WEAR
INTRODUCTION
SURFACE TOPOGRAPHY
All solid surfaces are uneven.
Surfaces composed of peaks and valleys
called ASPERITIES
FRICTION
Types of friction:
1. Dry friction
static friction ("stiction") between non-moving surfaces
kinetic friction between moving surfaces
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2. Fluid friction
3. Lubricated friction etc.
Mathematically,
Where,
Ff frictional force
N total normal reaction/load at contact interface
- coefficient of friction
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Second Law
Frictional force is independent of the
apparent area of contact
Experiment Normal load, held constant,
apparent area of contact increased
is independent of apparent are of contact
NOTE: Second
POLYMERS
law
not
obeyed
by
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Third Law
Found by Coulomb
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Coefficient of Friction
Independent of:
Normal Force
Apparent Area of contact
Nearly independent of sliding velocity
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WEAR
Classifying wear:
1. Based on the conditions in which the wear
occurs:
1.
2.
Seizure
Melt
Oxidation
Plasticity
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SLIDING WEAR
Also known as adhesive wear
Terms associated with sliding wear:
Scuffing: (UK)
localized surface damage due to lubrication breakdown
at high sliding speeds.
Scoring: (US)
synonymous with scuffing
Galling:
Severe from of scuffing
Gross surface damage
Damage resulting from un-lubricated sliding at low
speeds
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TESTING METHODS
Used to:
Study wear mechanisms
To extract useful design data (wear rates, etc.)
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Asymmetrical
Most commonly used
E.g. Pin of disk
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Specimen Dimensions:
Few mm to tens of mm
Asymmetric test specimen dimensions
usually less than 25mm, while counter-face
larger.
Testing Standards:
Sphere on disk (DIN 50324)
Pin on Disk (ASTM G 99)
Block on Ring (ASTM G 77)
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Quantification of Wear:
Several parameters are used
quantify wear. The most important are:
3.
4.
1.
2.
Also,
to
TESTING PARAMETERS
1. Loads:
Range: fractions of N to several kN
3. Sliding Speed:
Range: fractions of mm/s to hundreds of m/s
Affects rate of frictional heat dissipation, thus contact
interface temperature.
4. Duration of test
5. Atmospheric Conditions
Water vapour, oxygen etc.
6. Presence of lubricant
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Derivation
Assumptions:
True contact area will be sum of individual
contact areas.
This area is proportional to the normal load.
Under most conditions, the local deformation
of asperities will be plastic.
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dW = Pa2
Where,
P yield pressure of plastically deforming
asperity (close to indentation hardness, H)
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W = dW = P a2 (2)
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From (2),
a2 = W/P..(3)
(3) in (1):
Q = kW/3P
Hence, the Archard Wear equation:
Q= KW/H
Where,
Q = Overall Wear rate
K = Wear coefficient/coefficient of wear = k/3
H = Hardness of the softer material (=P)
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K wear coefficient:
Dimensionless
Always less than unity
Higher value indicates increased wear severity
In engineering applications,
(K/H) = k (dimensional wear coefficient)
is more useful.
k = Q/W
Statement 1:
Found to be experimentally true.
Transient behaviour is sometimes noted at the start,
where wear during the initial running in period may
be higher/lower that steady state wear rate (where
equilibrium surface conditions have been established)
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Statement 2:
Strict proportionality not found b/w Q and normal
load (W)
Over limited ranges, Q varies directly with W.
Abrupt transitions from low to high Qs and vice
versa is observed.
This case can be understood better by considering
the example of sliding contact of leaded Brass
against Hard Stellite ring.
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At Low loads,
Q increases with W
K 2 x 10 -6
At loads of 5 to 10 N,
Sharp increase in wear rate (100x)
Transition point
Follows archard eqn
At even high W,
Still follows archard eqn
K 10 -4
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MILD WEAR:
SEVERE WEAR:
Larger particles
Metallic debris
Roughened surface
Metal to metal contact
High (0.25- 0.3)
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Temperature
Most direct factor
Temp at sliding interface depends upon:
Ambient temp
Frictional power dissipation (Ff x sliding speed)
(depends upon)
Sliding Speed
Load
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UNLUBRICATED WEAR OF
METALS
As sliding conditions vary the
mechanism of wear changes
One mechanism cannot be attributed to
wear over a wide range of conditions
Main factors controlling wear mechanism:
Mechanical Stresses
Temperature
Oxidations phenomenon
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MECHAINCAL STRESSES
Two types:
Normal Stresses
Shear stress
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REGIME 1(SEIZURE)
Very high contact pressures
Gross seizure of surfaces
Growth in asperity junctions
Real area of contact apparent area of
contact
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NOTE:
Regime II and III- thermal effect negligible.
