Anp2001 test 1 questions

1. What is lymph? What is the normal composition of lymph? How does the composition of lymph differs
from that of blood?
2. Describe the structure of lymphatic capillaries emphasizing on the unique features. Into what
structures do they drain?
3. Which major body regions drain lymph to the right lymphatic duct?
4. What is lymphedema? What can cause lymphedema? Describe at least two different causes.
5. What are the functions of the spleen? If your spleen were removed [splenectomy], would you be ableto ght
off illness or infections effectively? Why or why not?
4. Complete the following statements by writing the missing terms in the answer blanks:
Although the cardiovascular system has a pump __________ and the vessels _________,
______________ and ___________________, the lymphatic system lacks two of these
structures: the ______________ and __________________. Like the _____________ of the
cardiovascular system, the vessels of the lymphatic system are equipped with
____________________ to prevent the back ow. The lymphatic vessels act primarily to pick
up ___________________,now called ____________________ and return to the
bloodstream. About __________ of the uid is returned every 24 h.
5. How do the white pulp and the red pulp of the spleen differ with respect to both cell
population and function?
6. If your tonsils are removed, how does your body develop an immune response against
antigens in the throat? Are any other sources of lymphatic cells or structures located there?
Lymphatic Vessels
1.
List the functions of the lymphatic vessels.
2.
Describe the structure and distribution of lymphatic vessels.
3.
Describe the source of lymph and mechanism(s) of lymph transport.
Lymphoid Cells and Tissues
4.
Describe the basic structure and cellular population of lymphoid tissue. Differentiate between
diffuse and follicular lymphoid tissues.
Lymph Nodes
5.
Describe the general location, histological structure, and functions of lymph nodes.
Other Lymphoid Organs
6.
Name and describe the other lymphoid organs of the body. Compare and contrast them with
lymph nodes, structurally and functionally.
Developmental Aspects of the Lymphatic System and Lymphoid Organs and Tissues
7.
Outline the development of the lymphatic
system and the lymphoid organs and tissues.
Question 1.
Why is the heart called a double pump?

Question 2.
Describe the path of blood through the heart, and the pulmonary and cardiac circuits. Include the direction of
gas exchange in the lungs and tissues.
Question 3.
Relate the image of an electrocardiogram with the heartbeat.

Question 4.
There are several very serious, life threatening diseases associated with the cardiovascular system. First name
and define at least three and then describe lifestyles that will improve cardiovascular health.

Question 5.
Identify differences in the function and structure of the lymph and cardiovascular systems.
1) What are the functions of blood?
Answer
Blood carries substances, including carbon dioxide as well as other metabolic wastes, away from cells and
oxygen to cells for cellular respiration. Blood transports nutrients, vitamins, and minerals absorbed in the
digestive system to cells as well as carrying hormones that act as chemical messengers to cells from endocrine
glands. Additionally, blood houses immune cells and helps distribute heat throughout the body.
2) How is blood within the venous system moved from capillaries to the heart considering they are under very
little pressure and not under the influence of the heart?
Answer

Veins contain valves that only allow blood to move toward the heart. As muscles contract they constrict walls
of the veins, causing blood to move through valves in the direction toward the heart. Blood is prevented from
moving away from the heart, since valves close as blood moves in the opposite direction. As a result of many
contractions of vein walls, blood is propelled toward the heart, eventually completing its journey upon entering
the right atrium.
3) What is the purpose of the sinoatrial (SA) node of the heart?
Answer
The SA node is made up of specialized cardiac muscle cells that are capable of spontaneously generating an
electrical impulse that passes through the heart and causes the atrium and the ventricles to rhythmically
contract, forcing blood out of the heart into either of the two circuits.
4) How would blood flow be affected if the left atrioventricular valve was damaged causing it to stay in an open
position all of the time?
Answer
As a result to damage, the left atrioventricular valve would not be able to control the movement of blood
between the left atrium and ventricle. Blood would be able to move into the left ventricle from the left atrium,
but when the left ventricle contracts, blood will move back into the left atrium with little blood moving into the
aorta and entering the system circuit. A person with such a disorder would die since blood would not circulate.
5) Compare and contrast red blood cells and white blood cells, giving special attention to their functions and
structure.
Answer
Both cells are part of human blood, originate from bone marrow, and are cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen,
do not have a nucleus, and are spherical in shape with a concave center. White blood cells are responsible for
an immune response, are larger than red blood cells, and contain a nucleus.
6) What is the difference between systolic pressure and diastolic pressure?
Answer
The systolic pressure is the pressure found in arteries when the left ventricle is contracted and the diastolic
pressure is the pressure of the arterial walls when the left ventricle is in a relaxed state. When blood pressure is
measured, the top number reported is the systolic pressure and the bottom number is the diastolic pressure.
7) What are the potential health consequences of blood pressure exceeding 140/90 mm/Hg?
Answer
When the systolic blood pressure reaches or exceeds 140 mm/Hg, the pressure is great enough to stretch the
arterial wall, which may cause them to lose their elasticity over time. When arterial walls lose their ability to
stretch they cannot expand during exertions and the heart must work harder, potentially weakening it over time.
Additionally, rigid walls resulting from elevated blood pressure increases the buildup of cholesterol, narrowing
the arteries, causing the heart to work harder, and increasing the chances of heart attack and stroke.
8) What effect might the addition of considerable amounts of body fat have on blood pressure and the overall
health of the heart?
Answer

