Search For Correlated Radio and Optical Events in Long-Term Studies

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SEARCH FOR CORRELATED RADIO AND OPTICAL EVENTS

IN LONG-TERM STUDIES OF EXTRAGALACTIC SOURCES
by
RICIiARD BRYAJÎ POMPHREY
A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE COU'NCIL OF

THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLl-IENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
LTnÎVERSITY of
1977
FLORIDA
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Dr. A.
wish to express my appreciation to my committee chairman,

G.
Sm.ith,
not only for his assistance, but in particular for his
support and direction when the future was uncertain; to my committee
co-chairman, Dr,
C.
for being a true friend who said things
N. Olsson,
that needed to be said, and for his support and advice through both
favorable and adverse situations.

G.
also wish to thank Drs. T. L. Bailey,
for their assistance and contributions
Lebo, and S. T. Gottesman
R.
to my research experience.
The study documented in this dissertation makes use of data from
many observatories.
am indebted to Drs. J. M. MacLeod,
G.
A. Har'/ey,
and B, H. Andrew of the Algonquin Radio Observatory, and to Drs. K. ?,
Tritton, M, V. Penston, and
R.
A.
Selmes of the Royal Greenwich Observa-
tory for permitting me to make extensive use of their previously unpub-
lished data.
G.
The Rosemary Hill observations were made by Drs. A. G. Smith,
Folsom, K, R. Hackney, R. L. Hackney, R. J. Leacock, B. Q. McGimsey,
H.
and R. L. Scott, and by J

Dr.
J.
D.
G.
T.
Pollock and Patricia Edwards.
In addition
Rather graciously made his data bank available while it was
still in preparation.
Much of the initial analysis was supported by
Research Corporation
grant and was carried out at the Electronics Research Laboratory of The
Aerospace Corporation.
)\
Ifnile there I received the generous assistance of
manv of the staff to whom
am grateful:
I
.;-
ii
G.
G.
Berry, H. Dyson,
z^\ 'f*'*m>t^^ f' ir'j _.jôiss^!!^jfnvmtirril^mit%t=m^f}^*m': nttmtfi^
Dr.
E.
E.
Epstein, W. A. Johnson, H. E. King, J. W. Montgomer}-, T. T.
Mori, Dr. J. Mottmann, now at the California Polytechnic Institute at

San Luis Obispo, Ms. J. D. White, and Dr. W. J. Wilson, now at the
In addition, Mrs.
Uhiverity of Texas at Austin.
much of the manuscript and
J.
Suzanne Hansen typed
Petersen assisted in the preparation of the
illustrations
During my graduate career,
have been supported by the Research
Corporation grant, a University of Florida Graduate School research assistantship, a University of Florida teaching assistantship, part-time
emplojTnent at The Aerospace Corporation, and full-time employment at the
Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

Dr.
A.
D.
while
am grateful to D. J. Lynn, R. M. Ruiz, and
Elliott of JPL for their support, patience, and understanding
was finishing this work.
The analysis was also aided by funds
from the Northeast Regional Data Center of the State University System
of Florida.
I
Dr.
J.
also wish to thank Dr. W. G. Fogarty of Universidade Mackenzie,

T.
McClave of the Department of Statistics and Dr.
M.
A.
Lynch of
the Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Florida, for help-
ful discussions; and W. W. Richardson and H. W. Schrader of the University

of Florida for extensive technical assistance.
Annual Reviews of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Springer-Verlag New

York, Reviews of Modern Physics, The Astronomical Journal and The Astro-
physical Journal generously granted permission to reproduce illustrations

from their publications.
The Astrophysical Journal required that the
identical copyright notice as it appears in the Journal be included in

the manuscript.
This copyright notice follows:
Xll
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So that the author and publisher may be protected from the

consequences of unauthorized use of the contents of the
manuscript, we consider it essential to secure a copyright.
Therefore, it is mutually agreed that upon the acceptance
of the submitted manuscript for publication by this Journal
the author grants and assigns exclusively to the American
Astronomical Society for its use any and all rights of whatsoever kind or nature now or hereafter protected by the Copyright Laws (common or statutory) of the United States and
all foreign countries in all languages, including all subsidiary rights.
The American Astronomical Society, in turn,
grants to the author the right of republication without
charge in any book or periodical of which he is an author,
contributing author, or editor, subject only to his giving
proper credit in the book or periodical to the original
Journal publication of the paper by The University of Chicago
Press for the American A.stronomical Society.
,
G.
am indebted to many friends for their help throughout my graduate

The assistance and companionship of Dr. James R. Kennedy and Jack
work.
Schudel, III were invaluable in the completion of a major portion of
this work.
tion
Long discussions with Jim Kennedy helped formulate the direc-
have taken in this research; the subroutine PPLOT which appears in
the Appendix is his, while the subroutine CORREL incorporates many of his
ideas.
Jack Schudel assisted significantly in the computations and a
number of the illustrations.
also wish to thank Dr. Carl Olsson's
family, John Young, Eric Van Horn, Al and Isa Adams, Jim and Jerry Hatch,
and Jim and Barb Thieman for their help, support, and friendship.
There are some individuals who have had a significant influence on
my attitudes and my work during my graduate career.
wish to express
my sincere gratitude to Ray and Andy Bloomer, Kit Harvel, Jim and Cathy
Kennedy, and Joe and Liz Mullen not only for their support and direction,
but also for helping me learn
In addition I
hoxj to
play the game.
wish to gratefully acknowledge my brother and his
family, and the countless relatives and friends of my family who,
IV
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while not able to assist me directly, expressed their concern and support
verbally and in prayer.

Finally,
dedicate this work to Dr. George Horvat and to my parents
for their prayers and support, both that which I am aware of and that
which
have not even recognized.
**~ "T "^ 'W^''

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ii
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
ix
x
ABSTRACT
xiv
CHAPTER
I
II
INTRODUCTION
Extragalactic Variables
State of Our Knowledge
THEORY APPLIED TO SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTIONS
10
Spectral Energy Distributions
10
Radio Frequency Spectra
12
Radiation From a Single Electron
14
Radiation From a Distribution of Electrons
18
Time Variations
23
Expanding Source Model
24
Expanding Source Model Difficulties and

Alternatives
27
Inverse Compton Scattering
29
Optical Spectra
36
Galactic Infrared Radiation
Extragalactic Infrared Radiation
VI
55
.....
61
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III
ANALYSIS OF THE LONG-TERM OPTICAL
AJSID
RADIO RECORDS.
The Research Problem

The Radio and Optical Data Records
IV
65
65
....
66
Cross-Correlation Analysis
68
Choice of Correlation Parameters
72
RESULTS OF THE CORRELATION ANALYSIS

OJ 287
76
3G 454.3
BL Lac
74
80
98
CTA 26 (PKS 0336-01)
102
PKS 0405-12
102
PKS 0420-01
108
3C 120
108
NRAO 190 (PKS 0440-00)
118
PKS 0458-02
118
3C 138 (PKS 0518+16)
124
PKS 0735+17
128
PKS 0736+01
135
01 363
135
OK 290
143
3C 273
147
PKS 1354+19
153
Oq 208
161
PKS 1510-08
161
NRAO 512
161
VI
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3C 371
158
3C 446
176
PKS 2345-16
176
186
Summary
191
CONCLUSIONS
191
Lack of Correlation
197
OJ 287, BL Lac, and 3C 454.3
199
Implications of Correlation
204
Further Work
207
APPENDIX
I
II
COMPUTER PROGRAMS USED IN THE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
FURTHER USE OF COMPUTER PROGRAMS AND DATA BANK
210
236
BIBLIOGRAPHY
238
....
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
vixi
243
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
TABLE
INTERCOMPARISON OF WAVELENGTHS WITH FREQUENCIES
1
2
'
RANGE OF ELECTRON ENERGIES FOR A GI\^N

INDEX
POI^JER
LAW
20
LACERTID OPTICAL AND NEAR-IR SPECTRAL INDICES
STOIMARY OF RESULTS OF THE LINEAR CROSS -CORRELATION
39
75
ANALYSIS
5
SUMMARY OF CORRELATION ANALYSIS RELATIVE TO OPTICAL

AND RADIO VARIABILITY Su-BCLASSES
RADIO AND OPTICAL AMPLITUDES FOR OJ 287 FLARE
203
RADIO AND OPTICAL AMPLITUDES FOR BL Lac FLAP.E
204
RADIO AND OPTICAL AMPLITLT3ES FOR 3C 454.3 FLARE
204
A-1
187
236
DATA BANK FORMAT
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
Spectral Energy Distributions for Five Quasi-Stellar

Objects and the Seyfert Galaxy NGC 1068
11
Four Classes of Radio Frequency Spectra
13
Synchrotron Spectrum from a Single Electron as a

Function ofx = v/v
16
Expected Synchrotron and Inverse Compton Spectra

for the Galactic Halo
34
30 120.
Optical and Near-Infrared Spectrum
3L Lac.

Optical Spectrum
....
....
OJ 287.
OJ 28 7.
BL Lac.
...
...
38
40
41

Extrapolated to Short Radio Wavelengths
43
Changes in Optical and Near-Infrared

Spectrum with Time
45
....
10
Selected Quasars.
Optical and Near-Infrared Spectra
47
11
Selected Quasars.
49
12
Selected Quasars.
51
13
3C 345,
3C 446,
Changes in Optical
3C 454.3.
Spectral Index with Time
52
Spectral Energy Distributions Showing Known Infrared

Components
57
15
Schematic Extinction Curve
58
16
OJ 287.
Optical and Radio Curves
17
OJ 287.
R vs At for all Data
18
OJ 287.
Radio Flux vs Optical Magnitude
14
7 7
78
....
79
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19
OJ 287, Part I.
20
OJ 287, Part II.
21
OJ 287, Part I.
22
OJ 287, Part II.
23
R vs At
81
R vs At
82
Radio Flux vs Optical Magnitude.
83
84
3C 454.3.
Three Independent Optical Data Records
86
24
3C 454.3.
88
25
3C 454.3.
90
26
3C 454.3.
R vs At for Part of Optical Data
27
3C 454.3.
28
3C 454.3.
29
3C 454.3.
R vs At for Part of Radio Data
30
3C 454.3.
Tim Independent Radio Data Records.
31
3C 454.3.
R vs At for
32
BL Lac.
33
BL Lac.
34
BL Lac.
35
CTA 26.
103
36
CTA 26.
104
I\vo
Radio Records
...
...
...
....
.
....
91
92
93
95
96
97
99
100
101
....
....
37
CTA 26.
38
CTA 26,
39
PKS 0405-12.
107
40
PKS 0405-12.
109
41
PKS 0420-01.
42
PKS 0420-01.
43
PKS 0420-01,
44
3C 120.
XI
105
106
Ill
...
112
113
115
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Figure
117
45
3C 120.
A6
NRAO 190.
47
NRAO 190.
48
NRAO 190.
49
PKS 0458-02.
122
50
PKS 0458-02.
123
51
3C IBS.
125
52
3C 138.
127
53
PKS 0735+17.
l\-70
54
PKS 0735+17.
R vs At for Two Radio Records
55
PKS 0735+17.
56
PKS 0735+17.
57
PKS 0735+17.
58
PKS 0735+17.
59
PKS 0735+17.
60
PKS 0735+17.
61
PKS 0736+01.
62
PKS 0736+01.
63
PKS 0736+01.
64
01 363.
142
65
01 363.
144
66
OK 290.
145
67
OK 290.
68
3C 273.
Two Independent Radio Data Records
69
3C 273.
150
70
3C 273.
152
.'
....
120
121
Independent Radio Data Records.
XI
119
...
129
130
131
...
...
132
133
134
136
137
139
...
140
141
146
.
148
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Figure
Page
71
3C 273.
154
72
3C 273.
155
73
3C 273.
I57
74
PKS 1354+19.
158
75
PKS 1354+19.
160
76
OQ 208.
162
77
OQ 208.
163
78
PKS 1510-08.
164
79
PKS 1510-08.
165
80
NRAO 512,
167
81
NRAO 512.
170
82
NRAO 512.
83
3C 371.
Optical and Radio Cun/es
174
84
3C 371,
I75
85
3C 446.
Two Independent Radio Data P.ecords
86
3C 446.
179
87
3C 446.
181
88
3C 446.
89
PKS 2345-16.
133
90
PKS 2345-16.
185
91
Radio and Infrared Spectra of Selected Extragalactic

Sources
.
193
92
Idealized Spectrum of an Extragalactic Variable
194
93
Monthly Mean Fluxes at Different

Wavelengths
R vs At for Part of Optical Data
172
177
182
OJ 287.
XI 11
201
II
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Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate

Cotmcil of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment
for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
of the Requirements
SEARCH FOR CORRELATED RAJDIO MT> OPTICAL EVENTS

IN LONG-TERM STUDIES OF EXTRAGALACTIC SOURCES
By
Richard Bryan Pomphrey

March, 1977
Chairman:
Dr. Alex G. Smith
Major Department: Astronomy
Much of the research on extragalactic variables has attempted to

determine the radiation mechanisms that cause the observed spectral
energy distributions.
This knowledge in turn should help to define the
source of energy in these variable objects.

This work documents the first attempt to assemble the long-term
records of optical and radio fluxes of a large sample of variable extra-
galactic sources in a search for correlated radio and optical events,

using a linear cross-correlation analysis to reinforce visual comparisons.
The results of such research may help to parameterize either the radiation
mechanism involved or the source structure which can then be used in the
study of the radiation mechanism.
Chapter
presents the general background of this research topic,
including the definitions of quasi-stellar objects, Seyfert galaxies,

xiv
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N galaxies, and Lacertids, and the similarities among these objects which
are used as the justification for studying these objects as different
manifestations of some common basic phenomenon.
Soth Chapters
and II
address Xvhat is presently known, hypothesized, or speculated about these
variables
Chapter II gives a brief but extensive overview of the theoretical
considerations involved in research on variable extragalactic objects as

a reference against
be studied.
which the results of the search for correlations can
This chapter includes reviews of the character of the radio,
infrared, and optical spectra,
their changes with time and possible
causes, with special emphasis on the synchrotron and inverse Compton

mechanism.s and the expanding source model.
A simple method of synthesizing evenly spaced time series by

stepping through the data in given increments of time is discussed in
Chapter III, along with the method used to linearly/ cross-correlate
optical magnitudes with radio fluxes and the problems of this approach.
A relatively complete documentation of the long-term optical and

radio variations is presented graphicall:/ in Chapter IV, where optical
data from the Rosemary Kill, Royal Greenwich, Yale, and Goethe Link
Observatories has been combined with radio data from Algonquin Observatory
and the University of Massachusetts.
The results of the correlation
analysis are presented through discussion and extensive linear correlation and regression plots, which document a significant correlation for
OJ 287 and a potential correlation for 3C 454.3.
The lack of correlation in most of the sources studied allows a
decrease in the energy requirements of events in these sources and

carries implications for the source structure, vjhich are discussed in
Chapter V.
XV
The possible implications of the correlation for OJ 287 are reviewed, but
no fir:n conclusions concerning source structure or radiation mechanism
can be drawn without further data.
Finally, extensions of the investiga-
tion begun in this work are suggested.
A sunimary of the correlation analysis results is reported in a paper

by R. B. Pomphrey, A. G. Smith, R. J. Leacock, C. N. Olsson, R. L. Scott,
J.
T,
Pollock, Patricia Edwards, and W. A. Dent, "A Search for Correlated
Radio and Optical Events in Long-Term Studies of Extragalactic Sources",

in The Astronomical Journal
81,
489,
XVI
(1976),
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In the early 1960 's,

a unique source of
the discovery that quasi-stellar objects were
radiation initiated a period of intense observational

Although
and theoretical research which still continues.
great deal
of data has helped define these objects phenomenologically, we are still
not able satisfactorily to explain them theoretically.
Moreover, the
search for OSO's has revealed that there are many classes of sources
which are quite similar to quasars:
Seyfert, N-type, and
compact
galaxies, and Lacertids.

In this work I will use the term quasi-stellar object (Q30 or
quasar) to refer to all objects variously called quasi-stellar radio
sources or quasi-stellar sources whether or not they are radio emitters.
Tnese objects possess the following general characteristics:
star-like appearance on a photographic plate;

violet and infrared
b)
a)
faint,
an excess of ultra-
radiation (relative to stellar spectra)
c)
broad
emission lines (widths of up to 100 A)

present;
[0.06 $
d)
z
x^rith
absorption lines sometimes
optical spectra exhibiting large emission line redshifts

3.53, where z =
(,\
- Xo)
Ao].
Some quasars exhibit multiple
absorption redshifts while a few have m.ultiple emission redshifts.
If
the spectral redshifts are assumed to be cosmological, they indicate
objects which are receding
from, us at a
significant fraction of the
speed of light, up to 0.91c for OQ 172 (z = 3.53).
discussion (Chiu et al
There has been some
1973) concerning the creation of two classes of
quasars, one of which would be used to explain the Lacertid phenomenon.
Seyfert, N-type, and compact galaxies are often grouped together
because they all possess certain characteristics in common, and depending

on who is classifying them, the defining criteria are not always
mutually exclusive.
Morgan (1972) presents an extensive summary of
classification criteria.
Seyfert galaxies are generally characterized by small, intensely
bright nuclei (described as stellar in visual appearance) in which
violent activity appears to take place, manifesting itself in broad
hydrogen emission lines charactized by Doppler velocity widths of a few

thousand km/s; and by an excess of ultraviolet and infrared radiation.
14any
Seyfert galaxies are spirals and some exhibit forbidden emission
lines which are much narrower than the broad lines and are not normally
seen in galactic spectra.

N and compact galaxies basically are classifications of form and
are thus somewhat a function of the distance and observing instrument.
An N galaxy is defined as one having a small, brilliant nucleus containing a considerable fraction of the total luminosity, superimposed on a
A compact gala^cy exhibits .high surface bright-
much fainter main body.
ness and is only partially resolved on a medium to high resolution
photographic plate.
BL Lac is the defining source for the Lacertid class of objects,
which exhibit (Strittmatter

in the radio, infrared,
_et
al. 1972)
a)
rapid intensity variations
and optical, lasting days to xjeeks;
b)
an
energy distribution which indicates most of the energy is emitted at

infrared wavelengths;
cases an
c)
an absence of emission lines, and in many
absence of absorption lines;
d)
a strong and rapidly varying
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polarization;
e)
in some cases a stellar appearance (OJ 287) while in
other cases a non-stellar appearance (BL Lac)

In general, N galaxies have been regarded as intermediate in form
and luminosity between quasars and Seyfert galaxies.
Extragalactic Variables
As early as 1963, Burbidge
et_ _al.
suggested a possible relation-
ship between quasars and Seyfert galaxies;
Sandage (1970) and Kristian
(1973) have provided evidence that quasars are like N-type galaxies.
For the purposes of this study, the most important point is that
many quasars, Seyfert and N-type galaxies, and Lacertids are strong radio
emitters and exhibit intensity variations in both optical and radio
emission.
Moreover, apart from differences in absolute luminosity, these
classes of objects are generally indistinguishable on the basis of their

radio spectra or their time variations (Kellermann and Pauliny-Toth 1968)
Because real differences appear to exist among the optical classifications,
will generally note the specific type of object being
discussed at any point.
However, because of the increasing circumstantial
evidence that there is a relationship among all these variable sources
with respect to the nature of the radiation mechanism and energy source
active in each of them, unless othertNTise noted
will treat all these
classes of objects as somewhat different manifestations of the same basic

phenomena, and refer to all members of this general class as Extra-
galactic Variables (EGV)
Why are EGV's such an intriguing area of research?
Stated simply,
they emit far too much energy in too little time from too small a volume
to be completely explained by any present theories.
If they are at
cosmclogical distances, quasars have optxcal lumxnosities of xO

10
46
ergs/sec and radio luminosities of 10
^^3
to 10
45
45
to
ergs/sec (Burbidge
and Burbidge 1967)

The optical intensity of many quasars varies on a time scale which
is characteristically on the order of a tenth of a year, which implies
that the active region of the quasar must be very compact.
If we make
the assumption that we can use the Hubble expansion constant to determine
the distance of the quasars from their redshift, then we are confronted
with a m.ajor scientific problem.
Although not theoretically impossible,
we are considering the largest masses ever seen in such small volumes,
10
to 10 ~ solar masses in a spherical volume roughly one tenth of a
light year in diameter (Morrison 19 73).
Making long lasting stable
models for such massive and compact systems, and developing highly
efficient mechanisms for converting rest mass into radiation energy
remain among the most perplexing problems associated with quasars.
From another perspective, beyond the basic phenomena used to

classify the types of EGV's, one almost immediately enters a labyrinth
of controversial if not contradictory observations, explanations, hypoth-
eses, interpretations, and plain speculations which are fed by generally
commendable attempts to bring some meaning to this intriguing area of
research by using the best data available, which regrettably often suffer
from inadequate time or spatial resolution or inadequate signal to noise
ratios.
It seems that as researchers make every effort to increase time
and spatial resolution, there often is that much more structure to be

found,
structure which is changing!
In addition these research efforts
follow on the heels of, and in fact act as significant motivation for,
better receiving systems all the way from centimeter to X-ray wavelengths,
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Thus whatever I present in this study does not represent incontro-
vertible truth, but rather that which appears to be most generallyaccepted by its frequency in the literature and which seems reasonable
It also represents the most successful effort to date to analyze
to me.
the available variability data.
State of our Knowledge

Some of the most basic questions which remain unresolved are the
following:
Are these objects at the cosmclogical distances indicated
a)
by the redshift of their spectra, or are they in fact much closer?

b)
IJhat
is the source of energy emitted, which in some cases is awesome
even if the source is not at a cosmclogical distance?
energy converted into radiation?
d)
c)
How is the
What kind of radiation is emitted?
Because the radiation emission is what we obser^/e, hopefully by answering

(d)
we can make progress on the other basic questions.
where necessary,
ogical distances.
In this work,
will assume the extragalactic variables are at cosmolI
will not address the question of energy source and
energy conversion other than
to note that the most popular theories
(Kellermann 1974) involve the collisions of stars or galaxies; the
collapse of stars, superstars, galaxies, or intergalactic matter; the
explosion of stars, superstars, or galaxies, including chain reactions;
positron-electron annihilation and creation of matter; quark interactions; and a pulsar-like mechanism referred to as the "spinar" model.
What then do we know from the observations of extragalactic variables?

a)
Ver^'
Long Baseline Interf erometry measurements indicate that
the variable sources often have multiple, compact components,
typically on the order of 1.0 to 0.001 arc seconds;
the physical
g*^t^rsMW
û _Hi,
iii .
II
.w
.Ai
w Hk.m^-i*.iJ *
!
L!-UML-.gSftt JI-ÎW
,iLj
'
dimensions deduced from these measurements are a function of distance and expansion velocity of the source.
In weak radio
galaxies which have nuclear structure apparently' identical to

quasars, the radio emission is concentrated in a very small region
near the nucleus, with dimensions ranging from 100 pc to less than
0.1 pc.
b)
Radio and optical variations on time scales of a day to a
few years have been observed in different sources.
Assuming an
event cannot occur in a time much shorter than the light travel
time across the active region, the duration gives an estimate of

the size of the active region which is independent of the distance
to the source, but dependent on
expansion is taking place.
whether or not a relativistic
It is possible that the source of
energy could be much larger than the active region if there exists
some energy coupling or transfer mechanism.
c)
Tnere are at least two observations at optical frequencies
that provide evidence for solid material in or at least near the
nuclei of Seyfert galaxies and quasars (Burbidge and Stein 1970)

d)
Based on observations of variable nuclei, Burbidge (1970) has
speculated that activity in galactic nuclei is a widespread and

probably quite general phenomenon, taking place in many
all types of galaxies.
if not
In general there is a wide range of power
levels observed and activity has been seen over the full range of
distance from nearby galaxies to the most distant objects observed.

