specified, 8.592 would appear as 8.59.
Comma: The number is displayed with commas every three places. For
example, 12345678 would appear as 12,345,678.
Currency: A dollar sign ($) is added at the beginning of the number, which is
usually expressed to two decimal places. For example, 8.592 would appear as
$8.59.
Per cent: The number is expressed as a percentage by multiplying it by 100
and adding the per cent symbol (%). For example, 0.34 would appear as 34%.
Scientific: The number is expressed in scientific notation. Many spreadsheet
programs automatically use scientific notation to display very large or very
small values. For example, 12 000 000 would appear as 1.2E+7 (which stands
for 1.2 107).
Date: The number is displayed in a
specified date format (see Figure 7.13).
For example, 4/7/01 could appear as
04/07/2001, 4-Jul or 04- Jul-01 .
Time: The number is expressed as a
time value. For example, 14:30 could
appear as 2:30 PM, 14:30 or 14:30:00.
Fraction: The number is expressed as a
fraction. For example, 0.5 could appear
as 1/2, 2/4 or 50/100.
Special: This format is used to display
special numbers such as postcodes and
phone numbers.
Figure 7.13 Some of the cell formats available in Microsoft Excel.
Functio
Alignment
198
Alignment is the way text lines up, and it is used to distinguish different types of
information. The contents of a cell are aligned either vertically or horizontally.
The default vertical alignment is to the bottom of the cell. However, it can be
changed to top, centre or justified. The default horizontal alignment depends on
the type of data. Labels are aligned left and numbers, dates and times are aligned
right. There are several options for horizontal alignment:
Align left aligns the contents at the left edge of the cell.
Align right aligns the contents at the right edge of the cell.
Centre aligns the contents around the middle of the cell.
Centre across selection centres the contents of the left cell in a selected range.
Wrap text applies wordwrap to the text in a cell.
Shrink to fit reduces the size of the font so that the selected cell fits the
column.
Application software
Function
The orientation of the text in a cell can also be changed. This involves rotating
the text a set number of degrees. For example, if the user needs text to read
vertically upwards, a rotation of 90 degrees is required. Rotated text is generally
harder to read but it does allow longer, more descriptive headings to be used.
Fonts
As with word processors, spreadsheet programs allow users to apply a range of
fonts to emphasise important parts of a spreadsheet. Fonts can applied to
characters within cells, a selected cell or a range of cells. Modifications can be
made to the typeface, type size, type style, stroke weight and colour. Some
spreadsheets provide built-in styles and table formats, which can be used to
ensure a consistent format.
ITITFact
Fact
The first Internet arrest occurred in the USA on 19 May 1996. Leslie Ibsen
Rogge, wanted on bank robbery and other charges, was arrested as a result
of his picture being posted on the FBIs Web site.
Macros
processing
Modern spreadsheet programs allow users to create and use macros. A macro is
a series of commands stored in a file that can be executed by pressing a few
keys. Macros are used to automate repetitive tasks; they save time and reduce
keyboard errors. For example, your name may appear in all your spreadsheets. If
you stored your name in macro and assigned it to the F2 key, every time you
pressed F2 the macro would enter your name. This is a simple example, but
macros can be used to perform much more complex series of actions. They can
open menus, choose commands, enter text and do hundreds of other tasks
extremely quickly.
The easiest way to create a macro is to record it. The user selects the
appropriate Record macro command and enters a name for the macro, so it can
be saved as a file. The user then carries out the desired series of actions, which
are recorded by the macro recorder. When the actions are completed, the user
stops the macro recorder by selecting the appropriate command or button. The
saved macro can then be used by selecting the appropriate Run macro
command. This command will carry out all the actions stored in the macro. In
some programs, a macro can also be assigned to a button on a toolbar.
In addition to using the macro recorder, macros can be created using a macro
language. This requires an understanding of computing programming, and is not
part of this course.
&
storing
retrieving
Spreadsheets
199
Exercise 7.3
1 Why is it necessary to adjust the height of rows and the width of columns?
2 Describe the effect of deleting rows and columns.
3 List 10 different ways in which numbers can be formatted.
4 What is currency format?
5 Describe the default horizontal alignment.
6 Explain the difference between centre and centre across selection.
7 What is orientation of text?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create and format the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.14. The formulas shown in
cells E11, F11 and G11 need to be copied down their respective columns to row
16 using relative references. Save the spreadsheet with the filename FLEET.
=$D$7
=D11*$D$6
=C11*$D$5
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200
a Enter a formula into cell H11 to add the depreciation, kilometre and parking
expenses.
b Copy the formula in cell H11 to cells H12 to H16 using relative references.
c Enter a formula into cell E18 to add the depreciation expenses for the six
vehicles.
d Enter a formula into cell E19 to average the depreciation expenses for the six
vehicles.
e Copy the formulas in cells E18 and E19 to cells F18 to H19 using relative
references.
f The price of petrol increases. Change the parameter in cell D6 from $0.35 to
$0.36.
g You find another parking station that charges $200 per month. What savings
would be made to the total monthly fleet cost by using this parking station?
h Amend the kilometres driven for each fleet vehicle as follows:
i NNO583 to 167
ii TTR444 to 320
iii OJP875 to 270
iv QYF639 to 360
v RRE810 to 291
vi STE568 to 594.
Application software
Function
Porters Communication expands its vehicle fleet. Add two rows after delivery
vehicle RRE810 and insert the following data:
i Row 13: Delivery; HQA266; $37,500; 160
ii Row 14: Executive; OGP484; $61,000; 250.
The delivery vehicle NNO583 is sold. Delete its data.
2 Create and format a spreadsheet using the data in Figure 7.15 and save it with
the filename TAX.
=B4
=LOOKUP(B4,A7:A12)
=LOOKUP(B4,A7:B12)
=C16*C17
=C14-C15
=E15+E17
=LOOKUP(B4,A7:C12)
Figure 7.15 The TAX spreadsheet.
a Use the spreadsheet to calculate the tax payable on the following taxable
incomes:
i $5000.00
ii $15 000.00
iii $36 500.00
iv $38 000.00
v $100 000.00
b The government decides to change the tax rates to 0%, 15%, 30%, 35%, 40%
and 45%. Amend the tax spreadsheet.
c In addition to the above tax rates, the government includes another tax
bracket. People who have a taxable income above $60 000 pay a base tax of
$19 256.50 with a tax rate of 50%. Insert the data to include this tax bracket.
3 Create and format a spreadsheet
using the data in Figure 7.16. The
formulas shown in cells D7, E7 and
F7 need to be copied down their
respective columns to row 12 using
relative references. Save the spreadsheet with the filename BONUS.
=D7+E7
=IF(AND(B7>8,C7>100),200,0)
=IF(OR(B7>8,C7>100),10*C7,0)
Figure 7.16 The BONUS spreadsheet.
Spreadsheets
201
a The data entered for Sue Lane is incorrect. She has completed 9 years of service with 75 hours of overtime. Correct her data.
b Bobs Cakes has decided to increase the additional bonus from $200 to $300.
Make the necessary change to the formulas in column E.
c In addition to increasing the additional bonus, Bobs Cakes has decided to
calculate the bonus and additional bonus on 50 hours of overtime instead of
100 hours. Make the necessary changes to the formulas in columns D and E.
4 a Create an enrolment spreadsheet for Elizabeth High School. Enrolments this
year were as follows:
Year 7
110
Year 8
125
Year 9
107
Year 10
95
Year 11
71
Year 12
60
b A new housing estate has been built near the school and the number of
enrolments is expected to increase by 15% within the next three years. Use
the spreadsheet to calculate the projected student numbers in three years.
c Format the spreadsheet using different fonts and borders to make it more
appealing.
5 a Create a spreadsheet that shows the advertising budgets of the Gourmet
Pizza Company for the past two years. Last year, the budget was allocated as
follows:
newspapers $25 000; television $14 000; radio $5000; Internet/email $11 000;
magazines $8000. This year the allocations are: newspapers $32 000; television
$12 000; radio $7500, Internet/email $20 000; magazines $5500.
b Use the spreadsheet to compare the total budget for each year and the
changes in allocations as a percentage of the total allocation for each medium.
c Format the spreadsheet using different fonts and borders to make it more
appealing.
Functio
7.4 Charts
A chart is a graphical representation of numerical data. While tables are a useful
way of organising data, the reader must study them closely to understand the
information. By representing the data graphically, charts make it much easier to
understand. Charts show trends in the data and allow comparisons to be made
quickly. For that reason, they are widely used in business to help people make
quick and accurate decisions. Charts are also more inviting to look at than a
large chunk of text or numbers, so are good to include in reports. One of the
strengths of electronic spreadsheets is that they can quickly convert rows and
columns of data into a chart that can be read at a glance.
analysing
displaying
202
Creating a chart
To create a chart the user needs to complete the following steps.
Select the data to be charted. A chart must include data from more than one
row or column. Non-adjacent rows or columns can be selected. Figure 7.17
shows four rows of data selected to create a line chart.
Choose the appropriate chart type. The user can choose the chart type that
presents the data most clearly and effectively.
Application software
Function
Specify the data for the axes. Axes are the lines that border the chart data.
They provide a frame of reference for comparisons. The X-axis is the
horizontal line and the Y-axis is the vertical line (see Figure 7.18).
Insert appropriate titles. A chart title describes the information within the
chart while an axis title identifies an axis.
Insert text to make the chart easier to understand. Data labels are additional
text that provides more information about the data. A legend is a key that
explains the patterns, colours or symbols associated with the chart data
chart title
Y-axis
Y-axis title
legend
X-axis
X-axis title
Figure 7.18 A line chart showing data from the RAINFALL spreadsheet.
Types of charts
analysing
There are many different types of charts including bar, column, line and pie.
Each chart type has many variations allowing the user to show data differently.
displaying
Bar charts
A bar chart presents data in horizontal rectangles. The length of the rectangle
gives a visual representation of its value. In bar charts, numeric values are
plotted along the X-axis and categories along the Y-axis. Categories are divisions
of the chart data. Bar charts are good for showing comparisons between items
and variation over a period of time.
In Figure 7.19, a bar chart has been created from a spreadsheet to analyse
airport profits. Each rectangle is called a data marker. A set of related data
markers corresponding to a single row or column is called a data series. Column
B (Year 1) and column C (Year 2) from the spreadsheet each form a data series.
A legend has been used to describe each data series. Each airport is a category
along the Y-axis and a scale for the numeric values has been constructed along
the X-axis.
Spreadsheets
203
Column charts
A column chart presents data in vertical rectangles. The height of each rectangle
gives a visual representation of its value. In column charts, categories are plotted
along the X-axis and numeric values along the Y-axis. Like bar charts, column
charts are also good for making comparisons between items and showing
variation over a period of time.
In Figure 7.20, a column chart has been created to compare sales in New
South Wales, Queensland and Victoria. Row 7 (NSW), row 8 (QLD) and row 9
(VIC) from the spreadsheet each form a data series.
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data series
204
A line chart presents data by joining adjacent values with a line. Each value is
plotted as a dot called a data marker or data point. In line charts, categories are
usually plotted along the X-axis and numeric values along the Y-axis. Line charts
are good for showing trends or changes in data over a period of time. They
emphasise time flow and rate of change rather than the amount of change.
In Figure 7.21, a line chart has been created to show the trends in the
number of trips booked by a travel agent over four months. Row 6 (Uluru), row
7 (Perth), row 8 (Gold Coast) and row 9 (Cairns) each form a data series.
Function
Line charts
Pie charts
A pie chart presents data as sectors of a
circle (slices of a pie). Each area of a
sector is a data marker and there is
always only one data series. A pie chart
shows the relationship or proportions of
parts to a whole. Pie charts appeal to
people because they are easy to read
and are attractive.
In Figure 7.22, a pie chart has been
created to show the proportions of
different types of waste products
handled by a waste disposal company.
Clearly, pie charts do not have axes but
show the relative percentages of each
data marker.
205
Exercise 7.4
1 Why would you create a chart?
2 Outline the steps needed to create a chart.
3 How are axes used on a chart?
4 Distinguish between a data label and a legend.
5 Describe four different chart types.
6 Describe the data marker in:
a a bar chart
b a pie chart.
Functio
3 Create the spreadsheet and line chart shown in Figure 7.21 and save it with the
filename TRIPS.
a In the spreadsheet, delete the data for December.
b Create the line chart with the amended data.
c Delete the chart title.
d Change the units on the Y-axis from 100 to 50.
e Print the line chart.
206
4 Create the spreadsheet and pie chart shown in Figure 7.22 and save it with the
filename WASTE.
a In the spreadsheet, delete the Other waste category (row 9) and add a new
category for metal.
b Change the percentage for each waste product as follows:
i Paper to 29%
ii Food to 32%
iii Plastic to 22%
iv Glass to 10%
v Metal to 7%.
c Create the pie chart with the new data.
d Print the pie chart.
Application software
Chapter review
PART A
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best
answers the question or completes the
statement.
1 Electronic spreadsheets cannot:
A perform calculations quickly and
accurately
B generate charts to present data
C carry out recalculations to help
decision-making
D quickly and accurately search a large
amount of data
2 A series of cells placed vertically in a
spreadsheet is a:
A row
B column
C value
D label
3 Instructions to perform a calculation in
a spreadsheet are called:
A a template
B an operator
C an argument
D a formula
4 The value on which a function operates
is called:
A an operator
B a formula
C a function name
D an argument
5 In a spreadsheet, the contents of cell E1
is =$C$4. This is copied and pasted into
cell F1. The formula as it appears in cell
F1 is:
A =$D$4
B =$D$5
C =$C$4
D =$C$5
Spreadsheets
207
Chapter review
PART B
For each of the following statements,
select from the list of terms the one that
most closely fits the statement. Write the
letter corresponding to your choice.
Statements
1 A formula that refers to itself, either
directly or indirectly.
2 A graphical representation of numerical data.
3 A group of cells in a single row or
column, or in several adjacent rows and
columns.
4 A way of specifying a cell in a formula
so that it stays the same when the
formula is copied to another location.
5 An instruction to perform a calculation.
6 A number stored in a spreadsheet on
which calculations are carried out.
7 Performs a process and are used to
build up required formulas.
8 Text entered into a cell to provide an
explanation of the spreadsheet.
9 The intersection of a row and a column.
10 The position of a cell in a spreadsheet.
11 A command used to copy the contents
of a cell into a range of adjacent cells.
12 A master document that is created for
repeated use.
13 A stored series of commands that can
be executed by pressing a few keys.
208
Application software
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
chart
value
macro
input area
template
calculation area
fill down
selected cell
PART C
Write at least one paragraph on each of
the following questions.
1 Explain the difference between the
three main types of data in a spreadsheet. Give examples of each type.
2 Briefly explain the following terms:
a function
b what if prediction
c relational operator.