With the addition of each additional pound of body fat an additional mile of capillaries is grown. As a
consequence, the heart will have to work harder to circulate blood throughout the arteries. In extreme cases, the
heart can be stressed and may fail due to the added force it needs to generate to move blood greater distances.
Additionally, since the heart must pump with greater force, blood pressure will rise and lead to diseases
associated with high blood pressure, including cardiovascular disease.

Essay Questions
1) Describe the structure of the systemic and pulmonary circuits of mammals. Describe the advantages of
having a two-circuit system, considering the metabolic needs of the animal. How is the heart designed to work
in a two-circuit system?
Answer
Systemic circuit this circuit includes blood vessels carrying oxygenated blood from the heart to the entire
body, except the lungs. The systemic circuit returns blood low in oxygen to the right atrium of the heart. In
humans the left atrium and ventricle move blood into the body.
Pulmonary circuit the pulmonary circuit includes the right atrium and ventricles and blood vessels that carry
blood low in oxygen to the lungs and returns blood high in oxygen to the left atrium of the heart.
Animals with a four-chambered heart can have a systemic and pulmonary circuit. Having two circuits allows
for the more efficient flow of blood, which can be delivered at a faster rate and is more appropriate for animals
with high metabolic rates.
In order for the heart to operate a double circuit it must be a double pump, with one half the heart providing
force to drive blood through one circuit and the other half forcing blood through the other circuit.
2) What characteristics and functions would artificial blood need for it to sustain the life of mammals?
Answer
Artificial blood would have to perform the many functions of real blood.
Gas transport and exchange - Therefore, it would have to have the ability to carry gases such as carbon dioxide
and oxygen. Specifically, it would need to loosely hold onto oxygen, absorbing it in regions of high oxygen
concentration, the lungs, and release oxygen in regions of low oxygen concentration, tissues. This would also
be true for its ability to carry carbon dioxide, but from tissues to the lungs.
Circulation artificial blood would need to have the ability to flow through arteries, veins, and capillaries,
which are all of different diameters.
Homeostasis blood would need to have the ability to clot and stop blood loss when blood vessels are broken.
It must also be able to transport heat from areas of the body where it is generated to other areas of the body.
Additionally, artificial blood must have the ability to regulate pH to keep it within a normal range.
Transport in addition to respiratory gases, artificial blood would need to be able to transport substances such as
glucose, hormones, nutrients, vitamins, cells of the immune system, and minerals.
3) What is the difference between atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis? How do they contribute to heart attack
and stroke? How does this affect blood pressure and the overall health of the heart?