Thus considering light travel time, this activity has been
observed over the full range of observed time.

forced by a recent discovery by Crane et al.
This has been rein-
(1976)
of centimeter
variations from the nucleus of M81, a nearby spiral galaxy.

e)
A strong correlation exists between high optical polarization
and variability.
The radio, optical, and infrared data collected on EGV's all seem
to indicate a high probability that what we are observing are different
manifestations of some basic phenomenon common to all EGV's and very

likely common also to our own galaxy.
""he
obvious question, then, is just what is the basic phenomenon?
This question has refused to yield to almost 13 years of concerted

effort, for the answer is anything but obvious.
To begin with, we don't even know what the basic phenomenon is for
which we are looking.
Most likely it is either a common energy source,
or a common mechanism
which couples the energy generated to the energy
emitted.
This then is probably comouflaged by the magnitude of gener-
ated energy, the characteristics of the material surrounding the generator, and the number of such generators in a limited region of space.
If a basic phenomenon exists in all EGV's,
then theories which
attempt to address themselves to the phenomenon must be applicable in

all cases;
however, because of the many differences among observed EGV
parameters, any theory which is not applicable to all EGV's is not
necessarily completely invalid.

conditions found in only
som.e of
It may simply be valid for certain
the EGV's, and may require further
refinement to apply more generally.

Our approach then must also be basic;
what can we observe?
Because we are searching for something common to all these variables,

what relationships can we find among the varied observations; and
finally, what do these relationships tell us, if anything?
This then
is the basic approach used in carrying out the research described herein.
Analysis of intensity variations may provide critical data on the
radiation mechanisms involved, their relationship to one another,
distribution of radiation energy, and possible source structure.
This
is particularly true if a correlation between activity at different
wavelengths can be established and will become clearer after reviewing

the character of the spectral energy distributions of the variable
sources, and the attempts made thus far to explain them theoretically.
For the study and intercomparision of radio, infrared, and optical

data which follows, the use of Table 1 is indispensable.
o
The entries
for 3575 A, 4400 A, and 5490 A correspond to Johnson m^
respectively, before correction for atmospheric extinction.
and m^
TABLE
INTERCOMIîmiSON OF WAVELENGTHS WITH FREQUENCIES
INVERSE
WAVELENGTH
WAVELENGTH
LOG INVERSE
WAVELENGTH
FREQUENCY
LOG
FREQUENCY
(y)
0.3
0.4
0.55
1.0
1.2
1.6
2.2
3.5
4.8
8.5
10.0
20.0
30.0
100.0
300.0
1000.0
(A)
(mm)
3000
3675
4000
4400
5490
10,000
0.1
1.0
3.3
9.0
10.0
28.0
(cm ')
3.3
2.7
2.5
2.2
1.8
1.0
8.3
6.2
4.5
2.9
2,1
1.2
1.0
5.0
3.3
1.0
3.3
1.0
3.0
1.1
1.0
X 10^
X 10^
X 10^
10-^
X 10
(Hz )
4.5
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.3
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.5
3.3
3.1
3.0
2.7
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0,4
0.0
1.0 X
8.2 X
7.5
6.8
5.4
3.0
2.5
1.9
1.4
8.6 X
6.2
3.5
3.0
1.5
1.0
3.0 X
1.0
3.0 X
9.1 X
3.3
3.0
1.07
<
10^^
15.0
14.9
10^3
14.9
14.8
14.7
14.5
14.4
14.3
14.1
13.9
13.8
13.5
13.5
13.2
13.0
12.5
12.0
10^2
^^10
11
11.0
10.5
10.5
10.0
CHAPTER II
THEORY APPLIED TO SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTIONS

Much of the theoretical effort expended on EGV's and also on non-
variable quasars has been devoted to attempts to explain the radiation

mechanisms which give rise to the spectral energy distributions of these
sources.
Knowledge of the radiation mechanisms, the parameters control-
ling these mechanisms, and the possible relationships between mechanisms

(if more than one is responsible) will provide the information necessary
to
help explain the energy source and coupling mechanisms
characteristic energy distributions are portrayed in Figure

(Neugebauer
et_
al.
1971 and Telesco
density (with vertical offset
C)
al
A number of
1
1976) where the log flux
vs the log rest frequency have been
plotted for the quasars 3C 273 (C = 31.0), 3C 445 (C = 31.0), 3C 48

(C = 30.0),
4C 29.68 (C = 30.0), 3C 249.1 (C = 29.0), and the Seyfert
galaxy NGG 1068 (C = 33.0).
portions of the spectra;
The dashed lines simply connect observed
thus they extend across most of the infrared
portion of the spectrum where little data has been collected due to the
lack of atm.ospheric observing windows at most of these frequencies.
Subsequent data in the near and far infrared now indicate that
there are probably two basic types of spectra, one which shows a large
increase in the infrared spectrum, as in NGC 1068, and another which

follows the dotted line for 3C 273 to within the accuracy of measure-
ment (Simon 1976).
Quasars and Seyfert galaxies exhibit both types of
10
vw!r*'.>,^-_;>_
11
NGC1068
^-.\
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Log vîHi)
Log flux density (with zero-level offsets) vs log rest freFigure 1.

quency for the quasars 3C 273, 3C 446, 3C 48, 4C 29.58, and 3C 249.1.
Reproduced from Neugebauer _e^ _al. (1971) with permission of the authors
and the Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics.
More recent
data obtained from Telesco e_t ad^. (1976) and Rieke and Low (1975) x\rere
used to plot the curve for the Seyfert galaxy NGC 1068.
rm ig ji iJgcCigBg
12
In addition, there is now evidence of a possible near-infrared
spectra.
"dust bump" in the energy distribution of a number of quasi-stellar
The bump may be described as a small departure
objects (Becklin 19 76).
from the otherwise smooth spectra, as opposed to the large infrared
contribution in the spectra of NGC 1068.

In general,
the known spectral energy distributions for any source
can be divided into three regions whose boundaries overlap.
spectrum extends from about 1 mm (3 x 10
11
The radio
Hz) to all longer wavelengths,
The infrared spectrum extends from about 0.7 y (10
14
Hz)
to about 1 mm;
o
and the optical spectrum encompasses the region from about 3000 A
(-10"^^ Hz)
to 7000 A.
Radio Frequency Spectra
With respect to radio spectra, magnetic field strength, or time

scale of flux density variations, no distinction can be m.ade between
quasars and compact radio galaxies (Kellermann and Pauliny-Toth 1969)

thus they are grouped together in this section.
A detailed study
indicates three basic types of radio spectra (Kellermann 1974)

a)
Straight (Class
S)
spectra, where the flux density decreases
monotonically over the whole range of observed frequencies, as in

Figure 2d;
b)
Curved (Class
C)
spectra, which are steeper at shorter wave-
lengths (C-) as in Figure 2c, or have a sharp cut-off at shorter
wavelengths
(C
c)
max
as in Figure 2b;
Complex (CPX) spectra, which have one or more maxima or minima
(I')
(.0
100
100
1934-63
galaxy
10
4
10
C 39.25 .,
QSS
(ta>
1.
102
10
(al
102
10
103
10^
10^
105
104
103
(ci;
1000
lOOOr
100
100
3C
10
23
(jalaxy
10
3C 2
QSS
\
1
(d)
1'
(c
10
10
Figure
(ii.
iJZ)
103
102
103
io4
105
105
,0''
(a) îC 39.2'), Class CPX

on of three basic grou])s of radio fracjucney specLra:
1 us tr;i L
(d) 3C 2, Cla-'-.s S (Slrai s;h t)
(c) 'Ul 123, Class C (Curved);
(h) IV'iî-b'i, CMas.s C max (Ciirvuil)
enuaiin
from Calacilc and Kxtjagalact; i(-,__Radio Asl.ronomy, edited Iv/ C. L. Verscliuur and K. I. Ke
Used wilh (leriii issloii of ])uh] ::>\iva: and ed Drs
Copyrigllt L97A hy Si)rin}',er-Verl.ag New York, Inc.
il
2.
(Comi'.lox)
Koriroduced
102
^^ni^^Bsg-ff^HiiiF^'-T^ e' r-
ygiwrfc
14
It is generally accepted that magnetic fields and a flux of high
energy relativistic electrons exist in the EGV's.
From such physical
conditions, energy may be emitted by electrostatic bremsstrahlung
scattered from plasma waves, s3mchrotron radiation, inverse Compton

scattering, or by plasma shock waves if the source is turbulent.
I-Ihile
there are other possibilities, these are most often discussed in the
literature.
The good qualitative and in some cases quantitative agreement be-
tween the synchrotron hypothesis and the observations has presently
established this as the most likely radiation mechanism, at least at

radio wavelengths.
Radiation from a Single Electr on

In the presence of a magnetic field of strength B, a non-relativ-
istic electron will move in a helical path about a field line and emit
radiation at a single gyro or cyclotron frequency
V
g
-z-^
zttR
eB
2ii
mc
-,,
(v
which is given by
(Hz)
,^.
(1)
where R is the perpendicular distance of the electron from the magnetic

field line, m is the electron rest mass, v is the electron velocity,
e is the electron charge
(emu), B is the magnetic flux density, and c is
the velocity of light.
Blumenthal and Gould (19 70) have shown that a relativistic electron
spiraling in a magnetic field emits a total instantaneous power given by
15
/y
P(v)
e~
(2)
K^^îOd^
mc
v/v
where the critical frequency is expressed by
eB
T,
2
2iraic
1.608 X
lO-""-^
eI
B
J-
4.21
B_^
(3)
,,
GeV
(MHz)
and where
eB.
C
Y rmc
(4)
-1/2
1-^
-1/2
=
(1 -
r)
(C)
is a modified Bessel function of the 5/3 order,
electron energy (E = v mc")
and
B_^
E is the
= B sin9^ where 6^ is the pitch angle,
the constant angle between the electron velocity and the magnetic field.
The synchrotron spectrum from a single electron as a function of x = v/v^

is illustrated in Figure 3.
As can be seen from equations (2) and (3),
for a single particle emitting synchrotron radiation in a homogeneous
magnetic field, the emission received at a particular frequency is

directly related to the energy of the electron producing this radiation,
and the strength of the magnetic field.
*gM^tj^-* W O !->'^
i
fc
16
Figure 3. S],"nchrotron spectrum from a single electron as a function of

Reproduced from Blumenthal and Gould (1970) v/ith permission
X = v/v
of the authors and the Reviews of Modern Physics.
.
*l>-'-^"W ^L
WMfri M WC^wCii lUl KUa^
17
The distribution P(v) has a broad peak near v
'^
0.28 v
frequencies (v >> V
1/2
P(v)
At hio-her
the spectrum approaches
e-^B.
I
1/2
-(v/v^)
î
(5)
1
mc
While at very low frequencies (v << v
the spectrum can be approximated
by
Bj_
4iTe
P(v)
r(^)mc^
where r(l/3) is the Gamma function.
1/3
(6)
2v"
P(v) varies little over a large
range of frequencies, decreasing to half its maximum value at

v/v^ = 0.011 and 1.47 (Oort and Walraven 1956).
is concentrated in a narrow cone,
Most of the radiation
the axis of which coincides with the
instantaneous velocity vector of the electron.
The angle between the
axis and the sides of the cone is given by
,2
1/2
mc"
(7)
As a result the radiation is strongly polarized.
In the case where the
pitch angle, 6^, is 90
the electric vector is polarized parallel to the
plane of the electron orbit.
An observer in this plane will receive
pulse of radiation every time the electron completes an orbit, at
18
intervals t such that
V
1
2^Tr
(8)
The duration of the pulse follows from equation (7) and is given by
At
VJhile it can be seen
(9)
V
g /
from equations (1), (2), and
(4)
that the
made up of discrete frequencies, the radiation
synchrotron spectrum is
is concentrated in the higher-order harmonics of the classical gyro-
frequency, V
(Kellermann 1974) and thus is often considered continuous.
6
o
In the case where
= 90
an observer receives all the radiation
For 9^ r 90
emitted during the time At.
reduced by a factor of (sin
-2
-1
)
the observed spectrum is
because the distance between the
electron and the observer changes with time.

of electrons,
However, for a distribîtion
the emitted and received powers are again equal.
Radiation from a Distribution of Electrons
Brown (1974)
has shown that a homogeneous and isotropic ensenble
of electrons having a number density per unit energy of N(E)dE and
located in a vacuum in the presence of a uniform magnetic field B of
spatial extent L, will radiate a specific intensity I(v) given by
I(v) =
''^^2"^
|N(E)dE|^)
K5/3 ()d5
(10)
19
with energies in the
where N(E)dE is the number of electrons per cm

inter\âl E to E
dE,
If the electrons are characterized by a power law
energy distribution between particular limits E
dN(E)
N(E)dE
Ke"^ dE
and E^, given by
(11)
(E^ < E < E^)
then the specific intensity takes the form
I(v)
(Y-l)/2
3e
e_i_L
a(Y)KB
(y+l)/2
-(Y-l)/2
(12)
4T;mc
mc"
where K is a constant, a(Y) is

general a(Y) =0.1.
slowly varying function of y and in
The specific intensity radiated will be observed as
a brightness distribution,
and the integral of this brightness distri-
bution over the whole source yields the flux density
S.
Thus from
equations (11) and (12) it can be seen that a power law distribution of
electrons of spectral index y emits a power law photon spectrum which is
characterized by
(13)
w here the two indices are related by
a =
(14)
Thus assuming that a power law electron energy distribution is the source
of emitted radiation, the index
Y can be obtained by measuring the slope
a of the observed spectral energy distribution (Figure 1)
20
The range of electron energies which contribute to synchrotron
emission at a given frequency is strongly a function of the electron
spectrum and thus of the index

range of values E
to E
a particular frequency,
y.
Table
(from Brown 19 74)
lists the
which is responsible for 90% of the emission at

for a given value of y.
TABLE
ELECTRON ENERGIES FOR A GIVEN POWER LAW INDEX
RA.NGE OF
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
1620
117
56
22
15
8.9
6.1
y
*--^2^^1^90%
Thus as y Increases, the range of electron energies increasingly narrows,
indicating that the assumption or approximation of a power law distri-
bution of electron energies needs to hold only over

range.
narrow energy
The shape of the electron energy distribution may deviate
enormously from a power law outside the specified energy range without
significantly affecting the synchrotron emission spectrum.
The validit;^
of the assumption of a power law distribution ranges from y > 1.0
(Kellermann 1974) to y $ 5.0 (Brown 1974).

from equation
(5)
Finally, it should be noted
that no form of electron energy distribution can give
a synchrotron spectrum that rises faster than the low frequency asymp-
totic limit of v
1/3
for a single electron.
The straight radio frequency spectrum in Figure 2d is believed to
result from synchrotron emission from a power law distribution of
electrons as just discussed.
Such spectra generally have indices in the
range -1.3 < a < -0.6, with a median value of about -0.8, which corresponds to y
==
2.6.
Deviations from this straight spectra can arise from
21
numerous causes.
To maintain a consistent presentation of the synchro-
tron hypothesis, I will discuss here only gross spectral changes
x-rhich
have synchrotron-related causes, and defer discussion of other causes to

another investigation.
The turnover or low frequency cutoff in Figure 2b can result from
Theory predicts that as the brightness
synchrotron self -absorption.
of
temperature of the source approaches the equivalent kinetic energy
the electrons, self-absorption will become important, and the source
will become completely opaque at a frequency given by
(15)
where
is the angular extent of the source in arc seconds, B is in
gauss, the (1 + Z) term accounts for the effect of the redshift,

is the surface brightness of the source, and
density at v
(S^/8
2
)
is the maximum flux
m
A study' of the values of v m vs surface brightness for sources for
has been measured, shows that the observed cutoffs in the radio
which
spectra can be accounted for by synchrotron self -absorption with a
magnetic field of B
= 10 "
gauss.
7-1
ness temperature of T
brightness temperature of 10
This corresponds to a maximum bright-
12
to 10* K,
10
12
It is hypothesized that this
K corresponds to the case where energy
loss by synchrotron radiation is just equal to the energy loss caused by
inverse Compton scattering.
According to this hypothesis, inverse
Compton scattering would cause a rapid "cooling" of a source which has a

T
10
l'^
K.
22
According to synchrotron theory, as v
(< v^)
increases, one
receives more radiation from deeper in the source and the

until V = V
fl-oic
increases
at which point the source becomes optically thin and the
as
flux received becomes a function of the electron energy distribution
For frequencies
in Figure 2d.
\)
< v
the spectral index is independent
value of
of the electron energy distribution and the theory predicts a
2.5.
Although the apparent effect of synchrotron self-absorption is
evident in many sources and values of a = +1.0 are often observed at long
wavelengths, no source has been observed with the a = +2.5 value predictThis might be explained by a gradual rather than an
ed by theory.
abrupt transition from the transparent to opaque condition, caused by a.
range of opacities resulting from different parts of the source becoming
opaque at different frequencies.
Alternatively, O'Dell and Sartori
frequency
(1970) have proposed "cyclotron turnover" as the possible low
cutoff mechanism.
The spectrum shown in Figure 2a is referred to as a "complex" or
"peculiar" spectrijm and cannot be explained by a single source of
synchrotron radiation.
Thus this type is believed to be a superposition
of two or more curved or straight spectra, and is generally associated
with compact radio sources.
Because of their composite nature, such
spectra often have relatively small values of spectral index over a
portion of the frequency range and are thus sometimes referred to as

"flat".
A good correlation exists between composite radio spectra and
violent optical and radio variability.
The frequency at which self-
absorption becomes significant is a function of the surface brightness
temperature
(S
/ 9
as is shown in equation (15)
flux, if the angular extent (6)
Thus tor a given
of the active region is large,
the
23
in a lower value
surface brightness temperature will be lower, resulting
of V
of
The relatively good agreenent between theory and observations
of individual
the self-absorption cutoff frequency v^, the angular size
peak brightness
compact components as measured by VLBI, and the observed
temperature of 10^^ to
10^^^
K pose strong arguments that the radio
incoherent
emission from the very comapct sources is indeed ordinary,
synchrotron emission (Kellermann 19 70)
Time Variations
search
We finally come to the purpose of this research, which is to
general,
for a relation between observed optical and radio variations. In
time variations might be caused by
a)
changes in the rate of production or acceleration of relativ-
istic particles;
b)
loss of energy due to synchrotron radiation, inverse Compton
scattering, or adiabatic expansion;

c)
changes in magnetic field;
d)
(in the opaque region of the spectrum)
changes in the angular
size of the source as a result of expansion.

In addition it should be noted that plasma ejection from a massive
rotating body (spinar) could also be the cause of time variations.

However, once the plasma has been ejected, any or all of (a)
would apply.
In fact it is most likely that all of (a)
through
through
(d)
(d)
contribute to some degree among the different sources and at different

periods of time within individual sources.
24
One unknown factor to keep in mind is that while we have strong
evidence (from measured time of variations) that the optical, infrared,

and high frequency radio flux come from very small regions, we do not
know presently if these regions are one and the same or whether different parts of the spectrum arise from differnt regions.
Expanding Source Model
Based on short wavelength (2 to 10 cm) radio observations, the

initial expanding source model assumed that radio emission from a vari-
able extragalactic object is due to synchrotron radiation from a spherical cloud of relativistic electrons moving in a magnetic field while
the cloud expands adiabatically
Shklovsky (1960) originally hypothesized the expanding source

model, using it to predict decreases in radio flux from supernovae
remnants.
a)
If
we assume
the electron energy distribution is a power law of the form
given in equation (11)

b)
the magnetic field is fixed in the expanding cloud, so that
magnetic flux is conserved,

c)
B^ = S
(r /r^)
'
;
each electron loses energy due to cloud expansion at a rate
proportional to its energy, so that the form of the energy distri-
bution is unchanged, that is

d)
E^ = E
(r^ /r
for each electron;
no additional particles enter or leave the region, so that
then for an optically thin source
2y
^2
where r
is
^1
71
(15)
I
the radius at time t^ and r^ is the expanded radius at
time t-
However, examination of the radio spectra indicates that for a
given frequency if we extrapolate back in time, at some point the density

of relativistic electrons is such that the source is no longer completely
transparent to its own radiation.
At this point, from equation (15) the
brightness temperature depends only on the value of the magnetic field,

and the flux density is given by
-1/2
S(v,t) - B "-^^(t)
0^(t)
5/2
(17)
v''^^
If the expansion is constant in time and if the magnetic flux is
conserved
during expansion, then
assiomption (b)
t.
can be substituted for r^ in
and equation (17) can be used to derive
r,.-3
S(t)
(18)
_^.
If the magnetic flux is constant,
S(t2)
S(t,)
such that B(t^) = B(t^)
then
S(t^)
(19)
In either case, the race of change of the flux density is independent of

the electron energy distribution, because as long as the source is
25
optically thick, the observed radiation comes from only a fraction of

the electrons.
From expressions for the frequency v
at which the synchrotron
it can be shown that
self-absorption ceases,
'ly + 3'
Y
S(v
-.11
4y + 6
m/
(20)
S(-:nl>
ml
Again it can be shotvn that the complete expression for flux density
as a function of frequency v and time
is given by
Y+4
r
5/2
S(v,t
= S
1- exp
>
ml/
ml
1-exp
'
-T
(21)
is the flux density corresponding to any frequency

V
Ttius
-(2y+3)'
V
V
ml V
where
3/2
M v^
m
ml
at time t,
is the time of observation at frequency v;

is the optical depth of any frequency v
"1
the model suggests that the varying components are sources of
synchrotron radiation which initially are optically thick but become

optically thin at progressively longer xi'avelengths as they expand
(van der Laan 1966).
The simple model predicts that outbursts will be
seen earlier, and will have greater flux amplitude and a shorter outburst
duration at higher frequencies.

