7.4.1.

The state equations of a network

A canonical form for writing the differential equations of a system
If the system is linear, then the derivatives of the state variables are
expressed as linear combinations of the system independent inputs and
state variables themselves
The physical state variables of a system are usually associated with the
storage of energy
For a typical converter circuit, the physical state variables are the inductor
currents and capacitor voltages
Other typical physical state variables: position and velocity of a motor shaft
At a given point in time, the values of the state variables depend on the
previous history of the system, rather than the present values of the
system inputs
To solve the differential equations of a system, the initial values of the
state variables must be specified
Fundamentals of Power Electronics

64

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

State equations of a linear system, in matrix form

A canonical matrix form:

State vector x(t) contains
inductor currents, capacitor
voltages, etc.:

dx(t)
= A x(t) + B u(t)
dt
y(t) = C x(t) + E u(t)

x1(t)
x(t) = x2(t) ,

d x1(t)
dt
d x2(t)
dx(t)
=
dt
dt

Input vector u(t) contains independent sources such as vg(t)

Output vector y(t) contains other dependent quantities to be computed, such
as ig(t)
Matrix K contains values of capacitance, inductance, and mutual
inductance, so that K dx/dt is a vector containing capacitor currents and
inductor winding voltages. These quantities are expressed as linear
combinations of the independent inputs and state variables. The matrices A,
B, C, and E contain the constants of proportionality.
Fundamentals of Power Electronics

65

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Example

State vector
iR1(t)

v1(t)
x(t) = v2(t)
i(t)

iin(t)

R1

iC1(t)
C1

L
i(t)
+ + v (t)
L
iC2(t)
v1(t)

C2

+
R2
v2(t)

R3

+
vout(t)

Matrix K
Input vector
C1 0 0
K = 0 C2 0
0 0 L

Choose output vector as

u(t) = iin(t)

y(t) =

vout(t)
iR1(t)

To write the state equations of this circuit, we must express the inductor
voltages and capacitor currents as linear combinations of the elements of
the x(t) and u( t) vectors.
Fundamentals of Power Electronics

66

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Circuit equations

iR1(t)
iin(t)

R1

iC1(t)
C1

L
i(t)
+ + v (t)
L
iC2(t)
v1(t)

C2

+
R2
v2(t)

R3

+
vout(t)

Find iC1 via node equation:

iC1(t) = C1

dv1(t)
v (t)
= iin(t) 1 i(t)
R
dt

Find iC2 via node equation:

iC2(t) = C2

dv2(t)
v (t)
= i(t) 2
R2 + R3
dt

Find vL via loop equation:

vL(t) = L

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

67

di(t)
= v1(t) v2(t)
dt

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Equations in matrix form

dv1(t)
v (t)
= iin(t) 1 i(t)
R
dt
dv (t)
v (t)
iC2(t) = C2 2 = i(t) 2
R2 + R3
dt
di(t)
vL(t) = L
= v1(t) v2(t)
dt

iC1(t) = C1

The same equations:

Express in matrix form:

C1 0 0
0 C2 0
0 0 L

dv1(t)
dt
dv2(t)
dt
di(t)
dt

dx(t)
dt

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

1
R1
0
1

1
R2 + R3
1

68

1
1
0

v1(t)
1
v2(t) + 0
0
i(t)

iin(t)

x(t)

u(t)

+ B

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Output (dependent signal) equations

y(t) =

vout(t)
iR1(t)

iR1(t)
iin(t)

R1

iC1(t)
C1

L
i(t)
+ + v (t)
L
iC2(t)
v1(t)

C2

+
R2
v2(t)

R3

+
vout(t)

Express elements of the vector y as linear combinations of elements

of x and u:
R3
vout(t) = v2(t)
R2 + R3

iR1(t) =

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

v1(t)
R1

69

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Express in matrix form

The same equations:

vout(t) = v2(t)

iR1(t) =

R3
R2 + R3

v1(t)
R1

Express in matrix form:

vout(t)
=
iR1(t)

y(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

R3
R2 + R3

1
R1

70

v1(t)
v2(t) + 0
0
i(t)

iin(t)

x(t)

u(t)