3 Briefly describe the options for formatting cells.
4 What types of charts can be created
using a spreadsheet? Outline the steps
required to create a chart.
chapter
GRAPHICS
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be
able to:
describe the advantages of using a computer graphic
describe the essential features of painting
and drawing programs
create and manipulate bit-mapped graphics
create and manipulate vector graphics as
geometric shapes
crop, resize and distort graphic images
describe the relationship between resolution, colour and file size
compare and contrast bit-mapped graphics
and vector graphics.
Overview
This chapter will develop your knowledge and
skills in relation to computer graphics. It
examines the basic features of graphics and
the major information processes involved in
their use. You will learn how to modify a
graphic by positioning, cropping, resizing and
distorting it.
Information processes
Most modern application software contains some basic graphics tools.
Specialist graphics programs are also available for all types of computers. They
enable you to draw pictures, save them and alter them in a variety of ways.
Graphics software can be used across all of the seven information processes
with particular emphasis on the following processes:
Collecting: Graphics can be created, captured or obtained in the form of
clip art. (See section 8.1.)
Organising: Images can be represented using paint and draw software.
(See sections 8.3 and 8.4.)
Processing: Images can be edited and manipulated. (See section 8.2.)
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210
Application software
Function
Inserting graphics
collecting
Methods of creating graphics are discussed in the next section; however, it is not
always necessary to create graphics from scratch. It is possible to use clip art and
capture graphics from other sources.
Clip art
Clip art refers to prepared pictures that are often provided with other
application software (such as word processors) or distributed separately on CDROM or via the Internet. The pictures are generally grouped by subject, such as
technology, animals or education (see Figure 8.2). There are millions of clip art
drawings and photographs available in a wide variety of formats. You can import
a clip art image into a graphics program and change it to suit your purpose. Clip
art images can be resized, rotated or retouched. This makes it very easy to
include an appropriate picture in your document. Clip art may have various
degrees of copyright control, so it is important to use clip art in a way that does
not infringe copyright. (Copyright is discussed in more detail on pages 323.)
Figure 8.2 Examples of clip art provided with the Microsoft Office software package.
Graphics
211
Capturing graphics
Capturing a graphic involves obtaining an image in digital form so that it can be
stored, edited and printed by a computer. Graphics are captured from paper or
the Internet or using a digital camera or video camera.
A scanner is used to capture graphics from paper. The scanner converts the
image into digital data that can be processed by the computer. Scanners offer
a range of different resolutions, such as 2400 dpi, 4800 dpi and 9600 dpi.
The higher the resolution, the better the quality of the image but the larger
the file size.
Web browsers allow users to capture graphics from Web sites and paste them
into other applications. However, most graphics on the Internet are protected
by copyright and may only be used in ways that do not infringe copyright.
A digital camera captures images like a conventional camera, but saves them
on a storage medium such as a memory card, hard disk drive or floppy disk.
A video camera captures moving images on video tape. These can be
converted to digital form and transferred to a computer using special
hardware and software. There are also digital video cameras that record
images directly in digital format.
organising
Paint programs
Functio
A paint program creates a graphic by telling the computer how to display each
pixel. Paint programs include tools such as pencils, erasers and paintbrushes.
They contain geometric shapes and a large selection of colours and patterns.
Colours, lines and shapes can be placed exactly where you want them. Images
are edited by erasing or adding dots. Some common paint programs are
Paintbrush, PixelPaint, SuperPaint, GEM Paint, Photoshop, Canvas and Deluxe
Paint. AppleWorks (formerly ClarisWorks) includes a paint module.
The graphics created by a painting program are called bit-mapped graphics or
raster graphics. Bit-mapped graphics produce good quality images when shading
and detail are needed. They are excellent at manipulating detail in scanned
images, such as photographs. However, when transformed (resized or stretched),
bit-mapped graphics become ragged and suffer loss of resolution (see Figure 8.3).
212
Function
Draw programs
A draw program creates graphics by dividing the picture into a number of
objects, such as straight lines, curves and shapes. Each object is defined by its
characteristics, such as position, line width and pattern. These characteristics are
stored as mathematical expressions and displayed on the screen as pixels.
Objects are created using a variety of tools. The basic tools are a straight line,
circle, rectangle, rounded rectangle, arc and polygon. Users can change the line
thickness of each of these tools and fill an enclosed area with a colour or
pattern. The range of colours is often more limited than in paint programs.
Graphics are edited by changing the characteristics of each object, not by erasing
or adding dots. Some common drawing programs are ClarisDraw, Adobe
Illustrator, CorelDraw, Macromedia FreeHand and Microsoft Draw. AppleWorks
(formerly ClarisWorks) includes a draw module.
The graphics created by a drawing program are called vector graphics or
object-oriented graphics. Vector graphics do not lose resolution when they are
transformed (resized or stretched) and require less memory than bit-mapped
graphics (see Figure 8.3). Vector graphics are not converted into dots until their
size and resolution has been specified for printing.
Graphic tools
Although painting and drawing programs create different types of graphics, they
share some common graphic tools and techniques. Table 8.1 contains the basic
tools found in many graphics packages. To create a graphic, the user selects the
appropriate toolbox icon and moves the pointer to the window. Colours and
Tool
Name
Use
Selection arrow
Text tool
Magnifier
Rectangle tool
Circle tool
Arc tool
Eraser
Paint brush
Paint can
Spray can
213
patterns can be chosen from palettes and used to fill the inside of a shape or
change the colour of the shape. Images are processed (edited) using these basic
tools.
ITITFact
Fact
The development of the mouse allowed painting with a computer to be
more intuitive. Prior to that, people had to use the arrow keys on the
keyboard, which was a fairly artificial way of drawing.
Exercise 8.1
1 What is a graphic?
2 List three reasons for using a graphic.
3 What is the resolution of a graphic?
4 How can you use clip art to create an appropriate picture in your document?
5 How can you capture a graphic?
6 How does a paint program create a graphic?
7 Describe some of the tools used in a painting program.
8 How does a draw program create a graphic?
9 Describe some of the tools used in a drawing program.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Open a clip art file in a graphics program. Alter the graphic by changing its size
and background colour. Save the graphic with the filename CLIPART.
2 Draw the transistor shown in Figure 8.3 using a painting program and a drawing
program. Save the graphic with the filename of TRANSISTOR. Compare and
contrast the output of the two graphics programs.
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214
Application software
Function
5 Draw a computer keyboard using a graphics program and save it with the filename KEYBOARD.
Positioning
processing
You will often need to move a graphic (or an object within the graphic) to a
particular position. Before you can move a graphic it must be selected. In a
painting program, you can select a region using a special selection tool, such as a
rectangle or a lasso. The selected region is usually shown using a dotted line. In a
drawing program you use the selection arrow to choose an object by clicking the
interior or border of the object. If you have successfully selected the object, it
will display handles. Handles are usually located in the four corners and in the
middle of each side. Most drawing programs allow you to select multiple objects
(usually by holding down the Shift key) to make the same change to several
objects. After the graphic or item has been selected, it can be moved by holding
down the mouse button and dragging the selection to the required position.
Rulers and grids make it easy to move a graphic to the exact position.
ITITFact
Fact
The term morphing comes from the word metamorphosis, which means
transformation. In graphics, morphing is a special effect that gradually
transforms one image into another.
Graphics
215
processing
Cropping
Cropping means using only part of an image. The method of cropping a picture
varies between programs but it usually involves selecting the graphic and
dragging the mouse to specify the areas to be cropped (omitted). In some
programs the user must first select a cropping tool.
Cropping can have different effects in different programs. In some cases, the
cropped parts of the image are permanently deleted. In other programs, the
cropped parts are not deleted but simply hidden. The picture can be restored to
its original state (see Figure 8.6).
processing
Resizing
Functio
Resizing means making a graphic smaller or bigger. It keeps the proportions the
same so that the picture will not be distorted. In a drawing program, a graphic
can be resized without affecting its quality. Resizing usually involves selecting
the graphic or object and dragging one of its handles inward to shrink the
picture or outward to expand it (see Figure 8.7). In some cases one or more keys
must be held down at the same time to maintain the pictures proportions. If
the graphics program does not have handles around objects, there is usually a
special resize command.
216
Application software
processing
Function
Distorting
A graphic can also be changed using the Flip and Rotate commands (see
Figure 8.9). The Flip Horizontal command creates a mirror image of the
graphic: the right side becomes the left side and vice versa. The Flip Vertical
command creates a mirror image by swapping the top and the bottom. The
Rotate command allows you to spin the graphic or object a certain number of
degrees.
Exercise 8.2
1 What tools in a painting program can be used to select a region?
2 How do you select an object in a drawing program?
3 Where are the handles of a selected object usually located?
4 What is used to move a graphic to an exact position?
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217
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Application software
Function
Bit-mapping
Bit-mapping, or memory mapping, is the relationship between the image on the
screen and the bits in memory. One or more bits must be stored for each pixel
on the screen. At the simplest level, one pixel can represent one bit: a 0 would
mean the pixel was off and a 1 would mean the pixel was on. Consider a blackand-white graphic that is 640 pixels horizontally and 400 pixels vertically: this
amounts to 256 000 (640 400) pixels and would require 256 000 bits of
memory. Bits are combined in groups of eight to form bytes. It follows that the
graphic would require 32 000 (256 000 8) bytes, or about 32 Kb of memory.
Tones, or greyscale, refers to the progressive series of shades ranging from
black through to white. Tones are used in graphics to add detail to images but
they require more memory than simple black and white. Instead of one bit being
sufficient to represent one pixel, several bits will be required, depending on the
number of tones. For example, if two bits are used to represent one pixel, four
shades will be possible, since two bits result in four binary numbers: 00, 01, 10
and 11. If three bits are used to represent one pixel, eight shades will be
possible, since three bits results in eight binary numbers: 000, 001, 010, 011,
100, 101, 110 and 111. It follows that if you increase the number of bits
assigned to each pixel by one, the number of tones or shades is multiplied by
two (see Table 8.2). As a result, if we
change the 640 400 graphic from
Number of bits
Number of tones
black-and-white to 16 tones it will reor colours
quire four bits per pixel. The graphic
1
2
would then require four times the
amount of memory, or about 128 Kb
2
4
(4 32 Kb).
3
8
Colour graphics are obtained from
4
16
an RGB (red-green-blue) monitor that
uses combinations of red, green and
5
32
blue light to display a wide range of
6
64
colours. The minimum number of
colours that can be displayed is eight:
7
128
red only; green only; blue only; red
8
256
and green (yellow); red and blue
16
65 536
(magenta); blue and green (cyan); red,
green, and blue (white); and no colour
24
16 777 216
(black). Displaying and storing colour
32
4 294 967 296
graphics requires more bits per
pixelmore memory. For example in
Table 8.2 The relationship between bits and
Table 8.2, if eight bits represent one
tones or colours.
organising
&
storing
retrieving
Graphics
219
pixel, a graphic could contain 256 colours, or 64 colours each with 4 tones (64
4), or 32 colours each with 8 tones (32 8). As a result, if the 640 400 pixel
black-and-white graphic is changed to 16 tones and 16 colours it will require
eight bits per pixel. The graphic would then require eight times the amount of
memory, or about 256 Kb (8 32 Kb).
processing
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ITITFact
Fact
Many graphics programs have their own storage formats. There have been
many attempts to create standard graphics format, but each format has
advantages and disadvantages.
Application software
To import pictures into a painting program, it is important to have some knowledge of file storage formats. Table 8.3 shows some of the common file storage
formats for bit-mapped graphics. The three-letter filename extension is used on
IBM-compatible computers to identify a pictures format. For example, a file
called PICTURE.TIF is stored as a Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) graphic.
This is a standard file format commonly used for scanning, storage and interchange of bit-mapped, greyscale and colour images.
Extension
Description
Bit-map
BMP
PC Paintbrush
PCX
TIF
JPG
Graphics Interchange
Format
GIF
&
storing
retrieving
Function
Exercise 8.3
1 What is a bit-mapped graphic?
2 What characteristics determine the size of a graphic file?
3 What is bit-mapping?
4 Calculate the number of bytes needed to store the following graphics:
a a black-and-white graphic with a resolution of 800 600 pixels and
2 tones
b a black-and-white graphic with a resolution of 1024 768 pixels and
16 tones
c a colour graphic with a resolution of 1280 1024 pixels and 4 colours
d a colour graphic with a resolution of 640 480 pixels and 256 colours
e a colour graphic with a resolution of 1600 1200 pixels and 4 colours each
with 4 tones
f a colour graphic with a resolution of 1024 768 pixels and 32 colours each
with 8 tones
g a colour graphic with a resolution of 800 600 pixels that uses 4096 colours
and 16 tones.
5 What causes the staircase pattern called aliasing?
6 Why is resizing a black-and-white bit-mapped graphic a greater problem than
resizing a greyscale or colour graphic?
Graphics
221
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Application software
Function
Drawing elements
collecting
Objects are created in a vector graphic program using drawing elements. The
basic tools are the straight line, circle, rectangle, rounded rectangle, arc and
polygon (see Figure 8.16). You can change the line thickness of each of these
tools and fill an enclosed area with a colour or pattern. Colour is assigned to an
object, though there is often a limit to the number of colours. Some drawing
programs have additional tools such as stars, triangles, hearts and flow chart
symbols. When you draw a shape it usually starts at a corner, although it is
possible to create some shapes from the centre. In addition to all of the drawing
tools, text can be entered in a variety of fonts and sizes.
processing
Vector graphics are edited using a drawing program. Even though the graphic is
displayed on the screen using pixels, the computer defines the graphic by the
characteristics of each object. For this reason, editing involves altering the
characteristics of the objects rather than adding and deleting pixels. This is a
fundamental difference between bit-mapped graphics and vector graphics.
Objects can be deleted, moved, cut and copied. First, the object to be edited
must be selected using the selection tool.
Graphics
223
To delete an object, press the Backspace or Delete key or select the Clear
command.
To move an object, drag the object to its new position.
To cut an object and move it into the clipboard, select the Cut command.
The object will disappear. The clipboard can be used as a temporary storage
area for objects.
To copy an object into the clipboard, select the Copy command.
To paste an object from the clipboard, select the Paste command. The
object will reappear and you can move it to the desired position.
After you have drawn an object, you can always go back and change its size
or shape. Resizing makes the object smaller or bigger.
To resize an object, select the object and drag the handles inward to make it
smaller or outward to make it bigger. You may need to change the handles to
a resize icon depending on the drawing program.
Distorting changes the appearance of an object. For example, you can change
the proportions of an object by stretching it. Objects can also be rotated to the
left or the right, and flipped horizontally or vertically. Remember that resizing
and distorting an object does not reduce its quality.