In principle, a measure of the radio spectrum at any time and its
time rate of change
miay
be used to predict the future behavior of the
27
spectrum at all frequencies.
In practice this is difficult because many
variable source show multiple overlapping outbursts over short periods

In fact, long-term observations have shovm that repeated out-
of time.
are
bursts of relativistic particles over time periods of a year or less
not uncommon in EGV's especially in the Lacertids.
If one assumes that
and better
the expanding source model is valid, flares will be separated
defined at higher frequencies due to shorter duration and less overlap.
Extending this knowledge to lower frequencies can help identify the

possible location in time of individual flares, from which the relative
flare amplitude and duration may be estimated, within the constraints
If this data can be
of the recorded flux level as a function of time.
obtained successfully, it allows one to study how a given event propagates in the frequency domain, and thus how it affects the spectral
energy distribution.
However, estimates of absolute amplitude and
duration of a flare are almost impossible due to the difficulty in

finding the quiescent radiation level.
Expanding Source Model Difficulties and Alternatives

While the model has been successful in quantitatively explaining
centimeter variations from certain sources including 3C 120 (Dent 1968,
Pauliny-Toth and Kellermann 1966, Seielstad 1974), discrepancies exist
between 11.0 and 2.8 cm, and the theory appears to break down at short
centimeter to millimeter wavelengths (Medd et al
1968, Kellermann and
Pauliny-Toth 1968, Lock et al. 1969, Kinman et al. 1974).
The discre-
pancies include incorrect form of the outbursts, lack of time delay

and/or lack of amplitude change between events seen at different freauencies.
The latter two discrepancies could be caused by the source
28
becoming optically thin, or by continuous injection of relativlstic

electrons.
Peterson and Dent (19 73) proposed a continuous injection

Some
version of the expanding source model with some limited success.
of the additional modifications or combinations of parameters which
might be tried include:
variable expansion of the cloud;
to accelerate particles after an explosive event;
particles from the cloud;
mechanism
possible escape of
lack of conservation of magnetic flux;
an
expanding shell rather than a spherical cloud, introduced by van der Laan
(1962) and Lequeux (1962);
multiple interacting sources; relativlstic
expansion (Ryle and Longair 1967, Rees and Simon 1968);

radiation;
coherent rather than incoherent radiation;
non-isotropic
changing electron
energy distribution due to loss of energy by inverse Compton scattering,
ordinary bremsstrahlung, and ionization.

Thus there exists myriad possible combinations of parameters.
Be-
cause the simple model does have basic qualitative validity despite
slgnigicant discrepancies, work is proceeding on revisions of the simple

model.
In particular, Peterson and Dent's limited success
obvious possibility of extended injection
Xirith
the
has motivated continuing
investigations in that area.
Peterson and King (1975) have attempted to extend the application

of the continuous injection model into the optical wavelengths.
Because
of the gap in the observable spectrum between centimeter and optical
wavelengths, it is not even known if a relationship exists between the
activity observed at these two different frequencies.
However, the
limited observations at millimeter wavelengths indicate that the large

and rapid variations predicted by the simple expanding rnxdel at these
short wavelengths do not. occur.
29
Inverse Compton Scattering

Inverse Compton scattering will take place in a region with a sufficiently large radiation density and a sufficiently strong magnetic
field.
Thus while this radiation mechanisin most likely functions in the
types of sources under discussion,
the main question that must be
answered is how significant a role does this process play?
The inverse
Compton mechanism is highly inefficient and if a significant amount of

the observed radiation is caused by the inverse Compton mechanism, the
already awesome energy requirement increases much further.

Inverse Compton scattering
refers to the collision of a fast elec-
tron with a low energy photon and the resulting production of a high
energy recoil photon and a corresponding decrease in electron energy.

The solution for the total spectrum of inverse Compton photons scattered
per unit time and volume by a distribution of relativistic electrons
passing through a photon gas is very complicated in the completely
general case, and thus has not been attempted.
However, simplifications
In the
result in limiting cases which have astrophysical applications.
rest frame of the electron, if the energy of the photon before scattering
is much less than mc
2
,
the incident and scattered photons will have
roughly the same energy and the scattering corresponds to the Thompson
limit in which the Compton cross section is independent of the energy
of the incoming photon.
While in the laboratory frame, the character-
istic energy of the scattered photon is large relative to the incident
photon energy, it is still small compared with the electon energy and
thus the electron loses a small fraction of its energy in any single
inverse Compton scattering.
However, in the limiting case where the
energy of the photon before scattering is much greater than mc
2
,
the
30
scattered photon carried
axây a
large fraction of the electron energy,
and thus the electron does not lose its energy continuously.
Felten and Morrison (1966) present inverse Compton scattering in a

manner that stresses its relationship with synchrotron radiation.
Given
a power law energy distribution of electrons as in equation (11), as
long as the energy spectrum is not too steep, the distribution of recoil
photon energies will be determined primarily by equation (11)
and will
in fact be a power law distribution itself.
The electron lifetime against synchrotron radiation loss is given
by
"-
-1/2
-312
where
is in years, B in gauss, and v
,^^.
(22)
in GHz; while the electron
lifetime against energy loss to inverse Compton scattering (in the
Thompson limit) is given by
where
is in years and
X 10
r9o>,
(23)
is the energy density of the surrounding
radiation field (photon distribution) in eV/cm
3
.
To give an example of
the significance of the radiation energy density on inverse Compton
losses, consider a
p
'^^
10
"^
eV/cm
12
X 10
GeV electron (y
^^
10
trapped in the galaxy where
compared to one trapped near the solar surface where
eV/cm
3
.
In the galaxy, the electron will have a lifetime
TO
t
-^^
10"^
years, whereas near the solar surface, t
'^^
10
sec.
31
The total instantaneous power scattered by an electron is given by
is the Thompson cross section (a
where a
T^ô
);
whereas the
instantaneous synchrotron power radiated by an electron is given by
P
s
(y
where r^ is the classical
2
2
2
r ^ cy
B^
H)
^3
electron radius and
(25)
c is
the velocity of
Thus the ratio of the two powers for a single electron is given
light.
P
s
(y
,B)
P (y >P)
r
c
cy
">
(H sinO
2
/Tc
/ON
(16iT/3)r
or
B /8tt
3
2
cy
sm
.
2
p
2.
,.,.
(28)
Then assuming that the electron velocity is randomly oriented V7ith
respect to the magnetic field, the time or ensemble average gives

<
sin
2
6
> =
^J
and thus
P
2
s
where
(B /Sir)
/8iT
^27)
is the energy density of the magnetic field.
Thus the
ratio of losses from synchrotron radiation and from inverse Compton
scattering is equal to the ratio of the energy densities.
(Note that in
some notation H is substituted for B, but as long as consideration is
limited to vacuum, B = H.)
The assumption of equipartition of energy
32
between the energy density of the magnetic field and the energy density
of the radiation field requires the least total energy from a source.
If the energy of the radiation field exceeds twice the energy density of
the magnetic field, catastrophic inverse Compton losses result,
Kellermann and Pauliny-Toth (1969) have expressed these conditions

in terms of the maximum brightness temperature (T
sources.
observed in compact
According to their development, for a homogeneous and isotropic
source, the intensity of the radiation from inverse Compton
scattering
relative to the intensity of radiation from synchrotron em.ission (L^/L^)

c
s
is given by
2
^
where v
i
'
10
12
+
10
is the cutoff frequency in
^ffiz
(28)
12
due to synchrotron self-absorp-
Assuming a roughly typical value of v
tion.
L /L
'>^
100 GHz, if T^
1 and inverse Compton scattering is insignificant.
<
10
K,
But if
> 10
K,
the bracketed term., which represents the effect of secona
becomes important and L /L

order scattering,
'v
(T
/lO
Thus it
is argued that the catastrophic energy losses due to inverse Compton

to between 10
scattering "cool" the source, causing a decrease of T

to 10
K,
where losses to both processes are roughly the same.
example, assume that v
'\>
1 GHz.
Then for T
-v-
an electron is
'^^
10
years, whereas if T
'^
10
12
10
11
K,
K,
11
As an
the half-life of
the half -life drops
to about a day.
Felten and Morrison developed still another expression relating the

radiation intensities, which may prove useful.
33
v^s
(I
where K
and K
s
r\j
V c
/8tt
X 10 T
3-y )
2
'
(29)
'\j
represent the constants and parameters entering the

c
respective coefficients.
They then use that expression neglecting
inverse Compton scattering from the
K background radiation to compute
the expected spectra from synchrotron and inverse Compton radiation for
the galactic halo with an imposed high frequency cutoff, as shown in
Figure
Conditions in the galactic halo are far different from con-
4.
ditions in compact variable sources; the point is that if both syn-
chrotron and inverse Compton components exist and can be resolved in

an observed spectral energy distribution, equation (29) will provide
a useful estimate of physical conditions in the source.
Finally, a relation between the characteristic synchrotron fre-
quency (v
emitted by an electron at a given energy, and the charac-
teristic energy
(e
of the Compton scattered photon is given by
<,>
1
where
0.9 X 10^
^
^1
is in eV, B, in y-gauss, and v^ in
(30)
V
*^
l>fflz.
From this it can be
seen that for a given brightness temperature T, the characteristic
Compton scattering energy, and therefore frequency, decreases for increasing magnetic field strength.
're
notation, Y
^, and V
Y,
and v
(It should be noted that in my
correspond to Felten and Morrison's y
m,
.)
In summary, it should be em.phasized that values of the magnetic
fields and electron half-lives against inverse Compton scattering can

be estimated using equations (15) and (28), without assuming a distance
34
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35
to the source or equipartition of energy.
Possibly large uncertainties
cutoff fredo exist in the determination of the angular size (6) and
Quencies (v
m)
especially in sources possessing complex brightness
distributions which are characteristic of EGV's.

If the distance to the source is knoxro,
relativistic electrons, E
the energy content of the
and the magnetic field, E^, can be uniquely
determined (Kellermann and Pauliny-Toth 1969).

spectral indices (y
'^^
2.5)
However, for typical
the ratio E^/E^ depends on the
of the cutoff frequency, v m
'V'20th
power
and the angular extent 8; thus departures
from energy equipartition are difficult to detect.
versus
The major controversy centered around synchrotron radiation
inverse Compton scattering is based on the lifetimes of electrons
against energy loss.
If one assumes, based on an "average" outburst
duration, a typical size of
^10"''^
cm (one light month) for an active
approxregion, this implies lifetimes of the relativistic electrons of

imately that same length.
Thus some argue that it is unlikely that any
significant portion of the emitted radiation could be due to inverse

Compton scattering, because that would imply electron lifetimes as
short as one day.
From this point, Hoyle, Burbidge, and Sargent (1966)
synchrocalculated the ratio of magnetic to radiation density assuming

at a
tron radiation was the dominant process and the source 3C 273 was
cosmological distance.
The resulting ratio of energy densities indi-
cated catastrophic inverse Compton losses, from which they concluded

that the source was not at a cosmological distance.
(1966)
However, Woltjer
countered by assuming a non-isotropic radiation field, explained
away the energy density problem and put 3C 273 back at cosmological
distances.
This presents a specific example of the controversial
36
nature of this research.

The considerations listed here have prompted some to develop
radiation models which include both synchrotron and inverse Compton
radiation (Takarada 1968, Cavaliere et al. 1970, Rees 1971, Blanford

and Rees 1972).
Optical Spectra
optical
To study the absolute energy distributions of EGV's at
to an
wavelengths, data recorded as stellar magnitudes are converted
as a
energy scale using the absolute energy distribution of aLyra
reference.
This source was calibrated by Oke and Shild (1970), who
formulated a conversion expression
(31)
-2.5 log F - C
units
where m is the magnitude, F is the corresponding energy flux in
10~^^ Watts/m /Hz) and C is a constant.
of 10^^ Janskys (1 Jansky =
For all conversions made in this study, C = 56.04.
Extragalactic variables that exhibit large amplitude optical variations are usually those that have significant optical polarization,
with
steep power law optical spectra, and that tend to be associated
frequencies
compact radio sources having flat radio spectra at gigahertz
(Kinman 1975).
The non-thermal continuum of the Seyfert galaxy 3C 120
is relatively flat in the UV,
increases towards the red in the visual
range and turns up sharply in the IR (Shields et al

in Figure
5.
1972), as shown
This appears roughly similar to the energy distribution
of the QSO 3C 273.
QJ
en
tu
O
3
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CI
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03
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39
of BL Lac and
The optical and near infrared spectral distribution
OJ 287 are presented in Figures 6,
7,
and
The Lacertids in general
8.
steeper (more negaexhibit approxiiaate power law spectra which grow

can be seen from the
tive) between the near infrared and the optical as
values in Table
3,
from Rieke and Kinman (1974) and Oke and Gunn (1974),
result of positive
Tne somewhat flatter infrared index may be the
some stellar
curvature in the non-thermal spectrum and inclusion of
radiation at 2.2y.
(Note that for BL Lac, the values for the infrared
observations that
and the optical spectral indices were derived from
were separated in time.)
TABLE 3
LACERTID OPTICAL AND NEAR-IR SPECTRAL INDICES
OPTICAL
IR
SOURCE
0735 + 17
(0.55y - 0.36u)
(10. 5y - 0.44y)
-1.9
-1.20 + 0.15
OJ 287
-0.86
ON 231
-1.13 + 0.12
-2.0
EL Lac
-1.15 + 0.2
-1.55
(<iy)
(10. 5y - 2.2y)
Caution must be exercised when comparing optical spectral indices

the spectra,
of such violent variables because the variations do affect
as will be discussed.
In addition, while BL Lac has no emission lines,
galaxy, as is
if it is at the nucleus of an ordinary giant elliptical
indicated by the work of Oke and Gunn (1974)
then it may have a sig-
to
nificant stellar component at optical wavelengths, which is presumed
disappear at lOy (Rieke and Kinman 1974).
Its optical spectrum at
40
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r-'
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'T:
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iH H
P-.
,13
C!
03
3
Ph
4-1
cn
03
s
03 ,x3
M 2
D > a
H
c
OJ
!-4
4J
a
w
O w^
'Xj
03
-:
H J3
>
4^
-ZH
Das 6j3)
901
44
wavelengths <lu shows significant variations and can be represented by

a power law of index a = -2.85 to -3.17, as shown in Figure 9; thus it
exhibits one of the steepest spectra observed.
By contrast, the slope
of the optical spectrum of OJ 287 does not show strong time variations;
it may steepen slightly with increasing frequency.
used in Figure
The measurements
were made at different time than those of Rieke and
Kinman, and they can be fitted quite well by a straight line of slope
a = -1.248 (Visvanathan 1973b),
At the time of observation (Oke

of twenty-eight quasars between
_et_
al.
1970)
the optical continua
3y and 2.2y could generally be approx-
imated by power law spectra having indices of a = -0.2 to -1.6, with

the entire range being populated, as seen in Figures 10, 11, and 12.
However, the presence of broad emission lines combined with limited
spectral resolution makes it difficult to determine if the continuum

is power law or curved from this data.
Observations from
'^
0.9 to 0.4u
by Visvanathan (1973a) of three of the most active quasars, 3C 345,

3C 446, and 3C 454.3,
indicate that these optical continua can be rep-
resented by a power law in both active and quiet phases, as illustrated

in Figure 13.
Observations such as those in Figure 13 have yet to in-
dicate any relation between optical activity and quasar color in any
individual source or among the sources as a group.
Sometimes the QSO
grows redder (mora negative slope) during activity, while at other times
it grows bluer.
This lack of relation between brightness and color may
be an indication that the continuum source region consists of many
centers of activity, but it also raises the question of whether there
might be material in the general region of the quasars but not
'-=?l*"-
45
BL _AC
1
.^
,
1
-24.6
-24,8
-25.0
\^
\\
-25.2
-25.4
OCT 20, 1968
-25.6
-24.4
JULY
2.85 + 0.09
16,
1969
2.92 + 0.03
"
-24.6
-24.
\.\
-25.0
-25.2
-2 5-.4
-25,6
\\
\
AUG
a
-9S S
14.5
19,
3.17 +
1969
0.06
i
i_
14.7
DEC
a-- 2
'.
14.5
14.9
log
5,
\\
1969
93 0.04
1
14.7
\^
14.9
ly
BL Lac:
continuum measurements of the optical spectrum, on
Figure 9.
Straight lines
different days, indicating change of power law index.
Reproduced from
are least squares fits for alj. the continuum points.
Visvanathan (197 3a) with permiission of the author and The Astrophy sical
Journal, which is published by the University of Chicago Press.
53
immediately associated with them, whose character or nature changes
with time.
Kinman (1975) argues that in the case of the Lacertids, variations
of the optical spectral index do not merely consist of changes in the
slope of a power law relation, but also consist of variable curvature
However, observations by Rieke and Kinman
in the energy distribution.

(1974) and by Smith
_et
al.
(1975)
indicate that the UBV color of OJ 287
remained constant during a long-term decline of three magnitudes in its
mean brightness, with short-term changes in the color which have not
yet shown any relationship to the short-term changes in brightness.
In addition, the observations of Smith
et_
al.
contain some evidence for
a slower rate of decline in the infrared,
in contradiction to the
10.5-y observations of Rieke and Kinman,
However, Kinman (1975) states
that the spectral index becomes flatter toxârds the infrared.
All classes of extragalactic variables, especially the Lacertids,

exhibit significant linear optical polarization (Kinman et al. 1974);
in addition,
3C 279,
3C 345,
3C 446,
3C 454.3 and BL Lac have shown
changes in the polarization position angle during bursts as compared
with the position angles before and after activity.
This has been
interpreted as an indication that changes in the magnetic field config-
uration of the region emitting the continuum is a characteristic

feature of the burst phase of these sources (Visvanathan 1973a)
Moreover, observations of both radio and optical polarization in 3C 345
and 3C 454.3, for
and 1 years respectively,
indicated agreement in
the measured position angles in 3C 345, but disagreement in 3C 454.3.

In the case of 3C 345,
this can be interpreted to mean the optical and
radio emission came from the same region.
This is vital information if
54
one is trying to correlate activity at different wavelengths from a
multiple-component source.
In the case of 3C 454.3, one interpretation
is that the radio and optical continua originate from different volumes
of space, but this may come about in two different ways.
If a correla-
tion exists between optical and radio observations, a single source may
emit the optical radiation observed at time
then undergo an expan-
sion and a change in magnetic field configuration before emitting the

radio radiation observed at time
t,
At.
On the other hand, the optical
and radio emission may arise from two different, spatially separated
sources.
The non-thermal character of the optical continuum emission from
extragalactic variables appears generally accepted.

apparent power law spectra at optical xjavelengths
The observations of
rapid variability/,
and linear polarization which appears to be independent of wavelength,

leads to a conclusion by many that the optical continuum has a synchro-
tron origin.
Inverse Compton scattering has also been suggested, but
the lack of detection of an X-ray flux from almost all these sources
sets an upper limit to the X-ray flu>: V7hich is apparently incompatible
with the X-ray flux expected form inverse Compton scattering.

more,
3500 to 8000 A
Further-
observations of 3C 345, 3C 446, 3C 454.3, and
BL Lac between 1968 and 1969 again indicated that both the degree of
polarization and the position angle were independent of wavelength.

This strongly suggests that the same mechanism is responsible for the
continuum radiation in these sources from ultraviolet to infrared

wavelengths.
55
Galactic Infrared Radiation

Infrared astronomy is still in an early stage of development because the atmosphere restricts ground-based observations to roughly the
1 to 20 y range.
Observations at longer wavelengths are made from
balloons, aircraft, rockets, and high altitude observatories.
As previ-
ously noted, extragalactic variables in general show as infrared excess

and,
as shown in Figure 1,
the infrared.
some emit the majority of their luminosity in
Attempts to explain this radiation must be based on what
we have learned about sources of infrared radiation in our own and in

other galaxies.
Figure 14, while dated (Low and Aumarni 1970), gives a
summation of the infrared observations of the H II regions Orion A and
17,
the galaxy M82, and the galactic nucleus Sagitarius A.
recent data from Telesco et al

galaxy NGC 1068.
More
(1976) has been included for the Seyfert
Again dashed lines connect known measurements at the
time of publication.
A significant amount of the infrared radiation in our galaxy is
thermal radiation from dust particles or grains, which both scatter and
o
absorb incident radiation.
Absorption of starlight from 3000 to 10,000 A
increases with increasing frequency, causing an extinction or "reddening"

as illustrated in Figure 15
(Greenberg 1968).
The absorbed radiation
heats the grains, thus redistributing higher frequency radiation into

the infrared.
An infrared excess refers to an amxOunt of radiation within a given

infrared radiation interval which is in excess of what would normally be
expected from the type of source observed.
Such excess infrared radi-
ation in our galaxy arises from H II regions, some hot Be and Of stars,
Spectral energy distributions of galactic and extragalactic

sources.
Dashed lines indicate a lack of data for that wavelength
interval. Upper limits are indicated for M82 at 70 u and Sgr IRA at
1000 y.
Reproduced from Low and Aumann (1970) with permission of the
authors and The Astrophysical Journal, which is published by the
University of Chicago Press. More recent data obtained from Telesco
et al
(1975) and Rieke and Low (1975) were used to plot the curve for
NC-C 1068.
Figure 14.
3cm
3mm
300/1
30/x
3fM
.^\
Sqr IRA
M
CVJ
M17
CD
RA
AND !RB
LU
Sgr IRA
o
o
NG 1068
11
12
LOG FREQUENCY
13
(Hz)
14
58
X(^
h-
Figure l!).
Schematic diagram illustrating extinction or "reddening" as
a function of frequency and xvavelengtb.
59
protostars which are believed to exist in dense gas and dust regions,
circumstellar grains surrounding stars, and the galactic nucleus, which

is a highly luminous infrared source
whatever its nature is.
Observations indicate that a significant fraction of both interstellar and circumstellar grains are silicate particles similar to
material returned from the moon, thus indicating a possible relationship
between the material found in galactic interstellar space and that from
which the bodies of the solar system may have formed.
In addition,
infrared obser>/ations of early hot stars can be interpreted as arising

from free-free emission of ionized hydrogen;
observations of planetary
nebulae may indicate that grains can condense in high velocity fields
within destructive ultraviolet radiation fields, that is in almost any

environment where the grain temperature is maintained below its evaporation temperature; and limited observations of novae indicate that
material ejected during stellar mass loss can condense into dust
particles (Stein 1975, and Neugebauer et al. 1971).
Furthermore, infra-
red observations of H II regions have provided evidence that grains can

exist in ionized regions and that the emission can arise from grains at
different temperatures (Wynn-Williams and Becklin 1974).