+ E

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

7.4.2. The basic state-space averaged model

Given: a PWM converter, operating in continuous conduction mode,
with two subintervals during each switching period.
During subinterval 1, when the switches are in position 1, the
converter reduces to a linear circuit that can be described by the
following state equations:
dx(t)
K
= A 1 x(t) + B 1 u(t)
dt
y(t) = C 1 x(t) + E 1 u(t)
During subinterval 2, when the switches are in position 2, the
converter reduces to another linear circuit, that can be described by
the following state equations:
K

dx(t)
= A 2 x(t) + B 2 u(t)
dt
y(t) = C 2 x(t) + E 2 u(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

71

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Equilibrium (dc) state-space averaged model

Provided that the natural frequencies of the converter, as well as the
frequencies of variations of the converter inputs, are much slower than
the switching frequency, then the state-space averaged model that
describes the converter in equilibrium is

0=AX+BU
Y=CX+EU
where the averaged matrices
are

and the equilibrium dc

components are

A = D A 1 + D' A 2
B = D B 1 + D' B 2
C = D C 1 + D' C 2
E = D E 1 + D' E 2

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

X = equilibrium (dc) state vector

U = equilibrium (dc) input vector
Y = equilibrium (dc) output vector
D = equilibrium (dc) duty cycle

72

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Solution of equilibrium averaged model

Equilibrium state-space averaged model:

0=AX+BU
Y=CX+EU
Solution for X and Y:

X = A 1 B U
Y = C A 1 B + E U

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

73

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Small-signal ac state-space averaged model

dx(t)
= A x(t) + B u(t) +
dt

A 1 A 2 X + B 1 B 2 U d(t)

y(t) = C x(t) + E u(t) +

C 1 C 2 X + E 1 E 2 U d(t)

where

x(t) = small signal (ac) perturbation in state vector

u(t) = small signal (ac) perturbation in input vector
y(t) = small signal (ac) perturbation in output vector
d(t) = small signal (ac) perturbation in duty cycle
So if we can write the converter state equations during subintervals 1
and 2, then we can always find the averaged dc and small-signal ac
models
Fundamentals of Power Electronics

74

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

7.4.3. Discussion of the state-space averaging result

As in Sections 7.1 and 7.2, the low-frequency components of the
inductor currents and capacitor voltages are modeled by averaging
over an interval of length Ts. Hence, we define the average of the
state vector as:

x(t) T = 1
s
Ts

t + Ts

x() d
t

The low-frequency components of the input and output vectors are

modeled in a similar manner.
By averaging the inductor voltages and capacitor currents, one
obtains:

d x(t)
K

dt

Ts

= d(t) A 1 + d'(t) A 2

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

75

x(t)

Ts

+ d(t) B 1 + d'(t) B 2

u(t)

Ts

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Change in state vector during first subinterval

During subinterval 1, we have

dx(t)
= A 1 x(t) + B 1 u(t)
dt
y(t) = C 1 x(t) + E 1 u(t)

So the elements of x(t) change with the slope

dx(t)
= K 1 A 1 x(t) + B 1 u(t)
dt

Small ripple assumption: the elements of x(t) and u(t) do not change
significantly during the subinterval. Hence the slopes are essentially
constant and are equal to

dx(t)
= K 1 A 1 x(t)
dt

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Ts

76

+ B 1 u(t)

Ts

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Change in state vector during first subinterval

dx(t)
= K 1 A 1 x(t)
dt

K 1 A 1 x

x(t)
Ts

+ B 1 u(t)

Ts

+ B1 u

Ts

Ts

x(0)
K 1 dA 1 + d'A 2
Net change in state vector over first
subinterval:

x(dTs) = x(0) +
final
value

initial
value

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

dTs
interval
length

Ts

Ts

+ dB

dTs

K 1 A 1 x(t)

+ B 1 u(t)

Ts

slope

77

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Change in state vector during second subinterval

Use similar arguments.

State vector now changes with the essentially constant slope

dx(t)
= K 1 A 2 x(t)
dt

Ts

+ B 2 u(t)

Ts

The value of the state vector at the end of the second subinterval is
therefore

x(Ts) = x(dTs) +
final
value

initial
value

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

d'Ts

K 1 A 2 x(t)

interval
length

Ts

+ B 2 u(t)

Ts

slope

78

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Net change in state vector over one switching period

We have:

x(dTs) = x(0) + dTs K 1 A 1 x(t)

Ts

x(Ts) = x(dTs) + d'Ts K 1 A 2 x(t)

+ B 1 u(t)

Ts

Ts

+ B 2 u(t)