Objects in a vector graphic can overlap (see Figure 8.17). In general, the
most recently created objects are displayed in front of older ones. However, you
may want to rearrange objects. To move an object to the top, select the Bring to
Front command. To move an object to the bottom, select the Send to Back
command. The overlapping star and squiggly lines in Figure 8.17 are arranged
using these commands.
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Objects that are associated can be grouped together as if they were a single
object. For example, you may have used several objects to draw a car. If you
group these objects together you can move or resize the car as a whole, rather
than having to change each object. Editing is much easier if associated objects
are grouped. Objects can be ungrouped if you need to edit a single object.
&
storing
retrieving
Application software
Function
Extension
Description
Computer Graphics
Metafile
CGM
Encapsulated Postscript
EPS
Macintosh PICT
PCT
WMF
WordPerfect Graphic
WPG
Exercise 8.4
1 How does the computer store the characteristics of each object?
2 List six basic tools used to create a vector graphic.
3 How is colour used in a drawing program?
4 How do you edit a vector graphic?
5 List four ways you can change the characteristics of an object.
6 How do you resize an object?
7 List the commands used to rearrange objects that overlap.
8 Why are objects grouped?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Draw the overlapping star and squiggly lines shown in Figure 8.17 using a
drawing program and save it with the filename STAR. Rearrange the two objects.
2 Draw the pyramid shown in Figure 8.18 using a drawing program and save it
with the filename PYRAMID.
225
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Application software
Chapter review
PART A
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best
answers the question or completes the
statement.
1 Resolution is usually measured in terms
of the:
A amount of memory on the graphics
card
B size of the screen
C total number of pixels on the screen
D total number of characters on the
screen
2 A pixel is:
A a picture containing tiny dots
B the smallest part of the screen that
can be controlled by the computer
C the relationship between the image
on the screen and the bits in memory
D a group of tiny dots in a picture
3 A graphic created by a painting
program is called a:
A picture graphic
B vector graphic
C bit-mapped graphic
D PIC file
4 Cropping a graphic:
A changes its appearance and proportions
B hides or deletes part of an image
C makes it smaller or bigger
D moves it to a particular position
5 To move a graphic to a particular
position it first must be:
A chosen
B named
C selected
D dragged
Graphics
227
Chapter review
PART B
For each of the following statements,
select from the list of terms the one that
most closely fits the statement. Write the
letter corresponding to your choice.
Statements
1 A tiny dot in a computer graphic.
2 The total number of pixels that can be
displayed on a screen.
3 Creates a graphic by telling the computer how to display each pixel.
4 A graphic created by a painting program.
5 Creates a graphic by dividing the picture into a number of objects.
6 A graphic created by a drawing program.
7 Prepared pictures that are generally
grouped by subject, such as technology,
animals or education.
8 Deleting or hiding part of a picture you
do not want to see.
9 The relationship between the image on
the screen and the bits in memory.
10 A staircase pattern formed when you
enlarge a bit-mapped graphic.
11 Changing the appearance and proportions of a graphic.
12 Objects in a vector graphic that are
associated together to act as a single
object.
228
Application software
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
resolution
vector graphic
capturing
palette
symbol
handle
distorting
group
PART C
Write at least one paragraph on each of
the following questions.
1 Describe four common tools found in
graphics programs.
2 Explain the difference between a painting program and a drawing program.
3 Briefly explain the following terms:
a bit-mapping b resolution.
4 Describe three ways of modifying a
graphic.
5 Describe the differences between
editing a bit-mapped graphic and a
vector graphic.
chapter
DESKTOP
PUBLISHING
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be
able to:
describe the stages in desktop publishing
create publications using a desktop publishing program
describe and use the basic design elements
create publications using good design
principles
use the page layout tools of a desktop
publishing program.
Overview
This chapter will develop your knowledge and
skills in relation to desktop publishing. It
examines the basic features of desktop
publishing and the major information
processes involved in their use. You will learn
the basic design elements, the principles of
page layout and how to print a publication.
Information processes
Planning, creating and distributing a publication spans all seven of the information processes. Desktop publishing software emphasises the following
information processes:
Collecting: The publication is planned and text and images are gathered.
(See sections 9.1 and 9.2.)
Organising: Data is combined in different formats. (See section 9.2.)
Processing: Text and images are manipulated in the desktop publishing
program. (See section 9.1.)
Displaying: The page layouts are viewed on screen and printed. (See
sections 9.2, 9.3 and 9.4.)
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230
Function
collecting
The first step is to spend some time planning a publication. Poor planning leads
to publications that are confusing and fail to deliver the intended message. Wellplanned publications present information in a clear, attractive and effective way.
Planning involves the following steps:
Identify the purpose: What is the reason for publishing the document?
Determine the essential information and the design elements to create a
good design.
Identify the audience: Who will read the publication? This is a critical factor,
as the audience will determine the tone, content level, and the use of
graphics and headlines.
Gather ideas: Find a good design and adapt the ideas. Desktop publishing
programs contain templates to help inexperienced users.
After a publication has been planned, it can be helpful to make a pencil
sketch of the design ideas. Desktop publishing software can then be used to
create a sample document using place-holder text and graphics. This sample
document should contain all the planned design elementsthe position of
headings, the number of columns for text, the borders, the placement of
graphics and the type styles used for text. It will serve as a guide during the page
layout stage. A good design makes it easy for the reader to receive information.
Creating content
collecting
Text can be entered directly into the desktop publishing program or imported
from a word processing program. Because word processors contain superior text
editing tools, it is best to use a word processor if the text exceeds a paragraph in
length. Most desktop publishing programs can import text in a wide range of file
formats and can preserve a documents formatting if necessary.
Graphics can be prepared using the drawing tools in the desktop publishing
program or imported from a graphics program. The drawing tools included in
desktop publishing programs are very basic and are only suitable for simple
drawings. Most desktop publishing programs can import graphics in a wide
range of file formats, including bit-mapped and vector graphics.
Page layout
organising
processing
Page layout is the arrangement of text and graphics on a page. Publications are
built from design elements such as text and graphics. These elements can appear
side-by-side or even overlap. Words can be stretched, turned and twisted into a
picture. Stories can jump from page to page. This control is achieved by treating
each element as an object. Objects in a desktop publishing program are similar
Desktop publishing
231
P
PS
POWERSPARK
Electrical Services Pty Ltd
456 2777
to objects in a drawing program. There are text objects, picture objects and
drawn objects: text objects contain words; picture objects contain graphics; and
drawn objects include lines, borders and geometric shapes. A desktop publishing
document is a combination of different kinds of objects. The sign in Figure 9.1 is
created using a combination of text objects and graphic objects.
In desktop publishing, objects are defined by creating a frame. A frame is a
space or box that holds text or a graphic. If a text frame is created, you can type
words into that frame, making a text object. If a picture frame is created, you
can import a picture into it, making a graphic object. The number of objects on
the page increases as a design becomes more complex. The content of each
object is independent of its frame and is easily formatted.
You can control the way text flows in a publication by connecting, or linking,
text frames. A text frames on one page can be connected to another text frame
on the same page or on a different page. This is useful in newspapers and
magazines, where a story begins on one page and is continued several pages later.
Text frames are connected using a Connect command or clicking with a special
linking tool. If a text frame contains too much text, the excess text is stored in
an invisible overflow area. To see this text, you must increase the size of the text
frame, decrease the size of the text, or connect the frame to another text frame.
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232
Application software
Function
Figure 9.2 Part of a document at actual size, or 100% view (left) and at 50% view (above).
Exercise 9.1
1 Outline four advantages in desktop publishing.
2 Explain how using a desktop publishing program is different to using a word
processor.
3 List the basic stages of desktop publishing.
4 Why is the audience a critical factor to a publication?
5 Describe the three kinds of objects in a desktop publishing program.
6 What is a frame?
7 How do you connect text frames?
8 What happens if a text frame contains too much text?
9 Explain the purpose of full page view and actual size view.
10 What proportion of the actual size are the following viewing modes?
a zoom of 50%
b zoom of 400%
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create a Wanted poster using a desktop publishing program by following these
steps.
a Make a text frame near the top of the page and enter the word WANTED.
b Select the text and alter the typeface, type style and type size. Resize the text
frame if necessary.
c Import a picture of yourself or someone else.
d Resize the picture.
e Crop the picture as required.
f Position the picture frame in the centre of the page and add a border around it.
g Add another text frame below the picture. Type in the details of the wanted
person and the reward offered.
h Alter the typeface, type style and type size. Resize the text frame if necessary.
i Add a border around the outside of the poster.
2 Create an advertisement similar to Figure 9.1 using a DTP program and save it
with the filename POWERSPARK.
Desktop publishing
233
3 Create a letterhead similar to Figure 9.3 using a DTP program and save it with
the filename LETTERHEAD.
42 Elizabeth Drive
Liverpool NSW 2170
4 Using a DTP program, create a two-page document with a two-column page layout. Save it with the filename TEXTFLOW.
a Add a text frame across the top of the first page for a large heading.
b Add a text frame in each column on both pages (four in all).
c In a word processor, create two new documents of around 100 words each.
They could be favourite poems, short stories you have written, book reviews,
or reviews of TV programs or films. Save them with the filenames TEXT1 and
TEXT2.
d In your DTP document, type a main heading in the top text frame and format
the text.
e Import the text from your TEXT1 document into the left-hand text frame on
page 1.
f Connect it to the left-hand text frame on page 2. Set the text size so that the
text fills both frames.
g Repeat the process for the TEXT2 document using the right-hand text frames.
5 Create an advertisement similar to Figure 9.4 using a DTP program and save it
with the filename APPLECENTRE.
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367 8585
Application software
Publications are built using the basic elements of design: text, graphics and
colour. The use of these elements determines whether a publication looks good
and is effective in conveying its message.
Text
collecting
Desktop publishing programs give users a high degree of control over the
formatting of text. Users can usually choose from a wide variety of fonts. A font
is a set of characters in one typeface with a particular type size, type style and
stroke weight. A font can be described using a number of characteristics (see
Figure 9.5):
The baseline is an imaginary line on which the characters sit.
The font height (or type size) is a measure of the physical size of the typeface. It is measured in points, where one point is equal to 0.351 mm or 1/72
of an inch.
The x-height is the height of the lower case letters.
The cap height is the height of the upper case letters.
An ascender is the part of a letter that extends above the x-height.
A descender is the part of a letter that extends below the x-height.
Leading is the spacing between lines of text.
displaying
Function
ascender
cap
height
Desktop
x-height
descender
baseline
serifs
font
height
leading
Typefaces can be divided into two main groups: serif and sans serif. Serif
typefaces, such as Times Roman, have little tails (serifs) at the ends of their
characters. Sans serif typefaces, such as Helvetica or Arial, have smooth
characters with no tails (see Figure 9.6). (Sans is French for without.) Desktop
publishing programs often come with a selection of serif and sans serif typefaces
suited to particular tasks. However, frequent changes of typefaces in a
publication cause visual clutter and distract the reader from the meaning of the
words. A good design can be achieved using just one or two typefaces, with
variations in the type style and type size. A difference in type style (such as
italics or bold) helps to attract the readers attention, while a difference in type
size helps to indicate the relative importance of information.
The selection of a typeface is critical to good design. There are a number of
principles for selecting typefaces for body text and headings.
Desktop publishing
235
Body text
Body text refers to the text that makes up the main part of the writing, other
than the headings.
Serif typefaces are recommended for body text because they are considered
easier to read in large slabs. The serifs help the eye jump from character to
character.
Capitals should not be used for body text. Lower case makes it easier for the
eye to gather groups of letters and words. This improves comprehension and
reduces fatigue. The use of upper and lower case also indicates the beginning
of new sentences.
Body text is usually written in plain (normal) text with a type size of between 10 and 12 points, depending on the typeface and audience. Italics can
be used for body text but some italics are hard to read.
Widows and orphans should be avoided. A widow is the first word or line of
a paragraph that is left at the bottom of a page or column. An orphan is the
last word or line of a paragraph that appears at the top of a page or column.
Widows and orphans often occur with changes to a font, frame size or page
setup.
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Headings
236
Function
Columns
A column is a vertical area reserved
for text. Magazines and newspapers
often contain two or more columns of
text on the one page (see Figure 9.7).
You create column text within a text
frame by specifying the number of
columns and the spacing between
each column.
For maximum readability, columns
should contain between 30 and 60
characters per line. A general rule
for column widths is to multiply
the width of the lower case alphabet by 1.5.
A minimum of 0.5 centimetres is
recommended between columns,
otherwise the page looks crowded.
Column breaks can be inserted to
move text into a new column.
Formatting text
In addition to offering a choice of fonts, desktop publishing programs allow
users to control other aspects of text formatting, including alignment, line
spacing, indenting, hyphenation and character spacing. These all affect the
appearance and effectiveness of a publication.
Alignment is the way text lines up. Because text is entered into frames in
DTP programs, you can specify both the horizontal alignment and the vertical
alignment.
There are four types of horizontal alignment: aligned left, aligned right,
justified and centred (see Figure 5.12 on page 147). Alignment should be
consistent throughout a publication. Left alignment is generally considered
the best choice for body text. Centring is generally used for only small
amounts of text, such as the text used in an invitation. Justified text gives a
neat appearance and is often used in long documents that require continuous
reading, such as textbooks, novels, newspapers and magazines.
There are three types of vertical alignment: top, centre and bottom. Top
alignment aligns the first line of text with the top of the frame. Centred
alignment centres the text in the middle of the frame. Bottom alignment
aligns the last line of text with the bottom of the frame.
Line spacing, or leading (pronounced ledding), refers to the spacing
between lines of text. Increasing the line spacing of body text improves
readability. Decreasing the line spacing means that more text will fit on a page.
The default (automatic) line spacing in most desktop publishing programs is set
at 20 per cent leading, or 120 per cent of the text size. For example, a type size
of 10 points would have 12 points (120% of 10) between the lines. The
advantage of using automatic leading is that the line spacing changes
automatically if the point size is changed. Sans serif typefaces require more
leading to improve their appearance, as they do not have a serif.
Desktop publishing
237
Indenting moves text a certain distance from a margin. There are four
different types of indents: left/right indent, first line indent, hanging indent and
negative indent. (see Figure 5.14 on page 149). A first line indent is generally
used to indicate the beginning of a new paragraph. This makes a document
easier to read. Paragraphs below headings, however, should not be indented. It is
good design to use the same size indent throughout a document.
Hyphenation is the use of a hyphen to break a word at the end of a line. It is
used to improve word spacing and the appearance of a document, but it does
reduce readability. Hyphenation is commonly used in publications with narrow
columns, such as newspapers, as it removes the gaps or rivers of white caused
by justified text. Most desktop publishing programs allow hyphenation to be
done automatically or manually.
Character spacing is the spacing between individual letters. There are two
types of character spacing: tracking and kerning.