The galactic nucleus is complex but can be represented by three
main components defined by their spatial and wavelength distributions

o
as follows:
an extended source measured over a 1

o
between
and
found at 100
Sgr A.
a 2
y;
region and observed
source which has fine structure and is
a 15" source coincident with the non-thermal radio source
u;
The galactic center up to 100 y has an estimated infrared
luminosity of 10
x^hich is much less
extragalactic variables.
Most of the
than the infrared emission irom
1 to 5 p
emission is believed to
60
be stellar radiation, altered by about 30 magnitudes of visual absorption,
from a high spatial density of stars.
of M31 show similar characteristics.

unkno^^ra,
Observations of the nucleus
Tae origin of the 100-vi flux is
although a significant portion again may be thermal re-radia-
(0.7
Of most interest here is the 15"
tion of starlight.
which radiates between
pc)
source
and 20 y with an energy distribution that can
be approximated by a power law of slope a
- -2.
Thus it resembles the
spectra of the nuclei of several extragalactic variables and leads to

obvious speculation about similar physical processes involved.
The
radiation from this source could be due to a reasonably sized dust cloud
of mass >
X 10
source of energy.
surrounding a concentration of stars or some other

It might also be non-thermal but this is unclear for
a number of reasons.
While the 15" source is coincident with Sgr A, the
non- thermal radio emission from the latter comes from an area five times
the diameter of the infrared source.
In addition, the flux density at
20 y is ten times greater than the radio emission at
cm,
which is in
disagreement with the characteristic spectral energy distribution of a
non-thermal radio source (Neugebauer et aJ
for opacity at infrared wavelengths.
identical sources of B
observed flux.
mm
.
'v.
However, there may
1971).
be two different energy sources, or one might
trj^
to construct a model
In addition, approxim.ately 10
30 gauss and radius 10
12
cm could emit the
The existence of multiple small sources may not be
unreasonable considering the strong evidence of almost continuous

activity in
som.e
galactic nuclei.
61
Extragalactic Infrared Hadiation

Estimates of the infrared luminosities from extragalactic variables
are tentative to unreliable because of the lack of observations between
50 to 300 y.
However, extragalactic variables are characterized by
infrared Iximinosities of 10
Telesco
_et_
al.
10
to 10
11
L_ (Neugebauer et al.
1971 and
1976) and total Seyfert emission in the infrared may be
47
44
ergs/sec (Rees
as high as 10'
to 10
_et
1969).
al.
In addition, a
sample of infrared spectra from Seyfert nuclei indicates that they can
be characterized by a power law of index a = -1.5 to -2.0.
In this
wavelength range, NGC 1068 may have a more negative power law index, and
a
correspondingly steeper spectrum.
In particular, between 28 and 320 y,
NGC 1068 has a luminosity equal to 3,7 x 10
It should be noted
that while some members of the specific class of compact galaxies (as
distinct from the general class of EGV) have infrared excesses similar
to Seyfert galaxies,
others do not show any conspicious infrared excess.
A sample of 30 QSO's show spectra that can generally be characterized by

indices of a = -0.2 to -1.6 from 0.32 to 2.2
show curvature.
p.,
although some clearly
Stein (1975) observes that the infrared spectra of
OJ 287 and BL Lac are generally flatter (a ^ -1) than the infrared
spectrum of sources such as NGC 1068
(a
"^
-2)
and he then speculates
that some sources may emit both thermal and non-thermal infrared radia-
Not all Lacertids have been detected or even observed in the
tion.
near- infrared.
Variations of the 2.2-y infrared flux on a time scale comparable to

the measured optical variations have been observed for 3C 279, 3C 345,
3C 446,
and 3C 454.3, which are among those sources having the steepest
62
rise in their energy distributions at infrared wavelengths and which
exhibit short duration large amplitude optical variations (Oke

1970)
In addition,
_et_
al
it is argued on the basis of the infrared and visual
spectral distributions in Figure 12, that to within the limitations of
simultaneous measurement, the infrared and visual variations follow one

another.
If this is true,
it would indicate that for these sources the
same mechanism is probably responsible for the production of radiation
from the infrared to the ultraviolet.
Rieke (1972) and Kinman
e_t
al.
(1974) have provided evidence for
both long-term (years) and short-term (months) variations in OJ 287
between 2.2 and 10
Rieke contends that these short-term infrared
y.
variations correspond in extent and time with B-magnitude and millimeter
observations made at the same time.
Kinman
et_
al
established a very
strong correspondence in long-term activity over the same wavelength

range.
Rieke also observed possible evidence for infrared variations of
BL Lac in the
to 20-y range but the data are sketchy.
Significant
short-term variability of BL Lac at 2.2 y is believed to exist

(Neugebauer
et_
al.
1971)
No satisfactory explanation of the infrared emission from extra-
galactic sources has yet been found.
Thus far, observations of some
sources provide evidence that both thermal and non-thermal radiation is

present.
Neugebauer
e_t
al^.
have observed that knowledge of the energy
distribution between 20 and 500

radiation mechanism.
VThile any
is critical to any investigation of the
discussion of detailed models is
probably premature until that data is available,
will briefly review
the speculations.
Of course there are two possible radiation mechanisms; thermal
63
re-radiation by dust grains and non-thermal radiation by incoherent

synchrotron or inverse Compton scattering.
It is generally agreed that
very short-term (less than a few weeks) variability of the infrared
radiation or significant as well as variable infrared polarization would

imply a non- thermal source.
However, to date there has not been conclu-
sive evidence of either of these characteristics.
The proponents of thermal radiation argue that small grains may
condense during the expansion phase following a violent outburst and that
the observed energy distribution is obtained by the superposition of
several different blackbody curves corresponding to shells of dust at
different distances from the source.
A.s
noted earlier, there is evidence
for the existence of dust in or near Seyfert nuclei and quasars (Burbudge
and Stein 1970).
While the amount of dust required for such emission
appears physically reasonable, its required size does place lower limits
of a few weeks to a month on the allowed time scale of variations at
wavelengths
10 y.
Variations on a shorter time scale have not yet been
conclusively established.
The discovery of slight polarization could be
explained by emission from magnetically aligned grains.

The proponents of a non-thermal mechanism argue that while there is
evidence of dust near active sources, it is too far removed and of too
little quantity to cause the observed infrared flux.
The main difficult-
ies in the case for non-thermal emission are the need for a sharp cutoff
at low frequencies and the condition that inverse Compton scattering
losses not exceed synchrotron losses.
Burbidge and Stein (1970) conclude
that the energetics of a synchrotron model are physicallj' reasonable
because total required energies are less than those required to explain
the compact radio sources or to explain non-thermal optical radiation.
64
but require magnetic fields of
"--
to 100 gauss.
They also point out
that in some cases, the data support the hypothesis of nuclei consisting
of a large number of separate components.
Cavaliere
et^ _al
(1970)
propose a model which emits both synchrotron and inverse Compton

radiation.
During the writing of this summary of research efforts,
was struck
by the analogy to an earlier attempt to explain a troublesome spectrum,

that of the blackbody.
can explain the source.
If we can explain the spectrum, most likely we
However, we must first have the whole spectrum!
CHAPTER III
ANALYSIS OF THE LONG-TERM OPTICAL AND RADIO RECORDS
The Research Problem

Up to ten years of observations of the sometimes violent optical
and radio variations of extragalactic variables have compelled many to
ask the potentially important question, Are the optical and radio variaThe gap in the observable spectrum
tions for a given source correlated?
between millimeter radio radiation and optical radiation makes it

impossible to follow an event through the intervening spectral range and
necessitates attempts to correlate radio and optical variability before

one can test a model against data taken at these separated wavelengths.
If a relationship exists,
then what are its characteristics and its
implications with respect to the emission mechanism.s just summarized?

At the same time,
As I
exists, what are the implications?
if no relationship
have indicated by the summaries in Chapter II, the answers to these
questions are very important for defining the radiation mechanisms and
modeling the source of radiation.
In addition, such information is
necessary for the planning of cooperative multi-wavelength observing

programs.
For the first time, collections of observations are reaching
the point where meaningful investigations of such correlations on a time
scale of many years can be made.
A visual inspection of the optical, millimeter, and centimeter data

for a few extragalactic variables reveals variations that are comparable
65
66
in time and,
in some cases, amplitude.
This is both promising and
hazardous, because one must be careful to avoid chance correlations
between random events that are not really related.
Most searches for
correlations have examined the short-term variations of 3C 120 (Usher

1972), OJ 287 and BL Lac (Kinman and Conklin 1971; Andrew e^ al
Epstein
et_
al.
1971;
1974; Kinman et al. 1974; Miller et al.
1972; Andrew et al.
1974) and the long-term activity of 3L Lac (Hackney
e_t
al.
1972)
and
OJ 287 (Lyutyi 1973).
The Radio and Optical Data Records
The Rosemary Hill Observatory of the University of Florida, the
Algonquin Radio Observatory, the University of Massachusetts, the Royal

Greenwich Observatory, and the Yale University Observatory have monitored
extragalactic variables at radio or optical wavelengths for a number of

years.
The present study examines these long-term records in an attempt
to discover correlated activity for sources common to the monitoring
programs.
It makes use of Rosemary Hill blue or photographic magnitudes
(McGimsey et al.
1975;
Scott
et_
al
1976), Algonquin 2.8-cm (10.7 GHz)
data (Medd et al. 1972; MacLeod e^ al
1.9-cm (15.5 GHz) data (Dent
e_t
al.
1975), University of Massachusetts
1974; Dent 1976), Royal Greenwich
Observatory optical m.agnitudes (Tritton and Brett 1970; Cannon et al

1971; Tritton and Selmes 1971; Selmes
photographic magnitudes (Lu 1972).

the Goethe
et_
al
1975), and Yale Observatory
In addition, blue magnitudes from
Link Observatory were used for 3C 273 (Burkhead and Parvey
1968; Burkhead 1969; Burkhead and Lee 1970; Burkhead and Stein 1971;
Burkhead and Rettig 1972; Burkhead and Hill 1975).
67
For the first time, the extensive records from the above observa-
tories have been integrated and presented together in figures accompanying the textual presentation for each source.
Thus, these figures
represent a relatively complete documentation of the available observed
long-term radio and optical variations (or lack thereof)

have been plotted with one-rms error bars.
The raw data
In several cases, data from
different observatories were combined to obtain a longer data record.

I
acknowledge that this is
potentially hazardous procedure for any
quantitative analysis for three reasons.
First, different optical
observatories may use different comparison sequences: and while Rosemary

Hill B magnitudes are filtered (GG-13) exposures taken with a reflector.
Royal Greenwich B-magnitude plates are unfiltered exposures taken with a
refractor.
Second, there is often a time delay and an amplitude differ-
ence between the Dent 1.9-cm data and the Algonquin 2.8-cm data, as one
might expect from the expanding source model.
Third, the calibration of
the absolute flux density scale m.ay differ between two radio observatories,
Hovrever,
for visual presentation of long-term trends in the data,
the effects of the second factor are generally negligible.
To m.inimize
the effects of all three factors, in most cases where different sets of
data were combined to form a single radio or light curve there was
sufficient overlap between the sets to establish that the variability
information was essentially identical for both sets (to within less than
one rms error) and to measure the zero-point offset between the two sets
if such an offset existed.
The empirically determined offset was then
applied to the shorter of the two sets to create a consistent long-term

record.
68
Cross-Correlation Analysis
The long-term optical and radio data records have been examined
visually with great care to search for evidence of correlation.
This
was accomplished by plotting the two data records on different sheets,
literally laying one curve on top of the other, and sliding one with
respect to the other in search of coincidences between the two records.
Then, as a first attempt to search analytically for correlations, the
optical magnitudes and radio fluxes were linearly cross-correlated.

Unf orttmately, long-term astronomical measurements are almost invariably
spaced unevenly in time because of the monthly and annual cycles imposed
by the moon and the sun, with additional interruptions being created by
equipment failure, weather, and scheduling.
Because of the mathematical difficulties associated with treating

unevenly spaced time series, it is common practice to fit a curve to the
data, thus creating a continuous function which can be used directly or
sampled evenly for analytical study.

of a fitting function,
However, this requires the choice
thus introducing a certain bias into the data.
This is particularly important in studies of rapid, large- am.plitude,
random variables where two or more outbursts may be superimposed, the

character of each individual outburst is not known, and the data lost
in observation gaps are unpredictable.
For these reasons, in an attempt to avoid biasing the raw data, I
chose to synthesize evenly spaced time series by stepping through the

radio and optical data records for a given source hj an increment of
time At^
averaging all data falling within that increment, and either
linearly interpolating or leaving a "hole" for those time increments in
69
which no data were taken.
Next the total record of radio data was
shifted backwards in time relative to the optical by an amount

The radio record was then moved forward in time by steps of At
(At 5 At
At^^.
while a normalized linear cross-correlation coefficient, R,
was calculated for all overlapping data for each increment of At

any value of the time shift At (At = nAt
- At),
For
coincidences between
radio data and optical holes, or vice versa, were not used in the calcu-
lation of the correlation coefficient.
This procedure was followed
until the radio data had undergone a total time shift of 2At.
For this study, the following formula
was used to calculate the
normalized cross-correlation coefficient, R, for each value of At,
R(At)
-y
(x y
-1
(Lx.)n2/^
(Zx
(Zy
rj^
=
2
rv
[Zx.
.-
(32)
rv
[Zy.
-1
(Z,
.2.1/2
.)
where x and y are functions of time and N is the number of coincidences

This can be shown to be
between radio and optical data increments.
exactly equivalent to the more classical formula for R (Harnett 1970)
- x)
(x
(y
- y)
'^^^
^^
Yn
[Z(x^ - x)^ Z(y^ - y)^]
by the use of the following identity:
Z(x_.
- x)
- x)
+ (x, -
(x.
(Zx.) - Nx
x)
...
(x,,^
- x)
(34)
70
The technique just outlined has a number of characteristics that
should be noted.
a)
The original optical and radio data records resulted from
irregularly sampling two continuous functions of time.
The correla-
tion coefficients are calculated for synthesized, evenly spaced

time series which are assumed to represent the long-term functions
of time.
b)
Observational errors are not considered in the calculation of
the time averages or the correlation coefficients.

c)
The calculated correlation coefficients are partly a function
of the choice of At,
which is itself dependent on the time resolu-
tion of the data and the time scale of the observed activity.
d)
Attempts to correlate too small a data sample result in spurious
coefficients which, when plotted as a function of At, form a scatter

diagram.
l-Tnen
this occurs for the overlap of the beginning of one
data set with the end of the other set it is referred to as an
"edge effect".
e)
Wlien each of the two
records has only a singly significant peak
or "bump", the records will be strongly correlated for some value

of At even though there may be no physical relation between the two
events.
Great caution must be exercised in the consideration of
such "one-event" correlations.

f)
Because
am cross-correlating unevenly space time series and
examining a population of cross-correlation coefficients, the

classical test of significance is at best questionable and at worst
simply not applicable.
It is included in Table 4 only for lack of
a better statistical method, and it should be used in conjunction
71
with a careful and skeptical examination of the data records

themselves
g)
The precision of At is limited by the choice of At
h)
The statistical technique used, equation (32),
calculates a
normalized linear cross-correlation coefficient between two

functions which are represented by time series; however, radio flux
is linearly proportional to the emitted energy while an optical
magnitude is proportional to the log of the emitted energy.
Thus
strictly speaking this technique measures the relation between

emitted radio energy and the log of the emitted optical energy as
a function of time shift At.
This was done because of the
following:
1)
Most investigations involving optical data are both con-
ducted and published using a magnitude scale to represent the

data.
2)
Presentation of the optical and radio data on the same
graph in a form that is easy to examine necessitated the use

of both radio flux and optical magnitudes.
When a potentially significant cross-correlation was found, a

regression plot of radio flux vs optical magnitude was made to illustrate
and investigate the functional relationship between the two sets of
data.
The regression plots were obtained by shifting the synthesized
time series by the value of At that gave the maximum correlation
coefficient.
It is difficult to justify the use of linear interpolation to fill
observational gaps in the data records because we have no knowledge of

the emission intensity during that gap.
Thus the interpolated data
72
records must be used cautiously, and the validity of results from the
interpolated data records must be examined for each source independently.

In general,
for any given source the hole technique and the interpola-
tion technique yielded similar results.
Thus, because the hole
technique more nearly approximates the original record, the results of

this technique alone are summarized in Table 4 (Chapter IV)
Choice of Correlation Parameters

As noted previously, the value of the correlation coefficient and
its distribution as a function of At do depend on At
which is deter-
mined by the character of both the optical and radio data records.
Thus a trial and error method of using different values for At^ and At
was employed to find the "best" values.
because
Obviously it makes no sense to use a At^ smaller than At

this oversamples the resolution of the data introduced by At
ome might use a At
larger than At
JL
However,
to accentuate long-term effects when
working with high time resolution data sets.

equal At
In general At should
The choice of At of course depends on the relative coverage

^
of the optical and radio data records.
If correlation coefficients are
calculated when the extent of the overlap between the optical and radio
data is less than 10%, and in some cases 20%, of either the entire
optical record or the entire radio record, then edge effects or spurious
"one-event" correlations arise.
Therefore At^ was usually chosen to
calculate the correlation coefficient for all overlaps involving m.ore

than 10 to 20% of the whole of both data records.
The choice of the "best" values for At
and At.
x<ras
of course a
subjective judgement based roughly on the following criteria.
73
For the cross-correlation calculation, a)

At
I'Jhat
was the smallest value of
for which R vs At remained a smoothly varying function?
rily, what was the value of At
coefficient?
b)
Seconda-
that yielded the maximum correlation
For the regression plots, a value of At^ was chosen which
yielded a "sufficient" number of points to suggest a possible relationship,

In the following presentation of the results, graphical summaries
of
R vs At for more than one value of At 1 are sometimes presented to
illustrate the effects of the choice of At^,
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS OF THE CORRELATION ANALYSIS
The results of the analytical study are summarized in Table 4, where
column one gives the source name; column two the maximum cross-correlation coefficient, R, corresponding to the time shift At listed in column
three; column four lists the number N of increments in the synthesized
time series that contained data and were used to calculate the maximum
cross-correlation coefficient; and column five gives the confidence level

for the maximum value of R calculated from the two-tailed Student's
t-distribution.
In column two, an "NC" indicates the absence of any
distinct maximum in the population of calculated cross-correlation

coefficients; an asterisk indicates a "one-event" correlation, in which
there is minimal confidence of physical reality.
this column is a subjective figure derived from
The error estimate in

.
the fact that a number
of coefficients for adjacent values of At have nearly the same value.
In column three, a negative value for At indicates that the optical
events lead the radio events, while a positive value indicates that the
radio events precede the optical.
The error estimate here is derived
by estimating the half-amplitude width of the distribution of correlation
coefficients about the maximum value.

In all the plots of R vs At that follow in this chapter,
the top
curve illustrates the relation for the raw data or "hole technique" -while
the bottom curve illustrates the relation for interpolation across holes
74
75
TABLE 4
SUI4M/\RY
OF RESULTS OF THE LINEAR CROSS-CORRELATION ANAl.YSIS
Confidence
At in years
OJ 287
0.85+.02
-0.875+1.0
24
>99%
OJ 287 Pt I
0.90+.03
-0.60+0.85
13
>99%
OJ 287 Pt II
0.92+.04
0.0+0.70
15
>99%
3C 454.3
0.79+.01
-1.2+1.2
31
>99%
-1.1+0.9
16
>99%
-0.2+0.8
16
>98%
+0.88+0.9
13
>99%
Source
BL Lac
CTA 26
PKS 0405-12
PKS 0420-01
NC(?)
0.82+.08*
NC
0.65+.10*
3C 120
HC
NEAO 190
PKS 0458-02
NC
3C 138
PKS 0735+17
NC
0.71+.02*
PKS 0736+01
NC
01 363
NC
OK 290
NC
3C 273
NC
PKS 1354+19
NC
OQ 208
NC
1510-08
-0.5 (?)
NC
NRAO 512
0.66+O.lA
0.0+0.3
27
>99%
3C 371
0.55+0.1
0.5+0.8
29
>99%
3C 446
NC
PKS 2345-16
NC
in tha raw data.
Except for this difference, all parameters used in
obtaining the top and bottom curves are identical.
I-Jhile
both curves are
included for completeness, all quoted values of R and At refer to the top
curve unless explicitly stated otherwise.
OJ 287
This object provided the best visual correlation of all the sources
studied in this work, a result that was strongly reinforced by the
analytical study.
Despite gaps in the optical record, there is a strong
suggestion that the optical and radio
cur-'/es
shown in Figure 16 follow
each other quite closely through a number of distinct details defined by

each record; and in fact, there is no question that both records show a
long-term rise and fall from 1970.0 to 1974.0 and a short-term burst
centered at about 1975.0.
Despite violent short-term optical flickering
this visual correlation is supported both by the cross-correlation coef-
ficient of 0.85 indicated in Figure 17, and by the relationship between

radio flux and optical magnitude revealed in Figure 18.
(The anti-
correlations occuring in Figure 17, for large positive and negative

values of At result naturally from the superposition of the ascending
radio curve on the descending optical curve and vice versa.)
Close examination of the data shows that after the gap in both
records at 1972.75, there is more complete optical coverage and a different separation between the optical and radio curves than before that date,
implying that some shift in the relationship may have occurred.
This
perception suggested a separation of the data into two segments. Part 1

containing the data prior 1972.75 and Part II containing the data after
1972.75.
While the application of the cross-correlation technique
77
O
cvi
o
(X)
o
d
O
IT)
"C
c
V
'-
iC
z:
Cj
'f.
-^
o
ro
N
p
a
r;
2.8pIric
n
UJ
1-
*"
<
Q
t-
o-
c
c
u
-êf'^^
O
N
"^
CJ
c:
^j
CVJ
a.
&c
>,
c-
._)
'J
a;
c
ci
<
o
o
Q
z:
-*
tc
CL
cr
o
IT)
aaniiNOViN
'11
C^
OJ 287
0.5
0.0
9
-0.5
iX>
0.5
0.0
-1.0
-4.0
0.0
-2.0
At
4.0
2.0
(years)
Normalized cross-correlation coefficient (R) vs

OJ 287.
16.
time shift (At) for the radio and optical data presented in Figure
with
using actual data (top) and interpolated data (bottom)
= 0.12 5 year.
At-, = At
Fissure 17.
79
10.0
OJ 287
8.0
oo
6.0
9 O
o
o
4.0
* *
2.0
0.0
16.0
14.0
12.0
MAGNITUDE
Radio flux vs optical magnitude for At = -0.875

OJ 287.
Figure 18.
Open circles represent actual data; filled
vear, At = 0.05 year.
circles represent points for which the flux or the magnitude, or both,
have been obtained bv linear interpolation across gaps in the data.
80
yielded R values of 0.90 and 0.92 for Parts
and II (Figures 19 and 20)
respectively, the smaller number of data points used in the calculations
combined with significant edge effects, cause one to view the results
from Parts I and II with caution.
In spite of these reservations, the
regression plots of flux vs magnitude for Parts
and II shotm in Figures
21 and 22 display considerably less scatter than Figure 18,
tending to
support the validity of the separation of the data at 1972.75.
Moreover,
the reader should not be misled by the apparently much broader peaks
illustrated in Figures 19 and 20 relative to the peak in Figure 17; for

