Hunger

&
Satiety
Andreanyta Meliala, Dr., Ph.D
Department of Physiology

Hunger, Satiety, and

Regulation
DEFINITION OF HUNGER
A feeling of discomfort of weakness caused by
lack of food coupled with the desire to eat

DEFINITION OF SATIETY
The quality or state of being fed or gratified to or
beyond capacity
REGULATION
Hunger and satiety are regulated by a complex
interaction of multiple brain centers, hormones,
and sensory and motor pathways

Control Mechanism

Positive Feedback Control of

Gastric Secretion

Negative Feedback of the Gastric Phase

CONTROLLED CONDITION
Food entering stomach disrupts homeostasis by
causing an increase in gastric juice pH AND
stretch (distention) of stomach wall

RETURN TO HOMEOSTASIS

RECEPTOR
Chemoreceptors and stretch receptors
increased pH and stretch of stomach wall,
and generate nerve impulses that pass to
the control centers

In response, there is increased acidity in

stomach chyme and the mixing waves begin
emptying the stomach. An empty stomach is a
return to homeostasis.

EFFECTORS
Parietal cells of the gastric mucosa secrete HCl
and the muscularis contracts more vigorously
(increased frequency and strength of mixing
waves)

CONTROL CENTER
Enteric nervous system and medullary neurons
generate parasympathetic impulses that pass to
the effectors

Hunger center
a region in the lateral hypothalamus that triggers the desire for food

stimulated

destroyed

Satiety center
a region in the ventromedial hypothalamus that
suppresses the desire for food

stimulated

destroyed

The satiety center has neurons called glucostats that rapidly

absorb blood glucose after a meal.
Glucose uptake causes the satiety center to send inhibitory signals
to the hunger center and thus suppresses the appetite.

_
Satiety
Center
+

Blood
glucose

Hunger
Center
+

appetite

Gastric peristalsis stimulates hunger.

Mild hunger contractions begin soon after
the stomach is emptied and increase in
intensity over a period of hours.

Role of Hormones in Appetite Regulation

- Hormones from GI:

cholecystokinin: suppressant
ghrelin: stimulant
PYY: suppressant

-- Adipocytes (fat cells) secrete hormones

(leptin) that regulate appetite and body
weight.

(Science 299:846-849 2003)

Ghrelin Fluctuation

Leptin's effects. Because of a gene defect, the boy doesn't make leptin, but
treatment with the hormone, begun when he was 3.5 years old (top), brought his
weight down to normal levels, as shown at age 8.

(Science 299:846-849 2003)

Nutrients
Major Classes of Nutrients :
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, minerals, vitamins, and water.
Nutrients are used for:
1) providing energy
2) growth, repair, or maintenance of body cells

Metabolic Rate
is the amount of energy released in the body per unit of
time, expressed as kcal/hr or kcal/day

A kilocalorie (kcal) is the amount of heat that will raise

the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1oC.

1 Kg

37 C

38 C

An average adult needs 2,000-5,000 kcal/day,

depending on physical activity, mental state, and other factors
such as room temperature.
1,000 Kg water x 2 - 5 C

Caloric restriction (by 30%) prolongs life span by 30%-50% and

reduces morbidity of aging-related diseases.
These effects have been observed in many animal species, including
worms, insects, rodents, and maybe primates.

Proteins
Low fat/cholesterol
Vitamins
Minerals

Carbohydrates

unchanged

reduced by 30%

Role of blood glucose in providing energy

- ATP is the universal cellular energy, and can be produced

from glucose, fat, and proteins.
- A total of 38 ATP is generated per molecule of glucose in the
presence of oxygen.

Blood glucose is more important than

fat and proteins in providing energy
- Glucose can be used by all tissue cells.
- Neurons and erythrocytes normally obtain energy only from
glucose.
hypoglycemia weakness, coma
Blood glucose level has to be maintained.