Tracking is an overall adjustment of the spacing between all letters. It is
generally applied to whole paragraphs. Tracking is most effectively used in
headings. Small amounts of tracking can also be used to reduce the amount
of white space in justified text or avoid bad word breaks.
Kerning is an adjustment of the spacing between certain letter pairs to
improve their appearance. Kerning is necessary because the standard spacing
appears to be incorrect for certain letter pairs, such as AW (see Figure 9.8). In
this example, the shapes of the letters means that there appears to be too
much space between them. Kerning moves the A and W closer together to
give letter spacing that is visually even. The amount of adjustment required
depends on the font and the specific letter pairs. Kerning is only required for
headings with a type size greater than 14 point, as the optical effect is not
apparent in smaller point sizes. Negative kerning can be used to move letters
further apart if there appears to be insufficient space between them.
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AWAIT
238
Times 48 point
with normal
spacing
Times 48 point
with kerning
Figure 9.8 Examples of standard letter spacing with no kerning (top) and the
same word with kerning applied to the A, W and A (bottom).
Application software
collecting
processing
Function
Graphics
Figure 9.9 In the example on the left, the graphic leads the eye away from the text. In the example on
the right, the graphic leads the eye towards the text.
Colour
collecting
Colour has the ability to make a publication more effective. It contributes to the
style and feel of the publication. It is not only the range of colours that must be
considered but also the tone. Colour draws attention to the content and makes
graphics come to life. The style of the publication is affected by the relationships
between colours. For example, slight variations of the same colour or related
colours can be used to unify the publication. Contrasting colours, such as red
and yellow, are used to attract the readers attention.
displaying
Desktop publishing
239
Colour can also be used to aid navigation and assist meaning. For example,
different sections of a publication can be indicated by different coloured panels.
Colour should not be overused as it will lose its effect. A colour scheme is
easy to change and can be tested with a potential audience. Some desktop
publishing programs provide templates in different colour schemes for different
purposes.
ITITFact
Fact
When a full-colour publication is printed, a colour separation method is
used. This method uses just four basic colours: cyan (blue), magenta (red),
yellow and black. The whole range of colours and tones are produced
using combinations of these four process colours. This colour model is
known as CMYK.
Affordable Elegance
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240
Address
Application software
Function
Exercise 9.2
1 List some of the characteristics used to describe a font.
2 Why should body text be written with a serif typeface?
3 What typefaces can be used for headings?
4 How can you calculate the optimum column width?
5 What is the preferred horizontal alignment for long documents?
6 Why would you change the leading of text?
7 Why is first line indenting used?
8 When is kerning required?
9 Why are graphics used in a publication?
10 How is the style of the publication affected by the relationships between colours.
11 What is white space and how can it be used?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create a house advertisement similar to Figure 9.10 using a DTP program. Save it
with the filename ADVERTISEMENT.
2 Create a dinner menu similar to Figure 9.11 using a DTP program. Save it with the
filename MENU.
Entrees
Avocado with seafood $12.00
Prawn cutlets with crab $15.00
Souffl Oysters $12.00
Scallops en brochette $13.00
Mediterranean Salad $8.00
Main Course
Crumbed noisettes of lamb $16.00
Beef in red wine $17.00
Fish fillets with artichokes $18.00
Pumpkin tortellini with walnut and citrus sauce $15.00
Roasted turkey with pine nut stuffing $19.00
Tarragon chicken in filo pastry $18.00
Figure 9.11 A well-designed menu.
241
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5 Using a DTP program, create a document containing three text frames: 3 cm 8 cm,
5 cm 8 cm, and 7 cm 8 cm. Save it with the filename FORMAT.
a Type the following text into one of the text frames.
When beginning any design, ideas roughed out on paper help to visualise
and formulate your objectives while taking into account the design
parameters of the publication. Even professional designers still take to pen
and pencil before committing their ideas to the computer screen. Look at the
overall shapes you are making with the text, graphics and white space.
b Copy the text into each of the other two text frames.
c Hyphenate the text in each of the text frames using the same hyphenation
zone.
d Condense the text in one of the text frames and expand it in another.
e Use different line spacing in each of the text frames.
f Use different vertical alignment in each of the text frames (top, centre and
bottom).
Application software
Page layout is the arrangement of text and graphics on a page. The page layout is
fundamental to the communication of information and ideas in any publication.
A well-designed publication will send a message effectively and efficiently.
Design principles
displaying
Function
Heading
Heading
Heading
Heading
Heading
Heading
243
ITITFact
Fact
Symmetrical page layouts are often used for formal invitations,
advertisements and business forms. They give a publication order and
present a conservative image.
displaying
Layout options
Publications are printed in either portrait or landscape orientation. Portrait is
the vertical (tall) orientation of a page. Landscape is the horizontal (wide)
orientation of a page. In addition to the orientation, layouts options include:
Paper size: Most publications, such as newsletters and brochures, are printed
on A4 (210 mm 297 mm) paper. Different paper sizes are used to create
booklets, posters, banners and business cards.
Special folds: The paper can be folded left to right or top to bottom to create
greeting cards, pamphlets, brochures and book publications (see Figure 9.15).
Some DTP programs include features that automatically create layouts to
suit the selected folding option.
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book fold
244
tent card
Function
245
Exercise 9.3
1 What is page layout?
2 Describe a page layout that is well designed.
3 List three basic guidelines to making well-designed publications.
4 What are special folds layouts used to create?
5 What is a gutter?
6 What are layout guides?
7 List the tools that can be used to position frames.
8 Describe the snap-to feature.
9 How do you use a desktop publishing template?
10 What is a master page?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create an advertisement similar to Figure 9.17 using a DTP program and save it
with the filename EAGLE.
Eagle Connections
A branch of Oak Tree Pty Ltd
Specialists in Computer Cabling
UTP Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fibre Optic Cable
Repeatera
Data Connectors
Printer Sharing
Telephone Cable
STP Cable
Test Equipment
824 5623
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246
ATI
e
t
n
i
Pr
rs
HP
KYOCERA
IBM/LEXMARK
DATAPRODUCTS
Cost-effective printers
for every application
907 9848
ALL STATES
Advanced Technologies International
4 Wanganella Street BALGOWLAH 2093
Janelle's Jewellers
31 Roma Rd
St Ives
NSW 2075
Fax 488 9998
Phone 488 9999
Function
3 Create a business card similar to Figure 9.19 using a DTP program and save it with
the filename JEWEL.
4 Create a house advertisement similar to Figure 9.20 using a DTP program and
save it with the filename HOUSE.
Magnificent new
home is classic
Australian Federation
$750,000
Let's talk! Ask for Gary Prince.
Home shown by appointment.
Phone 832 1669
Features an extremely
large living area, huge
billiard room, 5 very
spacious bedrooms,
main bedroom with
ensuite/robes, study,
two bathrooms, two-car
garage, bay windows,
fireplace, skylights and
more.
5 Design a two-page brochure that describes the dangers of illegal drugs. The
layout should contain headings, text in columns, graphics and drawn objects.
Save the publication with a filename of DRUGS.
Desktop publishing
247
ITITFact
Fact
The first commercial printing press was developed by Gutenberg in 1440.
It was adapted from a machine used to crush grapes. The Gutenberg
printing press created a page of text by combining characters moulded
separately on small blocks.
displaying
Draft copy
A draft copy is used to check the layout and proofread the text. Many printers
offer several choices for print quality: low, normal and high, or draft and final.
Some laser printers only print at the highest resolution. At low resolution, fewer
dots are used to form the text or graphics, so printing is faster. At high resolution
there are more dots per inch, so the printing takes longer but the results are
better. Choosing low or draft prints the publication at the lowest resolution
and fastest speed. It reduces costs by using less ink to print each page. A draft
copy can also be printed without the graphics if the user only wants to check
the text.
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displaying
248
Final copy
When all the checking is completed, a final copy is printed. The final copy is
printed at the printers highest resolution. Commercial printing services are
available that specialise in high-quality printing using offset printing presses and
high-resolution printers. They can print at resolutions greater than 2400 dpi. A
device called a typesetter or imagesetter is used to create images of the pages on
special photographic paper or film. These images are transferred to metal plates
that are used by the printing press.
The typesetters and imagesetters used by commercial printing services work
with Postscript files. Postscript is a page description language that uses special
commands to describe how text and images will be printed on the page. A
Postscript file is used only for printing and cannot be opened or changed. Most
desktop publishing programs save publications in Postscript format. Commercial
Application software
Function
printers are used for jobs that involve high-quality output, unusual paper sizes
or large print runs. When a publication is sent for commercial printing it is
advisable to check a proof. A proof is a high-quality copy of the publication as it
will appear when printed. This is the last chance to fix any errors, check that
colours are reproducing correctly, and fix any other problems. Proofs are
important because they allow you to:
check the design elements and layout
make last-minute corrections to fix any errors (although this can be very
expensive)
check that the colours are reproducing correctly
fix any technical problems that may have occurred with the files.
collecting
Additional design elements such as drop caps, text effects, callouts, text wrap,
borders, lines, headers and footers are included in many publications. Their use
depends on the type of publication.
Drop caps
A drop cap is an enlarged initial letter
that extends above or below the
baseline in the first line of body text
(see Figure 9.21). They are used to
announce the beginning of a chapter
or section and are an elegant way of
enlivening the text. Drop caps are
created using a special command or
by individually formatting the initial
letter. Drop caps can be any size but
usually occupy about three lines of
body text. Like most design elements,
they should be used sparingly.
Figure 9.21 Some of the drop cap options in Microsoft Publisher.
Text effects
Most desktop publishing programs allow text to be treated as a graphic. This
means the text can be manipulated in a variety of ways to add attractive effects.
These include slanting the text, rotating it through a specified number of
degrees, or wrapping it along an arc (see Figure 9.22). It is often used for
headings and banners and to make signs. Text effects are not suitable for all
types of publications and should not be over-used.
249
Text wrap
An effective way to combine words and pictures is to wrap the text around the
objects as shown in Figure 9.24. When wrapping text, the picture object must
be brought to the front of the text object. You then select the picture object and
choose a Text Wrap command. The DTP program maintains a non-printing
boundary between the picture and the text. The text wrap boundary can be
resized, cropped and adjusted to control the amount of white space between the
text and the picture.
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Desktop Publishing
250
A header prints the same text at the top of each page, and a footer prints the
same text at the bottom of the page. Headers and footers usually contain such
information as the page number, the title of a document or chapter, and the date
and author. Headers and footers can contain borders or lines to separate them
from body text. They are often created on a master page.
Exercise 9.4
1 How is the resolution of a printout measured?
Function
2 Compare the printing capacity of laser printers, inkjet printers and dot matrix
printers.
3 Explain the difference between low- and high-resolution printing.
4 What is Postscript?
5 Why is it important to see a proof when a job is sent to a commercial printer?
6 Where are drop caps used in a publication?
7 Describe some of the text effects available in most DTP programs.
8 How do you create callouts?
9 How do you wrap text around an object?
10 List some of the information typically contained in headers and footers.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Use a DTP program to create the text effects similar to those shown in Figure
9.22. Save the publication with the filename WORD ART.
2 Use a DTP program to wrap some text around a graphic as shown in Figure 9.24.
Save the publication with the filename TEXT WRAP.
3 Use a DTP program to create an advertisement similar to Figure 9.25. Save the
publication with the filename INVITATION.
251
4 Use a DTP program to create an advertisement for an art show similar to that
shown in Figure 9.26. Save the publication with the filename ART.
Australian Art
In support of Animal Welfare,
Stanley Winery will host a
complimentary art show and
sale.
Friday 28 July 2000
from 5 p.m. to 10 p.m.
at 25 Lock St, Sydney
featuring entertainment,
food and beverages.
Jennifer Taylor
94 Flora Street
Sutherland, NSW 2232
542 67898
PERSONAL
Age: 17 years
Family: Janet Taylor, mother
Customer Service Adviser ANZ
John Taylor, father
Primary School Teacher
Interests: Aerobics, computing, music, reading
EDUCATION
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SKILLS
EMPLOYMENT
Application software
Chapter review
PART A
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best
answers the question or completes the
statement.
1 To define an object in a desktop publishing document you create a:
A frame
B border
C box
D rectangle
2 How would a small section of a publication be viewed?
A actual size view
B full page view
C zoom in
D zoom out
3 In DTP the term leading means:
A automatic changing of type styles
B automatic changing of margins
C correcting the spacing between
letters
D the spacing between lines of text
4 Improving the appearance of text by
reducing the spacing between certain
letter pairs is called:
A condensing
B kerning
C leading
D line spacing
5 The difference between the words
publishing and program in Desktop
publishing program is in the:
A stroke weight
B font
C type style
D typeface
Desktop publishing
253
Chapter review
PART B
For each of the following statements,
select from the list of terms the one that
most closely fits the statement. Write the
letter corresponding to your choice.
Statements
1 A space or box that holds text or a
graphic.
15 A page description language that describes how text and images will be
printed on a page.
16 The vertical orientation of a page.
List of terms
a draft copy
b desktop publishing
c final copy
d frame
e gutter
f kerning
g page layout
h snap-to
PART C
254
Application software
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
white space
widow
master page
Postscript
watermark
portrait
layout guide
ascender
chapter
MULTIMEDIA
10
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be
able to:
describe the essential characteristics of a
multimedia system
plan a multimedia presentation using a
storyboard
create a multimedia presentation using
good design principles
display text, images, audio and animated
information
describe the compression of data
distinguish between path-based and cellbased animation
identify the standard file formats used for
multimedia.
Overview
This chapter will develop your knowledge and
skills in relation to multimedia. It examines the
characteristics and information processes
involved in a multimedia system. You will
learn how to combine different types of media
to create a multimedia product. The basic
design principles of multimedia are presented
throughout the chapter.
Information processes
All seven information processes are involved in the development of
multimedia. Many of the tasks involve a combination of processes. The
development of a multimedia product emphasises the following information
processes:
Collecting: Data is gathered in text, audio, video and graphic formats. (See
sections 10.1 and 10.3.)
Organising: Data in various formats is combined to create a multimedia
product. Tools such as storyboards are used to organise the data. (See
section 10.1.)
Processing: Multimedia authoring packages and presentation software are
used to create the products. (See sections 10.1, 10.2 and 10.4.)
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256
Application software
Function
Figure 10.1 Microsofts Encarta was the first widely available multimedia encyclopedia.
Design
collecting
257
organising
Planning
A script and a storyboard are two tools used to plan a multimedia product. A
script is a printout of all the text, graphics, animation, audio and video used in
the production. It outlines the interactivity in the project. A script gives
directions for the construction of the multimedia product. It is a textual method
of representing ideas and actions.
A storyboard is a series of frames each representing a different action or
screen image. It is a visual method of representing ideas and actions. It is based
on the traditional storyboard used by cartoonists to show the sequence of
actions in a cartoon. Storyboards are drawn on paper and are frequently edited.
