USE OF CEMENT GROUTING FOR THE FORMATION

OF IMPERVIOUS CURTAINS
by ing. Ulrich Hegg, Milano

Ulrich Hegg, Cuenca 16 de enero de 2015

Design of grout curtains

There are hardly any civil engineering works which
imply a closer relationship between conceptual
engineering
and
construction
than
grouting
treatments. This, because many features of a grout
curtain can be determined only during the execution of
the latter, based on the observation of the behaviour of
the rock or soil mass following the full-scale treatment,
while, at the design stage, decisions must generally be
taken based on the information given by a few
exploratory boreholes only.

Ulrich Hegg, Cuenca 16 de enero de 2015

Variables
THE ROCK MASS

Ulrich Hegg, Cuenca 16 de enero de 2015

Variables
GROUT MIX
A clear distinction must be made between the
properties of the grout mix in the short term, i.e. those
relating to the operational phase, and the long-term
design properties. Unfortunately, it may often be
observed that on a construction site the long term
properties of the grout mix are neglected, i.e. those
resulting after the hydration of the cement, by
favouring operational properties which facilitate the
injection process, without worrying about the final
result. There is no doubt that the final, long term
properties of the mixture have absolute priority over
those which may facilitate operations.
Ulrich Hegg, Cuenca 16 de enero de 2015

Variables
GROUT MIX BASICALLY A MIX OF CEMENT AND WATER
Variables on which it is possible to intervene:
the type of cement;
its particle size, namely its fineness (also expressed in terms
of specific surface area according to Blaine);
the density of the mixture, depending on the weight ratio
between the cement and the other components, in particular
the water;
the addition of additives such as superplasticizers;
the addition of silicates to prevent wash-out;
the addition of other materials such as bentonite, pozzolan and
filler.
Ulrich Hegg, Cuenca 16 de enero de 2015

Variables

THE DRILLHOLE SPACING

Ulrich Hegg, Cuenca 16 de enero de 2015

Variables
Isolating and injecting a drillhole section under pressure

Ulrich Hegg, Cuenca 16 de enero de 2015

Variables
Pressure versus flow rate (not independent from each other)

Ulrich Hegg, Cuenca 16 de enero de 2015

Variables
The engineering of a grout curtain requires the
interplay between various actors

Designer
Field geologist
Field laboratory
Grouting operator
Work supervision
Client ( + Experts)

Ulrich Hegg, Cuenca 16 de enero de 2015

Variables
Change of mix properties during grouting operations
Both the cohesion and the viscosity increase from the time of production of the
mix up to the time of hardening. External factors may enhance this problem,
such as high ambient temperatures which heat up the grout lines above
ground or loss of water from the grout when it penetrates the ground.
The time available for the injection is thus limited and for this reason
retardants are used. These products (superplasticizers) are welcome as long
as they do not modify the properties of the hardened grout.
Starting from a certain point - namely from a lower limit of the w/c ratio internal friction forces arise between the individual cement grains in
suspension, being capable of generating an exponential increase of the
grouting pressure and leading to a virtually immediate blockage of the grouting
process.
The loss of water during grouting can take place when the mix crosses microcracks in the rock mass which cannot be penetrated by the cement grains, but
by the water.
Ulrich Hegg, Cuenca 16 de enero de 2015

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Variables
Change of mix properties during grouting operations

1 Rock in contact (fissure closed)

2 Poor-quality grout: segregation of
cement grains from water
3 Good-quality grout (main flow
paths of grout)
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 Grain size limits of soils for different grouts

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 Rheology water and cement slurry

where: 1 Newtonian liquid (e.g. water)

2 Bingham-type liquid
dv/dx = shear velocity
= shear stress
c = cohesion
= coefficient of dynamic viscosity
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 Pressure distribution in a fissure

Fmax = (p3maxe2)/(12c2)

Fmax = Vmaxpmax/(3e)

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Marsh flow time versus w/c ratio