Figure 17 has a compressed time scale on the x-axis.
3C 454.3
Although optical data from the Rosemary Hill, Yale, and Royal
Greenwich Observatories were used to study this source, the overlapping
records reinforced one another when appropriate zero-level offsets were
applied.
The correspondence and mutual reinforcement are illustrated in
Figure 23, where the three data records are displayed independently v;ith
no zero-level offsets.
This reinforcement justifies the deletion of the
Yale data record from Figure 24 where the density of Yale data points
xTOuld have
obscured the long-term optical trends.
Visual inspection of the radio and composite optical data illustrated in Figure 24 indicates that while there is not as obvious a correspon-
dence between radio and optical activity as there is for OJ 287, the radio
and optical records show comparable variations which may be correlated.
Application of both the "hole" and the interpolation techniques, using

all three optical data records, yielded maximum correlation coefficients
of 0.79 and 0.83,
respectively, for the optical leading the radio by
81
1.0
OJ 287
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.01.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-2.0
0.0
At
1.0
2.0
(years)
Normalized eross-correlation coefficient (R) vs

OJ 287.
Figure 19.
time shift (At) for radio and optical data prior to 1972.75, using
with At^ = At^^ =
actual data (top) and interpolated data (bottom)
0.05 vear.
,
82
1.0
OJ 287
).5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
1.0
0.5
-0,5-
-1.0
1.0
-2.0
At
2.0
(years)
Normalized cross-correlation coefficient (R)

OJ 287.
Figure 20.
vs time shift (At) for radio and optical data after 1972.75, using
actual data (top) and Interpolated data (bottom) V7ith
At, = At, = 0.05 year.
,
j>
83
10.0
OJ 287
8.0
o o
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
16.0
14.0
12.0
MAGNITUDE
Radio flux vs optical magnitude prior to 1972.75

OJ 287.
Figure 21.
Open circles represent actual
for At = -0.06 year, At = 0.05 year.
data; filled circles represent linearly interpolated data.
84
10.0
OJ 287
o
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
14.0
16.0
12.0
MAGNITUDE
R.adio flux vs optical magnitude after 1972.75
OJ 287.
for At = 0.0 year, At]_ = 0.05 year.
filled circles represent linearly interpolated data.
data;
Figure 22.
^
o
rf
a s N k!
w a> P
rt CTQ
j::;
P- H(D
rt
re
Pi
0-
CR
X)
"P*
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IT)
f-i
3 o
OJ
HTO
CD
C
ii
i /
ro
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n o n O
(D
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D- U)
O.
Hro
3^ Ml ^
S n e f-h
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h-"
H-
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era
t-i
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fl2
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ro
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03
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rc
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o 3
tD
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(Ti
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n
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fs
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H o en O' (B
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rt
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td
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i-i
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02
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K- ta
ft HI
11 era
l_i
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rt
MAGNITUDE
CO
CD
CD
CZ3
cj:>
CD
CD
CO
CD
CD
^^=-
~mje**"
^Pi
CCi
CT)
"^s
CD
CD
r~o
CO
CD
-F^
CO
on
CO
cn
CD
CD
CO
CD
CO
MAGNITUDE
cn
Optical and Algonquin 2.8-cm observations. The optical record consists

3C 454.3.
Figure 24.
photoof Royal Greenwich B magnitudes (with a -047 offset) from 1966 to 1972.75; Rosemary Hill
graphic (m) magnitudes (with no correction to B magnitudes) from 1968.9 to 1971.5; Rosemary
from
offset)
1967.6^
+0?125
(with
a
magnitudes
B
Yale
1975.9.
to
1971.6
from
Hill B magnitudes
high density
to 1971.0 reinforce the illustrated optical activity but are not included due to the
The numbering of events does not imply a one-to-one correlation between corresponding
of points.
numbers (see text)
15.0
4
^16.0
3
OPTICAL
CD
\i1...
<
Vf
...
SI 7.0
1*
28.0
18.0
22.0
|1
>II
III,
16.0
|H|
RADIO
Hj|.
4
1966.0
67.0
68.0
J_
69.0
70.0
71.0
72.0
73.0
74.0
75.0
10.0
L
76.0
DATE
a;
00
Observed optical and near- infrared spectra of selected quasai-s plotted as a

Figure 10.
function of rest frequency Vq = v(l+z).
Standard deviation error bars ;ire indicated for
the infrared photometry and for all spectral scanner observations where the standard deviation in log f^ is greater than 0.02. Note that Ton 256 and PHL 938 are radio quiet.
Reproduced from Oke e_t a_l. (1970) with permission of the authors and The Astr o physical
Jo urnal which is published by the University of Chicago Press.
,
_0G FLUX DENSITY [\M/U^H1)

:-
03
CD
--
--
'
r^
0)
~n
71
CJl
m
t
Ol
"
"
_^*
c?"
-D
T
M
5~>!
-<
,
^
ii
O
o
<
"^
O~
c^'
O
O
on
ro _L
Ji
S
A
J*
i:
n
'
LOG FLUX DENSITY (WAfHZ)

j^'
^
'0
'j:
C:;'
o
u
O)
U3
'-D
SJU
01
-i
'O
m
C3
i^
Irf
Jl.
rNj
ID
'
Jl
CTl
CD
33
CD
r:i
-1CI
"
"
f 1
_!_
fÔ
C'J-
1?
"""
_.;.
1 T
o 1
U3
~
7^
Figure 11, A continuation of observed optical and near- infrared spectra of selected quasars
begun in Figure 10. Note that the visual and infrared measurements for both 3C 279 and
The inconsistency betv/een the spectral scanner data and the UBV
3C 345 show variability.
measurements for PHL 658 is unresolved and probably instrumental. Reproduced from Oke et^ al.
the authors and The Astrophysical Journal X\fhich is published by
permission
of
(1970) with
the University of Chicago Press.
,
LOG FLUX DENSITY
['^l/l/rHZ]
LOG FLUX DENSITY (w/M^HZ)
a
o
[^
fe
&
'f
^-o
'
--
O
3,,
"
OT CD
rn
CE
t;
"~.
'- 0-1
:05
O
-<
M LH_
W
M
O
NJol
6o
yo
2a
'
Lfl
CJ
cn"
c^
rj
rs!
'
-s;
o^
>*
LH
--^"
i.
;;;^l
'
C!l
-0"
C=i
^^
JL
1=:
LOG FLUX DENSITY {YJ/U^HZ)
i^
CD
o>
ft^
[y
CO
Ji
f"^
rv)
CD
ro
rb
U3
r-j
ro
OD
CO
r\:
&
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ro
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CD
ro
rn
nj
ro
rn
-t>
m
o
ro
N>
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C:
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>
1^
>
-^
r-o
J.
o
cr,
CO
m
o
c:
n
O CO
^
S^?'^-^
m C
rri
ss
cj,
-^
^.
-^
R
X
/',*
^1
CO
Nl
^\
5,
^w
I*'""
=;
i
'
6^7
oo
.
,
o
g
Figure 12. A continuation of Figure 10. Note that while 3C 454.3 and 3C 446 exhibited
variations in the visual, infrared photometry was not obtained to check for variability.
The 2.2-y points
The UBV measurements of 4C 29.68 were unpublished data from Sandage.
Reproduced from Oke et al- (19 70) with
in 3C 309.1 and 3C 432 are only limiting values.
permission of the authors and The Astrophysical Journal , which is ptiblished by the
University of Chicago Press.
LOG FLUX DENSITY (VV/m2hZ)

^
^'
J^
CO
^-
-^J
C'
CE.
ai
CO
<<D
CD
Oi
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JD
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(X)
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LOG FLUX DENSITY (W/m2hZ)

J3
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lO
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ro
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_0G FLUX DENSITY (W/M^HZ)

'^'
U^'
1^
_a:'
CTi
Ji
ro
^0
LD
ii;
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u?
ro
iXJ
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cc
03
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CT)
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10
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cn
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ro
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'^ '^
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^c=l
a
Ô
m
$g^
^^
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M
_l
===--
a _
j-
Jrt^
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,-t-
OJ
.
1.
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B-
3C 446
3C 345
-26,2
-26.2
V.
-26.4
--
JUNE 30, 1968
Q = 2.200.24
-26.4
-26.2
-26.0
-26.4
-26.6
-26.4
X..
JULY 16,1969
-268
a=i.20 +
AUG
o.ii
1969
19,
11
-26.4
'
AUG
'
'
\^
>
'
'a=0.820.ll
'
X.
-2 5.6
1969
18,
-2 5.4
-
>..J^^
N,^
a=2.IO0.08
/
-26.2
-26.2
U-
3C 454.3
\^x
-26.0
\.X
^-25.8
/
-26.0
-2 6.0
'
APRIL
1,
"~-
1970
a=0. 75
-DEC
-26.
-262
0.07
5,
1969
a = L770.04
^s>
CiV
Mgll
-26.4
y
14,8
15.0
//
15,0
15.2
log
Fitfui'e
qiieucy
13.
v.^
3C 3A.5,
= v(.l,4-z)
15.2
ContinLnim nieasurcmenl:s of Lht; opcic.a.l fXix [iloLted ngaj.usc rest Pre3C X'i6, 3C 454.3.
dif l:eri;nt: days. Indicating ciiange of power .law index.
Straiglit Jines reivrpseat
|)(i,ints.
Circled uo.ints repn-escnt emissi.on Jines.
continnuin
a.1.1
Reproduced from
the author and 'jîl^ As tro[iJiy.siA'^l Jonrna.l
w.i.tli perm Ls.s.i en of
wiiicli is iiuhlislnul by tlie
l:"or
fits
least
Visvanathan (1973a)
University of Cliicagi.i Press.
sr[uart'.s
16.0
14.0
i/o
fLir
Cn
89
approximately 1.2 years, as illustrated in Figure 25.
As a check,
application of the same procedures to the Rosemary Hill - Royal Greenwich

composites yielded similar correlation coefficients values of 0.78 and
0.83 for approximately the same time delay, as illustrated in Figure 26.
Close inspection of the raw data nevertheless necessitates a

cautious approach to the physical reality of a cross-correlation, because
the optical data show at least four and possibly seven events depending
on one's criterion (event
of the peaks numbered in Figure 24 is defined
by a single point with a large error, and event
is a shallow rise and
.fall), while the radio record suggests only four events (three major
events with a shoulder centered on 1973.25).
In addition, superposition
of the radio and light curves with a time shift of 1.2 years does not
bring about an exact alignment of the radio and optical events.

In Figure 25 the extended maximum in R beginning with the radio data
leading the optical by about three years starts with the superposition of
radio event 1 over optical events
to 6, and continues as radio event 1
passes through several optical features.
This maximum has doubtful
significance because it is a variation of the one-event correlation and

the R vs At plot quickly deteriorates into the appearance of an edge
effect.
The rec-ression plot for At = -1.2 years seems to indicate a weak
functional relationship between the optical magnitudes and radio flux,
which is illustrated in Figure 27 for

28 for At
At-^
= 0.1667 years,
and in Figure
= 0.1 years.
In an attempt to investigate whether or not the dominant radio flare
from 1966.5 to 1970.0 is actually the cause of a spurious correlation,

all three optical records were correlated with the Algonquin data
90
3C 454.3
0.5
-0.5-
-1.0
1.0
1.5^
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-6.0
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
At
2.0
4.0
6.0
(years)
3C 454.3.
Figure 25.
Normalized cross-correlation coefficient (R) -vs
tirae shift (At) for the optical and radio data presented in Figure 24,
including the Yale Observatory data, using actual data (top) and interpolated data (bottom), with At = At = 0.1667 year.
91
1.0
1
3C 454.3
.
0.5L
.
*
c a
0.
o
-0.5-
0.0
At
(years!
Figure 26.
3C 454.3.
time shift (At) for the optical and radio data presented in Figure 24,
excluding Yale Observatory data, using actual data (top) and interDolated data (bottom), with At, = At = 0.1667 vear.
13
92
19.0
17.0
MAGNITUDE
Radio flux vs optical magnitude using all
3C 454.3.
Figure 27.
the optical and radio data, with At = -1.2 year, At^ = 0.1667 year,
filled circles"^represent
actual data;
represent
Open circles
linearly interpolated data.
40.0
3C 454.3
30.0
o
o
*o
X
20.0
oo
O 'O
oo
ooo o
oooo o
CO
o
10.0
0.0
19.0
17.0
15.0
MAGNITUDE
Radio flux vs optical magnitude using all
3C 454.3.
Figure 28.
the optical and radio data, with At = -1.2 year, At^ =0.1 year.
filled circles represent
Open circles represent actual data;
linearly interoolated data.
94
obtained after 1970.0.
While the resultant R
vs
At diagram illus-
trated in Figure 29 has a much narrower peak of R = 0.63 at a At of

about -1.2 years than does Figure 25, the two plots are quite similar.
Both plots show the same general character for -6.0
<
At
<
+0.0; for
At > 3.0 years, Figure 29 deteriorates into the edge effect suggested
by the top half of Figure 25 for At
>
4.0 years; however, the character
of the two plots is quite different for 0.0
<
At < 3.0 years.
Since both the radio and optical records show comparable activity,
the similarity between Figures 25 and 29 is not really surprising.
When one considers that by deleting the radio data prior to 1970.0,
approximately a third of the radio data have been ignored, the deterioration of the analytical correlation for this case cannot be given
much weight
As a check of the analytical correlation procedures, the Dent
1.9-cm and Algonquin 2.8~cm radio curves illustrated in Figure 30 were

correlated, with the higher-frequency 1.9-cm data assuming the role of
the optical record.
The results plotted in Figure 31 indicate a 0.97
correlation coefficient for the 1.9-cm data leading the 2.8-cm data by
approximately 0.1 year, which is the qualitative result expected from

the simple expanding source model.
The long decline in the value of
R from At = 0.5 to 3.0 years is most likely the result of a combination

of the lack of 1.9-cm data corresponding to the first dominant 2.8-cm
flare and the varying alignment of that dominant 2.8-cm flare with the
smaller 1.9-cm flares from 1970.5 to 1974.-5.
95
0.0
0.0
-2.0
0.0
At
Figure 29.
3C 454.3.
vs time shift (At) for
obtained after 1970.0,
data (bottom) with At
2.0
(years)

all the optical data but only the radio data
using actual data (top) and interpolated
= At
= 0.1667 year.
Ar
CSD
CO
CZD
CO
CO
to
CO
^ c
n3
CO
CLI
31
r-obs
ion
vat
cm
CD
0^
cvj
r--
r-l
QJ
ij
1
h
T
c
0)
e
u
1
CO
CD
r-454.3.
qiiin
*-
o
C=}
r-^
CD
CTD
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
LO
CnJ
AP
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
c
CJ
en
so
<
aj
u
3
^-.
a.
97
1.0
i
"
3C 454.3
e
e
.5-
o e
<9
0.0
-0.5
0.0
0.0
At
(years)
3C 454.3.
Normalized cross-correlation coefticient (R) vs
Figure 31.
time shift (At) for the two radio records of Figure 30, using actual
data (top) and interpolated data (bottom), with At = At = 0.1 year.
93
BL Lac
Examination of the optical and radio curves in Figure 32 indicates

no obvious overall correlation except that both show numerous, similar
rapid events on a time scale of months.

33,
for At
= At
The plot of R vs At in Figure
= 0.1667 years, superficially resembles a scatter
diagram, but it nevertheless shows a general trend toward a maximum
centered at about At = -0.5 year that may be indicative of a long-term
correlation that is obscured by the almost incessant flickering.

The unusually short time scale of the variability, coupled with
the unavoidable gaps in the optical data, make BL Lac difficult to
analyze in a definitive manner.
It should also be emphasized that the
analysis attempted thus far is merely a linear correlation; the trend

toward a maximum in Figure 33 may indicate that a different, non-linear
relationship exists which would be sharpened by the appropriate type

of analysis.
Finally, it should be noted that the choice of At^ and At used

to obtain Figure 33 was not based on the criteria reviewed earlier, but
rather on the basis of what values seemed better to illustrate the

trend towards a maximum correlation coefficient.
of the data actually supports values of At^
were used to obtain Figure 3A.
The time resolution
= At^ = 0.0625 years, which
Vlhile these latter plots have many more
points, the general character of the R vs At relation does not differ
between Figures 33 and 34.
99
CO
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CD
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100
i
1
'
BLLAC
0.5
0.0
'
-0.5
i
1
-6.0
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
At
2.0
(years)

BL Lac,
Figure 33.
vs time shift (At) for the optical and radio data presented in
Figure 32, using actual data (top) and interpolated data (bottom),
with At, = At = 0.1667 year.
1.0r
BLLAC
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
1.0r
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
6.0
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
At (years)
BL Lac.
Figure 34.
vs time shift (At) for the radio and optical data presented in
with At = At = 0.0625 year.
102
CTA 26 (PKS 0336-01)
A preliminary examination of Figure 35 suggests little correspondence between the optical and radio data, but the cross- correlation
analysis results illustrated in Figure 36 show a distinct maximum for
a radio time lag of about one year.
Closer examination of the optical
data reveals that if one averages points, there is a roughly 2.0- to

2.5-a bump between 1970.0 and 1972.75 that correlates with a major
radio event centered at 1972.2.
If the correlation is real it would
mean that, although the event happened later at radio wavelengths, both
the radio intensity and the optical intensity (not optical magnitude)
rose by the same amplitude (a factor of 1.8 above the "base" level),
but the radio peak probably had a smaller half-width.
This is in con-
tradiction to what one would expect from a naive extrapolation of the

simple expanding source model.
Regression plots for At = 0.0 and -1.125 years, Figures 37 and 38,
indicate that there is a tighter grouping of points and therefore a
better defined flux to magnitude relationship for the latter value of

At; but this is simply a result of the apparent correlation indicated
in Figure 36.
The entire correlation is of course a "one-event"
correlation and is unimpressive because of the relative lack of activity

at optical wavelengths
PKS 0405-12
Figure 39 shows little significant optical or radio structure

except for the peculiar change in radio level at approximately 1969.6.
17.0
H
UJ
OPTICAL
^18.0
CD
19.0
5.0
4.0
llll
RADIO
i,"i'i
li
3.0
III
ir ri
,1
2.0
|l
ll
1967.0
68.0
69.0
70.0
j_
L
71.0
^^^
DATE
72.0
73.0
74.0
Figure 3.5.
CTA 26 (PKS 0336-01).
Rosemary Hill photographic
magnitudes and Algonquin 2.8-em observations.
75.0
76.0
10^
CTA26
].5
0.0
*
t>
-0.5
ffi
-1.0
1.0
)
0.5
O O9
A e
].5
-4.0
-2.[
0.0
2.0
4.C
At (years)
Normalized cross-correlation
CTA 26 (PKS 0336-01).
Figure 36.
coefficient (R) vs time shift (At) for the optical and radio data
presented in Figure 35, using actual data (top) and interpolated
data (bottom), with At^ = At^ = 0.125 year.
1
105
MAGNITUDE
Radio flux vs optical magnitude
CTA 26 (PKS 0336-01).
Figure 37.
for the data presented in Figure 35, with At = 0.0 years, At]_ =
filled circles
data;
actual
represent
circles
Open
0.1 year.
represent linearly interpolated data.
L06
u.u
CTA26
8.0
6.0
X
o
4.0
o
9
.
oo
o
o o
o o
2.0
nn
19.0
17.0
15.0
MAGNITUDE
Radio flux vs optical
CTA 26 (PKS 0336-01).
Figure 38.
magnitude for the data presented in Figure 35, with At = -1.125
year, At^ =0.1 year.
14.0r
Q
ID
tis.o
OPTICAL
+
o
<
4i
+ -fH +
6,0
3.0
RADIO
I
2.0
111
I
I
It
HI
>-
1.0
19670
l___-i-
68.0
69.0
70.0
.J___J-
71.0
72.0
73.0
74.0
DATE
Royal Greenwich
PKS 0405-12.
Figure 39.
B magnitudes and Algonquin 2.8-cm observa Lions.
o
I--'
108
The top half of Figure 40 thus gives a good example of the results of
the correlation technique when too small a data sample is used, while
the bottom half of the same figure illustrates that the interpolation
technique can synthesize an apparently well-behaved R vs At relationship

even when there is too little data.
PKS 0420-01
There is no apparent visual relationship between the optical and

radio records displayed in Figure 41.
If the Rosemary Hill optical
magnitudes are correlated only with the Dent 1.9-cm record which begins
in 1969.7, the results in Figure 42 are rather uninteresting with no
clearly defined maximum.
However, if the 1-9-cm record is supplemented
with the Algonquin 2.8-cm record from 1967.5 to 1969.6, a relatively

clearly defined maximum correlation (0.65) is established for the
optical leading the radio by 0.2 year, as seen in Figure 43.
Super-
position of the radio and optical records indicates that this is most
likely due to some limited corresponding trends in both records.
To
date no definite radio counterpart to the conspicious optical flare at

the end of 1974 has emerged; however,
the latest 9-mm observation by
Dent (1976) indicates a possible significant increase.
He has not seen
any increase at 1.9 cm as of this writing.
3C 120
Figure 44 shows variations on a time scale of approximately onehalf year in both the radio and optical data, but neither visual inspection nor the results of the correlation analysis in Figure 45 yield any
significant correlation.
The problem here is not dissimilar to that of
109
-^
1.0
i
0405
12
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
'
I
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-4.0
-2.0
2.0
At
4.0
(years)
PKS 0405-12.
Normalized cross-correlation coefficient
(R) vs time shift (At) for the optical and radio data presented in
Figure 39, using actual data (top) and Interpolated data (bottom).
with At.
0.1 year,
At,
Figure 40.
Figure 41. PKS 0420-01. Rosemary Hill photographic magnitudes and radio flux.
The radio record consists of Algonquin 2.8-cm data from 1967.7 to 1969.7 and
Dent 1.9-cm data from 1969.7 to 1975.5; the dashed vertical line indicates the
transition between the two sets of data.
17.0
Q
1
18.0
kki\
19.0
OPTICAL
3.0
2.0^
't'||',i;
I
M^Mu^^
l.+
RADIO
i
.0
J__
1968.0
69.0
__i
70.0
71.0
_1__._L
72.0
DATE
.1
73.0
74.0
75.0
76.0
112
1.0
0420
01
0.5-
'
'
e,
-0.5-
t.
-i..
0.0
At
4.0
(years)
Figure A2,
PKS 0420-01.
(R) vs time shift (At) for all the optical but only the Dent 1.9-cm
data in Figure 41, using actual data (top) and interpolated data
(bottom), with At, = At = 0.1 year.
113
1.0
0420
01
0.5
-0.5
-1.0
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-4.0
-U
0.0
At
2.0
4.0
(years)
Figure 43.
PKS 0420-01.
(R) vs time shift (At) for all the optical and radio data presented
in Figure 41, using actual data (top) and interpolated data (bottom),
with At = At =0.1 year.
Optical and Algonquin 2.8-cm observations. The optical record consists

Figure 44.
3C 120.
of Klnman (1968) B magnitudes from 1967.1 to 1968.1; Royal Greenwich B magnitudes from
1967.9 to 1970.2; Rosemary Hill photographic magnitudes (corrected to B magnitudes) from
Both the Kinman and
1969.9 to 1971.7; and Rosemary Hill B magnitudes from 1971.8 to 1975.9.
the Royal Greenwich B magnitudes were reduced with a Kinman sequence and have been plotted
with an offset of -0125. Rosemary Hill used a combined sequence from Kinman (1968) and
Angione (1971)
'
!4.0
OPTICAL
+
UJ
*î
tH:
I'
5.0
fe
It
CD
<
fe
f,
lit
16.0
18.0
11^ i
RADIO
î
1^1
12.0
(
^^*
V^.,^
H4
..I
|l%.
*^îHi
+\
6.0
1967.0
-J
'
68.0
69.0
70.0
72.0
71.0
DATE
73.0
I
I
74
75
760"
>-
Normalized cross-correlation coefficient (R) vs time shift (At) for the

Figure 45.
3C 120.
optical and radio data presented in Figure 44, using actual data (top) and interpolated data
(bottom), with At = At = 0.0833 year.
1.0
3C 120
0.5
0.0
"
"...
'.
..
..
''.
'
-0.5
-1,0
0.0
2.0
1.0
0.5
999
-a
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
6.0
4.0
-2.0
4.0
6.0
At (years
1-'
118
BL Lac, in that a multitude of brief events creates so many potential
correlations that none is convincing.
However, the values of R for
3C 120 do not even show a trend toward a maximum which appears to exist
in BL Lac.
NRAO 190 (PKS 0440-00)

The record of optical and radio data in Figure 46 as yet exhibits
no radio counterpart to the approximately 1. 5-magnitude drop and sub-
sequent violent optical flare observed between 1972,75 and 1976.0, nor
any obvious visual relationships between the two sets of data.
The
cross-correlation calculations are similarly uninteresting, exhibiting

no significant maxima.
This is illustrated in Figure 47
where only the
Dent 1.9-cm radio data was used, and in Figure 48 where the 1.9-cm data
record was supplemented by Algonquin 2.8-cm data from 1966.9 to 1969.0.
Again these last two figures give an indication of how the R vs At olots
change as more data are used.
Clearly it would be of interest if the 1976 radio observations
reflect the unusually sharp optical spike in late 1975, but as of
June 28, 1976, Dent (1976) has seen no significant increase in the
1,9-cm flux level,
PKS 0458-02
In Figure 49,
the relatively sparse and featureless optical data
show no counterpart to the double radio flare centered at 1972.75.