Multimedia storyboards define each screen and the specific media types used.
They consist of navigation paths, information and graphics. They are popular
because they are simple to construct, easy to read and can be modified at every
stage.
There are four basic storyboard layouts (see Figure 10.2):
lineara simple sequential path that is set up quickly
hierarchicala sequential path in a top-down design (starting at the
beginning and moving down through the multimedia product)
linear
hierarchical
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258
combination
File compression
Multimedia products are characterised by large file sizes. This is the result of
combining large graphics, animation, audio and video files. A process called file
compression reduces the number of bits required to represent information. It
allows the user to store more data and makes data transfer faster. Compressed
data must be decompressed in order to extract the original information. There
are a number of standard compressed formats for different media, such as JPEG
for graphics and MPEG for video.
The amount a file is compressed is measured by the compression ratio. The
compression ratio compares how much smaller the compressed file is to the
uncompressed file. If a compressed file is half the size of the uncompressed file,
the compression ratio is 2 to 1 (2:1). That is, two units of data in the original file
equals one unit of data in the compressed file. A higher compression ratio
indicates greater compression of data. For example, a compression ratio of 3:1
would create a smaller file than a compression ratio of 2:1. (A compression ratio
of 1:1 would mean that a file would not be compressed at all.)
Compression is either lossy or lossless. In lossy compression, some data is
actually removed from the file. The resulting file is smaller in size but the
quality is reduced. However, audio and video files can be compressed with quite
high compression ratios without any noticeable change to the human ear or eye.
For example, an MPEG file can provide a compression ratio up to 200:1.
In lossless compression, no data is deleted, which means the file can
recovered in its original state. This type of compression works by replacing
repeated data with something that takes up less room. For example, in this book
the word and appears many times. If each and was replaced with a plus
symbol (+), only one-third of the space would be needed for that word. Lossless
compression is used mainly on text files such as word processing, spreadsheets
and database files. Each file of a given type can have a different compression
ratio depending on the contents of the file. A text file usually has a compression
ratio of 3:1.
&
storing
retrieving
Function
organising
259
There are also a number of simplified software packages that can be used for
multimedia. Programs such as HyperCard allow text, graphics, animation, audio
and video to be combined without requiring any programming experience.
HyperCard organises information into a collection of on-screen cards called a
stack. Interactivity can be added in the form of buttons and actions.
Exercise 10.1
1 What is multimedia?
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260
3 List the type of people typically involved in the creation of a multimedia product.
4 Describe the contents of a script.
5 Why are storyboards popular?
6 What is file compression?
7 Why is lossy compression used for most audio and video files?
8 What is the purpose of multimedia authoring software?
9 Describe three popular multimedia authoring programs.
Application software
Function
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Slides
displaying
New presentations are created from a template or blank presentation. A template is a master document that can be copied and modified for repeated use.
Templates in presentation programs are professionally designed for specific
purposes and they allow the user to create a presentation very quickly. Templates can be previewed and modified if required. There are content templates
and presentation design templates. A content template helps the user with
content and gives suggestions about the organisation of different kinds of
information. A presentation design template creates a presentation without
Multimedia
261
Figure 10.4 Some of the presentation design templates available in Microsoft PowerPoint.
worrying about the design elements (see Figure 10.4). Each template has its
own colour scheme and fonts that work with the overall design of the
presentation. A colour scheme is a set of balanced colours for the text, background and drawn objects. It ensures the colours will result in a professionallooking presentation.
A blank presentation is created without a template. The user has control
over the look and structure of the presentation. A blank presentation requires
the user to design each slide by choosing from a range of layouts. A layout specifies the position of text and picture frames. A frame is a space or box that holds
an object. Text frames contain text objects such as the slide title, bulleted lists,
columns and tables. Picture frames contain graphic objects such as clip art and
charts. The content of each object is independent of its frame and is easily
formatted.
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Viewing a presentation
262
Objects are the building blocks of a presentation. There are different types of
objects, and the behaviour of an object depends on its type.
Most slides contain text. Text is
often imported into a presentation
from a word processor. This allows
the user to take advantage of the
word processors superior editing and
formatting tools. Text can be imported or typed into a text frame in
slide view. A better method is to enter
and edit in outline view. Outline view
shows all the text on each slide (see
Figure 10.6). It is also used to check
the logical flow of the presentation by
showing only the slide title.
After the data is entered, it needs
Figure 10.6 A presentation in outline view, showing the text.
to be formatted. There are many different ways of formatting text, such
as using a variety of fonts, changing the alignment and using a spelling checker.
Presentation software often contains professionally created designs that can be
applied to a presentation. These design templates contain colour schemes,
custom formatting and styled fonts to give a presentation a particular appearance.
They are an excellent way of creating a consistent presentation.
Most presentations contain graphics. There are three different ways of
inserting a graphic into presentation.
The user can select from a range of clip art and images. Clip art is grouped
into topics such as people, animals and entertainment. It is also possible for
the presentation software to suggest a piece of clip art based on key concepts.
The user can import pictures and scanned photographs. When a picture
frame is selected, the user can crop, resize, distort or recolour the graphic.
The user can draw a picture using the softwares drawing tools.
Animation effects can be applied to text, graphics, sounds, movies and other
objects. They are used to highlight important points and add interest to a
presentation. For example, you can have text that appears letter-by-letter or
objects that fly in from the left. It is possible to change the order and timing of
animations. In addition to animations,
presentations can contain transitions. A
transition is a special effect used to go from
one slide to the next. For example, one slide
might slowly dissolve as the next slide
comes into view. In general, two or three
transitions in a presentation will maximise
their impact on the audience.
Sound and video can be inserted into a
presentation. Some presentation software
comes with a range of pre-recorded sounds,
such as applause and gunshots. In addition
to these sounds there may be clip galleries
of sounds and movies (see Figure 10.7).
These objects are categorised in a similar
Figure 10.7 Some of the categories and items available in
way to clip art. It is best to avoid using loud
the Microsoft Clip Gallery.
Multimedia
Function
Inserting objects
263
noises that distract the speaker and the slides message. Presentation software
also allows the user to import sounds and videos in a variety of formats. However, special hardware and software may be needed to play and edit particular
sounds and videos.
Editing objects
Objects that are associated can be grouped together as if they were a single
object. Editing is much easier if associated objects are grouped. Objects on a
slide can be edited in different ways:
Positioning: Objects are dragged into position using the grids, layout guides
and rulers. The snap-to feature aligns a frame to a grid. The nudge feature
allows the frame to be moved one pixel at a time.
Resizing: Objects are made smaller or bigger using the handles. The mouse is
placed over the handle and dragged until the object is the desired size.
Alignment: Frames are aligned by their left, right, top or bottom edges, or by
their centres. Objects can be spaced equal distances from each other.
Distorting: Objects can be rotated a certain number of degrees or flipped
horizontally or vertically.
Overlapping: Objects can be stacked on top of each other. The order of the
stack is changed using the Bring to Front or Send to Back commands.
Exercise 10.2
1 What is presentation software?
2 List the document types that can be created with presentation software.
3 How is the timing of a presentation controlled?
4 Describe a template in a presentation program.
5 Explain the difference between a content template and a presentation design
template.
6 List the five common ways of viewing a presentation.
7 How can text be formatted in presentation software?
8 Describe three ways of inserting a graphic into a presentation.
9 Why is animation used in a presentation?
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264
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Work in groups to complete the following tasks.
An information technology company wants to develop a promotional multimedia
presentation to attract new investors. The presentation must include its products,
history, staff and future directions.
1 Create an imaginary company and write a storyboard for the presentation.
2 Describe the design features of the presentation.
3 Develop a brief multimedia presentation using presentation software.
4 Create handouts and show the presentation to the class.
Application software
Animation
Animation is the movement of an object. It is the result of a series of graphics or
frames presented in rapid succession. Sometimes animations can present
information more effectively than text or a static graphic. For example, an
animation that shows the movement of blood through the body or the eruption
of a volcano would be more effective than a still image. In multimedia presentations, animations can direct the user to an area of the screen or an interesting
feature. They are usually started either automatically when a slide is viewed, or
by the user clicking a button. When creating an animation the user needs to
consider the size of the graphic and the speed of the movement. The speed is
frequently set at 30 frames per second or 9000 (30 60 5) frames for a fiveminute animation. This creates the illusion of smooth movement. However,
drawing 9000 frames of graphics is a huge task. A computer with animation
software makes this task much easier. Animation is created using cell-based and
path-based animation.
organising
displaying
Function
ITITFact
Fact
The word animation comes from the Latin word animatus and means to
give life.
Cell-based animation
Cell-based animation involves drawing and displaying individual frames or cells.
Each frame is stored separately and is loaded into a graphics page in primary
memory. It is the traditional method of animation. The animation works by
displaying the first frame from a graphics page while creating the second frame
in another graphics page. The second frame is slightly different to the first frame,
depending on the items to be animated. The second frame is then displayed and
the third frame created in the graphics page of the first frame. Animation occurs
by alternating the display of graphics pages. This method of animation requires a
very powerful computer to achieve 30 frames per second. For example, a highresolution colour graphic containing 500 000 pixels would require calculations
for 15 million (500 000 30) pixels in one second. For this reason, path-based
animation is preferred.
Path-based animation
Path-based animation involves displaying the movement of objects on a fixed
background in a particular sequence or path. Only the pixels of the moving
object are changed; those making up the background stay the same. This saves
memory and processing time. Animation is achieved by drawing the object,
wiping it, and then drawing the object in a new position (see Figure 10.8). This
process is made easier because animation software can generate the intermediate
frames between two objects. This is called tweening (short for in-betweening).
It is a key process in computer animation.
Multimedia
265
Morphing and warping are animation techniques that create special effects.
Morphing is the smooth change between two different images. It involves
transforming the shape, size, dimension and colour of one image so it appears to
merge into another image. For example, you could morph your own image into
that of a movie star. Warping involves transforming or distorting a portion of an
image. It divides the image into objects that can be manipulated. For example, a
persons sad face could be given a smile with the remainder of their face staying
the same.
organising
&
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storing
retrieving
266
Application software
Function
Mono uses one channel and stereo uses two channels (left and right) of
sound. Stereo sound is regarded as better quality.
A file size (in bits) is calculated by multiplying the sampling rate (in kHz),
the sample size (in bits), the time (in seconds) and the number of channels.
For example, the size of an audio file
that uses a sampling rate of 44.1 kHz with
Digital audio system
a 16-bit sample size and lasts for one
Audio input
minute in stereo would be:
file size = 44 100 16 60 2 bits
= 10 584 000 bytes (1 byte = 8 bits)
+3
+2
= 10.09 Mb (1 Mb = 1 048 576 bytes)
+1
Sampling
0
Sounds are produced using speakers.
1
2
They are connected to the computer via a
3
sound card and work with particular software. There is a range of software to record
A/D
0 +2 +3 +2 1
conversion
100 110 111 110 011
and play audio. Operating systems often
include accessories such as a media player,
sound recorder and CD player (see Figure
10.10). These tools allow the user to edit a
Disk
sound file in different ways such as:
deleting part of the sound file
changing the speed of the sound file
Reproduced
playing a sound file in reverse
signal
adding an echo
+3
changing the quality of the sound file
+2
+1
D/A
recording a sound into a sound file
0
conversion
1
overlaying (mixing) sound files
2
3
inserting sound into another document.
3
2
0
001 010 100
Audio output
Multimedia
267
ITITFact
Fact
Shockwave is a technology developed by Macromedia to enable Web
pages to contain multimedia objects. It supports audio and video and is
available for both Windows and Macintosh environments.
Exercise 10.3
1 How is the movement of a graphic achieved in animation?
2 Describe the basic principles of cell-based and path-based methods for producing
animation.
3 Explain the difference between analog and digital data.
4 List three important characteristics of sampling.
5 What is the sampling rate?
6 Calculate the size of an audio file that uses a sample rate of 22.05 with 16-bit
sound and lasts for two minutes in stereo.
7 What factors affect the size of a video file?
8 Explain the major difference between animation and video.
9 What is the purpose of digital video production software?
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LEARNING ACTIVITIES
268
Application software
Creating effective multimedia products involves more than simply knowing how
to use the authoring software. Good design is critical to the success of a
multimedia product.
Design principles
displaying
The design of each screen should be based on three basic design principles:
Consistency: The layout, format and style should be
the same throughout the multimedia product unless
different media types demand a change. Readability
is improved when similar items are grouped.
Grouping is achieved by spacing, use of colour for
the text, and changing the backgrounds or borders.
Navigation: Users need to understand the structure
of the multimedia product and be able to find the
information they want easily. The time taken to
respond to a users action is important. People become frustrated if they have to wait more than a few
seconds for the next screen or video clip to load.
Simplicity: Dont overuse design elements as this
will create visual clutter and confuse the user. The
overuse of colour, sound and animations can be
distracting.
Media
When a team of people are developing a multimedia product they need to
communicate with each other to ensure consistency, simplicity and ease of
navigation. There are a number of design considerations for each type of
medium.
Function
displaying
Text
A basic concern with text is how much to present. It is recommended that each
screen should relate to only one task or piece of information. The screen should
not be overloaded with text. The designer needs to decide what information is
necessary. Text needs to be formatted to be effective. The following are some
generally accepted design principles for text:
Body text: Avoid using too many fonts. Sans serif typefaces can be clearer
than serif typefaces when viewed on screen. The type size may need to be
larger than that used for printed materials. Additional leading can improve
readability. Care should be taken using font styles such as bold and italic.
Long lines of text are difficult to read.
Headings: Use either serif or sans serif typefaces. Different size headings
reflect their importance.
Layout: Promote reading gravity. Elements in the top right and bottom left
corner of the screen have less importance. Readers eyes are most likely to
focus on the top left corner.
Formatting: Follow appropriate conventions for column width, alignment,
line spacing, character spacing, indentation, hyphenation and kerning.
Multimedia
269
Colour
Colour contributes to the style and theme of a multimedia product. Colour
draws attention to the text and makes a graphic come to life. Some colours
should not be used together as they contrast badly and reduce readability. For
example, blue or green text on a red background is very difficult to read. Too
many different colours can be distracting and reduce readability. A colour
scheme should be used to ensure consistency and a professional-looking
multimedia product.
ITITFact
Fact
The word virtual is used to refer to things that exist on a computer system
or network rather than in the physical world. Examples include virtual
storage, virtual sound, virtual space, virtual office and virtual reality.
Virtual reality creates a simulated environment that the user experiences
and explores by interacting with a computer.
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Graphics and animations are used to create interest and provide information.
However, they also place extra demands on the multimedia system, so need to
be used carefully. They can support or weaken a multimedia product. Some
design principles are listed below.
The position and size of a graphic or animation should be based on its
relative importance and should balance the other design elements.
Use graphics and animations sparingly, otherwise they lose their impact. For
example, an animation could be used to introduce a new section within the
multimedia product.
