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Endocrinesystem
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Theendocrinesystemreferstothecollectionofglandsofanorganismthatsecretehormonesdirectlyintothe
circulatorysystemtobecarriedtowardsdistanttargetorgans.Themajorendocrineglandsincludethepineal
gland,pituitarygland,pancreas,ovaries,testes,thyroidgland,parathyroidgland,hypothalamus,andadrenal
glands.Theendocrinesystemisincontrasttotheexocrinesystem,whichsecretesitshormonestotheoutsideof
thebodyusingducts.Theendocrinesystemisaninformationsignalsystemlikethenervoussystem,yetits
effectsandmechanismareclassifiablydifferent.Theendocrinesystem'seffectsareslowtoinitiate,and
prolongedintheirresponse,lastingfromafewhoursuptoweeks.Thenervoussystemsendsinformationvery
quickly,andresponsesaregenerallyshortlived.Invertebrates,thehypothalamusistheneuralcontrolcenterfor
allendocrinesystems.Thefieldofstudydealingwiththeendocrinesystemanditsdisordersisendocrinology,a
branchofinternalmedicine.[1]Specialfeaturesofendocrineglandsare,ingeneral,theirductlessnature,their
vascularity,andcommonlythepresenceofintracellularvacuolesorgranulesthatstoretheirhormones.In
contrast,exocrineglands,suchassalivaryglands,sweatglands,andglandswithinthegastrointestinaltract,tend
tobemuchlessvascularandhaveductsorahollowlumen.

Endocrinesystem

Inadditiontothespecializedendocrineorgansmentionedabove,manyotherorgansthatarepartofotherbody
systems,suchasbone,kidney,liver,heartandgonads,havesecondaryendocrinefunctions.Forexample,the
kidneysecretesendocrinehormonessuchaserythropoietinandrenin.Hormonescanconsistofeitheramino
acidcomplexes,steroids,eicosanoids,leukotrienes,orprostaglandins.[1]
Anumberofglandsthatsignaleachotherinsequenceareusuallyreferredtoasanaxis,forexample,the
hypothalamicpituitaryadrenalaxis.

Mainglandsoftheendocrinesystem
Details

Asopposedtoendocrinefactorsthattravelconsiderablylongerdistancesviathecirculatorysystem,other
signalingmolecules,suchasparacrinefactorsinvolvedinparacrinesignallingdiffuseoverarelativelyshort
distance.
ThewordendocrinederivesfromtheGreekwordsendo"inside,within,"andkrinein"toseparate,
distinguish".

Identifiers
Latin Systemaendocrinum
FMA 9668(http://xiphoid.biostr.washington.edu/f
ma/fmabrowserhierarchy.html?fmaid=9668)
Anatomicalterminology
[editonWikidata]

Contents
1 Endocrineorgansandknownsecretedhormones
1.1 Hypothalamus
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3
4

5
6
7
8

1.1 Hypothalamus
1.2 Pinealbody(epiphysis)
1.3 Pituitarygland(hypophysis)
1.3.1 Anteriorpituitarylobe(adenohypophysis)
1.3.2 Posteriorpituitarylobe(neurohypophysis)
1.4 Thyroid
1.5 Digestivesystem
1.5.1 Stomach
1.5.2 Duodenum(smallintestine)
1.5.3 Liver
1.5.4 Pancreas
1.6 Kidney
1.7 Adrenalglands
1.7.1 Adrenalcortex
1.7.2 Adrenalmedulla
1.8 Reproductive
1.8.1 Testes
1.8.2 Ovarianfollicleandcorpusluteum
1.8.3 Placenta(whenpregnant)
1.8.4 Uterus(whenpregnant)
1.9 Calciumregulation
1.9.1 Parathyroid
1.9.2 Skin
Targets
2.1 Heart
2.2 Bonemarrow
2.3 Skeletalmuscle
2.4 Adiposetissue
Majorendocrinesystems
Physiology
4.1 Interactionwithimmunesystem
4.2 Othertypesofsignalling
4.2.1 Autocrine
4.2.2 Paracrine
4.2.3 Juxtacrine
Diseases
Otheranimals
Additionalimages
Seealso

9 References
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9 References
10 Externallinks

Endocrineorgansandknownsecretedhormones

Endocrineglandsinthehumanheadandneckandtheirhormones

Hypothalamus

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Secretedhormone

Abbreviation

Producedby

Effect

Thyrotropinreleasinghormone

TRH

Parvocellular
neurosecretoryneurons

Dopamine
(Prolactininhibitinghormone)