Maintenance of blood glucose

discussed in two states.
1) Absorptive State
lasts about 4 hours after a meal.

2) Postabsorptive State

Absorptive State
- Blood glucose is readily
available for ATP synthesis.
- Glucose serves as a primary
fuel and spares the body from
having to draw on stored fuels.

Absorptive State
Excessive glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver
and muscles or as body fat.

glycogen

fat

Absorptive State
Fats
are taken by the tissues, especially
adipose and muscular tissue.

Amino acids
become available for protein
synthesis.

Amino
acids

Regulation of the Absorptive State

regulated largely by insulin, which stimulates nearly all cells to absorb
glucose.
blood

insulin
receptors

insulin

cell
glycogen

glucose
muscle
cell

Postabsorptive State (fasting)

- prevails hours after meals and overnight.

- The essence of this state is to regulate blood glucose
levels, which is especially critical to the brain.

Glucose is drawn from the body's glycogen reserves in liver and

muscles, or synthesized from fats (gluconeogenesis).

glycogen

fats

Postabsorptive State

After 4 to 5 days of fasting, the brain begins to use

ketone bodies as supplemental fuel.

- from fat
- acidosis

After glycogen and fat reserves are depleted

- The body begins to burn proteins.
- The first to go is skeletal muscle proteins.

proteins
glycogen

fats

Regulation of the Postabsorptive State

- by the sympathetic nervous system and several hormones.

- The sympathoadrenal system can mobilize stored energy reserves in

adipose tissue as needed.

glycogen

fats

Glucagon promotes:
1) glycogenolysis

glycogen glucose

2) gluconeogenesis

AA/FFA glucose

3) lipolysis

triglyceride FFA

glycogen

fats

Growth hormone also raises blood glucose concentrations.

Body Heat and Thermoregulation

Body Temperature
- Body temperature fluctuates about 1oC in a 24-hour cycle.
lowest in the early morning

highest in the late afternoon

Core temperature
in the cranial, thoracic, and abdominal
cavities
close to rectal temperature
37.2 -37.6 C
(99.0-99.7 F)
Shell temperature
- skin and oral
36.6 -37.0 C
(97.9-98.6 F)

Heat Production
Body heat is generated from:
1)

nutrient oxidation (ATP production)

energy in glucose

ATP

2) ATP use
energy in ATP

heat
mechanical energy
heat

Heat Production
- At rest, mainly generated in brain, liver,
heart, endocrine glands, and skeletal
muscles (20-30%).

- During vigorous exercise, skeletal

muscles produce 30-40 times as much
heat as the rest of the body.

Heat Loss
The body loses heat through:

Conduction

Evaporation

Radiation

Thermoregulation
-

Hypothalamic thermostat
1)

monitors the blood temperature

2)

receives signals from peripheral

thermoreceptors in the skin.

Thermoregulation
thermostat
37.5 C

heat-losing
center

heat-promoting
center

in the hypothalamus

When blood temperature is too high

heat-losing center stimulates
1)

dilation of dermal arterioles

2)

sweating

When blood temperature drops too low

heat-promoting center stimulates
1)

dermal vasoconstriction

2)

shivering thermogenesis.

3) later increase in metabolic rate by

20-30% as adaptation.

Disturbances of Thermoregulation
Exposure to excessive heat causes:

1) heat exhaustion
hypotension, dizziness, vomiting, and sometimes
fainting
2) heat stroke
brain cell malfunction, convulsions, coma, and finally
death

Hypothermia
- refers to low body temperature

- when below 33oC (91oF), the metabolic rate drops so

low that heat production cannot keep pace with heat loss,
and the temperature falls further.
-

glucose

enzyme ATP

heat

Hypothermia
below 24oC (75oF) = fatal.

Which way helps a person survive longer in

ice-cold sea water?

a. Swim vigorously
b. Rest and keep awake

Hypothalamus

Enjoy learning adventure, it shall never ends!