Adjust the graphics and animations to suit the most common screen
resolutions. The resolution of a graphic is dependent on the screen and the
number of colours that can be displayed.
Make sure the intention of the graphic is easily understood. For example, a
graphic might guide the user to another section of a multimedia product.
The title of a graphic is often placed above the graphic with a caption below.
Icons are small symbols that are associated with an object, function or action.
Icons should be easily recognisable and be positioned in a defined area of the
screen.
The information in charts must be accurate.
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organising
There are many different file formats used for multimedia. These formats are
constantly changing and new versions are being developed. Some common
formats are described below.
WAV (pronounced wave) is a file format that stores either 8-bit or 16-bit
sound. It was developed jointly by Microsoft and IBM and is built into
Windows. One disadvantage with the WAV format is that it produces large
file sizes. For example, a 10-minute WAV sound file will require more than
100 Mb.
RealAudio is a de facto standard for exchanging sound files over the Internet.
It was developed by RealNetworks and supports FM-stereo quality sound. A
RealAudio player is required to hear a RealAudio sound file included in a
Web page. Recent versions of Web browsers such as Internet Explorer and
Netscape Navigator include a RealAudio player (see Figure 10.11).
&
storing
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Function
File formats
MIDI (which stands for Musical Instrument Digital Interface and is pronounced middy) is a standard way of
connecting computers and electronic
musical instruments. A musician uses a
MIDI instrument to play music and
the computer to store and edit the
music. MIDI allows 16 instruments to
be played simultaneously via the MIDI
interface. The sound is recorded in a
file format called the MIDI sequence.
A MIDI file contains note information
and not details of a sound wave. A
synthesiser is used to create and play
the sound. MIDI files require less
storage space but the quality of the
sound is dependent on the synthesiser.
MPEG (which stands for Motion Picture Expert Group and is pronounced
em-peg) is a family of formats that have become a standard for compressed
video. MPEG files achieve a high compression ratio by using lossy compression and only storing the changes from one frame to another. MPEG-1
standard provides a video resolution of 353 240 at 30 FPS. It is similar to
the quality of conventional VCR videos. MPEG-2 standard offers resolutions
up to 1280 720 and 60 FPS. It is sufficient for all major TV standards and is
used on DVDs.
MP3 (MPEG Audio Layer 3) is an audio compression technology that is part
of MPEG-1 and MPEG-2. It compresses CD-quality sound using a
compression ratio of 11:1. MP3 has made it possible to download quality
audio from the Internet (see Figure 10.12). For example, a four-minute song
that would normally require 44 Mb of space can be compressed using MP3
to only 4 Mb. MP3 compresses a file by removing the high and low frequencies that are out of our hearing range.
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Exercise 10.4
1 Why is navigation an important design principle?
2 What is a basic consideration when using text in a multimedia product?
3 Why is colour used as a design element?
4 Describe some of the factors that affect the use of graphics and animations.
5 How is a decision made on the use of sounds and video?
6 What is the main disadvantage with WAV sound files?
7 Explain the difference between a MIDI file and a sound file.
8 What is MPEG-2?
9 Why is MP3 an important file format?
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LEARNING ACTIVITIES
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Application software
Chapter review
PART A
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best
answers the question or completes the
statement.
1 A storyboard layout that uses a topdown design is called:
A linear
B hierarchical
C non-linear
D combination
2 Data compression that allows the
original file to be recovered is called:
A lossy compression
B original compression
C lossless compression
D recovery compression
3 Which of the following is not a key
characteristic of multimedia?
A use of the latest technology
B interactivity
C different media types
D the Internet
4 Presentation software is a tool that
does not provide:
A on-screen presentations on a
monitor or projected onto a screen.
B audience handouts of two or more
slides.
C one view of a presentation.
D overhead transparencies in portrait
or landscape orientation.
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Chapter review
PART B
For each of the following statements,
select from the list of terms the one that
most closely fits the statement. Write the
letter corresponding to your choice.
Statements
1 A family of formats for compressed
video that have become a standard.
2 A series of frames each representing a
different action or screen image.
3 Reduces the number of bits required to
represent information.
4 It is used to combine text, graphics, animation, audio and video into a multimedia product.
5 An individual screen or page of the
presentation.
6 Involves displaying the movement of
objects onto a fixed background in a
particular sequence.
PART C
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Application software
11
chapter
THE INTERNET
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be
able to:
describe the basic features of the Internet
view Web pages that include text, images,
animation and video
interpret Internet addresses
use an Internet search engine to find data
send and receive email and attachments
send email to multiple recipients, including
carbon copies (CC)
create a Web page.
Overview
This chapter will help you to become a
confident user of the Internet. It examines the
basic features of the Internet and the major
information processes involved in their use.
You will learn about Web browsers, Internet
addresses and electronic mail. The final
section describes Internet publishing and the
process of creating a Web page.
Information processes
The Internet is a computer network, hence its major function is the transfer of
data and information. However, the use of the Internet may involve all seven
of the information processes. There is a particular emphasis on four
information processes:
Collecting: The Internet can be used to gather information and data. Search
engines can be used to find the required information. (See section 11.1.)
Storing and retrieving: The Internet can be used as a store for data and
information. (See section 11.2.)
Transmitting and receiving: Data can be transferred by sending and receiving email, contributing to newsgroups, chatting and downloading files.
(See sections 11.1 and 11.3.)
Displaying: Web browsing software is used to display Web pages from the
Internet. Web authoring software is used to create and maintain Web
pages. (See section 11.4.)
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The Internet (also referred to as the Net) is the worlds biggest computer
network. It links millions of computers all around the world. These computers
are in homes, schools, universities, government departments and businesses. The
Internet was established in the early 1970s when the United States Department
of Defence was worried about military attacks from other countries. It did not
want the countrys defence network to be dependent on one main computer. At
first the network was established between government departments and
university sectors. However, people soon realised the potential of a computer
network that everybody could use. The 1990s has seen a huge increase in the
use of the Internet by businesses, educational institutions and individuals.
The main uses of the Internet today include:
communication, using electronic mail (email), Internet chat and videoconferencing
accessing information from Web sites, databases and newsgroups
downloading software
conducting business and transferring funds
playing interactive multimedia games, listening to music and watching videos.
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Function
ITITFact
Fact
The Information Superhighway is a popular name for the Internet and
other related computer networks. It was first used in 1993 by US Vice
President Al Gore in a speech outlining plans to build a high-speed
national data communications network.
collecting
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transmitting
receiving
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Application software
Chatting on the Internet is divided into three main groups: text, graphical and
voice. Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is the most common text-based system. It
provides a real-time conversation with one person or with hundreds of people.
People meet for a chat in chat rooms (or on chat channels) which are located on
computers called IRC servers. A chat room is a virtual room where people can
talk in groups or privately, usually on a particular topic (see Figure 11.2). Most
chat rooms are open to everyone and you can contribute to ongoing discussions
by typing a few lines. Graphical and voice chat software requires more
computer power but is increasing in popularity.
People have made friends and have even met future husbands and wives
through chat sessions. However, people can also make up different personalities
and pretend to be anything they want to be. There are dangers for users,
particularly children, in being exploited. In general, you should never reveal
your address or phone number in a chat session. In addition, there are rules
regarding appropriate behaviour in chats:
Respect the privacy of people in chat rooms. Do not enter private channels.
Do not write long messages. Long messages are best sent using electronic
mail.
Do not use offensive language. If you have a disagreement with someone, just
ignore them.
Be friendly to other people, particularly newcomers.
transmitting
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Function
Figure 11.2 Some messages from a chat room that specialises in the Web.
Downloading files
Web pages are made up of files, which may include text, graphics, animation,
video and sound. There can also be software files connected to Web pages via
hyperlinks. As well as viewing a Web page, it is possible to copy the associated
files from the Web server to your own computer. This is called downloading.
The text from a Web page is downloaded using the browsers Save As
command. It can be saved as an HTML file (using formatting codes that are
interpreted by a Web browser) or as raw text. Graphics can be saved separately.
Many files are downloaded in a compressed format. Data compression compacts
transmitting
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279
the file so that it takes up less room. Two common compressed formats are zip
and hqx. These files require the user to decompress or expand them using a
compression program such as WinZip or StuffIt.
Just because it is easy to do, using downloaded files from the Internet is not
necessarily legal. Information published on the Internet is protected by
copyright, just like information published in a book. This applies to all types of
data, not just text. Copyright places legal limits on what you can do with the
data. (See Chapter 2 for a detailed discussion of copyright.) If you use information from a Web page in your own written work, it must be correctly cited along
with the other references you have used.
Exercise 11.1
1 List the tools required to connect to the Internet.
2 Describe the protocol used on the Internet.
3 Where are Web pages stored?
4 Explain the term surfing the Net.
5 Describe four rules regarding appropriate behaviour in a newsgroup.
6 Why are there dangers in chatting on the Internet?
7 What is data compression? List two common compressed formats.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Investigate the Internet resources at school and the community by answering the
following questions.
a How many computers at school have Internet access? Where are they located?
b Are there any restrictions on student access to the Internet?
c Does any censorship or blocking software restrict student access to the
Internet? What is the name of this software?
d Does the local library offer Internet access? What are the arrangements for
access?
e Do you know the location of any Internet cafes? What are the arrangements
for access?
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Function
display Web pages, link to other Web pages and download information to your
computer.
A Web browser will display a Web page if the address (or location) is entered
directly into the browser. It will receive graphics files that are embedded in the
Web page. Web pages that have graphic files or multimedia files take longer to
download, as they are larger in size. Browsers have the ability to store the
addresses of selected Web pages. These stored addresses are called bookmarks or
favourites and save time accessing frequently used Web pages. Web browsers
also have a range of commands or buttons that make them easier to use. Some
of the basic commands are listed in Table 11.1.
Command or button
Use
Back
Forward
Refresh
Home
Stop
Search
Internet addresses
&
storing
retrieving
IP addresses
Each computer connected to the Internet has a unique address called an IP
address (Internet Protocol address). Most IP addresses use four bytes (32 bits)
grouped in four 8-bit segments separated by a full stop (period). For example,
the IP address for Microsoft is 205.188.200.58. A new generation of IP addresses
uses 16 bytes (128 bits) grouped in eight 16-bit segments separated by a full
stop. IP addresses are difficult for people to understand, so another addressing
system is used based on domain names.
Domain names
A domain name is the address of a specific computer on the Internet. Domain
names are translated into IP addresses. Because they are based on English, they
are easier for people to remember than IP addresses. Domain names can look
complicated but they are easier to understand when they are broken down into
parts. Each part is separated by a full stop and is called a domain. For example,
www.hi.com.au is a domain name in which:
www stands for World Wide Web
hi stands for Heinemann Interactive and is the name of the specific
computer
com is the organisational domain
au is the geographical domain.
Organisational domains include edu for education, mil for military, gov
for government, com for commercial, net for network and org for non-profit
organisation.
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The geographical domain indicates the country in which the server is located.
Geographical domains include au for Australia, uk for United Kingdom, fr
for France and ca for Canada. The USA is the only country without a geographical domain, although some US sites have adopted us as the geographical
domain.
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Figure 11.3 The URL directs the Web browser to the server on which the Web page is stored.
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Application software
Brochureware refers to Web sites that offer very little information and no
interactivity. These Web sites are created by organisations simply to have a
presence on the Web. They are of very limited value to the organisation or
to the public.
Search engines
A search engine is a database of indexed Web sites that can be searched using
keywords. The index is built by regularly scanning the Web for new sites and
accepting submissions from Web page authors. A search engine is accessed using
a Web browser. There are dozens of search engines available on the Web,
including Yahoo!, AltaVista, Excite and Magellan. Search engines have different
methods of building their indexes and will often obtain different results from
the same search. Some search engines provide directories of Web sites organised
into categories such as technology, entertainment, or sport (see Figure 11.4).
Good search engines are easy to use and provide precise results.
Function
ITITFact
Fact
Figure 11.4 The Yahoo! search engine provides a directory of Web sites organised into
categories. These can be searched by keyword.
Search engines require the user to enter one or more keywords related to
their topic of interest. In addition, most search engines allow users to search for
specific items such as graphics. When the user enters a keyword and clicks the
Search button, the search engine scans its index and lists the Web sites that
contain that keyword. The listing is usually in order of relevance and is in the
form of hyperlinks. This allows the user to access the listed Web pages by simply
clicking on them.
Selecting a keyword is crucial to the success of a search. In general, it is best
to include synonyms where appropriate (such as illness and disease) and to
use keywords that are very specific. This will avoid being overloaded with
information. Search engines generally allow the user to combine keywords in
various ways, as shown in Table 11.2.
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Operator
Result
Example
Phrase
Apple Computing
And
Or
apple OR macintosh
Not
Different search engines use different methods to index Web sites, handle
keywords and display results. For example, some search engines match keywords
in the Web page title, while others use the body of the text. It is advisable to get
experience using more than one search engine to become familiar with their
capabilities.
There are good reasons to use the Internet to find information: it is
constantly updated, it can be faster to access compared to other methods of
publishing, and it can be more convenient. However, just because something is
on the Internet doesnt mean it is correct or up-to-date. You should always try to
verify information from the Internet and use well-known sources wherever
possible.
Exercise 11.2
1 List the tasks performed by a Web browser.
2 What is the purpose of a bookmark or favourite?
3 List seven basic commands found in most Web browsers.
4 Why do people use domain names instead of IP addresses?
5 Describe the file path of a URL.
6 What is a search engine?
7 Outline four ways keywords can be combined in searches.
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9 People who surf the Net often get lost and do not use their time efficiently.
Do you agree with this statement? Why? What steps can you take to ensure you
are proficient in using the Internet?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Start up a Web browser and answer these questions.
a What is the name of the home page?
b How do you stop a Web page from loading?
c How is a Web page restored after loading has been interrupted?
d Where are popular Web sites stored?
e How do you go back to sites you have visited during the session?
Application software
3 Find information on your favourite topic using more than one search engine.
Some search engine URLs are:
http://www.altavista.com
http//www.excite.com
http//www.yahoo!.com
http//www.hotbot.com
http//www.dogpile.com
a How many Web sites were found?
b Narrow the search by combining keywords.
c Save 10 relevant Web sites as Bookmarks or Favourites.
d Organise the saved Bookmarks or Favourites into appropriate folders.
e Check that the Bookmarks or Favourites work.
Function
2 Compare three different Web sites by answering the questions below for each
one. Three possible sites to compare are:
http://www.ibm.com
http://microsoft.com
http://www.apple.com
a What is the purpose of the Web site?
b How easy is it to move around the Web site?
c How current are the Web sites?
d Which is the best Web site? Why?
285
File transfer: Virtually any kind of computer file can be attached to an email
message. Files can be sent within organisations or around the world.