R vs At plot for the hole technique, displayed at the top
The
of Figure 50,
has the scatter diagram appearance characteristic of an insufficient
number of data points; however it is of interest to note that the bottom
17.0
LiJ
Q
H
OPTICAL
8.0
19.0
.0
(l|
tl'
li
l'
|l
RADIO
III!
2.0
t.
'\
I
\\
i^w ^;* 0^
M^^
i**
i
I
.0
1967.0
68.0
690
70.0
72
71.0
73.0
74.0
750
DATE
NRAO 190 (PKS 0440-00).
Rosemary Hil.l photographic magniThe radio record consists of Algonquin 2.8-cm
tudes and radio flux.
data (offset by -0.3 Jy) from 1966.9 to 1969.8, and Dent 1.9-cm data
the dashed vertical line indicates the transifrom 1970.0 to 1975.5;
tion between the tv/o sets of data.
Figure 46.
760
120
NRAO
190
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-6.[
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
At
2.0
4.0
6.0
(years!
Figure 47.
NRAO 190 (PKS 0440-00).
coefficient (R) vs time shift (At) for all the optical data but
only the 1.9-cm radio data presented in Figure 46, using actual
data (top) and interpolated data (bottom), vrith At =At =0.1667 year
121
- <> o
1.0
NRAO
190
0.5
0.0
-0,
-1.0
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0-6.0
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
At
2.0
4.0
6.0
(years)
Figure 48,
NRAO 190 (PKS 0440-00).
coefficient (R) vs time shift (At) for all the optical and radio
data presented in Figure 46, using actual data (top) and interpolated data (bottom), with At = At^ = 0.1667 year.
18.0
OPTICAL
UJ
It
t
t^
9.0
<
20.0
3.0
,i"'"'
RADIO
11
It
HlfVllnl
il
2.0^
it
t'l|
i
I
I
I'M
1.0
J...
1968.0
69.0
_j-
70.0
71.0
72.0
L__
73.0
J-
74.0
DATE
PKS 0458-02.
Figure 49.
magnitudes and Algonquin 2.8-cm observations.
75.0
76.0
I.U
0458
ft
02
0.5
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
0.0
ft
ft
ft
ft
-0.5
ft
ft

ft
ft
-1.0
ft
""i
I.U
ft
..
0.5
ft
ft
ft
0.0
ft
ft
ft
ft
*
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
'%
ft
ft
ft
-0.5
ft
ft
ft
ft
-1.0
1
B.0
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
2.0
4,0
6.0
At (years)
Figure 50. PKS 0458-02.
Normalized cross-correlation coefficienL
vs time shift (At) for all the optical aud radio data presented in
with At = At = 0.125 year.
(R)
12.4
half of Figure 50, resulting from the interpolation technique, has molded the sparse data into an apparently well-behaved R vs At relation,
with a maximum correlation coefficient of 0.63 at a At of -1.0 years.

This is most likely a spurious result caused by the sparse sampling of
the optical activity and resultant similar trends between the optical
and radio records.
While it is possible that the correlation indicated
by the interpolation technique is real, it will require a higher time-
resolution documentation of optical activity to establish the validity

of such a correlation.
3C 138 (PKS 0518+16)
An examination of Figure 51 indicates that there is little data

overlap for any correlation investigation, except in the highly unlikely
case that the radio leads the optical.
Moreover, the optical observa-
tions show considerable activity xvhile the radio record is nearly
featureless.
The analytical correlation again shows a scatter diagram
for the hole technique and an apparently well-behaved R vs At relation
resulting from the interpolation technique, as shown in Figure 52.
The
maximum correlation coefficient of 0.70 determined from the interpolation technique is based on only seven radio measurements that indicate
a slight rise that coincides with the optical event centered at 1972.0,
for a At of -1.1 year.
correlation.
This then could be considered a weak one-event
The secondary maximum of 0,60 at a At of +1.0 year uses
more radio data, but there is a gap in the radio coverage during the
optical flare centered at 1974.0.
Thus more radio data will need to be
included in the analysis before any significance can be given to the

results of the interpolation technique.
18.0
u
a
9.0
OPTICAL
It
CD
II
200
RADIO
3,0
111
(it
lH''''t|'l III '|l
1967.0
68.0
69.0
70.0
11
ll
'i
'I'll
I
I
2.0
71.0
DATE
72.0
73.0
74.0
75.0
1.0
76.0
Figure 51.
3C 138 (PKS 0518+16).
Rosemary HJ 11 photographic magnitudes and Algonquin 2.8-cm observations.
ISO
Figure 52.
correlation
optical and
actual data
At = At =
Normalized cross3C 138 (PKS 0518+16).

coefficient (R) vs time shift (At) for the
radio data presented in Figure 5]., using
(top) and interpolated data (bottom), with
0.125 year.
1.0
3C 138
ft
ft
"
ft
ft
0.5
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
0.0
...
ft
ft
ft
ft
-0.5
ft
-1.0~
ft
ft
ft*
1
0.0
At
(years)
II
128
PKS 0735+17
Figure 53 displays the full 1.9- and 2.8-cm data records, which
were analytically correlated as a test of the correlation procedures.
The resulting R vs At plots are shown in Figure 54, where the correlation
coefficient reached a maximum value of 0.91 at At = -0.125 year for both

the hole and the interpolation precedures.
The optical and composite radio records illustrated in Figure 55
show optical variations on a very short time scale, whereas the radio
variations appear more as gentle, long-term undulations.

study,
For a complete
the optical record was analytically correlated first with the
2.8-cm record.
The results plotted in Figure 56 are not very convincing
due to the scatter,
the suggestion of a double maximum,
and the relative-
ly low value of the maximum correlation coefficient which reaches a
value of 0.52 at At =
-rO.5
years and At = -0.4 years for the hole and
interpolation procedures respectively.

the 2.8-cm record
However, it should be noted that
stops at the beginning of a long 2-year rise document-
ed in the optical and the 1.9-cm records.
Next the 1.9-cm record was correlated with the optical record, with
the results plotted in Figure 57.
In this case, the maximum correlation
coefficient reached a value of approximately 0.71 at At = 0.9 years and

0.59 at At = 0.7 years for the hole and interpolation procedures
respectively.
Finally, the results from correlating the optical record with the
composite 1,9- and 2.8-cm record are presented in Figure 58, where the
maximum coefficient reaches values of approximately 0,72 ac At = 0.9

years and 0.60 at At = 0.7 years for the two techniques.
0735 + 17
3.0
it
it.?
2.0
Ml
h wK
^
Ht
'f
ti
1.0
3.0
Kk)
'*
(I
>-
ft|i,i,;(\ttt*)r"ts
2.0
l(
t|'M|fl|H
1)
1.0
1967.0"
68.0
69.0
70.0
71.0
72.0
73.0
74.0
75.0
7B.0
DATE
Dent 1.9-cm observations
Figure 53.
PKS 0735+17.
(top) and Algonquin 2.8-cm observations (bottom).
ho
130
1.0
1
.1
0735 + 17
0.5
0.0
-0.5
'
1
0.0
2.0
4.0
Atlyears)
Figure 54. PKS 0735+17.

coefficient (R) vs time shift (At) for the two radio
records in Figure 53, using actual data (top) and interpolated data (bottom), with At = At = 0.125 year.
4 Or
UJI50
OPTICAL
1
6.0
i
I
17.0
RADIO
3.0
I
/<!
!'
.til
I,
1}
"'iiî
4i,i
^
1,
'h'.
i^
'f
2.0
.0
19670
680
69.0
70
710
72
73
74.0
75.0
DATE
Figure 55.
PKS 0735+17.
Rosemary Hill photographic magnitudes and
radio flux.
The radio record consists of Algonquin 2.8-cm data from
1966.9 to 1970.2, and Dent 1.9-cm data from 1969.6 to 1975.6.
The
dashed vertical line indicates the transition to 1.9-cm data alone.
76.0
>-
132
I.U
0735 + 17
0.5
0.0
*
*
ft
ft
ft
-0.5
ft
ft
-1.0
1
1
0.0
-4.
-2.0
0.0
2.0
At (years)
Normalized cross-correlation coeffiFigure 56.

PKS 0735-M7.
cient (R) vs time shift (At) for all the optical data but only
the 2.S-cm radio data, using actual data (top) and interpolated
data (bottom), with At, = At = 0.125 year.
133
-^
I.U
0735 + 17
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
a
1
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
ft
-1.0
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
At (years)
Figure 57. PKS 0735-1-17. Normalized cross-correlation coefficient (R) vs time shift (At) for all the optical data but only the
1.9-cm radio data, using actual data (top) and interpolated data
(bottom), with At, = At = 0.125 year.
134
1.0
0735 + 17
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
I.Or
0.5
0.0
-0.5
e
-1.0
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
At (years)
Normalized cross-correlation coeffiPKS 0735-1-17.

Figure 58.
cient (R) vs time shift (At) for all the optical and radio
data in Figure 55, using actual data (top) and interpolated
data (bottom), xvith At^ = ^t^ = 0.125 year.
135
While the last two R vs At plots seem to indicate a potentially

significant correlation, it must be remembered that this correlation
occurs for the theoretically unlikely condition of the radio leading the
optical.
This correlation is caused by the 1970.2 to 1975.2 radio
"trough" aligning with what could be argued is a similar long-term
optical trough about which the optical data flicker.
VJhile a plot of
1.9-cm radio flux vs optical magnitude for At = 0.8 year indicates a
possible weak functional relationship in Figure 59, the character of the

plot does not differ noticeably from the same plot for At = 0.0 shoxm in
Figure 60.
VJith the
present data, this can probably be considered a
"one-event" correlation, and thus less than completely convincing.
PKS 0736+01
Both the radio and the optical data records plotted in Figure 61
exhibit significant activity with events in both domains on a time scale
of the order of a year; however, neither visual nor linear analytic
correlations could be found.

character of the
S.
It is interesting to note the change in
vs At plots between Figure 62, in which only the 1.9-
cm data were used, and Figure 63, in which 2,8-cm data from 1967 to
1970.5 were used to supplement the 1.9-cm data.
The scatter in the top
half of the figures is reduced while the excursions from zero in the
bottom half are increased in amplitude.
This latter effect is probably
due to the greater amplitude radio flares recorded prior to 1970,5.
01 363
Figure 64 shows nearly featureless records for both the optical and
the radio data, except for a possible monotic long-term optical rise of
136
MAGNITUDE
Figure 59. PKS 0735+17.
Radio flux vs optical magnitude using
all the optical data and the 1.9-cin radio data, with At = 0.8
year, At]_ = 0.1 year.
137
17.0
15.0
MAGNITUDE
Radio flux vs optical magnitude
Figure 60. PKS 0735+17.
using all the optical data and the 1.9-cra radio data, with
At = 0.0 year, At]_ = 0.1 year.
data;
Rosemary Hill photographic magnitudes and radio flux. The radio data
PKS 0736+01.
Figure 61.
consists of Algonquin 2.8-cm data from 1966.8 to 1970.5, and Dent 1.9-cm data from 1970.6 to 1975.6,
The dashed vertical line indicates the transition between the two sets of data.
15.0
*f,
Vi
tie.o
OPTICAL
'I
,f,
CD
17.0
RADIO
I
I
'
3.0
2.0
"
1
1,
1
,
t"
.0
19670
68.0
69.0
70.0
72.0
71.0
DATE
L__j
73.0
74.0
75.0
76.0
>-
140
1.0
0736+01
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-4.0
0.0
-2.0
At
2.0
4.0
(years)
Normalized cross-correlation coeffiFigure 62. PKS 0736+01.

cient (R) vs time shift (At) for all the optical data but only
the 1.9-cin radio data, using actual data (top) and interpolated
data (bottom), with At = At = 0.125 year.
141
0736+
0.5
01
0.0
-0.5
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-2.0
-4.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
At (years)
Normalized cross-correlation coeffiPKS 0736-f-Ol.

Figure 63.
cient (R) vs time shift (At) for all the optical and radio data
At^ = 0.125 year,
data (bottom) with At 1
,
15.0
LU
Q
ID
^16.0
o
<
OPTICAL
^tl
7.0
3.0
RADIO
I't'll lllll'll
|l'|l"lll
2.0^
I
II
1,
il||i
1
ii|l|
.0
1967.0
68.0
69.0
70.0
71.0
DATE
72.0
73.0
74.0
Figure 64. 01 363. Rosemary Hill photographic

magnitudes and Algonquin 2.8-cra observations.
75.0
76.0
N3
143
072 and a small wandering of the radio baseline, both of which are in
the formal sense statistically insignificant.
The R vs At plot in
Figure 65 yields a scatter diagram for the hole technique, but with
primarily negative coefficient values that may result from opposed

small slopes.
OK 290
Visual inspection of the radio and optical records plotted in
Figure 66 shows some evidence that the optical events characteristically
have a shorter time scale, and reveals a possible correlation for At =

-1.25 years that becomes easier to see when the two records are super-
imposed on one another with that time delay.
However, the family of
calculated correlation coefficients from the hole technique, seen in
Figure 67,
x^ânders
with some scatter which begins to have the appearance
resulting from too little data.
The interpolation technique results in
clearly defined maxima of approximately R = 0.87 for the optical leading

the radio by about 4.0 years and R = 0.62 for the radio leading the
optical by about 1.6 years.
Superposition of the radio and light curves
indicates that the former is caused by the alignment of the 1971.0 1972.0 optical rise with the 1975.0 - 1976.0 radio rise, while the
latter is probably caused by correspondence of random trends.
Thus the
linear correlation technique offers no support for the suggested visual

correlation.
144
l.U
363
01
0.5
0.0
...
-0.5
.
-1.0
1
0.5
0.[
-0.5
1.0
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
At
2.0
4.0
(years)
01 353.
Figure 65.
(R) vs time shift (At) for the optical and radio data presented
in Figure 64, using actual data (top) and interpolated data
At,
0.125 year
(bottom)
with At.
,
145
a
CO
m
S
1-4
M
O
"n
iJ
J-i
rt
>
n
^
C-^
rH
iH
H
ffi
l>i
(U
ô
e
a
1
U
W
CO
s
m
n
o-i
0)
Pi
c
H
;3
cr
>
o ^&D
rr\
CN <C
^
O
p.-
C
CO
en
v)
0)
T-;
MO
a.)
j_i
;3
&D
H
f=4
3aniiN9vi^j
M
CO
146
1.0
OK 290
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
At
2.0
4.0
(years)
OK 290.
cient (R) vs time shift (^t) for the optical and radio data
presented in Figure 65, using actual data (top) and interii L
0.125 year.
polated data (bottom) with At
,
147
3C 273
The full 1.9- and 2.8-cm data records presented in Figure 68 were
linearly correlated as another test of the analytical procedures, with

the resultant R vs At plots shown in Figure 69, where the maximum
coefficient reaches a value of approximately 0.87 for At
-0.125 year
for both procedures.

The close correspondence in the character of Cent's 1,9-cm variations with the variations recorded by Algonquin's 2,8-cm data led to the
inclusion of 1.9-cin data from Alien et al.
(1968)
to show that this well-
known source had undergone a steep rise in its radio flux in the mid1960' s,
as illustrated in Figure 70.
Due to the lack of overlap between
the Allen data and the other two sets, an offset of -19.0 flux units was
applied to this early 1.9~cm data purely for the cosmetic purpose of
matching its termination with the beginning of the Algonquin 2,8-cm

coverage.
After its initial steep rise the radio data
shov7
variations that
might be interpreted as roughly periodic (a very controversial topic, in

particular for the optical record, as the literature demonstrates), and
which are similar to the cyclic nature of the optical data.
But a
number of the later radio cycles occur during what appears to be, within
the limits of the observations, a nearly quiescent optical era.
The
maximum cyclic amplitudes of both the radio and optical intensities are
comparable; each increases by a factor of about 1.4.
The calculation of the correlation coefficients using only the
Algonquin 2.8-cm data, or the Algonquin 2.8-cm data and the Dent 1.9-cm
data, yields a spurious one-event maximum due to the alignment of the
1966,7 to 1969.5 radio trough with the 1968,0 to 1971.3 optical trough,
145
Ar
CD
CO
CD
CD
CO
LO
CO
"<J
CsJ
CO
CO
CO
o
H
J_l
01
^--^
s>
ij
4-1
OJ
r>
Vw^
c
o o
S
CT>
JJ
Cit
>H
J-J
-^^4;p^
CO
CO
>
u
0)
<3:
CD
CU
rQ
c^
t~~
U
;
CO
c^
U
ro
CN
r^
oo
CO
cr
00
o
(K)
OJ
rH
<
D
M TJ
!-i
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
CD
CO
CO
CO
CO
AP
r-f
f^
nj
Normalized cross-correlation coeffi3C 273.

Figure 69.
cient (R) vs time shift (At) for the radio data presented
in Figure 68, using actual data (top) and interpolated
data (bottom), with At^ = At = 0,0833 year.
iiin-<
fti
w:i
ii
150
1.0
9
m
9
3C 273
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
1.0
ra
0.5
0.0
e e
9a e
0.5
-1.0
-2.0
0.0
-1.0
At
(years!
1.0
2.0
Optical and radio observations. The optical record consists of 100Figure 70.
3C 273.
day averages of photoelectric B magnitudes (Kunkel 1967) from 1962.0 to 1967.2, and
Burkhead (1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1975) photoelectric B magnitudes from 1968.1 to
Royal Greenwich photographic B magnitudes (offset by -0?17) generally allign
1975.3.
with these data, but have not been included. The radio record consists of 1.9-cm data
from 1964.0 to 1966.3 (Allen e_t al. 1968); Algonquin 2.8-cm data (offset -3.0 Jy) from
The dashed vertical lines
1966.5 to 1969.5; and Dent 1.9-cm data from 1969.5 to 1975.5.
indicate the transitions between the data sets.
I2.6r-
OPTiCAL
12.8
'.V
gl3.0
*,
<
^13.2
60.0
fiî
:.'.'
)
ihii
r'l
RADIO
l(!il,il!|i^
<
"('Ill'',;'
II
'-S,,
40.0
>-3
20.0
1962.0
64.0
II
66.0
L__
68.0
-L__-J_
JL.
70.0
J
L
72.0
__J___l
74.0
L_
76.0
DATE
U1
K3
153
as illustrated by the R vs At plots in Figures 71 and 72.
Inclusion
of the initial steep radio rise recorded at 1.9 cm obviously invalidates
the correlation, as can be seen in Figure 73.
The maximum that then
appears for the radio leading the optical by about 4.7 years is caused
by an approximate alignment of the cyclic trends in the optical and the
radio curves.
to 1958.0,
It should be noted that the plotted optical data, prior
represent 100-day averages.
These averages maintain a cyclic
m
character, with a maximum amplitude variation of 0.4 from an average
m
magnitude of 12.75, that has been traced back to 1887 (Kunkel 1957).
Thus there is no optical counterpart to the catastrophic radio outburst
between 1964 and 1966.5, and any correlations which arise must be attributed to the approximately cyclic nature of both records unless and
until there is a unique correlated event in both the radio and the
optical observations.
PKS 13544-19
As might be anticipated from the nearly featureless optical record
in Figure 74,
there is no apparent optical-radio correlation, and the
linear correlation procedures produce no results of interest, as can be

seen in Figure 75.
The only significant radio feature is a raonotonic
rise beginning about 1971.0, which aligns with a gradual rise in the
optical level between 1969.0 and 1972.0 to cause the broad maximum in
the R vs At plots.
One might make a weak argument that this is a
correlation, but at most it is a one-event correlation.
1.0
to
0.5
3C 273
0.0
'
III
......
...
-0.5-
*. *.
*.
-1.0-
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-6.0
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
Atlyearsl

3C 273.
cient (R) vs time shift (At) for all the optical data but
2.8-cm
data, using actual data (top)
only the Algonquin
and interpolated data (bottom), with At = At =0.0833 year.
-6.0
..
1.0
3C273
0.5
0.0

-0.5
-1.0
1.0[
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-6.0
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
At (years!
Figure 72.
3C 273.
time shift (^t) for all the optical data but only the Algonquin 2 8-cra
and the Dent 1.9~cra data, using actual data (top) and interpolated
data (bottom), with At = At = 0.0833 year.
.