DAorPIH

Dopamineneuronsofthe
Inhibitprolactinreleasedfromanteriorpituitary
arcuatenucleus

Growthhormonereleasinghormone GHRH
Somatostatin
(growthhormoneinhibiting
hormone)

Neuroendocrineneurons
oftheArcuatenucleus

Stimulatethyroidstimulatinghormone(TSH)releasefromanteriorpituitary
(primarily)

StimulateGrowthhormone(GH)releasefromanteriorpituitary

Neuroendocrinecellsof
SS,GHIH,or
thePeriventricular
SRIF
nucleus

InhibitGrowthhormonereleasefromanteriorpituitary
Inhibitthyroidstimulatinghormone(TSH)releasefromanteriorpituitary

Gonadotropinreleasinghormone

GnRHor
LHRH

Stimulatefolliclestimulatinghormone(FSH)releasefromanteriorpituitary
Stimulateluteinizinghormone(LH)releasefromanteriorpituitary

Corticotropinreleasinghormone

Parvocellular
neurosecretoryneuronsof Stimulateadrenocorticotropichormone(ACTH)releasefromanterior
CRHorCRF
theParaventricular
pituitary
Nucleus

Vasopressin
(antidiuretichormone)

Neuroendocrinecellsof
thePreopticarea

Parvocellular
neurosecretoryneurons,
Magnocellular
Increaseswaterpermeabilityinthedistalconvolutedtubuleandcollecting
ADHorAVP neurosecretoryneuronsof ductofnephrons,thuspromotingwaterreabsorptionandincreasingblood
orVP
theParaventricular
volume
nucleusandSupraoptic
nucleus

Pinealbody(epiphysis)
Secretedhormone
Melatonin

Fromcells
Pinealocytes

Effect
Antioxidant
Monitorsthecircadianrhythmincludinginductionofdrowsinessandlowering
ofthecorebodytemperature

Pituitarygland(hypophysis)

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Thepituitarygland(orhypophysis)isanendocrineglandaboutthesizeofapeaandweighing0.5grams(0.018oz)inhumans.Itisaprotrusionoffthebottomof
thehypothalamusatthebaseofthebrain,andrestsinasmall,bonycavity(sellaturcica)coveredbyaduralfold(diaphragmasellae).Thepituitaryisfunctionally
connectedtothehypothalamusbythemedianeminenceviaasmalltubecalledtheinfundibularstemorpituitarystalk..
Anteriorpituitarylobe(adenohypophysis)
Secretedhormone

Abbreviation

Growthhormone
(somatotropin)

GH

Somatotrophs

Stimulatesgrowthandcellreproduction
StimulatesInsulinlikegrowthfactor1releasefromliver

Thyroidstimulatinghormone
(thyrotropin)

TSH

Thyrotrophs

Stimulatesthyroxine(T4)andtriiodothyronine(T3)synthesisandrelease
fromthyroidgland
Stimulatesiodineabsorptionbythyroidgland

Adrenocorticotropichormone
(corticotropin)

ACTH

Corticotrophs

Stimulatescorticosteroid(glucocorticoidandmineralcorticoid)andandrogen
synthesisandreleasefromadrenocorticalcells

Corticotrophs

Inhibitsperceptionofpain

Gonadotrophs

Infemales:Stimulatesmaturationofovarianfolliclesinovary
Inmales:Stimulatesmaturationofseminiferoustubules
Inmales:Stimulatesspermatogenesis
Inmales:StimulatesproductionofandrogenbindingproteinfromSertoli
cellsofthetestes

Betaendorphin

Folliclestimulatinghormone

FSH

Fromcells

Effect

Luteinizinghormone

LH

Gonadotrophs

Infemales:Stimulatesovulation
Infemales:Stimulatesformationofcorpusluteum
Inmales:StimulatestestosteronesynthesisfromLeydigcells(interstitial
cells)

Prolactin

PRL

Lactotrophs

Stimulatesmilksynthesisandreleasefrommammaryglands
Mediatessexualgratification

MSH

MelanotropesinthePars
intermediaoftheAnterior Stimulatesmelaninsynthesisandreleasefromskin/hairmelanocytes
Pituitary

Melanocytestimulatinghormone

Posteriorpituitarylobe(neurohypophysis)

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Storedhormone

Abbreviation

Oxytocin
Vasopressin
(antidiuretichormone)

ADHorAVP

Fromcells

Effect

Magnocellular
neurosecretorycells

Infemales:uterinecontractionduringbirthing,lactation(letdownreflex)
whennursing

Parvocellular
neurosecretoryneurons

Increaseswaterpermeabilityinthedistalconvolutedtubuleandcollecting
ductofnephrons,thuspromotingwaterreabsorptionandincreasingblood
volume

Oxytocinandantidiuretichormonearenotsecretedintheposteriorlobe,merelystored.