Email systems work on computer networks of all sizes, from LANs (local
area networks) to the Internet. They require email software to send, receive and
manage email messages. Most modern Web browsers include an email component and there are also separate email applications, such as Microsoft Outlook, Netscape Mail and Eudora. In addition to email software the user needs an
account with an ISP. The ISP provides the user with a unique email address.
Web-based email is a recent development that avoids the need for specialised
email software. The user subscribes to a Web-based email service and is then
able to send and receive email by visiting a particular Web site using a Web
browser. Services such as hotmail.com. and yahoo.com provide free Web-based
email addresses. The cost is paid for by advertisers who place advertisements on
the Web site.
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286
Email addresses
An email message can be sent to anyone who has an email address. Email
addresses are unique and consists of two parts separated by the @ (at) symbol
in the form:
name@domain name
The first part is the name of the account. It is often a persons username and
is chosen when the user opens an account with an ISP. The second part is the
domain name. It is the location of the persons account on the Internet. The
domain name identifies the specific computer or server where the email
messages are stored. For example, the address
John.Smith@redeye.net.au
consists of the following parts:
John.Smith is the username. If a user applies for a name that is already in use,
it may be adapted by adding some more letters or numbers.
redeye.net.au is the domain name. Redeye is the ISP, net means it is a network (Internet) organisation and au is for Australia.
Email messages
When an email message is sent to someone it is stored in a mailbox on their
ISPs email server. It stays on the server until the person checks their email.
Email messages are often short and informal, and may be typed very quickly. In
informal messages, users often use inventive spellings, such as thanx and enuff
and write all in lower case. The user does not have to be online to compose an
email message. Messages can be written offline and sent when the user logs onto
a LAN or to the Internet. This saves money if the ISP charges by the hour. In
addition to the senders email address, an email message contains five main parts
(see Figure 11.5):
email address (To:)the address of the person receiving the message (the
recipient)
subjectthe topic of the message or a brief description
carbon copy (Cc:)sends the same message to people other than the main
recipient (optional)
blind carbon copy (Bcc:)sends a copy to other people without revealing
who else got the message (optional)
Application software
Function
main bodythe body of the message typed using the email software or
imported from a word processor.
Bandwidth refers to the information-carrying capacity of the cables and wires
that connect the computers together. There is a limit to the amount of
information that can be carried. For that reason, it is advisable to check with the
recipient before sending large files, such as those containing video clips. Keep
bandwidth in mind when sending messages and try to be concise and clear.
Large files can be compressed before sending to save time and bandwidth. When
a person receives a compressed file they must decompress it using the
appropriate software.
After an email is read it can be deleted or stored in an appropriate folder on
the hard disk for later reference. You can reply to an email message simply by
clicking on the Reply button. A new message window is opened with the
address of the original sender automatically inserted. The previous message can
be retained to remind the person of their original message. This is called
quoting. The prefix Re: may be added to the original subject line to identify
the thread of the message. Forwarding a message involves sending a message
you received to someone else.
ITITFact
Fact
An e-bomb is a large and useless electronic mail message that is sent to
other users and creates havoc with their hard drives. E-bombs are sometimes sent with good intentions, such as advertising.
Creating email
Email software provides a number of features to help users create their email.
An address book is used to store email addresses. This saves having to remember
each persons address and type it into an email message. A mailing list is a group
of people who want to receive the same messages. It may be people working on
the same project or a group of people with the same interests. Mailing lists are
created by entering the email address of each person in the list and giving the
list a name. A signature is several lines that are automatically appended to all
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287
outgoing email messages. It may include contact details, the persons occupation,
a Web site URL or a graphic.
The widespread use of email has resulted in some informal rules to improve
their readability and clarity. These rules are often referred to as netiquette and
include the following:
Keep messages short (less than a screen) and to the point.
Avoid using email for trivia and gossip.
Avoid using all capital lettersit is considered shouting.
Make the subject line as meaningful as possible.
Add blank lines between paragraphs.
In addition, some people make use of informal devices such as emotions and
acronyms.
Emotions are little icons that show feelings, such as :) for smiling.
Common acronyms include IRL for in real life and BTW for by the way.
Attachments
Attachments are computer files sent with the email message. They can be any
kind of file, including text, video, audio, graphics or programs. Clearly the
receiver of the email must have an application that can read or convert the file.
When sending an attachment it is important to include a brief explanation in
the main body of the email message. The explanation should state that there is
an attachment and give its filename and format.
All email programs need to encode file attachments into characters, since the
Internet TCP/IP does not allow transmission of binary code. Many email
programs use Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME). It is an Internet
protocol that is able to negotiate many different operating systems and types of
software. It has been a major step forward in the ability to exchange files other
than text files.
Exercise 11.3
1 What is electronic mail?
2 List some of the advantages of using email.
3 What is the first part of an email address?
4 What happens to the email after it has been sent?
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5 Explain the difference between carbon copy and blind carbon copy.
288
6 What is quoting?
7 How are feelings shown in an email message?
8 Why is it important to include a brief explanation in the main body of an email
when sending attachments?
9 Employees have been dismissed for making comments about their bosses in email
messages. The courts have ruled that organisations have the right to access their
employees email on their computer networks. Is this an invasion of privacy? Who
should have access to email at work? Why?
Application software
Function
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Web pages
displaying
Before creating a Web page it is advisable to critically examine other Web pages.
Analyse their purpose, page layout, text, multimedia material and links, and the
accuracy of the information. There are five main stages in creating a Web page:
planning, designing, implementing, publishing, and testing and evaluating.
Planning
The first task in creating a Web page is to establish a clear purpose and identify
an audience. This will influence the page layout, language level and content of
the Web page. The audience might be other students at your school, the school
community or students in other schools.
The next task is to determine how you are going to attract the audience. This
could involve compelling content, graphics or multimedia material. The page
needs to get the users attention and make them want to come back again.
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When planning a Web page there are certain conventions that will save time
and result in a professional-looking product. Some of these are listed below.
The Web page should be less than one A4 page in length, or two to three
scrolled screens. Many Web pages are the size of the average computer
screen.
The main elements of the Web page should be located on the first screen or
home page. This often includes a brief introduction and a hypertext table of
contents.
There should be consistent navigation throughout all Web pages that make
up the site. Every page should be linked to the home page (see Figure 11.6).
Use a style that is consistent and appropriate for the purpose of the Web
page. Avoid using too many fonts and styles.
A user should be able to find the information they want within three mouse
clicks. If users cannot find information quickly and easily they will go to
another site. Do not overcrowd a page.
Web pages should load in less than eight seconds otherwise users will
become impatient. Avoid the overuse of graphics and other elements that
will slow down the loading of a Web page. Reusing graphics on a number of
pages will be faster than using different graphics on each page.
290
Figure 11.6 The home page of PC User magazines Web site. Note the clear,
uncluttered layout and the defined areas for navigation links.
Designing
People read Web pages in the same way as they read other published
documentsstarting at the top left corner of the page and working their way
across and down the page. Web pages need to be designed to assist this reading
gravity. There are six important elements in the design of a Web page: text,
colour, multimedia, navigation and layout.
Text should be clear and legible and in one or two typefaces only. Care
should be taken using font styles such as bold and italic. Underlining should
only be used for hyperlinks. Long lines of text are difficult to read. Using a
Application software
Function
border down the left-hand side of the page is a common technique for
shortening the line length.
Colour should be used carefully. Using many different colours can be distracting and reduce readability. Dark text on a light background or vice versa
usually works well. Avoid using colours that have specific meanings. For
example, unused hyperlinks are usually shown in blue and used hyperlinks
in purple.
Graphics create visual interest but are slow to load. When using graphics,
consider the size of the graphic, whether the icons are instantly recognisable
and whether the graphic easily fits on the screen. Two common graphic
formats are JPEG and GIF. (See pages 221 and 225 for a discussion of
graphic file formats.)
Multimedia should not be an essential part of a Web page as some users
might not have the right software or hardware to view it. If you want to
include a Web page with multimedia, have it accessed from a standard Web
page on which you advise users of the software required. It is important to
advise users about the size of any sound or video files on your site.
Navigation is an essential component of any Web pagepeople need to
understand where they are and where they can go. Colouring different areas
of the page, using visual symbols (icons and arrows), inserting clear page
headers and creating simple hyperlinks improves navigation.
Layout should provide a user-friendly interface with all the above elements
working together. Other features to consider are bulleted lists, columns,
tables, scroll bars, alignment, line spacing, and horizontal and vertical lines.
Implementing
Web pages are created using Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). HTML is a
set of special instructions (called tags) that indicate how parts of a document
will be displayed. Hyperlinks are special tags that can be attached to text or
graphics to create a link to another Web page. Hypertext links are often shown
in blue and are usually underlined. All hyperlinks refer to a particular Internet
address (URL).
A range of software can be used to create a file in HTML format, including
many word processors, desktop publishing programs and multimedia authoring
programs. Software developed for the specific purpose of creating Web pages is
called Web authoring software. Common Web authoring packages include
Microsoft FrontPage, Netscape Navigator Gold, Adobe GoLive and Claris Home
Page. These programs allow the user to create Web pages without having to
understand HTML code. Web authoring programs allow the user to import text,
graphics, tables, audio and video from other programs. A Web page is built from
these elements.
Publishing
Web pages are normally published and stored on a server. A server stores
thousands of Web pages from different Web sites. People visit a Web site by
connecting to the server. Large organisations have their own Web servers.
Smaller organisations and individuals pay to have their Web site hosted by an
ISP. ISPs charge a fee that is dependent on the total file size of the Web site,
including graphics, sound and video. The larger the Web site, the larger the
hosting fee. Many ISPs include a small amount of space on their Web server as
part of their service to subscribers who open an Internet account with them.
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Web pages are tested throughout their development using a Web browser. All
the elements can be examined offline with the exception of hyperlinks. The
Web pages are checked to get an overview and to ensure that all the elements
are working together. It is useful to check the Web pages using different
computer platforms (e.g. Windows and Macintosh) and using different types of
Web browsers to make sure the result will be acceptable to all users. There are
also online validation services that will check Web pages (see Figure 11.7). A
final test is completed online to ensure the hyperlinks are working. If a
hyperlink is incorrect, the visitor will receive a message that tells them the page
they are looking for does not exist.
292
Web sites are evaluated to determine whether they are satisfying their
original purpose. An independent person should complete the evaluation to
ensure it is unbiased. Web pages are evaluated for efficiency and effectiveness.
Efficiency can be measured in the time taken to load the page, the ease of
navigation and whether the cost was justified.
Effectiveness is measured in terms of the quality of presentation, the
accuracy of information and whether it is clearly understood.
Application software
ITITFact
Fact
A flame war is when a long-standing debate on the Internet becomes
abusive without any form of mediation.
Function
Exercise 11.4
1 List the advantages of publishing on the Internet.
2 How do Web sites attract an audience?
3 Describe the elements of good design for:
a text
b colour.
4 Outline four ways of improving a Web sites navigation.
5 What are some of the advantages of using Web authoring software?
6 How do you advertise a Web page?
7 Why is a final test of a Web site completed online?
8 How are Web sites evaluated?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create a personal Web page about yourself. Do not include contact information
such as your address or phone number. Save the Web page using your name.
Follow the stages outlined below.
a Plan the page layout, content and features.
b Design the Web page, including the text, colour, graphics, multimedia and
navigation.
c Implement (build) the Web page using appropriate software.
d Advertise the Web page. Write a short description of the Web page and list
relevant categories.
e Test the Web page using a Web browser.
2 Create a Web page about a person you admire. Do not include contact information such as your address or phone number. Save the Web page using their
name. Follow the stages outlined below.
a Plan the page layout, content and features.
b Design the Web page, including the text, colour, graphics, multimedia and
navigation.
c Implement (build) the Web page using appropriate software.
d Advertise the Web page. Write a short description of the Web page and list
relevant categories.
e Test the Web page using a Web browser.
The Internet
293
Chapter review
PART A
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best
answers the question or completes the
statement.
1 The worlds biggest computer network
is the:
A World Wide Web
B LAN
C Ethernet
D Internet
2 A discussion group on a particular topic
is called a:
A Usenet
B chat room
C newsgroup
D ISP
3 Connecting to the Internet does not
require:
A an ISP
B a modem
C a browser
D email
4 HTML stands for:
A Hypertag Markup Language
B Hypertag Markbook Language
C Hypertext Markup Language
D Hypertext Markbook Language
5 Which of the following is not part of a
URL?
A IP address
B protocol
C domain name
D file path
294
Application software
Chapter review
PART B
For each of the following statements,
select from the list of terms the one that
most closely fits the statement. Write the
letter corresponding to your choice.
Statements
1 An organisation that provides access to
the Internet for a fee.
2 A protocol used on the Internet.
3 A group of documents that present
information on a particular topic.
4 It provides a real-time conversation
with one person or with hundreds of
people.
5 A software program stored on a computer that allows access to the Web.
6 The address of a specific computer on
the Internet.
7 A database of indexed Web sites that
can be searched using keywords.
8 Computer files sent with the email message such as text, video, sound, pictures
and programs.
9 The information-carrying capacity of
the cables and wires that connect computers together.
10 Imports text, graphics, tables, audio
and video from other programs to
create a Web page.
11 A collection of discussion groups in
which people with common interests
can exchange information.