3C 2 73.
cient (R) vs time shift (At) for all the optical and radio
data presented in Figure 70, using actual data (top) and
interpolated data (bottom), with At = At = 0.0833 year.
1.0
3C 273
0.5

0.0
--
-0.5
-1.0
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
1.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
t
(years
2.0
4.0
967.0
68.0
69.0
70.0
^'
DATE
^2
73.0
74.0
75.0
Optical and Algonquin 2.8-cm observations.

Figure 74. PKS 1354+19.
The optical record consists of Yale Observatory B magnitudes from
1969.1 to 1971.0, and Rosemary Hill B magnitudes from 1971.2 to 1975.5.
76.0
00
Figure 75. PKS 1354+19, Normalized cross-correlation coefficient (R) vs time shift (At) for the optical and radio data
data (bottom), with At = At^ = 0.1667 year.
160
1.0
9 e
1354 + 19
0.5
0.0
-O.b
-1.0
1.0
0.5
0.0
*
e
-0.5
-1.0
i
!
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
At
(years)
2.0
4.0
161
OQ 208
While the optical data in Figure 76 show obvious flare activity,

the lack of conspicious features in the radio data precludes the
establishment of a correlation, which is borne out by the scatter-diagram
appearance of the top of Figure 77.
The most convincing radio trend is
a gradual rise beginning about 1970.0;
there is no evidence of this in
the optical record, which is admittedly sparse.
PKS 1510-08
Figure 78 reveals abundant radio activity and significant optical

activity.
However, in view of the short time-scale of the individual
radio events (typically about six months), correlation with the somewhat
sparse optical record is difficult.
This conclusion is supported by the
R vs At plot in Figure 79, the top half of
Xirhlch
resembles a scatter
diagram, which is most likely due to the relatively sparse optical data.
From 1967.0 to roughly 1973.0, the radio events appear to be superimposed on a long-term decline for which there is no evidence in the
optical data.
NP.AO 512
Visual inspection of Figure 80 suggests that the radio data follov;

the optical data from the beginning of the optical record around 1970.4
to 1972.9.
However, after 1972.9 the apparent correspondence deterio-
rates somewhat for the remaining short run of radio observations.
This
result is borne out by the correlation coefficients, which reach a

maxim\im value of about 0.66 at roughly zero time delay for the total

OQ 208.
Figure 76.
as
163
OQ 208
0.5
0.0
-0.5
S 9
-1.0
1.0,
0.5
0.0
4
e *
-0.5
-1.0
-4.0
0.0
-2.0
At
2.0
4.0
(years)
Normalized cross-correlation coeffi00 208.

Figure 77.
cient (R) vs time shift (At) for the optical and radio data
presented in Figure 76, using actual data (top) and interpolated data (bottom), with At^ = At^ = 0.125 year.
6.0
I
lij
o
II
h-
17.0
,ti*l
OPTICAL
18.0
5.0
RADIO
3.0^
I
*
I.H(,
,
.,,
M/V'i'
i
i
".'
li
.0
J
1967.0
68.0
69.0
70.0
71.0
72.0
73.0
74.0
75.0
76.0

Figure 78. PKS 1510-08.
.0
-4.0
0.0
-2.0
At
2.0
4.0
(years)
Figure 79. PKS 1510-08. Normalized cross-correlation coeffidata

cient (R) vs time shift ( t) for the optical and radio
presented in Figure 78, using actual data (top) and inter=
year.
=
0.1
t^
with
t^
polated data (bottom),
Ul
]
J
t
!
Figure 80. NRAO 512. Rosemary Hill photographic

magnitudes and Algonquin 2.8-cin observations.
6.0
r
uj
Q
t
7.0
optical
(3
:ei8.o
<
ll
ifl
ft
3.0
19.0
RADIO
2.0^
III
|lMtlt
,iiii'"i'rifîi^
/"ill,
.0
t
X-___J.
1968.0
69.0
i^
L_
70.0
-J71.0
72.0
DATE
73.0
74.0
_1
75.0
76.0
optical and radio data records, as shown in Figure 81.

1
'
However, when
optical data only through the end of 1972 are considered, the maximum
value of R jumps to 0,8 0.1 for the radio record leading the optical
by 0.03 0.3 year as shown in Figure 82.
While a clearly defined maximum in the population of calculated

correlation coefficients supports the correlation found by visual
inspection of the data, caution must be exercised in the consideration
of correlations between two sets of data which show activity on a
It is this character of the data records which
similar time scale.
gives rise to a maximum value of R

81,
0.60 at At
to 1970.2 radio record aligns
when the 1968.4
trend from 1972.6 to 1974.4.
+A.6 years in Figure
with a similar optical
Similarly, the same radio feature aligns
with the optical data from about 1970.4 to 1971.5 to give a maximum
R
0.7 at At - +2,0 in Figure 82 when only part of the optical data
are used.
3C 371
Examination of Figure 83 suggests
possible correspondence
between the prominent 1969.5 to 19 70.5 optical increase and the 1971 to
1972 radio increase.
These events are separated by At - -1.5 years.
There is also some resemblance in the plateau regions following the

increases.
Unfortunately these impressions are not supported by the
analytical study.
The population of cross-correlation coefficients in
Figure 84 basically wanders, although it does show a clearly defined,

albeit relatively small, correlation coefficient of 0.55 for the radio
data leading the optical by 0.5 0.8 year.
This results when the
1971-1972 radio rise is superim.posed across the optical data gap around
Figure 81. NEAO 512. Normalized cross-correlation coefficient (R) vs time shift (At)
for all the optical and radio data presented in Figure 80, using actual data (top)
and interpolated data (bottom), vîth At = At = 0.0667 year.
1.0
NRAO
512
0.5-
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
1.0
0.3t
a
0.0
0.5
1.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
At
2.0
4.0
(years!
vs time shift (At) for

Figure 82. NRAO 512. Normalized cross-correlation coefficient (R)
actual data (top) and
all the radio data but only the optical data through 1972.8, using
year.
=
=
0.0667
At^
with
At^
interpolated data (bottom),
l.Or
NRAO
512
0.5-
0.0-
-0.5-
-1,01.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
Atlyearsl
2.0
0.4
The optical record

Figure 83.
Optical and Algonquin 2.8-cm observations.
3C 371.
consists of Royal Greenwich B magnitudes (offset -0"'25) from 1966.6 to 1969.6, and
Rosemary Hill photographic magnitudes from 1969.0 to 19 75,8.
14.0
ijj
Q
3
"II
tl5.0
OPTICAL
.'I'
i
ill
i
1
16.0
3.0
l'
i*''"l|ll||H||,HtHl||,ii
2.0
''''
RADIO
J
1966.0
L
67.0
l'l,li"l'l'll/l'.\*l'
68.0
69.0
L_
70.0
>;
'
L
71.0
72.0
73.0
-i_
I-
74.0
L_
75.0
J-
76.0
1.0
DATE
4^-
175
15-
o
,
a*
.'
0.0
15-
-II
-61
-4.[
2.0
-2.0
At
4.[
(years)

3C 371.
presented in Figure 83, using actual data (top) and interpolated data (bottom), with At = At = 0.1667 year.
6.0
176
1972,25.
Because the more extensive optical variability contrasts with
the relative radio inactivity on either side of the radio rise,
probably be considered a one-event correlation.
this can
It will of course be of
interest to see if the particularly well-defined optical flare in mid1975 is reflected in future radio data.
3C 446
As another test of the correlation procedures,
the total 1.9- and
2.8-cin data records shovm in Figure 85 were correlated,
resulting in the
RvsAt plots illustrated in Figure 86, which show a maximum value of

R
0.92 for At = -0.3 and -0,25 years for the hole and the interpola-
tion techniques respectively.
Although the long-term radio and optical data records in Figure 87

generally follow the same trends, the very violent optical flare at
approximately 1974,7 has no obvious radio counterpart to date and is

thus probably responsible for the absence of a significant analytical
cross-correlation in Figure 88.
However, it might be argued that the
radio rise beginning near 1974.7 is the event that corresponds to the
optical flare.
If this were the case, both the value of At and the
relative amplitudes would seem to be quite different for the 1970 - 1971
and the 1974 - 1975 events, which makes the fit rather
_ad
hoc
PKS 2345-16
Visual examination of the optical and radio records in Figure 89

seems to indicate trends that follow one another rather well for At
= -0.9 year.
However, the family of calculated cross-correlation
coefficients shown in Figure 90 simply oscillates as a function of At,
6.0
3C 446
M*
^^
.;
f
4.0
i^
^^
2.0
6.0
>-
t't*,.
if
4.0
2.0
1967.0
68.0
69.0
70.0
71.0
72.0
73.0
74.0
DATE
Figure 85.
3C 446.
Dent 1.9-cm observations (top)
and Algonquin 2.8-cm observations (bottom).
75.0
76.0

3C 446.
cient (R) vs time shift (At) for the two radio records in
Figure 85, using actual data (top) and interpolated data
(bottom), with At = At = 0.125 year.
iiiae; -e5jp"&'*
179
3C 446
.5
0.0
].5
I.Or-
0.5
0.0
.5
-1.
-2.0
-1.
1.0
(years!
2.0
Rosemary Hill optical magnitudes and Algonquin 2 8~cm

Figure 87.
3C 446.
observations.
The optical record consists of photographic magnitudes corrected
to B magnitudes from 1969.0 to 1970.8 and B magnitudes thereafter.
.
CO
to
o
o
cri
O
UJ
I-
<
N
O
d
O
CJi
<
O
o
<
Q.
o
CD
O
CD
lO
U3
CO
cr>
182
1.0
'
3C 446
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-_
inn,
0.5
0.0
-0.5-
-4.0
0.0
-2.0
At
2.0
4.0
(years)
Normalized cross-correlation coeffi3C 446.

Figure 88.
presented in Figure 87, using actual data (top) and interpolated data (bottom), with At = At^ = 0.125 year.
183
O
CD
O
LO
o
N
u
H
r^
pu
n)
o
ro
N
4-1
Oj
c
O
l-i
cfl
rH
H
rn
iJ
>
n
m
;^ .Q
u o
c\i
r-
OJ
UJ
t-
o
N
<
Q
C-;
e
a
1
CO
.
CM
O
.H
c
-H
a
cr
1/1
O
n
M
CN rH
<r
<
00
-o
P4
cfi
c3
o
o
N
00 T3
Ci)
'H
-H
M M
o
CD
(D
o
CO
CD
(7)
3aniiN9vi^
Cti
f=H
Figure 90. PKS 2345-16. Normalized cross-correlation coefficient (R) vs time shift (At) for the optical and radio data
presented in Figure 89, using actual data (top) and interpolated data (bottom), with At = At = 0.625 year.
185
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
1.0
99
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
At
(years
2.0
4.0
186
showing no single significant maximxim for either the hole or the inter-
polation techniques.
This behaviour doubtless results from the succes-
sive superposition of the several small peaks in each record, and the
analytical method thus fails to support any single value of At,
The
visual correlation is nevertheless attractive enough to suggest further

study.
Summary
In an attempt to find any relationship that might exist between
various types of variability and any real or potential correlations
between radio and optical activity as determined by this study, Table

lists all the sources studied in this work,
together with their activity
subclasses and a subjective evaluation of the strength of any correlation found in this investigation (a "No" of course means that no
correlation was found)
The evaluations result from a weighing of both
the formal analysis as summarized earlier in Table 4 and a visual exam.-
ination of the data.

of object as "Gal"
The second column of the table designates the type
(galaxy), "Lac" (BL Lacertae object), or "Q30"
(apparently normal quasar)

The activity subclasses, which have been defined previously by Dent
_et
al.
(1974) and more specifically by McGimsey
the following.
_et _al
curves are dominated by rapid, short-term "flickering".

trends are inconspicious and very gradual if present.
classic example.
(1975), include
Subclass I consists of objects whose light or radio
Long-term
BL Lac is a
Subclass II is characterized by prominent, long-term
variations in mean level, with minor excursions or flickering about the

changing mean, as in OJ 287.
Subclass III exhibits a mixture of short-
187
TABLE
Sron-IARY
Source
OF CORRELATION ANALYSIS RELATIVE TO OPTICAL

AND RADIO VARIABILITY SL^CLASSES
Type of
Obiect
Optical
Subclass
Radio
Subclass
Evaluation of
Correlation
OJ 287
Lac
II
II
Strong
3C 454,3
QSO
II
Fair
BL Lac
Lac
CTA 25
QSO
II
PKS 0405-12
QSO
PKS 0420-01
QSO
IV
II
No
3C 120
Gal
III
III
No
NRAO 190
QSO
III
II
No
PKS 0458-02
QSO
III
No
3C 138
QSO
II
PKS 0735+17
Lac
III
II
Marginal
PKS 0736+01
QSO
III
II
No
01 363
QSO
No
OK 290
QSO
III
II
No
3C 273
QSO
II
II
No
PKS 1354+19
QSO
II
II
No
Marginal
III
Marginal
No
No
OQ 208
Gal
II
III
No
PKS 1510-08
QSO
III
III
No
NRAO 512
QSO
III
II
Fair
3C 371
Gal
III
II
Marginal
3C 446
QSO
III
II
Marginal
PKS 2345-16
QSO
IV
II
Marginal
188
and long-term effects of comparable amplitudes with neither effect

dominating, as in the light curves of 3C 120, 3C 371, and NRAO 512.
Subclass IV is "episodic", consisting of objects which display long
periods of relative quiescence, punctuated by shorter intervals of
violent activity, as in the light curves of PKS 0420-01 and PKS 2345-16,
Finally, Subclass V has been added for those objects which show little
activity at all, such as 01 363.

The most striking observation from. Table
is that of the nine
sources for which some degree of correlation was suspected, seven show
radio variation of a character that places them in activity Subclass II,

a group that displays relatively smooth,
long-term changes in level.
It
might, in fact, have been suspected in advance that this group would be
the easiest in which to find long-term correlations.
The optical
variations of the nine sources are more uniformly distributed between

the subclasses, with two being assigned to each of Subclasses
and
four
to Subclass III;
one of the optical variables
and II,
was character-
ed as Subclass IV.
The foregoing comments emphasize a significant observation that can
be made based on the figures illustrating the combined radio and optical
activities as functions of time.
The radio and optical variations of a
given source may display quite different characteristics.
CTA 26,
PKS 0458-02, PKS 1354+19, and 3C 273 (at least recently) are clearly
more active in the radio region than in the optical.
Conversely, 3C 138,
Oq 208, PKS 0420-01, and PKS 2345-16 seem to display relatively more
activity in the optical spectrum than in the radio.
In the cases of
3C 454.3, NRAO 190, PKS 0735+17, and 3C 446 the records suggest that
optical activity occurs on a shorter time scale than the radio events.
189
Of the three galaxies in the table,
evidence of correlation.
only 3C 371 showed marginal
About the same ratio of "normal" QSO's, five
out of sixteen, can be described as displaying some evidence of
correlation.
It is interesting that all three of the objects identified in
Table
5 as
Lacertids were also identified as displaying at least margin-
al evidence of correlation between the optical and radio records;
one strong correlation,
the
that of OJ 287, is of course for a Lacertid.
While the characteristic violence and short time scale of these objects
is conducive to
correlation studies, caution must be exercised because
the relatively frequent occurence of roughly equal-time-scale activity

in both the radio and the optical can lead quite easily to spurious
correlations.
It should be emphasized that the linear correlation of optical
mangitudes with radio flux that is presented here is intended only as a

first attempt to search analytically for correlations, and negative
results are not necessarily final.
In general great care must be
exercised in drawing conclusions from unevenly spaced time series which

often involve relatively sparse sam.pling and often result in one-event
correlations.
While such correlations may in fact be real, not infre-
quently an examination of the entire data racord casts doubt on the
validity of such correlations; and in general until further data indicate otherwise,
the conservative approach is to regard these one-event
correlations as coincidences between random processes.

The closeness of the fit between the optical and radio records for
OJ 287 for a period of about five years leads to the conclusion that
this is indeed a real correlation.
In addition, sufficient evidence
190
exists for possible correlations in several other sources to warrant
more concerted obser-îng efforts at both optical and radio wavelengths.

In those cases where no significant visual or analytical cross-
correlation was found, it is still premature to conclude that the

optical and radio events are totally uncorrelated.
There are at least
five possible explanations for such negative results.

a)
Gaps in coverage have caused optical and/or radio events to go
unobserved,
(In most cases it is the optical record that is least
complete.
b)
The activity may be correlated, but with a time lag so great
that data have not been collected over a long enough period of time
to establish the correlation.
the records presented here,

c)
In view of the lengths of some of
this becomes increasingly unlikely,
The activity may be correlated, but with a different functional
relationship between optical and radio emission than has been

tested analytically here.
(This should not, however, preclude the
observation of visual correlations.)

d)
For a given source, some events may be correlated while other
events appear in only one of the two spectral regions.

the time lag At might vary from event to event.
cases,
e)
Similarly,
In either of these
the search for a correlation becomes very challenging indeed.
No real correlation exists between optical activity and radio
activity.
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS

In considering the theory and results of this study, two points
regarding the spectral energy distribution of extragalactic variables

need a cautionary clarification.
Because this study concerns itself with
sources that exhibit both optical and radio emission, the spectral energy
distributions of the sources considered are generally of the form sunmarized by most of the distributions in Figure 91; that is, they exhibit a
relatively low optical flux that rises into the radio spectral region.
However, this is not true for all extragalactic sources; many sources do
not show a rise into the radio frequencies and thus are either radio quiet
or exhibit a radio flux of amplitude comparable to the optical flux.
Also with respect to the spectral energy distributions, some confusion may exist regarding extrapolation of the predictions of the simple
expanding source model to optical wavelengths.
Figure 92 is an idealized
portrayal of the spectrum of an extragalactic variable at a given time
t.
Curve 1 represents the contribution to the spectral energy distribution

from an optically thin, adiabatically expanding cloud of relativistic
electrons that has resulted from a flare event that began at some previous
time.
Curve
represents the contribution to the spectral energy distri-
bution from another cloud of relativistic electrons that has resulted

from a flare that can be observed at this time at frequencies higher than
y,
This second cloud is optically thick from v
191
to the frequency v
^3
0)
CJ
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194
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195
where it becomes optically thin.
For frequencies greater than v
curve
2a represents the case where the slope and thus the spectral index (a)
curve
is greater than the spectral index of curve 1;
sents the case where the two spectral indices are equal;
represents the case where the spectral index of curve

of curve 1.
of
curve 2b repre-
and curve 2c
is less than that
Solid curves A, B, and C represent the total spectral energy-
distribution for the source, and thus reflect the superposition of the
contributions from curves 1 and
for the three cases just reviewed.
Assuming the spectrum results from synchrotron emission and using

curve
1 as
a reference flux level,
at a given time
92)
as one observes at higher frequencies,
one expects to observe a higher peak flux (PF in Figure
and a higher flare amplitude (FA) only as long as the source remains
optically thick (v<v

cies v>v
).
At the same time t, as one observes at frequen^
the peak flux will decrease, vrhile the flare amplitude xjill be
a function of
the spectral indices of curves 1 and 2; that is, the flare
amplitude will be greater at higher frequencies if conditions support

curves 2a and A, but the flare amplitude will be less if conditions support curves 2c and C.
The simple expanding source model assumes an instantaneous production

of particles, resulting in a source which is initially optically thick at
inf initesmally small wavelengths.
In a real source, however,
(Kellermann
1972) the production of particles must occur over a finite period of time
and throughout a finite volume of space.
Thus above a frequency v

"
-^
the
source must be always optically/ thin, and the observed intensity variations will reflect the rate of acceleration of relativistic electrons as
well as changes in magnetic field strength and electron energy distribution.
For
V >
there is no expected delay in the time when the peak
196
amplitude is reached at different wavelengths, and the maximuin flux density

reached is less than that predicted by the simple model on the basis of
extrapolating an optically thick spectral energy distribution to higher

frequencies.
Some data at millimeter wavelengths suggest that v
30 GKz
ffl
The extensive Algonquin Observatory data at 2.8 and 4.5 cm
(X = 1cm),
indicate a number of sources for which
GHz (A = 4.5cm).
Finally
it should be recalled that the slope of the spectral energy distribution
for an optically thin source will be a function of the electron energy
distribution only, Thus in Figure 92 the flare amplitude at

than, equal to, or greater than the flare amplitude at v
may be less
This is con-
sistent with the results noted in Chapter II, that QSO's sometimes get
redder and sometimes bluer during outbursts.
Within the limitations
imposed by our general ignorance of the infrared spectral energy distribution, and the possible curvature of the optical spectral energy distri-
bution which may im.ply
non-synchrotron component of the radiation, one
can come to the following tentative conclusion.
If one assumes that the
entire spectrum is caused by synchrotron ratiation, then it seems reasonable to conclude from the previous discussion that the optical emission
originates from an optically thin source.
This is supported by Figures 1
and 91, which indicate that in general there is a long decrease in flux
level between radio and optical wavelengths.
While changes in the flux
level of an .order of magnitude or less are observed at radio frequencies

(Kellermcinn and Pauliny-Toth 196S)
11 and 12)
and at optical frequencies (Figures
there appears to be no evidence of a change in the overall
character of the spectral energy distributions, in which the radio flux

is often two to
three orders of mangitude higher than the optical flux.
197
Lack of Correlation
After reviewing the results of the correlation analyses presented in
Chapter IV, one must separate conclusions into at least two categories.
What can be determined from the apparent lack of conclusive correlation
between optical and radio activity found for most sources

with the observations to date; and what can be concluded from the strong
correlation
found in the cases of OJ 287 and 3C 454.3?
Finally, one must address
the question of what further investigations can be

made either to test,
strengthen, or supplement the results presented herein.