Thyroid
Secretedhormone
Triiodothyronine

Thyroxine
(tetraiodothyronine)

Calcitonin

Abbreviation
T3

T4

Fromcells

Effect

Thyroidepithelialcell

(Morepotentformofthyroidhormone)
Stimulatesbodyoxygenandenergyconsumption,therebyincreasingthebasal
metabolicrate
StimulatesRNApolymeraseIandII,therebypromotingproteinsynthesis

Thyroidepithelialcells

(Lessactiveformofthyroidhormone)
(Actsasaprohormonetotriiodothyronine)
Stimulatesbodyoxygenandenergyconsumption,therebyincreasingthebasal
metabolicrate
StimulatesRNApolymeraseIandII,therebypromotingproteinsynthesis

Parafollicularcells

Stimulatesosteoblastsandthusboneconstruction
InhibitsCa2+releasefrombone,therebyreducingbloodCa2+

Digestivesystem

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Stomach
Secretedhormone

Abbreviation

Gastrin(Primarily)
Ghrelin
NeuropeptideY

Fromcells

Effect

Gcells

Secretionofgastricacidbyparietalcells

P/D1cells

Stimulateappetite.
Increasedfoodintakeanddecreasedphysicalactivity.Itcanbeassociated
withobesity.

NPY

Suppressreleaseofgastrin,cholecystokinin(CCK),secretin,motilin,
vasoactiveintestinalpeptide(VIP),gastricinhibitorypolypeptide(GIP),
enteroglucagon
Somatostatin

Dcells

Lowersrateofgastricemptying
Reducessmoothmusclecontractionsandbloodflowwithintheintestine.[2]

Histamine

ECLcells

stimulategastricacidsecretion

Endothelin

Xcells

Smoothmusclecontractionofstomach[3]

Duodenum(smallintestine)
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Secretedhormone

Fromcells

Effect
Secretionofbicarbonatefromliver,pancreasandduodenalBrunner'sglands

Secretin

Scells

Enhanceseffectsofcholecystokinin,stopsproductionofgastricjuice
Releaseofdigestiveenzymesfrompancreas

Cholecystokinin

Icells

Releaseofbilefromgallbladder,hungersuppressant

Liver
Secretedhormone
Insulinlikegrowthfactor(or
somatomedin)(Primarily)

Abbreviation

Fromcells

Effect
insulinlikeeffects

IGF

Hepatocytes

regulatecellgrowthanddevelopment
vasoconstriction

Angiotensinogenandangiotensin
Thrombopoietin
Hepcidin

Hepatocytes
THPO

releaseofaldosteronefromadrenalcortexdipsogen.

Hepatocytes

stimulatesmegakaryocytestoproduceplatelets[4]

Hepatocytes

inhibitsintestinalironabsorptionandironreleasebymacrophages

Pancreas
Thepancreasisamixocrineglandanditsecretesbothenzymesandhormones.

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Secretedhormone

Fromcells

Effect
Intakeofglucose,glycogenesisandglycolysisinliverandmusclefromblood.

Insulin(Primarily)

Isletcells

Intakeoflipidsandsynthesisoftriglyceridesinadipocytes.Otheranabolic
effects
Glycogenolysisandgluconeogenesisinliver.

Glucagon(AlsoPrimarily)

Isletcells

Increasesbloodglucoselevel.
Inhibitreleaseofinsulin[5]

Somatostatin

Pancreaticpolypeptide

Isletcells

Inhibitreleaseofglucagon[5]Suppresstheexocrinesecretoryactionof
pancreas.
Selfregulatethepancreassecretionactivitiesandeffectthehepaticglycogen
levels.