Ts

Eliminate x(dTs), to express x(Ts) directly in terms of x(0) :

x(Ts) = x(0) + dTsK 1 A 1 x(t)

Ts

+ B 1 u(t)

Ts

+ d'TsK 1 A 2 x(t)

Ts

+ B 2 u(t)

Ts

Collect terms:

x(Ts) = x(0) + TsK 1 d(t)A 1 + d'(t)A 2

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

79

x(t)

Ts

+ TsK 1 d(t)B 1 + d'(t)B 2

u(t)

Ts

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Approximate derivative of state vector

K 1 A 1 x

x(t)

Ts

+ B1 u

K 1 A 2 x

Ts

Ts

+ B2 u

x(t)

x(0)
K 1 dA 1 + d'A 2

Ts

+ dB 1 + d'B 2

dTs

Ts

Ts

x(Ts)

Ts

Ts

Use Euler approximation:

d x(t)
dt

Ts

x(Ts) x(0)
Ts

We obtain:

d x(t)
K

dt

Ts

= d(t) A 1 + d'(t) A 2

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

x(t)
80

Ts

+ d(t) B 1 + d'(t) B 2

u(t)

Ts

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Low-frequency components of output vector

y(t)
y(t)

C 1 x(t)

Ts

+ E 1 u(t)

Ts

Ts

C 2 x(t)

Ts

+ E 2 u(t)

dTs

Ts

Ts

Remove switching harmonics by averaging over one switching period:

y(t)

Ts

= d(t) C 1 x(t)

Ts

+ E 1 u(t)

Ts

+ d'(t) C 2 x(t)

Ts

+ E 2 u(t)

Ts

Collect terms:

y(t)

Ts

= d(t) C 1 + d'(t) C 2

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

x(t)

81

Ts

+ d(t) E 1 + d'(t) E 2

u(t)

Ts

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Averaged state equations: quiescent operating point

The averaged (nonlinear) state equations:

d x(t)
K

dt
y(t)

Ts

Ts

= d(t) A 1 + d'(t) A 2

x(t)

= d(t) C 1 + d'(t) C 2

x(t)

Ts
Ts

+ d(t) B 1 + d'(t) B 2

u(t)

+ d(t) E 1 + d'(t) E 2

u(t)

Ts
Ts

The converter operates in equilibrium when the derivatives of all

elements of < x(t) >Ts are zero. Hence, the converter quiescent
operating point is the solution of

0=AX+BU
Y=CX+EU
where

A = D A 1 + D' A 2
B = D B 1 + D' B 2
C = D C 1 + D' C 2
E = D E 1 + D' E 2

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

and

82

X = equilibrium (dc) state vector

U = equilibrium (dc) input vector
Y = equilibrium (dc) output vector
D = equilibrium (dc) duty cycle
Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Averaged state equations: perturbation and linearization

Let

x(t)
u(t)
y(t)

Ts
Ts
Ts

= X + x(t)

with

U >> u(t)

= U + u(t)

D >> d(t)

= Y + y(t)

X >> x(t)

d(t) = D + d(t) d'(t) = D' d(t)

Y >> y(t)

Substitute into averaged state equations:

d X+x(t)
K
= D+d(t) A 1 + D'd(t) A 2 X+x(t)
dt

D+d(t) B 1 + D'd(t) B 2 U+u(t)

Y+y(t) =

D+d(t) C 1 + D'd(t) C 2 X+x(t)

D+d(t) E 1 + D'd(t) E 2 U+u(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

83

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Averaged state equations: perturbation and linearization

K

dx(t)
dt

firstorder ac

= AX + BU + Ax(t) + Bu(t) +

dc terms

A 1 A 2 X + B 1 B 2 U d(t)

firstorder ac terms
+

A 1 A 2 x(t)d(t) + B 1 B 2 u(t)d(t)
secondorder nonlinear terms

Y+y(t)

dc + 1st order ac

= CX + EU + Cx(t) + Eu(t) +

dc terms

C 1 C 2 X + E 1 E 2 U d(t)

firstorder ac terms
+

C 1 C 2 x(t)d(t) + E 1 E 2 u(t)d(t)
secondorder nonlinear terms

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

84

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Linearized small-signal state equations

Dc terms drop out of equations. Second-order (nonlinear) terms are

small when the small-signal assumption is satisfied. We are left with:

dx(t)
= A x(t) + B u(t) +
dt

A 1 A 2 X + B 1 B 2 U d(t)

y(t) = C x(t) + E u(t) +

C 1 C 2 X + E 1 E 2 U d(t)