The lack of demonstrable correlation for most sources
analyzed in
this work permits
txro
important conclusions to be drawn.
First, the fact
that certain sources have a quite active radio spectrum

but a quiescent
optical spectrum, or vice-versa, suggests that in those

sources the radio
and optical emissions may be independent of each other.
This may be due
either to a physical separation of the regions which

emit optical and
radio radiation and the accompanying lack of a coupling
mechanism, or to
the fact that the flare itself may have a limited
spectral distribution.
Thus the radiation source is stable at some frequencies

while it is un-
stable at others.
In addition, the apparently uncorrelated optical and
radio activity in other sources is consistent with a

Christmas-tree type
of model in which localized regions within the source
as a whole emit
sporadic outbursts with quite different spectral distributions,

probably
as the result of disparate local conditions.
Note that if this model is
valid, coupling mechanisms may exist between localized

regions which
would imply relationships between activity observed from

different
localized regions, although the activity could not be
correlated if
localized conditions were of a sufficiently varied character.
Thus in
198
all these cases of non-correlation, the evidence indicates that extrap-
olation of the simple expanding source model from radio to optical wavelengths is simply not meaningful.
Secondly, the lack of radio-optical correlation has a significant
impact on the problem of quasar energetics; for if no relationship exists
between the radio and optical spectra, the energy associated with any
single event is significantly reduced. This is best illustrated by an
example, using the expression (Burbidge and Burbidge 1967)
2
Aire
v
,
- r.
Ho
^v
(1
(ergs/sec/Hz)
2~
+ z")
for a cosmology with a deceleration parameter,
Or,
= + 1, where F
total radiated energy per unit time per unit frequency interval,
is the
is
the observed flux per unit frequency interval at the observational fre-
quency. Ho is the Hubble constant, c is the velocity of light, and

the redshift of the spectral lines.
If Ho = 50 km/sec/Mpc and
is
= 1,
then assuming an idealized step-function flare lasting three months, a
radio flare having an amplitude of 20 Jy (20 x 10~^^ watts/m~/Hz) between

10 cm (3 X 10
Hz) and 10
13.5 to 12?5 (10

(3
x 10
-2
""2
cm (3 x
10""
Hz
Jy) betV7een 100 nm (3 x
or an optical flare from
lO"'"^
Hz)
and 1000 nm
Hz) will emit a total energy on the order of 10
ergs.
It is
obvious that if such a flare is observed only in the radio or only in

the optical spectral region, the source mechanism of the flare will emit
much less energy than if a single event is required to radiate in not

only the radio and optical spectral regions, but also in the intervening
frequencies.
199
OJ 287, BL Lac, and 3C 454.3
Before discussing the implications of a radio-optical

correlation,
it is important to review some opinions and important
facts regarding
sources of particular interest.
BL Lac is included although it shows no
strong correlation, because it is a source of great interest.

There exists important opinion that, assuming there are no
infrared
or other excursions from the smooth spectra of OJ 287 and
BL Lac in
Figure 91, the entire continuum spectral energy distribution

may be due
to synchrotron radiation (Visvanathan 1973b and Stein
1975),
In the
case of OJ 287 this is supported by the lack of color change in

the
infrared or L^V observed by Smith et al.

(1974).
In addition,
(1975) and by Rieke and Kinman
the general shape of the energy distribution, the
amplitude variability, the high variable polarization, and the

apparent
correlation between infrared and optical activity, as illustrated
for
OJ 287 in Figure 93, lead to the idea that the infrared
and optical ra-
diations originate in the same volume of space (Rieke and Kinman

1974).
However, Kinm.an (1975) feels that the fact that the OJ 287
spectrum
becomes flatter towards the infrared may indicate that the

source becomes
optically thick at 20 to 30
p.
This lends support to his next specula-
tion, that although the radio and optical radiations have

a common
particle s-apply, they probably are generated in different

localized
regions of the source.
Finally, it is his opinion that the short-term
radio variations are difficult to explain by the simple expanding

source
model.
At least a rough approximation of the overall characteristics
of the
spectral energy distribution for OJ 287, BL Lac, and 3C 454.3

is given
by Figure 91.
This figure indicates that for all three sources, there
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202
is apparentl]/ a long decline in flux density with increaseing frequency
all the way into the optical spectrum.
VJhile optical and radio spectral
distributions are known to change with time, the changes are not more
than an order of magnitude change in
fltix;
thus the basic shape or
character has been preserved over the time these objects have been
observed.
If we assume all the emission is s^mchrotron, then because we have
not observed a flux level in the optical spectrum that could be obtained
by extrapolating from the radio flux level, we can conclude that to within the accuracy of the present data the radio flux at frequencies less
than the turnover frequency, v
is emitted from an optically thick
region while the radio flux at higher frequencies and the optical flux
are emitted from an optically thin region.
Thus the optical emission
from any correlated activity would appear to originate from either a

thick or thin source depending on the turnover frequency, which may
change with time.
If the radio em.ission originates from the same opti-
cally thin source as the optical, there should be no time delay, while
if it originates from an optically thick source, a time delay will exist.
A visual examination of the sparse data for OJ 287 in Figure 93 indicates

a possible time delay from the optical,
high-frequency radio.
through the infrared, into the
This is reinforced by the results of the present
correlation analysis for all the available data as summarized in Table

however, the analysis of the data subsequent to 1972.75 indicates no
time delay, Tvith a rather large error estimate.
Of course an important alternative that should not be ignored is
that the emitted radiation is not all synchrotron.
4;
203
Table
lists the radio and optical amplitudes for the OJ 287 flare
Column one lists the maximum and minimum flux
centered at about 1973.1.
levels in optical B magnitudes; column

flujc
levels in
two'
lists the maximum and minimum
units; column three shows the change in stellar mag-
fl^sK.
nitudes; and column four lists the linear factor by which the flux
levels changed.
For a complete presentation of the relative optical-
radio flux levels, optical B magnitudes were converted to flux units and
radio flux values were converted to a magnitude scale using equation
(31)
from Chapter II
m = -2.5 log F
where m is the magnitude, F is the corresponding energy flux in units of

10"
Janskys, and C is a constant equal to 56.04.
Table
lists the
radio and optical amplitudes for the BL Lac flare centered al 1973.5;
and Table
list the amplitudes for the 3C 454.3 radio flare centered at
1972.5 and the optical flare centered at 1971.0.
TABLE
RADIO AND OPTICAL AMPLITUDES FOR

OJ 287 FLARE
Optical Blue
Magnitude
Flux
-96
(10 ~
W/m /Hz)
Change in
Stellar
Magnitude
Change by
Factor of
2.4
9.1
1.1
.. /
-2
Optical Maximum
13.6
1.4 X 10
Optical Minimum
16.0
1.5 X 10
Radio Maximum
6.57
9.0
Radio Minimum
7.66
3.3
-3
204
TABLE
RADIO AND OPTICAL Ai'EPLITUDES FOR

BL LAC FLARE
Flux
Optical Blue
Mamitude
9A
(10
VJ/m /Hz)
Change in
Stellar
Magnitude
Change byFactor of
1.5
4.0
0.41
1.5
-3
Optical Maximum
15.0
3.8 X 10
Optical Minimum
16.5
9.6 X
Radio Maximum
6.36
11.0
Radio Minimum
6.77
7.5
TABLE
10'
RADIO AND OPTICAL AMPLITLT)ES FOR

3C 454.3 FLARE
Optical Blue
Magnitude
Flux
(10
W/m /Hz)
Change in
Stellar
Magnitude
Change by
Factor of
-3
Optical Maximum
16.3
1.1 X 10
Optical Minimum
16.9
6.7 X 10
Radio Maximum
6.06
14.5
Radio Minimum
6.46
10.0
0.6
1.74
0.4
1.45
Implications of Correlation
Unfortunately, no obvious conclusions can be drawn from a strong
ratio-optical correlation, because there are still too many unknown

parameters.
IvTiile
in-depth theoretical investigation of the implications
of the data presented lies beyond the scope of the present work,
such an
investigation could eliminate some of the alternatives and thus lead to

a valid conclusion.
The primary purpose here will be to review and
briefly discuss potential explanations for the correlated activity.
205
A long-term correlation may be a function of either the source or

the intervening medium.
If it is a function of the source and if we
assume the entire spectral distribution is caused by s3mchrotron radiation,
then the spectra in Figure 91 suggest that at the time they were
measured, the 2.8-cm (1.07 x
lO""
Hz)
radiation was emitted from an
opaque region of OJ 287 and a transparent region in 3C 454.
3,
although
in both cases the data are inadequate to determine completely the fre-
quency at which the source becomes optically thin.
In the case of OJ 287,
one might argue that prior to 1972.5 the source was optically thick,
while after 1972.75 the source became transparent at 2.8 cm, thus causing
the correlation analysis to indicate a time delay before 1972.75 but no
time delay thereafter.
However, the spectral energy distribution indi-
cates the source is obviously transparent from optical to Infrared wavelengths, while the curves in Figure 93 suggest a possible time delay.
In the case of 3C 454.3,
the spectrum in Figure 91 appears to be in
conflict with the time delay found between possibly correlated optical
and radio activity in this study.
Finally, note that all these tentative
statements are based on the assumption of a smooth spectral distribution
through the infrared wavelengths, for which there is little if any data.
If 3C 454.3 were opaque between 20 and 300 y, this could explain
the relatively long time delay between optical and radio activity.
Also,
one could start considering changing opacities as the cause of varying
time delays, but this is extremely dangerous because the similarities
between radio and optical activity invite spurious correlations.

If the intervening medium is the cause of variations,
could be either gas or dust or a mixture of the two.
the medium
In general, optical
radiation will be absorbed and scattered by dust, while radio, radiation
206
will pass through the dust because radio wavelengths are much greater
than the dimensions of dust particles.
Thus if an intervening dust
cloud caused caused variations of a source, the effect would be observed

in the optical, but not the radio wavelengths.
If the intervening medium were a gas cloud of reasonable density,
the gas xTOuld selectively absorb only certain spectral lines, allowing
m.ost of
the optical radiation to pass through.
If the gas were close
enough to the source, it would selectively emit at only definite spectral

line frequencies.
Lyuty and Pronik (1975) have in fact observed varia-
tions in the intensity of Ha lines in Seyfert galaxies which copy contin-
uum changes after a delay of 20 to 30 days.
In addition, Williams and
Weymann (1976) have reported finding a extragalactic gas cloud in front

of, but not associated with, the quasar PHL 1222, by the detection of
absorption lines in the optical spectrum.

uJhile
the correlation in OJ 287 is intriguing and compelling for
further investigation, it must be remembered that this is the only case

of conclusive correlation among the 22 sources studied here, and the
hundreds of other sources for which there is insufficient data to search

for a correlation.
Thus one cannot draw the conclusion that the cause
of the correlation in OJ 287 can be extended to other extragalactic
variables.
The similarity of OJ 287 to other EGV's may bias one towards
acknowledging that the correlation must therefore result from something

intervening rather than from the source itself.
However, OJ 287 is
sufficiently unique among EGV's that the correlation may well be a

function of this particular source, and involve a mechanism not generally
found am.ong extragalactic variables.
In addition,
the time scale of the
long term bump in both the optical and the radio causes one to consider
207
whether a different kind of process is giving rise to the long-term

activity in contrast to the short time-scale variations.
Within the meager amount of hard evidence available, a Christmastree type of source would be consistent with the OJ 287 data, with
multiple localized source regions having their own spectra and being
stimulated by the same source mechanism through some kind of a coupling
mechanism acting between the localized emission regions.
Thus the over-
all spectral energy distribution would be the superposition of many
separate components.
However this would require far different local-
ized conditions to cause individual regions to emit only certain spectral
energies.
An accurate knowledge of the whole spectral energy distribution and

its changes with time is a necessary prerequisite to understanding the
nature of the continuum radiation mechanism.
A theoretical understand-
ing of the dynamics of these observed flares will probably require an
amalgam of the theories of the simple expanding source, prolonged injection of particles, and inverse Compton scattering and synchrotron energy
losses (Stein 1975).
Further Work
To continue the search for answers to the many problems discussed
in this work, there are many areas of investigation, both within the
framework of the analysis described in this work and exterior to it,
which should be followed up.

1)
The baseline should be removed from the OJ 287 radio and light
curves to determine if a short-term correlation still remains.

2)
The optical and radio fluxes should be put on the same scale;
then tests for both linear and non-linear functional correlations should
208
be carried out.
This is probably best accomplished through both regres-
sion and correlation analyses used iteratively.
Correlation analysis
will suggest an optimal time delay for a regression analysis, which will
suggest the possible functional relationship between the variables, and
this can in turn be compared with other functional relationships through
correlation analysis.
3)
Angione (19 71) suggested a possible correlation between sparse
optical and 9.5-iam data for 3C 454.3 between January, 1966 and May, 1968.
During this period, the activity reflected in the 9.5-nnn data significantly differs from the Algonquin 2.8-cm data over much of the same
period.
The short wavelength radio activity and its relation to the
optical data could probably be investigated further.

4)
VLSI observations using at least three baselines are desirable
on a regular basis to determine the source structure, its changes with

time, and the possibly localized source (s)
of the radio radiation.
This
kind of regular \TLBI data is highly desirable both for OJ 287 and for
other variable sources.
5)
Although difficult and time consuming, both optical and radio
polarization observations would help to determine if the optical and

radio radiations are emitted from the same region of a source, both for
OJ 287 and other variables.
6)
While certainly difficult, better time resolution at optical
wavelengths is highly desirable.

7)
The infrared spectrum must be investigated to determine if
there is any structure in that portion of the spectral energy distri-
bution for active sources.
Such structure could be caused by emission
from synchrotron electrons, Compton scattering, or dust.
109
8)
While presently unrealistic, the most important observations
that could be made would be to study the whole spectral energy distri-
bution from centimeter-radio to X-ray wavelengths with high signal-tonoise ratios, to watch the evolution of the spectral distribution with
time.
Finally, the interpretations of this research are obviously biased
towards a synchrotron, expanding source emission model for the reasons
summarized in Chapters I and II,
"Ivhile
the meager conclusions I have
drawn are scientifically consistent and reasonable, they are obviously

colored by many assumptions.
Other assumptions and interpretations may
contradict what has been presented here, yet may prove to be valid and
meaningful.
APPSM)IX
COtrPUTER PROGRAMS USED IN THE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Included in this appendix are listings of the programs C0REL2 and
LrNREG2 and the accompanying subroutines that were used in the statistical analysis described in Chapters III and IV.
To calculate cross-correlation coefficients,
be ordered in one of the following ways.
Program
C0REL2
Subroutines
DATFUG
PPLOT
CORREL
the program deck should
For non- interpolation use:
(Version 1)
For interpolation use:
Program
C0REL2
Subroutines
DATFUG
LININT
SETUPl
PPLOT
CORREL
(Version
2)
Similarly, to generate a linear regression plot for the non-interpo-
lation case use:
Program
LINREG2
Subroutines
DATFUG
LINREG
210
(Version 1)
211
For interpolation use:
Program
LINREG2
Subroutines
DATFUG
LININT
SETUPl
LINREG
(Version
2)
Linear regression plots were generated on the printer by executing

calls to the subroutines PLOTl, PL0T2, PL0T3, PL0T4.
These subroutines
are part of the computing system at the Northeast Regional Data Center
of the State University System of Florida, and their use is described in
in documentation which is available to the user.
PLOTl specifies the
size of the plot and the separation between tic marks on the axes;
PL0T2
specifies the scales of the axes by submitting the maximum and minimum
values of the axes;
PLOTS plots LCNT points from the
txTO
specified
arrays, assuming that the i-th value from array one corresponds to the
i-th value from array two;
PL0T4 labels the vertical axis, while the
horizontal axis is labeled by a WvITE statement.
At the time this
analysis was conducted (November, 1975 to February, 1976), all that was
required was that the subroutines be called in the proper order, with
the correct arguments.
The subroutine PPLOT was written by Dr. James Kennedy, who gener-
ously gave me the code for my use.
It includes the option of performing
a Hanning smoothing on a data array by calling a subroutine SMOOTH.
However, this smoothing subroutine was not used in the analysis and thus
it is not included in this appendix.
The programs C0REL2 and LINREG2 will accept data either from cards
or from 80-column card images on disc.
Data from a number of sources
can be input at the same time provided that there is a blank card
212
separating each data record, that is betvreen the radio data
and the
optical data for the same source, and between the optical data and the
radio data for different sources.
The order of the data sets is not
important to the actual execution of the programs;
however, the conven-
tion followed in this work was that for a given source
the radio or
lower frequency data preceded the optical or higher frequency data.
This
convention is important in the interpretation of the program output,
because it determines whether the radio activity is lagging or leading

the optical activity.
At the beginning of each data record, both programs expect three
header cards.
The first header card contains the observatory identifi-
cation and radio wavelength or frequency, if applicable, in columns 20

to 34 and the source identification and optical frequency
if applicable,
in columns 45 to 56.
headings for columns of data.
(U,B,V, or P)
The next two cards are merely
The programs read only the three fields
which are listed under the column
READ FORMAT in Table Ai
from the
data cards.
One obvious update of the computer code listed in this appendix
would be the creation of a single subroutine DA-TFUG xjhich can either set
-99.0 flags to indicated holes for the non- interpolation case or inter-
polate for the interpolation case.
This was not done initially because
of restrictions on running time and core size imposed by the priority
under which the programs were executed.
213
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APPENDIX II
FURTHER USE OF COMPUTER PROGRAiÎS AKD DATA BANK
During the active phase of the statistical analysis, the data bank
used for this study existed both on cards and in a partitioned data set
which consisted of SO-column card images.
Each entry in the data bank
had the format listed in Table A-1.
TABLE A-1
DATA BANK FORMAT

Column
1-10
Contents
Source Identification
13-14
Beginning Month
16-17
Beginning Day
19-20
Beginning Year
23-24
Ending Month
26-27
Ending Day
29-30
Ending Year
33-43
Julian Date
46
Read Format
A4
M for Mangitude or
F for Flux
48-52
54
Magnitude or Flux Value

U,
B, V,
F5.2
or P
57-61
Error
64-71
Middate of Observation
78-80
Observatory Identification
F8.5
At the end of the active statistical analysis, this data bank
together with all the programs used in the analysis were copied twice
to the 9-track tape named OUASAPv.
This tape is stored in the tape
:35
237
library of the Northeast Regional Data Center of the State University
System of Florida.
In addition to that tape,
the following material is kept in the
Astronomy Department:
1)
a listing of the disc data set that was transferred to the tape
QUASAR (this includes both data and programs);

and
of QUASAR;
2)
the listings from the creation of files
3)
a listing of a program (lEBUPDTE) that can be used to create a
partitioned data set from the tape QUASAR;

4)
the card version of the data bank
5)
a summary of the materials kept in the department.
To begin the kind of analysis summarized in this dissertation, two
approaches may be taken:

1)
use the listing of the original disc data set as a guide to
punch the desired material from the tape QUASAR; or

2)
use the listing of lEBUPDTE as a guide to recreate the parti-
tioned data set from the tape QUASA-R; then punch the program PUNCHOOl
from the listing of the original disc data set.
This program can then
be used to dump whatever code or data is desired from the disc data set.
Finally note that one change has been made to the code found on the
tape QUAS/vR.
Appendix
I,
Tnis change is included in the program listings in
and consists of a statement added to the subroutine CORREL
between statements 130 and 40.
Also note that the program documentation
accompanying the listings in Appendix
has been updated relative to the
documentation which appears on the archival tape QUASAR.
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Richard Bryan Pomphrey was born on May 11, 1946, in St. Louis,
Missouri,,
He graduated from St. Louis University High School in May,
1964, and began his undergraduate studies as a Chemistry major at Regis
College in Denver, Colorado.
He transferred to the School of Engineer-
ing at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, from which he
received a Bachelor of Science degree with a major in Physics in May,

1969.
In September,
1969, he entered the Graduate School of the
University of Florida where he worked as a graduate assistant in the
Department of Physics and Astronomy until June, 1973.
During that
period, he completed the course work leading to the degree of Doctor

of Philisophy in Astronomy.
From July, 1973, until the present, he
has worked at Tne Aerospace Corporation in Los Angeles, California,
completing the research requirements for the degrees of Master of

Science and Doctor of Philosophy in A.stronomy.
In February/, 19 76, he
began work in the Image Processing Laboratory of the Jet Propulsion

Laboratory and became a member of the Viking Flight Team, working on
the Viking '75 Mission to Mars.
243
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it

conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully
adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of
Doctor of Philosoohv.
^(^X
A.
G.
Of
\n^k^
Smith, Chai^mti/i
Professor of PhysicsVazid Astronomy

Doctor of Philosophy.
.P7a^
C. N. Olsson, Co-chairman
Associate Professor of Physical Sciences
and Astronomy

"-'
" yHJ-fe-HÛ1^-HH
/.iftÛu,^-
Gottesman
A.ssociate Professor of Astronomy
S.
T.

/~\
G. R. Lebo
Assistant Professor of Astronomy

T. L. Bailey
,-/
Professor of Physids
This dissertation was submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Department

of Physics and Astronomy in the College of Arts and Sciences and to the
Graduate Council, and was accepted as partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
March, 19 7 7
Dean, Graduate School

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A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE COU'NCIL OF

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wish to express my appreciation to my committee chairman,

not only for his assistance, but in particular for his

support and direction when the future was uncertain; to my committee

for being a true friend who said things

favorable and adverse situations.

also wish to thank Drs. T. L. Bailey,

for their assistance and contributions

Lebo, and S. T. Gottesman

The study documented in this dissertation makes use of data from

am indebted to Drs. J. M. MacLeod,

and B, H. Andrew of the Algonquin Radio Observatory, and to Drs. K. ?,

Tritton, M, V. Penston, and

Selmes of the Royal Greenwich Observa-

tory for permitting me to make extensive use of their previously unpub-

The Rosemary Hill observations were made by Drs. A. G. Smith,

Folsom, K, R. Hackney, R. L. Hackney, R. J. Leacock, B. Q. McGimsey,

and R. L. Scott, and by J

Pollock and Patricia Edwards.

Rather graciously made his data bank available while it was

Much of the initial analysis was supported by

Ifnile there I received the generous assistance of

manv of the staff to whom

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Epstein, W. A. Johnson, H. E. King, J. W. Montgomer}-, T. T.

Mori, Dr. J. Mottmann, now at the California Polytechnic Institute at

Uhiverity of Texas at Austin.

much of the manuscript and

Suzanne Hansen typed

Petersen assisted in the preparation of the

have been supported by the Research

Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

am grateful to D. J. Lynn, R. M. Ruiz, and

Elliott of JPL for their support, patience, and understanding

was finishing this work.

The analysis was also aided by funds

also wish to thank Dr. W. G. Fogarty of Universidade Mackenzie,

McClave of the Department of Statistics and Dr.

the Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Florida, for help-

ful discussions; and W. W. Richardson and H. W. Schrader of the University

Annual Reviews of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Springer-Verlag New

physical Journal generously granted permission to reproduce illustrations

The Astrophysical Journal required that the

identical copyright notice as it appears in the Journal be included in

This copyright notice follows:

So that the author and publisher may be protected from the

am indebted to many friends for their help throughout my graduate

Schudel, III were invaluable in the completion of a major portion of

Long discussions with Jim Kennedy helped formulate the direc-

have taken in this research; the subroutine PPLOT which appears in

Jack Schudel assisted significantly in the computations and a

number of the illustrations.

also wish to thank Dr. Carl Olsson's

There are some individuals who have had a significant influence on

my attitudes and my work during my graduate career.

play the game.

wish to gratefully acknowledge my brother and his

family, and the countless relatives and friends of my family who,

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verbally and in prayer.

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