PPcells

Kidney
Secretedhormone
Renin(Primarily)
Erythropoietin(EPO)

Fromcells

Effect

Juxtaglomerularcells

ActivatesthereninangiotensinsystembyproducingangiotensinIof
angiotensinogen

Extraglomerularmesangialcells

Stimulateerythrocyteproduction
ActiveformofvitaminD3

Calcitriol(1,25dihydroxyvitamin
D3)
Thrombopoietin

Proximaltubulecells

Increaseabsorptionofcalciumandphosphatefromgastrointestinaltractand
kidneysinhibitreleaseofPTH
stimulatesmegakaryocytestoproduceplatelets[4]

Adrenalglands
Adrenalcortex
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Secretedhormone

Glucocorticoids(chieflycortisol)

Mineralocorticoids(chiefly
aldosterone)
Androgens(includingDHEAand
testosterone)

Fromcells

Effect

zonafasciculataandzonareticularis
cells

Stimulatesgluconeogenesis
Stimulatesfatbreakdowninadiposetissue
Inhibitsproteinsynthesis
Inhibitsglucoseuptakeinmuscleandadiposetissue
Inhibitsimmunologicalresponses(immunosuppressive)
Inhibitsinflammatoryresponses(antiinflammatory)

Zonaglomerulosacells

Stimulatesactivesodiumreabsorptioninkidneys
Stimulatespassivewaterreabsorptioninkidneys,thusincreasingbloodvolume
andbloodpressure
StimulatespotassiumandH+secretionintonephronofkidneyandsubsequent
excretion

ZonafasciculataandZonareticularis
cells

Inmales:Relativelysmalleffectcomparedtoandrogensfromtestes
Infemales:masculinizingeffects

Adrenalmedulla
Secretedhormone

Fromcells

Effect
Fightorflightresponse:

Adrenaline(epinephrine)(Primarily) Chromaffincells

Boostthesupplyofoxygenandglucosetothebrainandmuscles(by
increasingheartrateandstrokevolume,vasodilation,increasingcatalysis
ofglycogeninliver,breakdownoflipidsinfatcells)
Dilatethepupils
Suppressnonemergencybodilyprocesses(e.g.,digestion)

Fightorflightresponse:
Boostthesupplyofoxygenandglucosetothebrainandmuscles(by
increasingheartrateandstrokevolume,vasoconstrictionandincreased
bloodpressure,breakdownoflipidsinfatcells)
Increaseskeletalmusclereadiness.

Noradrenaline(norepinephrine)

Chromaffincells

Dopamine

Chromaffincells

Increaseheartrateandbloodpressure

Enkephalin

Chromaffincells

Regulatepain

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Reproductive

Testes
Secretedhormone

Fromcells

Effect
Anabolic:growthofmusclemassandstrength,increasedbonedensity,growth
andstrength,

Androgens(chieflytestosterone)

Leydigcells

Estradiol

Sertolicells

Preventapoptosisofgermcells[6]

Inhibin

Sertolicells

InhibitproductionofFSH

Virilizing:maturationofsexorgans,formationofscrotum,deepeningofvoice,
growthofbeardandaxillaryhair.

Ovarianfollicleandcorpusluteum

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Secretedhormone

Fromcells

Effect
Supportpregnancy:[7]
Convertendometriumtosecretorystage
Makecervicalmucusthickandimpenetrabletosperm.
Inhibitimmuneresponse,e.g.,towardsthehumanembryo
Decreaseuterinesmoothmusclecontractility[7]
Inhibitlactation
Inhibitonsetoflabor.
Other:

Progesterone

Granulosacells,thecacells

Raiseepidermalgrowthfactor1levels
Increasecoretemperatureduringovulation[8]
Reducespasmandrelaxsmoothmuscle(widenbronchiandregulate
mucus)
Antiinflammatory
Reducegallbladderactivity[9]
Normalizebloodclottingandvasculartone,zincandcopperlevels,cell
oxygenlevels,anduseoffatstoresforenergy
Assistinthyroidfunctionandbonegrowthbyosteoblasts
Increaseresilienceinbone,teeth,gums,joint,tendon,ligament,andskin
Promotehealingbyregulatingcollagen
Providenervefunctionandhealingbyregulatingmyelin
Preventendometrialcancerbyregulatingeffectsofestrogen

Androstenedione

Thecacells

Substrateforestrogen
Structural:
Promoteformationoffemalesecondarysexcharacteristics
Accelerateheightgrowth
Acceleratemetabolism(burnfat)
Reducemusclemass
Stimulateendometrialgrowth
Increaseuterinegrowth
Maintainbloodvesselsandskin

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Reduceboneresorption,increaseboneformation
Proteinsynthesis:
Increasehepaticproductionofbindingproteins
Coagulation:
Increasecirculatingleveloffactors2,7,9,10,antithrombinIII,
plasminogen
Increaseplateletadhesiveness
IncreaseHDL,triglyceride,heightgrowth
DecreaseLDL,fatdeposition
Estrogens(mainlyestradiol)