The Internet
295
Functio
Character
296
Description
Hexadecimal
ASCII code
NUL
Null
0000000
SOH
Start of heading
0000001
STX
Start of text
0000010
ETX
End of text
0000011
EOT
End of transmission
0000100
ENQ
Enquiry
0000101
ACK
Acknowledge
0000110
BEL
Bell
0000111
BS
Backspace
0001000
HT
Horizontal tab
0001001
LF
Line feed
10
0001010
VT
Vertical tab
11
0001011
FF
Form feed
12
0001100
CR
Carriage return
13
0001101
SO
Shift out
14
0001110
SI
Shift in
15
0001111
DLE
16
10
0010000
DC1
Device control 1
17
11
0010001
DC2
Device control 2
18
12
0010010
DC3
Device control 3
19
13
0010011
DC4
Device control 4
20
14
0010100
NAK
Negative acknowledge
21
15
0010101
SYN
Synchronous idle
22
16
0010110
ETB
23
17
0010111
CAN
Cancel
24
18
0011000
EM
End of medium
25
19
0011001
SUB
Substitute
26
1A
0011010
ESC
Escape
27
1B
0011011
FS
File separator
28
1C
0011100
GS
Group separator
29
1D
0011101
RS
Record separator
30
1E
0011110
US
Unit separator
31
1F
0011111
32
20
0100000
0100001
Space
Appendix
Decimal
Exclamation mark
33
21
"
Double quote
34
22
0100010
Hash
35
23
0100011
Dollar
36
24
0100100
Percent
37
25
0100101
&
Ampersand
38
26
0100110
Quote
39
27
0100111
Open parenthesis
40
28
0101000
Close parenthesis
41
29
0101001
Asterisk
42
2A
0101010
Plus
43
2B
0101011
Comma
44
2C
0101100
Minus
45
2D
0101101
Full stop
46
2E
0101110
Oblique stroke
47
2F
0101111
48
30
0110000
49
31
0110001
50
32
0110010
51
33
0110011
52
34
0110100
53
35
0110101
54
36
0110110
55
37
0110111
56
38
0110000
57
39
0111001
Colon
58
3A
0111010
Semicolon
59
3B
0111011
<
Less than
60
3C
0111100
Equals
61
3D
0111101
>
Greater than
62
3E
0111110
Question mark
63
3F
0111111
Commercial at
64
40
1000000
65
41
1000001
66
42
1000010
67
43
1000011
68
44
1000100
69
45
1000101
70
46
1000110
71
47
1000111
72
48
1001000
73
49
1001001
74
4A
1001010
75
4B
1001011
76
4C
1001100
77
4D
1001101
78
4E
1001110
79
4F
1001111
80
50
1010000
81
51
1010001
82
52
1010010
83
53
1010011
Function
'
Appendix
297
84
54
1010100
85
55
1010101
86
56
1010110
87
57
1010111
88
58
1011000
89
59
1011001
Functio
298
90
5A
1011010
91
5B
1011011
Backslash
92
5C
1011100
93
5D
1011101
Caret
94
5E
1011110
Underscore
95
5F
1011111
Back quote
96
60
1100000
97
61
1100001
98
62
1100010
99
63
1100011
100
64
1100100
101
65
1100101
102
66
1100110
103
67
1100111
104
68
1101000
105
69
1101001
106
6A
1101010
107
6B
1101011
108
6C
1101100
109
6D
1101101
110
6E
1101110
111
6F
1101111
112
70
1110000
113
71
1110001
114
72
1110010
115
73
1110011
116
74
1110100
117
75
1110101
118
76
1110110
119
77
1110111
120
78
1111000
121
79
1111001
122
7A
1111010
123
7B
1111011
Vertical bar
124
7C
1111100
125
7D
1111101
~
DEL
Appendix
Tilde
126
7E
1111110
Delete
127
7F
1111111
Function
EBCDIC
Character
blank
Decimal
Hexadecimal
EBCDIC code
64
40
01000000
75
4B
01001011
<
76
4C
01001100
77
4D
01001101
78
4E
01001110
79
4F
01001111
&
80
50
01010000
90
5A
01011010
91
5B
01011011
92
5C
01011100
93
5D
01011101
94
5E
01011110
96
60
01011111
97
61
01100000
107
6B
01101011
108
6C
01101100
109
6D
01101101
>
110
6E
01101110
111
6F
01101111
121
79
01111001
122
7A
01111010
123
7B
01111011
124
7C
01111100
'
125
7D
01111101
126
7E
01111110
"
127
7F
01111111
129
81
10000001
130
82
10000010
131
83
10000011
132
84
10000100
133
85
10000101
134
86
10000110
135
87
10000111
136
88
10001000
137
89
10001001
145
91
10010001
146
92
10010010
147
93
10010011
148
94
10010100
Appendix
299
Functio
300
Appendix
149
95
10010101
150
96
10010110
151
97
10010111
152
98
10011000
153
99
10011001
161
A1
10100001
162
A2
10100010
163
A3
10100011
164
A4
10100100
165
A5
10100101
166
A6
10100110
167
A7
10100111
168
A8
10101000
169
A9
10101001
192
C0
11000000
193
C1
11000001
194
C2
11000010
195
C3
11000011
196
C4
11000100
197
C5
11000101
198
C6
11000110
199
C7
11000111
200
C8
11001000
201
C9
11001001
208
D0
11001001
209
D1
11001010
210
D2
11001011
211
D3
11001100
212
D4
11001101
213
D5
11001110
214
D6
11001111
215
D7
11010000
216
D8
11010001
217
D9
11010010
224
E0
11100000
226
E2
11100010
227
E3
11100011
228
E4
11100100
229
E5
11100101
230
E6
11100110
231
E7
11100111
232
E8
11101000
233
E9
11101001
240
F0
11110000
241
F1
11110001
242
F2
11110010
243
F3
11110011
244
F4
11110100
245
F5
11110101
246
F6
11110110
247
F7
11110111
248
F8
11111000
249
F9
11111001
Function
Appendix
301
Glossary
absolute referencing Copying a formula in a
spreadsheet where the contents of the formula
in the source cell do not change. The cell
references are indicated by a $ sign (e.g $B$5).
aliasing A staircase pattern created when a bitmapped graphic is enlarged.
alignment The process of positioning the text in
vertical alignments.
analysing The information process that involves
the interpretation of data, transforming it into
information.
analysis report A report containing details of the
new system with recommendations for design,
implementation and maintenance.
animation The movement of a graphic as in a
cartoon.
application software A computer program used
for a specific task.
arithmetic logic unit (ALU) Part of the CPU that
carries out all the arithmetical and logical
calculations.
ascending order Data arranged from smallest to
largest (09) or from first to last (AZ).
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange) A code that changes letters,
numbers and symbols into a binary code.
asynchronous transmission Serial transfer that
sends one byte at a time with special start and
stop bits.
attachment A file sent with the email message.
audio Sound that has been digitised.
authoring software Software used to combine
text, graphics, animation, audio and video into a
multimedia product.
Functio
302
Glossary
Function
303
Functio
304
Glossary
Function
305
Functio
306
Glossary
Function
307
Functio
308
Glossary
Function
Glossary
309
Acknowledgments
The author and publisher would like to thank the following for granting
permission to reproduce the copyright material in this book:
Canon Australia, pp. 41 (top right), 81 (bottom); Malcolm Cross, pp. 42, 49, 57
(top), 58, 63, 66, 72, 73, 105, 108; Epson, p. 40 (both); Randy Glasbergen, pp. 3,
116 (top), 122, 147; Great Southern Stock, p. 131; IBM, p. 9; Susannah
Jamieson, p. 21;
Logitech, p. 38; Andrew Meredith Photography, p. 53; Moore Music, p. 41
(bottom); Olympus Optical Company, p. 41 (top left); Mark Parisi, pp. 61, 81
(top), 91, 169, 191, 220, 230, 269, 277; PhotoDisc, pp. 11, 13 (both), 16 (top),
39, 43, 45, 67, 109, 116, 127; The Age, pp. 4, 82; Bill Thomas, pp. 5, 97.
Functio
Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. The author and
publisher would welcome any information from people who believe they own
copyright to material in this book.
310
Acknowledgments
Function
Index
accuracy, data 312, 46, 76
acknowledgment of sources
77
analysing 978
data 14, 525, 534
analysis report 98
animation 263, 2656, 270
arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
64
ASCII 278, 48, 2968
asynchronous transmissions
70
audio, data 19, 44, 48, 68,
263,
2668, 270
backing up 122
backup, data 55
bad sector 56
bar charts 2034
barcode readers 43
baud rate 71
beta test 105
bias, data 46, 69
binary
digits (bits) 48
system 26
bit-mapping 48, 212,
21921
bits per second 71
borders 156, 199, 250
bullets 150
bus 71
business and Internet 77
byte 25
cache 66
callouts 250
cameras
digital 40, 41, 212
digital video 40, 41
video 40
CD-R disks 58
CD-ROM disks 58
CD-RW disks 58
cells 185, 1901, 194, 1979
central processing unit (CPU)
15, 52, 624, 71
centralised processing 67
character
spacing 84, 1467, 238
text 139, 1467
charts 53, 84, 2025, 211
check digit 32
clip art 156, 211
clipboard 140
collecting data 13, 3846
column charts 204
columns 155, 197, 237
communication
concepts 701
software 75
compression 75
computer
crime 30
graphics 210
operators 109
computers
defined 89
mainframe 9
midrange 9
personal (PC) 9
supercomputer 9
condensing 238
context diagrams 101
control unit 8, 63
conversion 1078
direct 107
parallel 107
phased 1078
pilot 108
copyright 324, 46
CPU utilisation 65
crime, computer 30
cursor 136
cyclical redundancy check
(CRC) 56
DAT cartridges 58
data
accuracy 312, 46, 76
bias 46, 69
collection 913
compression 27980
defined 10
encryption 75
entry 44
and information systems
1920
integrity 168
manually collected 45
ownership 689
privacy 54
security 301, 61, 76
storing and retrieving
5561
test 105
transmitting and receiving
707
unauthorised analysis 53,
61
validation 32
data flow diagrams (DFDs)
68
data dictionaries 164
databases
creating 1645
defined 162
flat file 162
keys 1645
modifying 1689
operators 1734
query 173
reports 1778
searching 1723
software 4950
sorting 172
structure 163
tables and forms 165
database management system
(DBMS) 60, 162, 172
desktop publishing 49,
2301
colour 23940
creating content 231
design
elements 23540,
24952
principles 2434
draft copy 248
final copy 2489
graphics 239
page layout 2312, 2435
options 244
rules and guides 2445
tools 2445
planning and design 231
publication viewing and
printing 232
templates and master
pages 245
text 232, 2358
digital
cameras 40, 41, 212
communication 3
data 256, 48
video cameras 40, 41, 212
digitising 48
trends 245
directories 59
disk
cache 66
controller 56
drive 56
displaying of information 16
distributed processing 67
documents
creating 136
editing text 13942
formatting text 14550,
1545
printing 137
saving and retrieving 136
documentation 68, 105
user 105
domain names 2812
dot pitch 79
downloading files 27980
draw
objects 232
Index
311
Functio
fax
machines 75
modems 74
feasibility study 967
fetch-execute cycle 64
file
compression 259
formats 60, 2712
management 122
management software 59
menu 140
path 282
file allocation table (FAT) 56
flash memory 59
folders 59
fonts 1456, 199, 235
footers 1545, 251
forms 45
formatting 59, 834
characters 1457
document 1545
paragraphs 14750
spreadsheet 1979
text 14550, 2378
frame 232, 262
nudging 245
freeware 33
full duplex mode 70
furniture 114
312
Gantt charts 94
graphical user interface
Index
internal bus 71
Internet 445, 50, 767, 85
addresses 2812
banking 25
browser 60
connecting 2767
publishing 28993
shopping 25
Internet relay chat (IRC) 279
interviews 45
IP addresses 281
ISP 276
journal 123
joystick 39
kerning 238
keyboards 412, 114
leading 237
libraries 60
licence
network 33
site 33
line
charts 205
spacing 84, 148, 237
linked objects 140
liquid crystal display (LCD)
80
list checks 32
literature (printed text) 45
local area networks (LANs)
3, 74, 75
logical operators 174
logo 210
macros 199
magnetic
disks 556
tape 578
mail 75
merge 84, 178
margins 154
master pages 245
memory
flash 59
main 657
virtual 57
microfiche 60
microphones 41
microprocessor 63
modelling 523
modems 734, 276
monitor 79
morphing 266
motherboard 63
mouse 38, 114
multimedia
colour 270
design 2578, 269
editing objects 264
file formats 2712
inserting objects 2634
planning 2589
netiquette 76
network licence 33
networks
defined 74
local area (LANs) 3, 74,
75
wide area (WANs) 74, 75
newsgroups 278
non-computer tools
analysis 53
collection 45
data display 84
organisation 50
processing 68
storing and retrieving 60
transmitting and receiving
756
numbering lists 150
numbers, data 20, 44, 68,
198
operating systems 434
optical character recognition
(OCR) 423
optical
disks 589
recognition devices 423
organisational charts 97
organising data 14, 4850
output
data 9
devices 9, 7984
page
breaks 154
layout 2312, 2435
setup options 1545
paging 57
paint software 489
paper-based storage systems
60
parallel
port 72
processing 67
transfer 70
parity bit 70
participants 1011
passwords 60
pen input 39
personal information systems
124
picture objects 232
pie charts 205
pipelining 64
piracy, software 33
pixel 79, 211
plotters 823
pointing devices 389
port 72
Postscript 248
preliminary investigation
913
presentation software 2614
printers 802
privacy 46, 54, 77
problem solving 1223
processing
data 8, 15, 52, 629
speed 64
types of 67, 68
processor 15, 52
programmable ROM
(PROM) 67
project
management 122
management software 94
plan 934
protocol 75, 282
public domain software 33
Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN) 745
QIC tapes 58
radio 76
RAM (random access
memory) 65
random access 56
range checks 32
raster scan 79
receiving data 15, 707
refreshing 79
register 64
relational operators 173
removable cartridges 57
reporting 83, 1778
reports
format, database 178
written 1234
requirement report 93
resolution 79, 211, 248
response time 65
retrieving data 14, 5562
ROM (read only memory)
667
ROM BIOS 67
rows 197
sampling 48
sans serif typeface 145,
2356
scanners 3940, 212
screens 7980, 114
scrolling 136
SCSI 56
SDRAM 65
search engines 2834
searching, data 52, 53
sectors 59
security, data 301, 61, 76
serial
port 72
transfer 70
serif typeface 145, 2356
shading 156, 199
Function
shareware 33
simplex mode 70
simulations 523
site licence 33
skills and information systems
116
slide presentation 2612
social issues 46, 50, 534,
61, 689, 76, 845,
11317, 123
software
analysing 523
application 10, 4850, 83,
104
communications 75
custom 105
database 4950
desktop publishing 49
ergonomic 11415
file management 59
graphics 21214
hardware interface 59
information management
934
multimedia 49, 25960,
2614
operating systems 434
packages 104
paint and draw 49
piracy 33
presentation 2614
processing 68
project management 94
public domain 33
shareware 33
spreadsheet 49, 53
system 10, 124
transmitting and receiving
75
word processing 49, 135
sorting 52
sound card 41
spacing 84, 1467, 148
speakers 82
spell checker 141
spreadsheets 49, 53
absolute referencing 192
calculation area 187
cell 185, 1979
references 1901
charts 2025
circular reference 190
copy and moving 187
creating 186
formulas 1904
data
editing 1867
entering 186
defined 184
fill down, fill right 187
formatting 1979
functions 192
input area 187
instruction area 187
layout 187
Index
313
Functio
tables
database 165
ergonomic 84
word processing 155
tabs 1489
technical support staff 108
telecommuting 117
telephone 75
television 76
templates
desktop publishing 245
multimedia 261
spreadsheet 194
terminals 74
text
alignment 1478, 1989,
237
Autocorrect 141
block 139
body 236
character 139, 1467
copy and paste 140
correcting 139
cut and paste 13940
data 20, 44, 48, 68
drag and drop 140
deleting 139
editing 13942
effects 249
find and replace 1401
flow 232
formatting 14550, 2378
inserting 139
line spacing 148
moving 13940
objects 232
wrap 250
thesaurus 142
314
Index