Answer
Atherosclerosis is the buildup of fatty deposits, called plaques, on the inner walls of arteries which narrow the
inner diameter. Generally, atherosclerosis is followed by arteriosclerosis, which is the deposit of calcium on
plaques causing them to harden. As a result, the inner diameter is reduced, increasing the chances of a clot
forming. A clot can lodge in a narrowed artery causing a stroke, which is the restriction of blood to the brain. If
blood flow is stopped from reaching muscles of the heart, a heart attack can occur. In either case, cell death
results which can lead to death.
Additionally, since the arterial walls lose their ability to stretch and are narrowed, blood pressure may increase,
causing more strain on the heart. If elevated blood pressure is not treated, the additional stress on the heart may
increase the chances of heart failure.
4) Describe the location and functions of the four chambers of the heart that are found in the closed circulatory
system of mammals and birds. Describe how blood moves through each of these chambers and which valves
are involved.
Answer
There are two top chambers called atrium and two bottom chambers called ventricles. The right atrium receives
blood from the vena cava, which carries blood low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide. Once contracted,
blood passes out of the right atrium through the atrioventricular valve to the right ventricle. When the right
ventricle of the heart contracts, blood is sent to the lungs. Oxygenated blood from the lungs is received by the
top left atrium, which when contracted moves blood through the left atrioventricular valve to the left ventricle,
which then sends blood to the rest of the body, referred to as the systemic circuit.
1. What is the role of a fibrin clot in cardiovascular mortality?
Answer: The primary causes of cardiovascular mortality are heart attacks (myocardial
infarctions) and strokes. Fibrin clots cause heart attacks by blocking blood flow in a coronary
artery, and cause strokes by blocking blood flow in a cerebral artery.
The physiological impact of blockage depends on the artery that is obstructed and the
location of the clot in the artery. For coronary arteries, the clot can cause the heart to
immediately stop pumping blood (sudden death) or cause a more gradual necrosis of the
downstream tissue and death within 24 hours. If the region of affected heart muscle is
sufficiently small, the affected tissue can be repaired with a scar and death does not occur.
2. Define the term hemostasis.
Answer: Hemostasis is a complex process that stops bleeding; the opposite of hemostasis is
hemorrhage. Hemostasis has three major steps: 1) vasoconstriction, 2) temporary blockage of
the hole by a platelet plug, and 3) blood coagulation, or formation of a clot that seals the hole
until tissues are repaired.
3. Briefly describe the important properties of platelets.
Answer: Platelets are small blood cells that are required for blood coagulation. Their lifetime in
circulation is 5 to 9 days, and large numbers of new platelets must be made each day (about
10
11
) to maintain normal blood platelet levels. Platelets have no DNA, and therefore cannot
divide or synthesize new protein.
4. What is the first event in sealing a leak in the vascular system?
Answer: Platelets aggregate to plug leaks in the vascular system. The first step in this process
is platelet activation due to contact with molecules at the site of the vascular leak that are

normally shielded from blood by the endothelial cell layer (for example, collagen). Activated
platelets aggregate rapidly to form a plug that temporarily seals the leak. This plug is
temporary, and lasts only about 6 hours. During this time platelets help to direct the formation of
a clot, and secrete growth factors that stimulate the long-term repair of the hole in the vessel
wall.
5. Diagram the blood coagulation cascade, and label the contact activation (intrinsic),
tissue factor (extrinsic), and final common pathways.
Answer: See the class handout.
6. How does thrombin cause fibrinogen to form a clot?
Answer: Thrombin is a protease that converts the water-soluble fibrinogen molecule to fibrin
molecules, which then aggregate rapidly and spontaneously to form insoluble fibers. The long,
slender fibrin molecules are aligned in the fiber with their long axis parallel to the fiber length,
with an offset of 50% relative to adjacent fibrin molecules in the fiber (see diagram in lecture).
The final clot has numerous fibrin fibers in a dense network.
In detail, fibrinogen is normally prevented from aggregating by the presence of short
peptide segments at the N-terminus of 4 of the 6 proteins that make up fibrinogen. Thrombin is
specific for a peptide bond found only in these 4 peptide segments; when thrombin hydrolyzes
these bonds the 4 peptides are released and the resulting fibrin monomers are now able to
aggregate rapidly.
8. Describe the advantage of a four-chambered heart.
Allows complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood only
oxygenated blood is pumped to the tissues of the body.
9. Which organisms have a four-chambered heart?
Birds and mammals have four-chambered hearts.
10. Which mammalian organ contracts to pull air into the lungs efficiently?
The diaphragm contracts to pull air into the lungs.
11. Which part of the brain controls breathing indirectly by detecting the
carbon dioxide level in the blood?
The medulla oblongata controls breathing indirectly by detecting the CO2
level in the blood.
12. Describe the path of oxygen from the atmosphere to the alveolus.
O2 from the atmosphere enters through the nasal cavity or mouth. After
being wormed and moistened, the O2 travels past the phrynx where the
nasal cavity and mouth join and into the trachea. From the trachea, the
gas branches into one of two bronchi, into bronchioles, and finally reaches
an alveolus.
13. How does oxygen in the alveolus get into the blood?
O2 in the alveolus enters the blood by diffusion across the alveolar
membrane and capillary membrane and attaches to a hemoglobin
molecule in a red blood cell.
14. Describe the structure of the lung.
The lung is spongy organ divided into lobes. Each lobe is made up of tubes

that branch into the bronchial tree. At the end of the bronchial branches
are grapelike clusters if alveoli.
15. What is the function of hairs and mucus in the nasal cavity?
Hairs and mucus in the nasal cavity filter particles from the air so that
only clean air reaches the lungs.
16. What three things leave the body with each exhaled breath?
Carbon dioxide, water vapor and heat are exhaled.
17. How is the human respiratory system adapted for each of the following: a
large gas exchange surface; protection of the exchange surface; a moist
surface for the exchange surface; transport of gases between body cells
and the exchange surface?
Large surface: many alveoli
Protections: lungs surrounded by ribs and muscles
Moist surface: alveoli located deep within the body where moisture
levels can be maintained
Transport of gasses: by blood