Granulosacells

Fluidbalance:
Regulatesalt(sodium)andwaterretention
Increasegrowthhormone
Increasecortisol,SHBG
Gastrointestinaltract:
Reducebowelmotility
Increasecholesterolinbile
Melanin:
Increasepheomelanin,reduceeumelanin
Cancer:
Supporthormonesensitivebreastcancers[10](Suppressionofproduction
inthebodyofestrogenisatreatmentforthesecancers.)
Lungfunction:
Promotelungfunctionbysupportingalveoli.[11]

Inhibin
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Granulosacells

InhibitproductionofFSHfromanteriorpituitary
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Placenta(whenpregnant)
Secretedhormone

Abbreviation

Fromcells

Effect
Supportpregnancy:[7]
Inhibitimmuneresponse,towardsthefetus.
Decreaseuterinesmoothmusclecontractility[7]
Inhibitlactation
Inhibitonsetoflabor.
Supportfetalproductionofadrenalmineraloandglucosteroids.

Progesterone(Primarily)

Othereffectsonmothersimilartoovarianfollicleprogesterone
Estrogens(mainlyEstriol)(Also
Primarily)

Effectsonmothersimilartoovarianfollicleestrogen
Promotemaintenanceofcorpusluteumduringbeginningofpregnancy

Humanchorionicgonadotropin

HCG

Syncytiotrophoblast

Inhibitimmuneresponse,towardsthehumanembryo.
IncreaseproductionofinsulinandIGF1

Humanplacentallactogen

HPL

Inhibin

Syncytiotrophoblast
FetalTrophoblasts

Increaseinsulinresistanceandcarbohydrateintolerance
SuppressFSH

Uterus(whenpregnant)
Secretedhormone
Prolactin
Relaxin

Abbreviation
PRL

Fromcells

Effect

Decidualcells

milkproductioninmammaryglands

Decidualcells

Unclearinhumansandanimals

Calciumregulation

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Parathyroid
Secretedhormone

Abbreviation

Fromcells

Effect
Calcium:
StimulatesCa2+releasefrombone,therebyincreasingbloodCa2+
Stimulatesosteoclasts,thusbreakingdownbone
StimulatesCa2+reabsorptioninkidney
StimulatesactivatedvitaminDproductioninkidney

Parathyroidhormone

PTH

Parathyroidchiefcell
Phosphate:
StimulatesPO34releasefrombones,therebyincreasingbloodPO34.
InhibitsPO34reabsorptioninkidney,somorePO34isexcreted
Overall,smallnetdropinserumPO34.

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Skin
Secretedhormone

Fromcells

Calcidiol(25hydroxyvitaminD3)

Effect
InactiveformofvitaminD3

Targets

Heart
Secretedhormone

Abbreviation

Fromcells

Effect
Reducebloodpressureby:

Atrialnatriureticpeptide

ANP

Cardiacmyocytes

reducingsystemicvascularresistance,reducingbloodwater,sodiumandfats
(ToalesserdegreethanANP)reducebloodpressureby:

Brainnatriureticpeptide

BNP

Cardiacmyocytes

reducingsystemicvascularresistance,reducingbloodwater,sodiumandfats

Bonemarrow

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Secretedhormone
Thrombopoietin

Fromcells
liverandkidneycells

Effect
stimulatesmegakaryocytestoproduceplatelets[4]

Skeletalmuscle
In1998,skeletalmusclewasidentifiedasanendocrineorgan[12]duetoitsnowwellestablishedroleinthesecretionofmyokines.[12][13]Theuseoftheterm
myokinetodescribecytokinesandotherpeptidesproducedbymuscleassignallingmoleculeswasproposedin2003.[14]

Adiposetissue
Signallingmoleculesreleasedbyadiposetissuearereferredtoasadipokines.
Secretedhormone

Fromcells

Leptin(Primarily)

Adipocytes

Estrogens[15](mainlyEstrone)

Adipocytes

Effect
decreaseofappetiteandincreaseofmetabolism.

Majorendocrinesystems
Thehumanendocrinesystemconsistsofseveralsystemsthatoperateviafeedbackloops.Severalimportantfeedbacksystemsaremediatedviathehypothalamus
andpituitary.[16]
TRHTSHT3/T4
GnRHLH/FSHsexhormones
CRHACTHcortisol
Reninangiotensinaldosterone
leptinvs.insulin

Physiology
Interactionwithimmunesystem

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Extensivebidirectionalinteractionsexistbetweentheendocrinesystemandtheimmunesystem.[17]Cortisolhasmajorimmunosuppressiveeffects,[18][19]and
dopaminehasimmunomodulatoryfunctions.[20]Ontheotherhand,cytokinesproducedduringinflammationactivatetheHPAaxisatallthreelevels,sensibleto
negativefeedback.[21]Moreover,cytokinesstimulatehepcidinreleasefromtheliver,whichiseventuallyresponsiblefortheanemiaofchronicdisease.[22]

Othertypesofsignalling
Thetypicalmodeofcellsignalingintheendocrinesystemisendocrinesignaling.However,therearealsoothermodes,i.e.,paracrine,autocrine,and
neuroendocrinesignaling.Purelyneurocrinesignalingbetweenneurons,ontheotherhand,belongscompletelytothenervoussystem.
Autocrine
Autocrinesignalingisaformofsignalinginwhichacellsecretesahormoneorchemicalmessenger(calledtheautocrineagent)thatbindstoautocrinereceptors
onthesamecell,leadingtochangesinthecells.
Paracrine
Someendocrinologistsandcliniciansincludetheparacrinesystemaspartoftheendocrinesystem,butthereisnotconsensus.Paracrinesaresloweracting,
targetingcellsinthesametissueororgan.Anexampleofthisissomatostatinwhichisreleasedbysomepancreaticcellsandtargetsotherpancreaticcells.[1]
Juxtacrine
Juxtacrinesignalingisatypeofintercellularcommunicationthatistransmittedviaoligosaccharide,lipid,orproteincomponentsofacellmembrane,andmay
affecteithertheemittingcellortheimmediatelyadjacentcells.
Itoccursbetweenadjacentcellsthatpossessbroadpatchesofcloselyopposedplasmamembranelinkedbytransmembranechannelsknownasconnexons.Thegap
betweenthecellscanusuallybebetweenonly2and4nm.

Diseases
Diseasesoftheendocrinesystemarecommon,[24]includingconditionssuchasdiabetesmellitus,thyroiddisease,andobesity.Endocrinediseaseischaracterized
byirregulatedhormonerelease(aproductivepituitaryadenoma),inappropriateresponsetosignaling(hypothyroidism),lackofagland(diabetesmellitustype1,
diminishederythropoiesisinchronicrenalfailure),orstructuralenlargementinacriticalsitesuchasthethyroid(toxicmultinodulargoitre).Hypofunctionof
endocrineglandscanoccurasaresultoflossofreserve,hyposecretion,agenesis,atrophy,oractivedestruction.Hyperfunctioncanoccurasaresultof
hypersecretion,lossofsuppression,hyperplasticorneoplasticchange,orhyperstimulation.
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Endocrinopathiesareclassifiedasprimary,secondary,ortertiary.Primaryendocrinediseaseinhibitstheactionof
downstreamglands.Secondaryendocrinediseaseisindicativeofaproblemwiththepituitarygland.Tertiaryendocrine
diseaseisassociatedwithdysfunctionofthehypothalamusanditsreleasinghormones.
Asthethyroid,andhormoneshavebeenimplicatedinsignalingdistanttissuestoproliferate,forexample,theestrogen
receptorhasbeenshowntobeinvolvedincertainbreastcancers.Endocrine,paracrine,andautocrinesignalinghaveall
beenimplicatedinproliferation,oneoftherequiredstepsofoncogenesis.[25]

Otheranimals

Disabilityadjustedlifeyearfor
endocrinedisordersper
100,000inhabitantsin2002. [23]

Aneuroendocrinesystemhasbeenobservedinallanimalswithanervoussystemandallvertebrateshavean
hypothalamuspituitaryaxis.[26]Allvertebrateshaveathyroid,whichinamphibiansisalsocrucialfortransformationof
larvaeintoadultform.[27][28]Allvertebrateshaveadrenalglandtissue,withmammalsuniqueinhavingitorganizedinto
layers.[29]Allvertebrateshavesomeformofreninangiotensinaxis,andalltetrapodshavealdosteroneasprimary
mineralocorticoid.[30][31]

nodata

480560

lessthan80

560640

80160

640720

160240

720800

240320

8001000

320400

morethan

400480

Additionalimages

1000

Femaleendocrine
system.

Maleendocrinesystem

Seealso
Endocrinedisease
Endocrinology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_system

Exocrinegland
Neuroendocrinology
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Nervoussystem
Paracrinesignalling
Releasinghormones

Tropichormone

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