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Hydrofracturing
In the course of a grouting operation an abrupt opening of preexisting discontinuities in the rock mass may occur, or the
opening of new cracks, with the absorption of significant grout
mix volumes.
This phenomenon, called hydrofracturing or claquage,
depends on:
Stress state in rock mass
Geometry of fissure pattern
Tensile strength of rock matrix
Injection parameters (applied pressures and volumes
injected)
Rheological parameters of grout mix
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 Example of hydrofracturing

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Hydrofracturing
Hydrofracturing may be desired or not, and this depends on the
rock characteristics and the needs of the grouting works. Thus,
for example, a local, intensely fractured area can be
consolidated and somehow even pre-compressed with respect
to the surrounding area of sound rock, if the injected mixture
presents adequate characteristics of resistance.
On the other hand, this type of event leads to high grout
consumption and, on a large job such as a grout curtain of a
dam, one certainly wants to limit the phenomenon by defining
criteria which permit to control the event.

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GIN concept
The observation that there must be a simultaneous presence of
a high pressure and a large volume of injected unhardened
grout to cause the phenomenon of hydrofracturing led to the
introduction of the concept of GROUTING INTENSITY by
Lombardi and Deere.
With this term one intends the product between the grouting
pressure at the moment of stopping the injection - or zero flow and the volume injected into a hole section of unit length,
generally 1m:
I = pV/L = GIN (Grouting Intensity Number)
Units are conventionally:
Pressure p in bar (kg/cm2)
Volume in litres/metre of drillhole
In a graph of p versus V, a curve of constant GIN presents a
hyperbole.
Ulrich Hegg, Cuenca 16 de enero de 2015
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GINcurve and typical grouting paths

GIN (Grouting Intensity Number) = pV/L, p in bar (kg/cm2) V/L in litres/metre of drillhole
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GIN concept
The parameter GIN can be interpreted as a measure of the energy put into the
rock mass, after deduction of the energy spent for overcoming the resisting
forces due to cohesion and viscosity of the mix. By limiting the grouting energy
(not the pressure), one reduces the risk of hydrofracturing.
In view of the Newtonian character of water, water pressure tests present a
much larger risk of hydrofracturing than the grouting of stable cement mixes of
the Bingham-type.
The parameter GIN can also be related to the reach R of the grout (the distance
travelled from the drillhole). For a plane, straight fissure, GIN is proportional to
the third power of R: GIN = 2cR3.
The most immediate application of this concept consists in the tracking, during
the grouting process, of the intensity value GIN reached at any instant, and to
limit the process when reaching a pre-determined GIN value.

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 Examples of grouting records

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Example of grouting of a single joint

Any reach (R) corresponds to a GIN value independently from the actual
opening of the joints. R 3 GIN.
A thinner joint absorbs less grout volume, but requires a higher grouting
pressure.
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Standard GIN values

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Maximum pressure /Maximum volume

The maximum pressure must be related in some way to the
water pressure to be expected at the spot of injection during the
future life of the curtain under conditions of full reservoir. A
ratio of 2 to 3 in respect of this water pressure is recommended.
In absolute terms, values of pmax=50bar are normally not
exceeded.
No strict rule is applicable to the maximum volume. It cannot be
judged from the theoretical reach of the grout injection and from
the porosity of the rock mass or soil, because we do not aim
at getting zero permeability.
The grout must not simply flow away at low pressures. If this
happens, change mix or stop grouting for a period of time, or move
to a next hole, possibly tightening the hole pattern in this area.
In absolute terms, a value of 500 lt/m of hole may be considered
as a large value in rock, and 1500 lt/m in sandy gravel.
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End points of grouting paths for various grouting

phases (example)

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Curtain lay-out
Current trends worldwide are towards single row curtains. This
reflects the general experience that adequate results can be
obtained from a single row using modern injection techniques.
Multiple rows have been found of assistance in treating pipeable
or soft beds in heavily jointed sites. Further, in order to safeguard
against the risk of piping near the top of the grout curtain, where
seepage paths are shortest, additional rows of holes of limited
length are beneficial.
The normal way of defining the location of the holes of a grout
curtain follows the split-spacing method of primary to secondary,
to tertiary and may be quarternary holes: (a) to provide a minimal
uniform coverage throughout; (b) to adopt closer spaced holes
where the geological conditions and grouting results so indicate.
The field grouting test carried out at the start of the works serves
also the purpose to investigate the mesh of the drillhole pattern.
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Example of split-spacing of holes

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Up-stage grouting

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Down-stage grouting

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Grouting with tubes manchettes (TAM)

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Packers

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Friction-loss calibration

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Grout mixes
As in any work involving the casting of concrete, the cement
mixes proposed for grouting need preliminary tests in the
laboratory which permit to propose a mix design. Different
design mixes (with different water/cement ratios) are generally
tested at the design stage and the final choice of the mix is left
to the results of the field trial which is carried out at the
beginning of the works.
As mentioned before, following the GIN concept, the mix
employed in the formation of the grout curtain is basically one
only for a given geological formation, and changing to thicker
or thinner mixes on a given borehole stage is not part of the
concept; but possible changes in the mix composition must be
decided during execution, whenever local ground conditions
show a marked change in the rock/soil structure and,
consequently, marked changes in the grout take.
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Grout mix composition

Typical values and ranges of values for grout curtain mixes:
w/c ratio (by weight): 1 to 0.7
cement type: CEM I 52.5 (Portland), CEM II-42.5 (Portland Fly-ash)
Marsh viscosity: < 40 for a thin mix, 40-50 for an
intermediate mix, > 50 for a thick mix
2-h sedimentation (bleeding) < 4%
relative cohesion (c/): 0.1 to 0.2mm just after mixing
compressive strength around 10MPa at 7 days and around
15MPa at 28 days
superplasticizer: a small percentage of the cement weight
(around 1 to 2%), according to type of product and
instructions of product supplier.
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Controls during grouting works

Grout every fifth primary hole first, as exploratory groutholes to a depth equal
to the full reservoir height above ground surface: (a) to allow for better areal
definition of geological and groundwater conditions, (b) to permit final
selection of hole depths for the remaining primary holes (probably a depth
range of 0.5 to 0.8 of reservoir height), and (c) to ensure that the selected GIN
curve is appropriate.
Control the grouting process by field computer using the GIN curve and by
regulating the pumping rate.
Use Lugeon water-pressure tests only in the exploratory primary holes and in
the check grout holes after completion of a section of the grout curtain, in
order to compare the initial and final permeabilities of the rock mass.
Summarize the grouting results by appropriate statistical and graphical
methods, considering in particular the grout takes, to ascertain a progressive
closing of the rock fissures.
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Standard for judging the results of the treatment

The basis for judging the results of the treatment directly in the
field, before reservoir impounding, is the measurement of the
permeability of the ground. In the case of rock, where seepage
is essentially governed by flow through open cracks, the most
widely used standard for measuring the permeability is the
Lugeon test, proposed by the Frenchman M. Lugeon in 1933.
A universally accepted relationship between the Lugeon-Unit
and the coefficient of permeability k equates 1 L.U. to 110-7m/s
in terms of k, the relationship being linear.
A possible standard for L.U. values to be reached after
treatment is the one proposed by Houlsby (1985):

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Standard for judging the results of the treatment

Concrete dams (gravity dams, arch dams, buttress dams)
single row curtain
3 to 5 L.U.
multiple row curtain
5 to 7
Embankment dams: narrow-core earth/rockfill
single row curtain
3 to 7
multiple row curtain
5 to 10

Embankment dams: wide-core earth/rockfill or membrane faced dams

single row curtain
5 to 10
multiple row curtain
7 to 15
Exceptions
All types of dam, if foundation has
material removable by seepage:
single row curtain
3
multiple row curtain
4

All types of dam, if water

lost by seepage is precious:
1 to 3
1 to 3

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