Regime IV and V - thermal effect - important
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REGIME V (MILD)
Interface temp is high , but below melting
point.
Rapid surface oxidation
Extreme type of oxidation wear takes
place
Thick oxide layer forms and deforms
plastically
Wear debris consists of oxide
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Regime VI:
Regime VII:
Regime VIII:
Higher flash temp that in regime VI
Leads to formation of martensite
Interface temperature above 9100C, so that
allotropic transformation can take place
High strength of martensite provide local
mechanical support to surface oxide film
Mild wear proceeds with removal of oxide
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MECHANISMS OF SLIDING
WEAR
the
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PLASTICITY DOMINATED
WEAR
For Severe Wear many different
mechanisms have been proposed, all
involving plastic deformation
Wear mechanisms can be understood by
the study of worn surfaces (surface
topography
and
sub-surface
microstructure) & study of wear debris
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Mechanism 1:
Asperity contacts lead directly to the
formation of wear debris
Fig below shows an example where plastic
flow at asperity tip is followed by detachment
of wear particle
Plastic shearing of successive layers take place
in conjunction with propagation of shear
crack, along which the particle detaches.
Adhesive forces not necessary for this
mechanism (only the mechanical interaction
b/w the surfaces)
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Mechanism 2:
Formation of wear debris fragment by
asperity rupture is followed immediately by its
adhesive transfer to the counter face to form
a new asperity on that surface.
On further sliding, more fragments will be
formed, which adhere to the original fragment
to form a conglomerate particle (detached
eventually).
Sometimes, these particles may be flattened
and elongated in the direction of sliding
forming plate like wear particles.
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Mechanism 3 - DELAMINATION
WEAR
Involves nucleation of subsurface cracks
and their propagation parallel to the
surface.
Cracks originate within the plastically
deformed material beneath the surface,
grow and link together - eventually
extend up to the free surface
Plate like wear particle is detached
Observed in regime II
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ZONE 3:
Fine grains
Contains materials transferred from counter
face & oxides (material similar to that formed
by mechanical alloying)
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OXIDATIVE WEAR
Flash temp influenced by sliding velocity.
Moderate velocities are only required
before hot spot temp becomes high
enough to cause significant surface
oxidation
E.g. Steel 1 m/s hot spot temp -700 oC
With oxide film growth, plasticity
dominated
wear
mechanisms
are
suppressed by reducing the shear
strength of the interface.
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obeys
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ARRHENIUS EQUATION
kp = A exp (-Q/RT)
kp parabolic rate constant
T absolute temp
R gas constant
Q activation energy
A Arrhenius constant/ pre-exponential
factor
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LUBRICATED WEAR
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REGIME 1
Partial EHL
0.02<< 0.1
Wear rate very high initially, but drops rapidly
and eventually becomes very small
Dimensional wear coefficient (k = K/H) less
than ~10-9 mm3/Nm
Initially, frictional interactions leads to materials
being removed by oxidational wear (mild)
As high spots are removed by wear, increases
thus changing from partial EHL to full film EHL
Friction and wear, both fall to low and stable
levels
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REGIME 2
REGIME 3
Very severe (unacceptable levels of wear
and friction)
No lubricant film can prevent metallic
contact
0.4<< 0.5
Dimensional wear coefficient (k = K/H)
greater than ~10-5 mm3/Nm
Scuffing occurs (extensive metal contact
due to breakdown of lubricant film)
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TRANSITIONS:
1. Lower transition curve (solid):
FRETTING WEAR
called
FRETTING
WEAR/DAMAGE
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Fretting Fatigue:
Important phenomenon usually associated with
fretting damage.
Fatigue cracks develops in the damaged region,
due to the cyclic displacements (linked directly to
the applied tangential cyclic load)
STUDY:
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Small
cyclic
tangential
force
is
superimposed on the normal force.
Some displacement b/w surfaces may
occur at the edges of the contact area.
(since, small normal force, so small
opposing frictional forces)
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ASSIGNMENT 2
WEAR IN CERAMICS AND
POLYMERS
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