This is the desired result.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

85

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

7.4.4. Example: State-space averaging of a

nonideal buck-boost converter
ig(t)

D1

Q1

Model nonidealities:
+

i(t)
vg(t)

state vector

x(t) =

i(t)
v(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

input vector
u(t) =

vg(t)
VD

86

v(t)

MOSFET onresistance Ron

Diode forward voltage

drop VD

output vector
y(t) = ig(t)

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Subinterval 1
ig(t)

di(t)
= vg(t) i(t) Ron
dt
dv(t)
v(t)
C
=
R
dt
ig(t) = i(t)

Ron

i(t)
vg(t)

v(t)

L 0
0C

Ron 0
d i(t) =
dt v(t)
0 1
R
dx(t)
dt
ig(t)
y(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

i(t)
+ 10
v(t)
00

vg(t)
VD

A1

x(t)

B1

u(t)

10

i(t)
+ 00
v(t)

vg(t)
VD

C1

x(t)

u(t)

87

E1

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Subinterval 2
di(t)
= v(t) VD
dt
dv(t)
v(t)
C
=
i(t)
R
dt
ig(t) = 0

VD

vg(t)

C
i(t)

L 0
0C

d i(t) =
dt v(t)
dx(t)
dt
ig(t)
y(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

1
1 1
R

ig(t)

i(t)
+
v(t)

0 1
0 0

vg(t)
VD

B2

u(t)

A2

x(t)

00

i(t)
+
v(t)

00

vg(t)
VD

C2

x(t)

E2

u(t)

88

v(t)

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Evaluate averaged matrices

Ron 0
DRon D'
0 1
A = DA 1 + D'A 2 = D
+ D'
=
1
1
0
D' 1

R
R
R
In a similar manner,

B = DB 1 + D'B 2 =

D D'
0 0

C = DC 1 + D'C 2 = D 0
E = DE 1 + D'E 2 = 0 0

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

89

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

DC state equations

0=AX+BU
Y=CX+EU

0 =
0

or,

DRon
D'

Ig =

DC solution:

I =
V

Ig

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

D'
1
R

D0

1
R
1 + D2 on
D' R

1
=
R
1 + D2 on
D' R
90

I +
V

D D'
0 0

Vg
VD

I +
V

00

Vg
VD

D
1
2
D' R D' R
D 1
D'

Vg
VD

D2 D
D' 2R D'R

Vg
VD

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Steady-state equivalent circuit

DC state equations:

0 =
0

DRon
D'

Ig =

D'
1
R

D0

I +
V

D D'
0 0

Vg
VD

I +
V

00

Vg
VD

Corresponding equivalent circuit:

DRon

D'VD

Ig
Vg

1:D
I

D' : 1
+
V

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

91

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Small-signal ac model
Evaluate matrices in small-signal model:
V IRon + VD
V V IRon + VD
A 1 A 2 X + B1 B2 U = V + g
= g
I
I
0
C1 C2 X + E1 E2 U = I

Small-signal ac state equations:

DRon D'
L 0 d i(t) =
0 C dt v(t)
D' 1
R
i g(t) = D 0

i(t)
+ 00
00
v(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

i(t)
+
v(t)

D D'
0 0

vg(t)
Vg V IRon + VD
+
d(t)
0
I

vD(t)

vg(t)
+ 0 d(t)
0
I
v
D(t)

92

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Construction of ac equivalent circuit

d i(t)
= D' v(t) DRon i(t) + D vg(t) + Vg V IRon + VD d(t)
dt
dv(t)
v(t)
C
= D' i(t)
+ I d(t)
R
dt

Small-signal ac
equations, in
scalar form:

i g(t) = D i(t) + I d(t)

Corresponding equivalent circuits:

inductor equation
L

DRon

I d(t)

D i(t)

vg(t)

d(t) Vg V + V D IRon

+ d i(t)
L
dt
D vg(t)

i g(t)

input
eqn

+
i(t)

D' v(t)

capacitor
eqn
D' i(t)

C
I d(t)

dv(t)
dt

v(t)
R

v(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

93

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Complete small-signal ac equivalent circuit

Combine individual circuits to obtain

i g(t)

1:D

d(t) Vg V + V D IRon

L
i(t)

vg(t)

D' : 1
+

DRon

I d(t)

I d(t) C

v(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

94

Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling