KANNUR UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

SELF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL ON

Information Technology & Office Automation for B Com/B B A

Information Technology & Office Automation for B Com/B B A

Module I Introduction to Information Technology- Computers- Definition- Features
Necessity Generation Problems of Computerization Basic structure of computers Types
of computers - Information Technology Definition - History of Information Technology
Advantages & disadvantages of IT- Data, Information & Knowledge Meaning Knowledge
management- Academic search technique Use of IT in teaching learning Academic services
INFLIBNET NICENET BRNET
Module II IT & Society Issues and concern Free software movement IT & Industry IT
& Business- IT & Commerce IT & Health care E Governance IT for national integrationCyber Ethics Cyber Crime Security Cyber Laws Health Issues E waste
Module III Office Automation Meaning Definition Advantages- Disadvantages
Historical background Basics of Office automation Data storage- Text handling Desktop
publishing Image handling Spread sheet program
Module IV Office Automation Tools: Word Processing Meaning - Features - MS Office
Folder creation File creation Editing Creating Header and footer Adding Tables
Inserting Pictures - Formatting - Mail merge Power point Presentation (With Practical
Knowledge)
Module V
Office Automation Tools: Spread sheet (Excel)- Introduction - Features
Advantages Parts of work sheet Formatting Editing Formula creation Creating Charts
Mathematical Functions Financial Functions Application in accounting (With Practical
Knowledge)
Module VI
Office Automation Tools: Accounting Package- Company Creation- Voucher
Entry- Preparation of TB- Preparation of Final accounts with adjustments (With Practical
Knowledge)

Reference:
1. Introduction to Information Technology

- V Rajaraman PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd New

Delhi
2. Computer Today Alexis Leon Leon Vikas
3. Computer Fundamental V K Jain
4. Management Information Technology Vijaykumar Khurana
5. Hand book of automation Shimon Y Nof
6. The Hand Book of Office Automation Ralph Reilly
7. P C Software made e simple R K Texali
8. MS Internet Explorer - Techmedia

Information Technology
Learning Objectives

To learn about computers and its peripherals

To know about the historical evolution and generation of computers

To learn about computer application in different areas

To know about IT and its management

Information Technology: In response to the changing global pressures, it is essential to make

continuous efforts to improve the efficiency of the business. Companies improve their
productivity by increasing their output, reducing costs, improving quality, marketing the
products faster or a combination of all. The improvement in this field must be continuous also.
Information technology is used extensively for both the productivity and quality improvements.
Information Technology refers to anything related to computing technology, such as networking,
hardware, software, the Internet, or the people that work with these technologies. Since we live
in the "information age," information technology has become a part of our everyday lives.
Computer plays an important role in the collection of data and its conversion to information.

Computer: A computer is a general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a finite
set of arithmetic or logical operations. Since a sequence of operations can be readily changed, the
computer can solve more than one kind of problem. Conventionally, a computer consists of at
least one processing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU) and some form
of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing
and control unit that can change the order of operations based on stored information. Peripheral
devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source, and the result of operations
saved and retrieved.

The first electronic digital computers were developed between 1940 and 1945 in the United
Kingdom and United States. Originally they were the size of a large room, consuming as much
power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs). In this era mechanical analog
computers were used for military applications.

Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable
than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. Simple computers are small enough
to fit into mobile devices, and mobile computers can be powered by small batteries. Personal
computers in their various forms are the icons of the modern age. A computer consists of an
input unit, central processing unit and an output unit.

Before performing any computation, data and instructions must be entered into the computer
system. This task is done by the input unit, which links the external environment with the
computer system. The data and the instructions entered in the system depend upon the device
that we use. The input device must have the capacity to transform the data into the computer
language. This transformation is done by the unit called input interface. Thus the input unit must
perform three functions such as accepting of data and instructions from outside sources, covert
them into computer acceptable form and supply the converted data to the computer system to
process them.

A central processing unit, also referred to as CPU, is the hardware within a computer system
which carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetical,
logical, and input/output operations of the system. The term has been in use in the computer
industry since the early 1960s. The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed
over the course of their history, but their fundamental operation remains the same. On large
machines, CPUs require one or more printed circuit boards. On personal computers and small
workstations, the CPU is housed in a single silicon chip called a microprocessor. Since the 1970s
the microprocessor class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other CPU
implementations. Modern CPUs are large scale integrated circuits in packages typically less than
four centimeters square, with hundreds of connecting pins.

Two typical components of a CPU are the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs
arithmetic and logical operations, and the control unit (CU), which extracts instructions
from memory and decodes and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.
In computing,

an arithmetic

and

logic

unit (ALU)

is

a digital

circuit that
4

performs arithmetic and logical operations. The ALU is a fundamental building block of
the central processing unit of a computer, and even the simplest microprocessors contain one for
purposes such as maintaining timers. The processors found inside modern CPUs and graphics
processing units (GPUs) accommodate very powerful and very complex ALUs; a single
component may contain a number of ALUs. Mathematician John von Neumann proposed the
ALU concept in 1945, when he wrote a report on the foundations for a new computer called
the EDVAC. In a general sense a control unit (CU) is a central part of a mechanism that controls
its operation.

In addition to the ALU and CU, the central processing unit also consists of a storage unit called
memory unit. In computing, memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs
(sequences of instructions) or data on a temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer or
other digital electronic device. The term primary memory is used for the information in physical
systems which function at high-speed (i.e. RAM), as a distinction from secondary memory,
which are physical devices for program and data storage which are slow to access but offer
higher memory capacity. Primary memory stored on secondary memory is called "virtual
memory".

The data or instructions can often be stored in traditional secondary memory such as
tape, magnetic disks and optical discs (CD-ROM and DVD-ROM). Sometime the data or
instruction can be stored in addressable semiconductor memory, i.e. integrated circuits consisting
of silicon-based transistors.

Mainly there are two main types of semiconductor memory such as volatile and non-volatile
memory. Examples of non-volatile memory are flash- pen drive memory (sometimes used as
secondary, sometimes primary computer memory) and ROM / (Read Only Memory)/ PROM
(Programmable Read Only Memory) / EPROM ( Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
/EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. Examples of volatile
memory are primary memory (typically dynamic RAM (Random Access Memory) - DRAM),
and fast CPU cache memory (typically static RAM - SRAM, which is fast but energy-consuming
and offer lower memory capacity per area unit than DRAM) .
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The semiconductor memory is organized into memory cells, each storing one binary bit (0 or 1).
The memory cells are grouped into words of fix word length, for example 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or
128 bit. Each word can be accessed by a binary address of N bit, making it possible to store 2
raised by N words in the memory. This implies that processor registers normally are not
considered as memory, since they only store one word and do not include an addressing
mechanism.

The Output Unit supplies the information and results to the outer world. As the computer
performs its processing under binary code, they are to be translated into human acceptable code.
This task is done by the unit in the output device called output interface. Thus the output device
performs three functions such as accepting the results produced by the computer, converting
them to the human acceptable form and supplies the results to the outside world.
Characteristics of computers- Features of Computers:
The increasing popularity of computers has proved that it is a very powerful and useful tool.
The power and usefulness of this popular tool is mainly due to its following features:
1. AUTOMATIC: The computer is said to be automatic, if it works by itself without
human interventions. Computer is an automatic machine, because once on a job, they
carry on, until the job is finished, normally without any human assistance.
However, computers being machines cannot start themselves. They cannot go out and
find their own problems and solutions. They have to be instructed. That is, a computer
works from a program of coded instructions, which specify exactly how a particular job
is to be done. Some of the other features of computers, such as speed and accuracy, are
due to the fact that they are automatic, and work on a problem without any human
intervention.

2. SPEED: A computer is very fast device. It can perform the amount of work, that a
human being can do in an entire year, in a few seconds. To put it in a deference manner,
a computer does in one minute what would take a man his entire lifeline. The computer
can perform millions of instructions per second. The early computers were capable of
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doing only 300 instructions per second. But today, the computers can perform more than
300 millions of instructions per second.

3. ACCURACY: In additions to being very fast, computers are very accurate. The accuracy
of computer is consistent high, and the degree of accuracy of particular computer depends
upon its design. Usually the computers do not commit errors in the processing of the data.
Most of the errors are due to human rather technological reasons. The computer has an
error detection system. The errors may be due to the input of the data or due to the failure
in the program. Computers can calculate up to twenty or more significant digits.

4. DILIGENCE: Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, trendless and
lack of

concentration. It can continuously work for hours, without creating much error

and without

grumbling, hence, computers score over human beings in doing routine

type of jobs, which require great accuracy. If ten million calculations have to be performed,
a computer will perform the ten millionth calculations with exactly the same accuracy and
speed as the first one.

5. VERSATILITY: Though the computers are basically designed to perform arithmetic

operation, they are capable of performing almost all the task. Today computer is useful in an
unbelievable range of operations. Once moment, it is preparing the results of examinations,
the next moment, it is busy in preparing electronic bills, and between, it may be helping an
office secretary to trace an important letter in seconds. All that is required to change its talent
is to slip in a new program into it. Briefly a computer is capable of performing almost many
tasks, if the task can be reduced to a series of logical steps.

6. POWER OF REMEMBERING: As a human being acquires new knowledge, the brain

subconsciously selects what it feels to be important and worth retaining in memory, and
relegates unimportant details what it feels. This is not the case with computers.
A computer can store and recall any amount of information because of its secondary storage
(a type of detachable memory) capability. Every piece of information can be retained as long
as desired by the user, and can be recalled. As and when it was fed to the computer several
7

years, the information recalled would be as accurate as on the day when it was fed to
the computer. A computer forgets or looses certain information only when it is asked to do
so. Hence, it is entirely up to the user, to make a computer retain or forget particular
information.

7. NO FEELINGS: Computers are devoid of emotions. They have no feelings and

no instincts because they are machines. Although men have succeeded in building a memory
for the computer, but no computer possesses the equivalent of a human heart and soul.

8. RELIABILITY: The reliability is very high in the case of computers. it has long failure
free lives. The micro processor chips used inside has a life of more than 40 years. The
computers are usually discarded not because that they have stopped working but because
of out of date. The computers are designed in such a way as to make maintenance easy.
When a component fails it can be replaced at low cost.

9. STORAGE: Computers have the capacity to store a large number of data and
instructions. It has a large primary memory capacity, hence a millions of data can be
stored in a CPU. In addition to this, secondary memory storage like CD, Floppy etc. can
also be used to store data. A normal CD can store millions of characters. Any item stored
in the secondary memory can be retrieved and processed very easily.

10. COMPACTNESS: Computers have been steadily decreasing in size by increasing their
capacity. Due to the compactness, computers have become cheaper and it consumes less
power.

Necessity of Computers
Computer systems now days, are everywhere. We can find that in the places where we cannot
expect. These gadgets are no longer a specialized tools used only by scientists or engineers like
before. They are not kept behind sealed-glass walls, under a climate-controlled environment
anymore. They are a fact of life that companies cannot live without it and even individuals like
us cannot live without its assistance. It is a common thread that ties together our education, work,
8

and home life. Thus, computer literacy becomes significant. Why do we need to spend our time
and energy studying books, enrolling to computer crash course, and becoming "computer
literate?"

Technically, to be "literate", means, to have knowledge of that subject. We are not born with
such knowledge and abilities, but it is hard to imagine living without computer skills today. Like
vehicles, that take us to work place everyday, we also rely on computers more with each passing
year. If there are still who do not use computers regularly, chances are great that you will soon.

But who will be the one to benefit from computer literacy? First, is the increased employability.
Here, the basic computer knowledge along with specific job skills is mainly considered by the
employers because a person would be more trainable in and adaptable to the computerized work
environment. Next, is, greater earnings potential, wherein, as you increase your computer
skills, you become a more valuable worker, especially if focused on high-tech skills like
programming, software/network administration, hardware maintenance and many more.
However, it doesn't follow that you must be a computer expert to increase your earnings. Skills
that involve application of the computer to specific tasks are highly valued. Another benefit is
that, it has a greater access to resources. Always bear in mind that computers are incredible
learning tools, especially when you have access to data on CD-ROMs or the Internet. PC can be
used to access vast knowledge bases on almost any topic.

Computers in Personal Affairs

You will have also a greater control of your assets, by using the power of the Internet and even a
little knowledge of computers. you can manage your personal finances and indulge your interests
in ways that were not possible back years ago. Here, you can control money you earn through
online banking and investing. Online shopping also is another benefit that makes it easier to
exchange something without tiring yourself and spending so much time going to stores with you.
There are new technologies, that enable you to monitor your entire household via PC - to set
your air conditioner or alarm clock, start your coffee maker or sprinklers, and even activate your
alarm system. With this range of growth of computer technologies, we cannot deny that we now
live in an information society - where information is considered to be an extremely valuable
9

community. The key players in this information-based economy are those who control important
information, or those who simply know how to access and uses it. Computer knowledge and
skills you can build with that literacy are vital to success in this society, not just in our working
lives, but in the ways we learn, manage our finances, and improve our standard of living.

Computers in Professional Activities

Although there are still many professions that do not rely on computers, they are becoming fewer
all the time. Remember that computers do not necessarily take the form of PC, so there is a good
chance that your career path will bring you in contact with some type of computer because many
of the tools in today's' workplace are computer technology. That's why it is very important to
have a basic understanding of computer technology. No matter what your career choice is, you
can benefit from knowledge of computer hardware and software, and how these components
function together. Even your job does not require you to work directly with a computer; this
knowledge may help you to envision new ways of using computers in your work that would
result in a more productive work environment. This can also lead you to career advancement
opportunities. But still, if you think that this case is overstated, that computers are not being used
that much, you should consider that computers are popping up in places & professions that my
seem unlikely.

As we hurtle towards the 21st century, we must accept the inevitability of a computer revolution
in the near future. It is an-inseparable part of development, as demonstrated by other countries.
Computers are no longer luxury or the sole property of the advanced countries. Their appropriate
uses in India can help us solve the unique problems of a developing country and bring about the
desired changes in increasing literacy, optimizing resources, increasing efficiency, productivity
and quality.

Already computers have become such an important part of our livesin airports, banks, railway
stations and every well-equipped modern office. As computer continues to proliferate in ever
increasing numbers across large segments of Government, business and industry, the common
man is beginning to believe hesitantly that computers can actually deliver a good part of the

10

promise that they had offered. Society is gradually accepting the fact that computers will indeed
change the manner, in which the things are done,

Computers can substantially save valuable man-hours by helping people through communication
to make reservation of tickets, operate their bank accounts, to pay for electricity water and
telephone bills, insurance premium and also do routine shopping. Trains can be operated
automatically by computers and traffic signals are computer co-ordinate to produce best traffic
patterns, increase reliability and safety and generally provide for more efficient services.

Computer in Agriculture Activities

The basic industry of India is 'agriculture'. In areas of agriculture and irrigation, computers are
making possible better matching of soil characteristics and crop. This coupled with better use of
resources like water, fertilizers and sunlight and more precise prediction of monsoons can help
India in increasing crop yields manifold.

Computer in Health Service

Computer in health is bringing new hope for the sick. In areas of health and medicine, expert
systems and data bases on blood groups availability, eye banks medical history of patients etc,
can bring about a marked improvement in our health services. Expert system can help in more
accurate diagnosis of ailments 'Hospital Information Systems' can help improve the efficiency of
our hospitals reduce mortality and death-rates and in general provide better and speedier health
care to our people.

Computer in Utility Services

While this realization is gaining firmer ground in areas like the utility services, railways, airlines,
agriculture, health etc., as well as organization control, there is area where the role of computers
as the prime agents of change has still not been recognized. That is the area of education. To
tackle a problem, it is essential that a modern aids offered by Information Technology are made
use to spread education to the rural areas where most of the illiteracy is concentrated. Computer
based lessons developed in various subjects by experts in that area could be used to educate the
masses. The computer is a rapidly evolving tool that can now deal quite effectively with all fine
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forms of information that man deals with for better education are data, text, image, graphics
and voice.

Computer in Education
One thought can take place in our minds for a moment that 'the computer will replace the
teacherthat would be a suicidal thought. But we should fully accept the reality that the
computer will radically change the manner in which teaching-learning processes take place. The
role of the teacher will undergo a radical change. From being a mere "information dumping
machine", the teacher will once again rise to the height of being a mentor, philosopher and guide
developing, instilling values, ideas, creating challenges and nurturing feelings, sentiments and
empathy in young minds. In the wider prospective, these are what are required for building a
strong nationintellectually spiritually and economically.

Computer in Government Administration

In the most important area of government administration, to enable administration take the right
decision at the right time, accurate, relevant and up-to-date information should be made available
to them. Modern computerized communication network can significantly help bureaucracy cut
its red tape.

Therefore, computers are synonymous with development. With appropriate computer usage and
quality of life applications, India will be able to effectively tackle its unique problems. The entire
society will undergo a transformation and what would emerge is a society that is more
intellectually aware and which values its time, intellect and dignity. A society armed with
computer expertise can meet with confidence the exciting new India of tomorrow.

History of Computing Hardware

The first use of the word "computer" was recorded in 1613, referring to a person who carried out
calculations, or computations, and the word continued with the same meaning until the middle of
the 20th century. From the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar
meaning, a machine that carries out computations.

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Limited-function early computers

The history of the modern computer begins with two separate technologies, automated
calculation and programmability, but no single device can be identified as the earliest
computer, partly because of the inconsistent application of that term.

The ABACUS was used by the Chinese people for counting purpose in the 50 century B.C. In
the 17th century John Napier invented a calculating device in which calculations can be made by
manipulating rods. Stimulated by the industrial revolution, in 1642, a French scientist, Blaise
Pascal invented the mechanical adding machine called Pascaline, with gears and wheels. In
1670 German mathematician Gottfried Leibnitz developed a similar machine for multiplication
and division. In 1804, Joseph Marie Jacquard, a French scientist, developed punch card system
for weaving purpose, which has given an idea for the development of programming by using
punch card system. In 1822, the English Mathematician, Charles Babbage, developed several
machines, called Engines, which were used for the preparation of statistics of life expectation.
It performed a sequence of operations automatically. He has also developed the idea of storing
instructions within the machine. This led to the development of Analytical Engine, which was
designed by him in the year 1833, but failed to produce a working model. This engine has five
parts, such as, input device, a store, a mill to perform arithmetic operations, a control unit and an
output device to retrieve results. This analytical engine was closely related to the modern
computer.
At the end of the 19th century, Herman Hollerith, the mathematician, who was employed in the
census bureau of US, used punched cards to tabulate census in 1890. He formed the Tabulating
Machine Company, which was merged with several other firms and formed International
Business Machine Corporation (IBM) in the year 1911.
During the early 20th century, IBM and others produced a variety of computing devices for
business purposes. They were powered by the electricity. The best of these devices was MARK
I developed by Howard Aiken in 1944, which was 15.5m length and 2.5m height. It contained
7.5 lakhs parts and used 926 km of wires. It weighed about 5tons.

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The vacuum tubes were the earliest developed electronic device in the 20th century. Mr.Atanasoff
along with Mr. Berry developed the first electronic computer called ABC (Atanasoff Belly
Computer), which was later extended to the development of the first general purpose electronic
computer called ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator)

From 1950 onwards, computers began to be sold commercially, and the development of
commercial computers, revolutionized the computer usage in every path of life. The modern
computers are distinguished on the basis of the components used for the manufacturing of the
computers. Before 1964, the term generation was used to denote the development of the
hardware technologies only but today, the term generation has been used to denote both the
hardware and software technologies. The history of computer development is often referred to in
reference to the different generations of computing devices. Each of the five generation of
computers is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed
the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more
efficient and reliable devices. Learn about each generation and the developments that led to the
current devices that we use today.

First Generation (1940-1956) - Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire rooms. The vacuum tube is a glass device which control and
amplify electronic signals. The computers of this generation were very expensive to operate and
in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause
of malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level
programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only
solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was
displayed on printouts. The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator) computers
which were introduced in the year 1943 was the first-generation computing devices. It has used
about 18000 vacuum tubes. In the year 1946, Dr. John Von Neumann has developed a new
model of computer with stored program concepts. Under this concept, a sequence of instructions
and data can be stored in the memory of the computer. This type of computers were called
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete variable Automatic Computers) In the year 1947, British scientists
14

developed the similar type of computers called EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Calculator) The UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computers) were known as the first
commercial computer delivered to a business client.

Second Generation (1956-1963) - Transistors

The transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The
transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s.
The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.
Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage,
it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on
punched cards for input and printouts for output. Second-generation computers moved from
cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed
programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also
being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also
the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic
drum to magnetic core technology. The computation time at this generation was made in micro
seconds (106). It has better portability and wider commercial use. It also requires manual
assembling and frequent maintenance. The first computers of this generation were developed for
the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation (1964-1971) - Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers. Instead of punched cards and
printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors
and interfaced with

an operating

system,

which

allowed

the

device

to

run

many

different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers
for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper
than their predecessors. Thus the third generation computers are smaller in size, more reliable,
and generate less heat. Its computation time has reduced to Nano second (109).They are easily
15

portable and it requires less power. Its production cost as well as maintenance charges are very
low, But it requires highly sophisticated skill for the production of ICs (Integrated Circuits)

Fourth Generation (1971- Present) Microprocessors

Initially ICs contained only very little components. Thus this technology was named SSIs
(Small Scale Integration). Due to the advancement of technology, it became possible to integrate
medium scale integration called MSI. Afterwards scientists developed Large Scale Integration
(LSI) with more than 30,000 components in a single chip. Later the effort is made to integrate
millions of components in a single chip, and that type of integration is called VLSIs. Today
almost all the modern computers have LSI chips as its brain. The microprocessor brought the
fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single
silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the
hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computerfrom
the central processing unit and memory to input/output controlson a single chip. In
1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many
areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors. As these small
computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which
eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the
development of GUIs (Graphic User Interchange), the mouse and handheld devices. The fourth
generation computer is smaller in size, very reliable and very negligible heat is produced. It is
much faster and its computation time is reduced to Pico seconds (1012). They are easily portable
and is used for the general purposes. Moreover they are cheaper and require minimum
maintenance. But it requires highly sophisticated technology for the manufacture of the ICs.

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) - Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use
of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a
reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face
of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that
16

respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization. It will be
parallel in shape and able to perform multiple tasks. It will not be algorithmic (step by step) in
function. In nature it will be a knowledge processor. It will behave like an expert human being
with common human language. In architecture, it will have KIPS (Knowledge Information
processing System) rather DIPS (Data Information Processing System) and LIPS (Language
Information Processing System).

Basic Structure of computers - Parts of computers

If you use a desktop computer, you might already know that there isn't any single part called the
"computer." A computer is really a system of many parts working together. The physical parts,
which we can see and touch, are collectively called hardware. (Software, on the other hand,
refers to the instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to do) Both the hardware and
software consist of parts of computers.

Computer Hardware
The computer system can be proved to be useful only when it is able to communicate with its
external environment. The computer peripheral (Input / Output devices) provides the means of
communication between the computer and the outside world. The computer peripherals are the
devices surrounded to the CPU. Input devices accept the data from the outside world and enter
them into the primary storage and output devices accept the results from the primary storage to
supply them to the user or to store them for future references. There are some devices which
perform both the input and output functions.

A large varieties of I/O devices (Input / Out put devices) are now available in the market.
Regardless of the nature of I/O devices, a special processor called I/O interfaces are required to
convert the input data to the internal codes used by the computer for processing and to convert
internal codes to human reliable form while supplying the results to the user. The speed of the
I/O devices is normally slower than the speed of the primary storage and CPU.

In earlier period data were entered into the computer by using Punched Card readers, which
identifies the punches in the punched cards. (Card with punches or holes) The speed of the
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punched card readers vary from 300 to 2000 cards per minute. Afterwards, punched paper
tape readers replaced the punch card readers. This paper tape reading machines identified 250
to 1000 characters per second. Then, magnetic tape drive, and magnetic disc drives are in use
to enter data into the computer system. The data transfer rate in the case of magnetic tape is 1
million byte per second. (8 bits constitute a byte bit means binary digit). We can enter data
through keyboard, teletypewriter, microphone bar code reader, MICR (Magnetic Ink Character
Reader etc. several types of keyboards are available in the market, but QWERTY key boards are
very familiar as it consist of letter keys, digital keys, special character keys, control keys,
function keys etc.

The results are normally retrieved through display units like monitors, speakers, printers etc.
Two types of monitors are now available in the market such as CRT Display (Cathode Ray
Tube) and LCD (Liquid Cristal Display) Units. The terminal consists of small memory called
buffer, which has a storage capacity equal to the total number of characters that can be displayed
at a time on the terminal screen. LCDs are slim in size and consumes lesser energy comparing to
the CRTs. There are several varieties of VDTs (Visual Display Terminal) such as Alpha
numeric VDTs (which accepts letters, numbers and special characters only), Graphic VDT,s
(which displays graphs, and diagrams in addition to the alpha numerical characters), light pen
VDT,s, touch screen VDT,s (which sensitizes the finger tip or special pen like instrument)

Speakers provide audio type results to the users. But, if the user requires a hard copy, (printed
copy) then that also can be provided through the printers. Mainly there are two types of printers
such as 1) Impact printers and 2) Non impact printers.

Impact printers are those printers, which makes printing by hammering the keys on the paper
through ink quoted ribbon by producing sounds of hammering. Where as the non impact printers
are sound less as there is no hammering of the keys. They use thermal, electro static, chemical
and ink jet technology for making prints.

Depending on the speed and approach there are two types of impact printers such as character
printers, and line printers. In the case of character printer, it prints letter by letter and the line
18

printer prints line by line. Daisy wheel printers (Letter quality Printers) and Dot matrix printers
are two important types of character printers. The dot matrix printer consists of a matrix of tiny
needles, which moves to and fro by making tiny dots on the paper. They are less expensive and
much faster in printing comparing to the daisy wheel printers. Drum printers (printing press type)
and chain printers are the two important types of line printers.

Thermal printer, laser printer, inkjet printer etc are the important types of non impact printers.
Thermal printer uses hot needles pressed against the heat sensitive paper in a dot matrix to form
characters. Laser printer uses laser produced light to charge a photo conductive surface in the
image of the character to be printed. Ink jet printers are commonly used non impact printers
which produces colour printing also. Here, the droplets are forced out into the paper from
nozzles to form characters.

Problems of Computerization
a. Mixed Blessing. Despite t h e promised a n d proven benefits of automation,
management h a s y e t to harness t h e full potential of computers. Along with t h e
benefits h a v e come a host of unresolved problems that h a v e made t h e computer a
mixed blessing, at best. Those who h a v e tried to correct an erroneous automated
hospital bill, or get off a mailing list, c a n relate to this assessment.
b. Computer Error and Downtime is realities with which most users are well familiar.
A client becomes hypertensive while waiting for a medical record number because a
computer is down. Patients are billed incorrectly or n o t at all because of "computer
error." Computer error a n d downtime c a n affect productivity a n d profits.
c. Data Pollution, also k n o w n as information overload, is a less publicized problem.
It exists when organizations are so overwhelmed with information t h e y are literally
polluted with data. Information overload in health care operations means that t h e
v e r y tools designed to simplify a n d improve operations contribute to t h e problem,
which can create a large financial drain on an institution.
d. Data Manipulation without Safeguards. It is a simple matter to change t h e data
stored on a computer system. It c a n be done without leaving a trace of any tampering.
A college student paid a friend in t h e computer center to change his "D" transcript to
19

straight "A's." Based on t h e fraudulent transcript he w a s accepted for membership in a

prestigious academic society. It was o n l y by chance that a physics professor discovered
t h e crime 3 years after t h e student h a d graduated, when he noticed a discrepancy
between his own handwritten grade sheet a n d t h e printed transcript.
e. Misuse of Equipment and Data by Authorized and Unauthorized Users. There
are k n o w n cases of employees using an organization's computer to run a
business. In California, for example, two employees used two million dollars worth of
government computer time to establish their own company. Misuse of data is an e v e n
more serious problem. Health care workers a n d criminal justice officials h a v e
obtained sensitive personal information to embarrass, bribe or h a r m individuals.
f. Computer Viruses. Viruses are bits of computer codes entered into a system
through software. Some viruses h a v e e v e n been detected in commercial software
programs. A virus c a n infect a disk, scrambling or erasing files. Other viruses are
"trapdoors" that allow unauthorized access to information or exploitation of t h e
system. Recent court decisions h a v e found perpetrators guilty of a crime, with
penalties including jail a n d high monetary loss, because viruses could h a v e a
devastating effect on t h e flow of information. There have been no major incidents
affecting Army computers where proper precautions were taken.

Structure of Computers
If you use a desktop computer, you might already know that there isn't any single part called the
"computer." A computer is really a system of many parts working together. The physical parts,
which you can see and touch, are collectively called hardware. (Software, on the other hand,
refers to the instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to do.)
The illustration below shows the most common hardware in a desktop computer system. Your
system may look a little different, but it probably has most of these parts. A laptop computer has
similar parts but combines them into a single notebook-sized package.

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Desktop computer system

Let's take a look at each of these parts.

System unit
The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box placed on or
underneath your desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that process information.
The most important of these components is the central processing unit (CPU),
(CPU)
or microprocessor,, which acts as the "brain" of your computer. Another component is random
access memory (RAM),, which temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the
computer is on. The information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is turned off.

Almost every other part of your comp

computer
uter connects to the system unit using cables. The cables
plug into specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware that is not
part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral device or device.

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System unit

Storage
Your computer has one or more disk drivesdevices
devices that store information on a metal or plastic
disk. The disk preserves the information even when your computer is turned off.

Hard disk drive

Your computer's hard disk drive stores information on a hard disk,, a rigid platter or stack of
platters with a magnetic surface. Because hard disks can hold massive amounts of information,
they usually serve as your computer's primary means of storage, holding almost all of your
programs and files. The hard disk drive is normally located inside the system unit.

Hard disk drive

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CD and DVD drives

Nearly all computers today come equipped with a CD or DVD drive, usually located on the front
of the system unit. CD drives use lasers to read (retrieve) data from a CD, and many CD drives
can also write (record) data onto CDs. If you have a recordable disk drive, you can store copies
of your files on blank CDs. You can also use a CD drive to play music CDs on your computer.

CD

DVD drives can do everything that CD drives ca

can,
n, plus read DVDs. If you have a DVD drive,
you can watch movies on your computer. Many DVD drives can record data onto blank DVDs.
If you have a recordable CD or DVD drive, periodically back up (copy) your important files to
CDs or DVDs. That way, if you
yourr hard disk ever fails, you won't lose your data.

Floppy disk drive

Floppy disk drives store information on floppy disks,, also called floppies or diskettes.
Compared to CDs and DVDs, floppy disks can store only a small amount of data. They also
retrieve information more slowly and are more prone to damage. For these reasons, floppy disk
drives are less popular than they used to be, although some computers still include them. Even
though the outside is made of hard plastic, that's just the sleeve the disk inside is made of a thin,
flexible vinyl material.

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Floppy disk

Mouse
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen. Although
mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual mouse. It's small,
oblong, and connected to the system unit by a long wire that resembles
resembles a tail, which is also
known as on line mouse.. Some newer mice are wireless. They are also known as off line mouse.

Mouse

A mouse usually has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary
button.. Many mice also have a wheel bbetween
etween the two buttons, which allows you to scroll
smoothly through screens of information.

When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves in the same
direction. (The pointer's appearance might change depending on where it's positioned
posi
on your
screen.) When you want to select an item, you point to the item and then click (press and release)
the primary button. Pointing and clicking with your mouse is the main way to interact with your
computer.

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Keyboard
A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into your computer. Like the keyboard on a typewriter,
it has keys for letters and numbers, but it also has special keys:

The function keys,, found on the top row, perform different functions depending on where
they are used.

The numeric keypad,, located on the right side of most keyboards, allows you to enter
numbers quickly.

The navigation keys,, such as the arrow keys, allow you to move your position within a
document or webpage.

Keyboard

You can also use your keyboard to perform many of the same tasks you can perform with a
mouse.

Monitor
A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The portion of the
monitor that displays the information is called the screen. Like a television screen, a computer
screen can show still or moving pictures.

There are two basic types of monitors: CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors and LCD (liquid crystal
display) monitors. Both types produce sharp images, but LCD monitors have the advantage
adv
of
being much thinner and lighter. CRT monitors, however, are generally more affordable and
consumes lesser power.

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LCD monitor (left); CRT monitor (right)

Printer
A printer transfers data from a computer onto paper. You don't need a printer to use your
computer, but having one allows you to print e-mail,
e mail, cards, invitations, announcements, and
other materials. Many people also like being able to print their own photos at home.

The two main types of printers are inkjet printers and laser printers.. Inkjet printers are the
most popular printers for the home. They can print in black and white or in full color and can
produce high-quality
quality photographs when used with special paper. Laser printers are faster and
generally better able to handle heavy use.

Inkjet printer (left); laser printer (right)

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Speakers
Speakers are used to play sound. They may be built into the system unit or connected with
cables. Speakers allow you to listen to music and hear sound effects from your computer.

Computer speakers

Modem
To connect your computer to the Internet, you need a modem.. A modem is a device that sends
and receives computer information over a telephone line or high-speed
high speed cable. Modems are
sometimes built into the system unit, but higher-speed
higher
modems are usually separate components.

Cable modem

Types of Computers
Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is
considerable overlap:

Personal computer:: A small, single-user

single user computer based on a microprocessor.
27

Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal

computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higher-quality
monitor.

Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of users

simultaneously.

Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or

thousands of users simultaneously.

Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of

instructions per second.

Supercomputer and Mainframe

Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available.
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require
immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather
forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers scientific simulations,
(animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and
analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

Mainframe Computers
Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor unit or
"main frame" of a room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the emergence of smaller
"minicomputer" designs in the early 1970s, the traditional big iron machines were described as
"mainframe computers" and eventually just as mainframes. Nowadays a Mainframe is a very
large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users
simultaneously. The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a
supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas
a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently. In some ways, mainframes
are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But
supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe. The distinction between
small mainframes and minicomputers is vague, depending really on how the manufacturer wants
to market its machines.
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Minicomputer
It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and
small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and
workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting
from up to 200 users simultaneously.

Workstation
It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,
software development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount of
computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations generally come
with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in network support,
and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk
drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk
drive. The most common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like
personal computers, most workstations are single-user computers. However, workstations are
typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as standalone systems.

Personal computer:
It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. In
price, personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five thousand
pounds. All are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an
entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting,
desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At
home, the most popular use for personal computers is for playing games and recently for surfing
the Internet.

Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most popular personal
computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During the late 1970s and
early 1980s, new models and competing operating systems seemed to appear daily. Then, in
1981, IBM entered the fray with its first personal computer, known as the IBM PC. The IBM PC
29

quickly became the personal computer of choice, and most other personal computer
manufacturers fell by the wayside. P.C. is short for personal computer or IBM PC. One of the
few companies to survive IBM's onslaught was Apple Computer, which remains a major player
in the personal computer marketplace. Other companies adjusted to IBM's dominance by
building IBM clones, computers that were internally almost the same as the IBM PC, but that
cost less. Because IBM clones used the same microprocessors as IBM PCs, they were capable of
running the same software. Over the years, IBM has lost much of its influence in directing the
evolution of PCs. Therefore after the release of the first PC by IBM the term PC increasingly
came to mean IBM or IBM-compatible personal computers, to the exclusion of other types of
personal computers. In recent years, the term PC has become more and more difficult to pin
down. In general, though, it applies to any personal computer based on an Intel microprocessor,
or on an Intel-compatible microprocessor. For nearly every other component, including the
operating system, there are several options, all of which fall under the rubric of PC

The principal characteristics of personal computers are that they are single-user systems and are
based on microprocessors. However, although personal computers are designed as single-user
systems, it is common to link them together to form a network. In terms of power, there is great
variety.
.
Types of Personal Computers
Actual personal computers can be generally classified by size and chassis / case. The chassis or
case is the metal frame that serves as the structural support for electronic components. Every
computer system requires at least one chassis to house the circuit boards and wiring. The chassis
also contains slots for expansion boards. If you want to insert more boards than there are slots,
you will need an expansion chassis, which provides additional slots. There are two basic flavors
of chassis designsdesktop models and tower modelsbut there are many variations on these
two basic types. Then come the portable computers, that are computers small enough to carry.
Portable computers include notebook and subnotebook computers, hand-held computers,
palmtops, and PDAs.

Tower model
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The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and mass storage devices
are stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast to desktop models, in which
these components are housed in a more compact box. The main advantage of tower models is
that there are fewer space constraints, which makes installation of additional storage devices
easier.

Desktop model
A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the monitor sitting on top
of the computer. Desktop model computers are broad and low, whereas tower model computers
are narrow and tall. Because of their shape, desktop model computers are generally limited to
three internal mass storage devices. Desktop models designed to be very small are sometimes
referred to as slim line models.

Notebook computer
An extremely light weight personal computer is called note book computer. Notebook computers
typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from
size, the principal difference between a notebook computer and a personal computer is the
display screen. Notebook computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel
technologies, to produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality of notebook
display screens varies considerably. In terms of computing power, modern notebook computers
are nearly equivalent to personal computers. They have the same CPUs, memory capacity, and
disk drives. However, all this power in a small package is expensive. Notebook computers cost
about twice as much as equivalent regular-sized computers. Notebook computers come with
battery packs that enable you to run them without plugging them in. However, the batteries need
to be recharged every few hours.

Laptop computer
A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap is called laptop computer.
Nowadays, laptop computers are more frequently called notebook computers.

Subnotebook computer
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A portable computer that is slightly lighter and smaller than a full-sized notebook computer.
Typically, subnotebook computers have a smaller keyboard and screen, but are otherwise
equivalent to notebook computers.

Hand-held computer
A portable computer that is small enough to be held in ones hand. Although extremely
convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook computers because of their
small keyboards and screens. The most popular hand-held computers are those that are
specifically designed to provide PIM (personal information manager) functions, such as a
calendar and address book. Some manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard problem
by replacing the keyboard with an electronic pen. However, these pen-based devices rely on
handwriting recognition technologies, which are still in their infancy. Hand-held computers are
also called PDAs, palmtops and pocket computers.

Palmtop
A small computer that literally fits in your palm is called palm top computer. Compared to fullsize computers, palmtops are severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions such as
phone books and calendars. Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard for input are often
called hand-held computers or PDAs. Because of their small size, most palmtop computers do
not include disk drives. However, many contain PCMCIA slots in which you can insert disk
drives, modems, memory, and other devices. Palmtops are also called PDAs, hand-held
computers and pocket computers.

PDA
Short for personal digital assistant is a handheld device that combines computing,
telephone/fax, and networking features. A typical PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax
sender, and personal organizer. Unlike portable computers, most PDAs are pen-based, using a
stylus, a pen like writable instrument, rather than a keyboard for input. This means that they also
incorporate handwriting recognition features. Some PDAs can also react to voice input by using
voice recognition technologies. The field of PDA was pioneered by Apple Computer, which
introduced the Newton Message Pad in 1993. Shortly thereafter, several other manufacturers
32

offered similar products. To date, PDAs have had only modest success in the marketplace, due to
their high price tags and limited applications. However, many experts believe that PDAs will
eventually become common gadgets. PDAs are also called palmtops, hand-held computers and
pocket computers.

Information Technology
Information technology (IT) is concerned with the development, management, and use of
computer-based information systems. Humans have been storing, retrieving, manipulating and
communicating information since the Sumerians in Mesopotamia developed writing in about
3000 BC, but the term "information technology" in its modern sense first appeared in a 1958, in
an article published in the Harvard Business Review; which commented that "the new
technology does not yet have a single established name. We shall call it information technology
(IT), based on the storage and processing technology employed, it is possible to distinguish four
distinct phases of IT development: pre-mechanical (3000 BC 1450 AD), mechanical (1450
1840), electromechanical (18401940) and electronic.

Definition
The Information Technology Association of America has defined information technology (IT) as
"the study, design, development, application, implementation, support or management of
computer-based information systems", but the term has also been applied more narrowly to
describe a branch of engineering dealing with the use of computers and telecommunications
equipment to store, retrieve, transmit and manipulate data. Although commonly used to refer to
computers and computer networks, IT encompasses other information-distribution technologies
such as television and telephones, a wider field more explicitly known as information and
communications technology.

History of Information Technology

Information technology has been around for a long, long time. Basically as long as people have
been around, information technology has been around because there were always ways of
communicating through technology available at that point in time. There are 4 main ages that
divide up the history of information technology. Only the latest age (electronic) and some of the
33

electromechanical age really affects us today, but it is important to learn about how we got to the
point we are at with technology today. Following are the different ages in information technology.

Pre-mechanical
The pre-mechanical age is the earliest age of information technology. It can be defined as the time
between 3000B.C. and 1450A.D. We are talking about a long time ago. When humans first started
communicating they would try to use language or simple picture drawings known as petroglyths,
which were usually carved in rock. Early alphabets were developed such as the Phoenician
alphabet.

As alphabets became more popular and more people were writing information down, pens and
paper began to be developed. It started off as just marks in wet clay, but later paper was created out
of papyrus plant. The most popular kind of paper made was probably by the Chinese who made
paper from rags.

Now that people were writing a lot of information down they needed ways to keep it all in
permanent storage. This is where the first books and libraries are developed. Youve probably
heard of Egyptian scrolls which were popular ways of writing down information to save. Some
groups of people were actually binding paper together into a book-like form.

Also during this period were the first numbering systems. Around 100A.D. was when the first 1-9
system was created by people from India. However, it wasnt until 875A.D. (775 years later) that
the number 0 was invented. And yes now that numbers were created, people wanted stuff to do
with them so they created calculators. A calculator was the very first sign of an information
processor. The popular model of that time was the abacus.

Mechanical
The mechanical age is when we first start to see connections between our current technology and
its ancestors. The mechanical age can be defined as the time between 1450 and 1840. A lot of new
technologies are developed in this era as there is a large explosion in interest with this area.
Technologies like the slide rule (an analog computer used for multiplying and dividing) were
34

invented. Blaise Pascal invented the Pascaline which was a very popular mechanical computer.
Charles Babbage developed the difference engine which tabulated polynomial equations using the
method of finite differences.

There were lots of different machines created during this era and while we have not yet gotten to a
machine that can do more than one type of calculation in one, like our modern-day calculators, we
are still learning about how all of our all-in-one machines started. Also, if you look at the size of
the machines invented in this time compared to the power behind them it seems (to us) absolutely
ridiculous to understand why anybody would want to use them, but to the people living in that time
all of these inventions were HUGE.

Electromechanical
Now we are finally getting close to some technologies that resemble our modern-day technology.
The electromechanical age can be defined as the time between 1840 and 1940. These are the
beginnings of telecommunication. The telegraph was created in the early 1800s. Morse code was
created by Samuel Morse in 1835. The telephone (one of the most popular forms of
communication ever) was created by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876. The first radio developed by
Guglielmo Marconi in 1894. All of these were extremely crucial emerging technologies that led to
big advances in the information technology field.
The first large-scale automatic digital computer in the United States was the Mark 1 created by
Harvard University around 1940. This computer was 8ft high, 50ft long, 2ft wide, and weighed 5
tons - HUGE. It was programmed using punch cards. How does your PC match up to this hunk of
metal? It was from huge machines like this that people began to look at downsizing all the parts to
first make them usable by businesses and eventually in your own home.
Electronic
The electronic age is what we currently live in. It can be defined as the time between 1940 and
right now. The ENIAC was the first high-speed, digital computer capable of being reprogrammed
to solve a full range of computing problems. This computer was designed to be used by the U.S.

35

Army for artillery firing tables. This machine was even bigger than the Mark 1 taking up 680
square feet and weighing 30 tons - HUGE. It mainly used vacuum tubes to do its calculations.

There are 4 main sections of digital computing. The first was the era of vacuum tubes and punch
cards like the ENIAC and Mark 1. Rotating magnetic drums were used for internal storage. The
second generation replaced vacuum tubes with transistors, punch cards were replaced with
magnetic tape, and rotating magnetic drums were replaced by magnetic cores for internal storage.
Also during this time high-level programming languages were created such as FORTRAN and
COBOL. The third generation replaced transistors with integrated circuits, magnetic tape was used
throughout all computers, and magnetic core turned into metal oxide semiconductors. An actual
operating system showed up around this time along with the advanced programming language
BASIC. The fourth and latest generation brought in CPUs (central processing units) which
contained memory, logic, and control circuits all on a single chip. The personal computer was
developed (Apple II). The graphical user interface (GUI) was developed.

Advantages & Disadvantages of ITBefore we can know about all the advantages and disadvantages of information technology, it is
essential that we know what information technology is exactly, and why it has to play such an
important role in our daily lives. Today information technology involves more than just
computer literacy; it also takes into account how computers work and how they can further be
used not just for information processing but also for communications and problem solving tasks
as well.

Our world today has changed a great deal with the aid of information technology. Things that
were once done manually or by hand have now become computerized operating systems, which
simply require a single click of a mouse to get a task completed. With the aid of IT we are not
only able to stream line our business processes but we are also able to get constant information in
'real time' that is up to the minute and up to date.

The significance of IT can be seen from the fact that it has penetrated almost every aspect of our
daily lives from business to leisure and even society. Today personal PCs, cell phones, fax
36

machines, pagers, email and internet have all not only become an integral part of our very culture
but also play an essential role in our day to day activities. With such a wide scope for the purpose
of this article we shall focus on the impact of the internet in information technology.

Some of the advantages of information technology:

Globalization - IT has not only brought the world closer together, but it has allowed the world's
economy to become a single interdependent system. This means that we can not only share
information quickly and efficiently, but we can also bring down barriers of linguistic and
geographic boundaries. The world has developed into a global village due to the help of
information technology allowing countries like Chile and Japan who are not only separated by
distance but also by language to shares ideas and information with each other.

Communication - With the help of information technology, communication has also become
cheaper, quicker, and more efficient. We can now communicate with anyone around the globe by
simply text messaging them or sending them an email for an almost instantaneous response. The
internet has also opened up face to face direct communication from different parts of the world
thanks to the helps of video conferencing.

Cost effectiveness - Information technology has helped to computerize the business process thus
streamlining businesses to make them extremely cost effective money making machines. This in
turn increases productivity which ultimately gives rise to profits that means better pay and less
strenuous working conditions.

Bridging the cultural gap - Information technology has helped to bridge the cultural gap by
helping people from different cultures to communicate with one another, and allow for the
exchange of views and ideas, thus increasing awareness and reducing prejudice.

More time - IT has made it possible for businesses to be open 24 x7 all over the globe. This
means that a business can be open anytime anywhere, making purchases from different countries
easier and more convenient. It also means that you can have your goods delivered right to your
doorstep with having to move a single muscle.
37

Creation of new jobs - Probably the best advantage of information technology is the creation of
new and interesting jobs. Computer programmers, Systems analyzers, Hardware and Software
developers and Web designers are just some of the many new employment opportunities created
with the help of IT.

Some Disadvantages of Information Technology:

Unemployment - While information technology may have streamlined the business process it has
also crated job redundancies, downsizing and outsourcing. This means that a lot of lower and
middle level jobs have been done away with causing more people to become unemployed.

Privacy - Though information technology may have made communication quicker, easier and
more convenient, it has also bought along privacy issues. From cell phone signal interceptions to
email hacking, people are now worried about their once private information becoming public
knowledge.

Lack of job security - Industry experts believe that the internet has made job security a big issue
as since technology keeps on changing with each day. This means that one has to be in a constant
learning mode, if he or she wishes for their job to be secure.

Dominant culture - While information technology may have made the world a global village, it
has also contributed to one culture dominating another weaker one. For example it is now argued
that US influences how most young teenagers all over the world now act, dress and behave.
Languages too have become overshadowed, with English becoming the primary mode of
communication for business and everything else.
Data, Information & Knowledge
Data: Data are values of qualitative or quantitative variables, belonging to a set of items. Data in
computing (or data processing) are represented in a structure, often tabular (represented by rows
and columns), a tree (a set of nodes with parent-children relationship) or a graph structure (a set
of interconnected nodes). Data are typically the results of measurements and can be visualized

38

using graphs or images. Data as an abstract concept can be viewed as the lowest level of
abstraction from which information and then knowledge are derived.
Raw data, i.e., unprocessed data, refers to a collection of numbers, characters and is a relative
term; data processing commonly occurs by stages, and the "processed data" from one stage may
be considered the "raw data" of the next. Field data refers to raw data collected in an
uncontrolled environment. Experimental data refers to data generated within the context of a
scientific investigation by observation and recording. The word data is the plural of datum, Data
as a concept in computer science or data processing: data are numbers, words, images, etc.,
accepted as they stand.
Information: Information, in its most restricted technical sense, is a sequence of symbols that
can be interpreted as a message. Information can be recorded as signs, or transmitted as signals.
Information is any kind of event that affects the state of a dynamic system. Conceptually,
information is the message (utterance or expression) being conveyed. The meaning of this
concept varies in different contexts. Moreover, the concept of information is closely related to
notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning,
understanding, mental stimuli, pattern, perception, representation, and entropy.
Knowledge: Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something, which can include facts,
information, descriptions, or skills acquired through experience or education. It can refer to the
theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It can be implicit (as with practical skill or
expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); it can be more or less
formal or systematic. Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes: perception,
communication, association and reasoning; while knowledge is also said to be related to the
capacity of acknowledgment in human beings.

39

DISTINCTION BETWEEN DATA AND INFORMATION

Data
Information
The word Data is derived from the plural The word Information is derived from latin
form of latin word Datum, which means to word Informare, which means to instruct
give.
Originated at mid 17th century.

Originated at late middle time

Data is a collection of raw facts

Information is the outcome derived after

processing the data.

May or may not be meaningful

Information is always meaningful.

Input to any system may be treated as Data.

Output after processing the system is

Information

Understanding is difficult.

Understanding is easy

Data must be processed to understand.

Information is already in understandable form,

it may be processed further to make it more
understandable.

Data may not be in the order.

Example:

Statistics,

numbers,

Information should be in the order.

characters, Example Reports, Knowledge.

images.

Information Management
Imagine what itd be like if every decision was based upon good quality, up-to-date information?
Where everyone had ready and equal access to the information they need? Where good quality
information was available to support all the work you do?
What would it be like if it was easy to find the experts you need to talk to? Where you could
share your expertise with those who needed to know it? And if the relevant information you
needed to keep up to date was delivered to your desk automatically?
Youre imagining a world thats recognized the value of information management.
40

Its no less true for being repeated, but for many organizations their information and knowledge
is their greatest asset. Unfortunately it is often underutilized. Many organizations dont recognize
information as an asset or entity in itself, and they dont know how to manage it effectively.
Small companies are especially bad at this as theyre so used to sharing information informally
within a small team. Its only when they grow, or when a key member of staff is absent, that they
realize they need to store and share their information properly.

The bottom line is that information management can save money of an organization. Some
information management tools and practices may cost initially, but chosen well they can quickly
show a return on investment. It is to be remembered that, how even basic information
management practices can help an organization. Following are some of the main reasons.

Managing your information saves you money

The first thing youll notice after implementing information management strategies is that it
saves you time and money. It enables colleagues to share work with each other to avoid re-doing
work and saves staff time by helping them find the information they need quicker. It gives you
and your colleague better information to make better decisions and avoid costly mistakes.
Moreover it enables you to know what expertise is held by people within your organization to
avoid buying in that expertise and it also enables you to recognize what your staff know and use
their knowledge, increasing morale and job satisfaction. It sometimes stops you losing vital
knowledge and information when a colleague leaves your organization. It also stops the
workplace grinding to a halt when a key member of staff is unexpectedly absent. In addition to
this it helps your team do their jobs, resulting in less frustration and a happier, more productive
team.

Managing your information makes you money

When youve adopted sensible information management practices in your organization, youll
see how it can help you work more effectively, and be more profitable. When you and your
colleagues embrace information management, you know what your experts know, so you can
better define your position in the marketplace to go out and sell your companys expertise.
41

Further, you can package your expertise in the right format, enabling you to sell that same
expertise over and over again. It also helps to look at what you know in a systematic way and
identify the gaps in your collective knowledge then go out and learn what you need to know.
Moreover, you can improve your customer service by knowing more about your customers and
their needs.

Managing your information keeps you out of trouble

If making your organization more effective wasnt enough, information management means you
know youre on the right side of the law. And you can prove it.
Right now,

does the way in which you store information about people comply with data protection
law?

is the security of your IT system good enough to protect the data you have on people and
enable you to comply with data protection law?

do the marketing telephone calls you make or emails you send comply with privacy and
electronic communications law?

do you know what company information you need to keep, and for how long, to comply
with tax and corporate governance laws?

and do you have in place ways of ensuring that you are kept up to date on developments
in information law that effect you?

Information management isnt something which should be left to chance. Smaller companies
make up the majority of our economy, yet they dont operate as efficiently as they should.
Information management is about looking after the core of your business, which is what you
know and how you use it. It enables you to grow, to avoid problems, and to make your working
life easier.

Knowledge Management
Knowledge management (KM) comprises a range of strategies and practices used in an
organization to identify, create, represent, distribute, and enable adoption of insights and
experiences. Such insights and experiences comprise knowledge, either embodied in individuals
42

or embedded in organizations as processes or practices. Many large companies and non-profit

organizations have resources dedicated to internal KM efforts, often as a part of their business
strategy, information technology, or human resource management departments. Several
consulting companies also exist that provide strategy and advice regarding KM to these
organizations.

Knowledge management efforts typically focus on organizational objectives such as improved

performance, competitive advantage, innovation, the sharing of lessons learned, integration and
continuous improvement of the organization. KM efforts overlap with organizational learning,
and may be distinguished from that by a greater focus on the management of knowledge as a
strategic asset and a focus on encouraging the sharing of knowledge. It is seen as an enabler of
organizational learning and a more concrete mechanism than the previous abstract research.

KM efforts have a long history, to include on-the-job discussions, formal apprenticeship,

discussion forums, corporate libraries, professional training and mentoring programs. More
recently, with increased use of computers in the second half of the 20th century, specific
adaptations of technologies such as knowledge bases, expert systems, knowledge repositories,
group decision support systems, intranets, and computer-supported cooperative work have been
introduced to further enhance such efforts.

In 1999, the term personal knowledge management was introduced which refers to the
management of knowledge at the individual level. In terms of the enterprise, early collections of
case studies recognized the importance of knowledge management dimensions of strategy,
process, and measurement. Key lessons learned included: people and the cultural norms which
influence their behaviors are the most critical resources for successful knowledge creation,
dissemination, and application; cognitive, social, and organizational learning processes are
essential to the success of a knowledge management strategy; and measurement, benchmarking,
and incentives are essential to accelerate the learning process and to drive cultural change. In
short, knowledge management programs can yield impressive benefits to individuals and
organizations if they are purposeful, concrete, and action-oriented.

43

Different frameworks for distinguishing between different types of' knowledge exist. One
proposed framework for categorizing the dimensions of knowledge distinguishes between tacit
knowledge and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge represents internalized knowledge that an
individual may not be consciously aware of, such as how he or she accomplishes particular tasks.
At the opposite end of the spectrum, explicit knowledge represents knowledge that the individual
holds consciously in mental focus, in a form that can easily be communicated to others.

Early research suggested that a successful KM effort needs to convert internalized tacit
knowledge into explicit knowledge in order to share it, but the same effort must also permit
individuals to internalize and make personally meaningful any codified knowledge retrieved
from the KM effort. Subsequent research into KM suggested that a distinction between tacit
knowledge and explicit knowledge represented an oversimplification and that the notion of
explicit knowledge is self-contradictory. Specifically, for knowledge to be made explicit, it must
be translated into information.

A second proposed framework for categorizing the dimensions of knowledge distinguishes

between embedded knowledge of a system outside of a human individual (e.g., an information
system may have knowledge embedded into its design) and embodied knowledge representing a
learned capability of a human bodys nervous and endocrine systems..

A third proposed framework for categorizing the dimensions of knowledge distinguishes

between the exploratory creation of "new knowledge" (i.e., innovation) vs. the transfer or
exploitation of "established knowledge" within a group, organization, or community.
Collaborative environments such as communities of practice or the use of social computing tools
can be used for both knowledge creation and transfer.

Knowledge may be accessed at three stages: before, during, or after KM-related activities.
Different organizations have tried various knowledge capture incentives, including making
content submission mandatory and incorporating rewards into performance measurement plans.
Considerable controversy exists over whether incentives work or not in this field and no
consensus has emerged.
44

One strategy to KM involves actively managing knowledge (push strategy). In such an instance,
individuals strive to explicitly encode their knowledge into a shared knowledge repository, such
as a database, as well as retrieving knowledge they need that other individuals have provided to
the repository. This is also commonly known as the Codification approach to KM.

Another strategy to KM involves individuals making knowledge requests of experts associated

with a particular subject on an ad hoc basis (pull strategy). In such an instance, expert
individual(s) can provide their insights to the particular person or people needing this. This is
also commonly known as the Personalization approach to KM.

Other knowledge management strategies and instruments for companies include: rewards (as a
means of motivating for knowledge sharing), storytelling (as a means of transferring tacit
knowledge), cross-project learning, after action reviews, knowledge mapping (a map of
knowledge repositories within a company accessible by all), communities of practice, expert
directories (to enable knowledge seeker to reach to the experts), best practice transfer,
knowledge fairs, competence management (systematic evaluation and planning of competences
of individual organization members), proximity & architecture (the physical situation of
employees can be either conducive or obstructive to knowledge sharing), master-apprentice
relationship, collaborative technologies (groupware, etc.), knowledge repositories (databases,
bookmarking engines, etc.), measuring and reporting intellectual capital (a way of making
explicit knowledge for companies), knowledge brokers (some organizational members take on
responsibility for a specific "field" and act as first reference on whom to talk about a specific
subject), social software (wikis, social bookmarking, blogs, etc.), and Inter-project knowledge
transfer

Early KM technologies included online corporate yellow pages as expertise locators and
document management systems. Combined with the early development of collaborative
technologies KM technologies expanded in the mid-1990s. Subsequent KM efforts leveraged
semantic technologies for search and retrieval and the development of e-learning tools for
communities of practice. Knowledge management systems can thus be categorized as falling into
45

one or more of the following groups: Groupware, document management systems, expert
systems, semantic networks, relational and object oriented databases, simulation tools, and
artificial intelligence

More recently, development of social computing tools (such as bookmarks, blogs, and wikis)
have allowed more unstructured, self-governing or ecosystem approaches to the transfer, capture
and creation of knowledge, including the development of new forms of communities, networks,
or matrixed organizations. However such tools for the most part are still based on text and code,
and thus represent explicit knowledge transfer. These tools face challenges in distilling
meaningful re-usable knowledge and ensuring that their content is transmissible through diverse
channels.

Software tools in knowledge management are a collection of technologies and are not necessarily
acquired as a single software solution. Furthermore, these knowledge management software tools
have the advantage of using the organization existing information technology infrastructure.
Organizations and business decision makers spend a great deal of resources and make significant
investments in the latest technology, systems and infrastructure to support knowledge
management. It is imperative that these investments are validated properly, made wisely and that
the most appropriate technologies and software tools are selected or combined to facilitate
knowledge management. Knowledge management has also become a cornerstone in emerging
business strategies.
Academic Search Technique
A computer connected to the internet opens up a significant avenue for the students to enhance
their learning. There are millions of resources on the internet where your interest lies. The most
common tool that is used for searching information over the internet is Search Engine (a set of
programs that searches the web for specific word you wish to know and then returns with a list of
web sites on which those words are found). One can search content, images, video etc., through
the search engine. Moreover the presences of several online encyclopedias have greatly
enhanced academic learning. Moreover, through email, instant messaging etc., one can transfer
knowledge in a collaborative environment.
46

In order to take advantage of the resources in the internet, there must be a connection with the
computer. There are two types of connectivity such as dial-up connectivity and broadband
connectivity. In the case of dial-up connections, one has to make use of a standard telephone
lines, however the broad band connectivity offers faster means to connect to the internet.
Broadband connections include cable, satellite, and DSL. DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is faster
than satellite. DSL uses a standard phone line to connect the computer to the internet. The users
located at rural areas connect to the internet through the satellite. Cable TV operators are
providing cable internet connections through coaxial cable. One must have a DSL modem
(Device to modulate and demodulate the signals) to get internet connection with the computer. In
order to reduce the interference caused when the DSL equipment shares the same lines as the
standard phone line, it requires a filter. There are different types of DSL, such as ADSL
(Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line which download data faster than upload), SDSL
(Symmetrical Digital Subscriber Line which upload and download data at the same speed) and
FiOS (Fiber Optic Service which has higher speed than any other line).

The dial-up connections are much slow and there is a tie up of phone line when we make use of
internet connection. As the satellite connection is using radio signals, the strength and reliability
of the signals are more vulnerable.

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is more common in business and commercial use. It
was the first high speed alternative to regulate analog phone modems. ISDN involves
digitalization of telephone networks so that voice, graphics, text and other data can be provided
to users from a single terminal over existing telephone wiring.

In order to navigate the web (WWW World Wide Web the part of the internet), there must be
a search engine. In order to reach at the specific web page, one can make use of browsers
favorites or Bookmark feature. This feature places a marker of the sites URL in an easily
retrievable list in the browsers tool bar. The URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the web sites
unique address. Eg. Microsoft.com. Most of the browsers are also providing tools to create

47

folders. To access the Bookmarks and Favorites from any computer, anywhere, one can use My
Bookmarks a free internet service that stores your Bookmarks and Favorites online.

The internet offers its visitors access to masses of information on any topic. To quickly narrow
down the massive quantity to something more useful, there are two main tools such as search
engine and the subject directory. The subject directory is the structured outline of web sites
organized by topics and sub topics. The search engine has three parts such. The first part is a
program called spider, which collects the data on the web by crawling over the web by using
multiple Tegs like a spider. The second part of the search engine organizes the data into a large
data base, and is called indexer program. The third part is called search engine software, which
pulls out relevant information according to the search.

A subject directory is a guide to the internet organized by topics and sub topics. With a subject
directory one do not use keywords to search the web. After selecting the main subject from the
directory one can directly search by clicking on sub folders until getting the appropriate
information.

There is a web site called wikis that allows anyone visiting the site to change its content by
adding or editing the content. Wiki technology is currently incorporated in blackboard to
encourage collaborative learning in online courses. Wikis also can be used to express thoughts
and opinions about certain topics.
Use of IT in Teaching and Learning
Today computers are part of most school and in colleges students are required to have their own
computers to prepare study notes and to prepare assignments. Courses are designed today to use
software to communicate outside of class. Hence teachers must have a working knowledge of
computers to integrate computer technology effectively in the class room.

The internet has obvious advantages in the class room as a research tool for students. Moreover
the use of internet allows teachers to expose students to the area where the students otherwise
could not access. There are various instructional software on the web, which the teachers can
48

make use of. Many museums and archives have their own virtual tours on their web sites that
allow the students to examine the objects in the collections. As most of the photos are three
dimensional, the students can view them from all angles. They can refer books at various
libraries all over the world through the internet facilities.

Computers in the class room will become more prevalent as prices continue to fall. The central
Govt. is planning to supply palm top computers to the students at subsidized price. Therefore, as
an educator being computer literate will help you plan constructive computerized lessons for the
students and use technology to interact with them.
Academic Services
INFLIBNET: Information and Library Network Centre is an autonomous Inter-University
Centre of the University Grants Commission (UGC) of India. It is a major National Program
initiated by the UGC in 1991 with its Head Quarters at Gujarat University Campus, Ahmedabad.
It became an independent Inter-University Centre in 1996. INFLIBNET is involved in
modernizing university libraries in India and connecting them as well as information centres in
the country through a nation-wide high speed data network using the state-of-art technologies for
the optimum utilization of information. INFLIBNET is set out to be a major player in promoting
scholarly communication among academicians and researchers in India

The primary objectives of INFLIBNET are: To promote and establish communication facilities
to improve capability in information transfer and access, that provide support to scholarship,
learning, research and academic pursuit through cooperation and involvement of agencies
concerned. INFLIBNET is conducting various E-resources User Awareness Training Program,
Training program on Software Installation & Operations and Training Program on Library
Automation at various university centres. In order to fulfill the broad objectives, INFLIBNET is
Promoting and implementing computerization of operations and services in the libraries and
information centres of the country by following a uniform standard. It also providing standards
and uniform guidelines in techniques, methods, procedures, computer hardware and software,
services and promote their adoption in actual practice by all libraries, in order to facilitate
pooling, sharing and exchange of information towards optimal use of resources and facilities. It
49

also evolves a national network by interconnecting various libraries and information centres in
the country and to improve capability in information handling and service. Further, it provides
reliable access to document collection of libraries by creating on-line union catalogue of serials,
theses/dissertations, books, monographs and non-book materials (manuscripts, audio-visuals,
computer data, multimedia, etc.) in various libraries in India. Moreover it provides access to
bibliographic information sources with citations, abstracts etc., through indigenously created
databases of the Sectoral Information Centres of NISSAT, UGC Information Centres, City
Networks and such others and by establishing gateways for on-line accessing of national and
international databases held by national and international information networks and centres
respectively. It also develops new methods and techniques for archival of valuable information
available as manuscripts and information documents in different Indian Languages, in the form
of digital images using high density storage media. It enables the users dispersed all over the
country, irrespective of location and distance, to have access to information regarding serials,
theses/dissertations, books, monographs and non-book materials by locating the sources
wherefrom available and to obtain it through the facilities of INFLIBNET and union catalogue of
documents. It creates databases of projects, institutions, specialists, etc. for providing on-line
information service. Further, it encourages co-operation among libraries, documentation centres
and information centres in the country, so that the resources can be pooled for the benefit of
helping the weaker resource centres by stronger ones. It facilitates academic communication
amongst scientists, engineers, social scientists, academics, faculties, researchers and students
through electronic mail, file transfer, computer/audio/video conferencing, etc. It establishes
appropriate control and monitoring system for the communication network and organize
maintenance. It generates revenue by providing consultancies and information services.

NICENET : Nicenet offers an ICT approach to communication among class groups or for
subjects and topics. It works entirely via the internet browser without making any further
software demands on teachers or students. Nicenet is free to use and free of advertisements. As a
web site, it is very reliable. Teachers can provide their students with reading materials and
information, annotated links to selected and categorized websites, information about scheduled
events such as assignments and excursions. Students can also enter documents, submit
homework, and add links to the web. Everyone enrolled can participate in discussion forums.
50

The physical proximity of the students is not an issue. They can be in the same room performing
tasks in real time, or working at computers in a geographical region and coming together
regularly as a physical class, or perhaps they will never meet because the participants don't live
in the same city or even country.
Nicenet is one of many web-based learning management systems (LMS) through which teachers
can work with students, whether in distance mode or as a supplement to face-to-face teaching.
The advantage of Nicenet is that anyone online anywhere can type http://nicenet.org into their
browser and get started with Nicenet. Once registered, the student is taken to the course
homepage which is admirable for the simple clarity of its layout and its professional look.

Regardless of the course you are teaching, the internet abounds with relevant sites. For language
teachers, for example, there are literally thousands of interactive grammar and vocabulary
exercises on the web that can be made available to the students. Links to these can be easily
inserted into the Nicenet class under topic headings you determine.

Course administrators and students can add documents into Nicenet, an option which cannot be
turned off, although if necessary, the administrators can delete or edit any document that is
added. Documents can be used in a number of ways. Teachers can post reading material for the
students to read and then ask them to comment on it in an asynchronous discussion. A
disadvantage that some Nicenet users complain of is the lack of formatting possibilities in
uploaded documents.

BRNET: it is a collection of biological information resources distributed over the internet. It is

initiated by Japan Science & Technology Corporation. It is meant to bring together the scattered
biological information over different sites. Hence, it provides a single location which leads to the
optimum utilization of information resources. It also allows the user to create their own bio
resource data base.

51

Model Questions
1. A sequence of instructions for solving a problem is called
a) Adder

b) Algorithm

c) Instructor

d) Address

2. The area which specifies the environment in which computer perform its function is
a) Control system

b) Memory

c) Control Panel

d) Keyboard

3) The space where next data is to be inserted is shown by

a) Cursor

b) Mouse pointer

c) Desktop d) Icon

4) The language processor used for translation is

a) Interpreter

b) Input device

c) Output device

d) Keyboard

5) GUI is
a) Genuine User Integration

b) Graphic User Integration

c) Graphic User Interchange

d) Genuine User Interchange

6) R A M is
a) Volatile Memory

b) Nonvolatile Memory

c) Permanent Memory

d) Random Only Memory

7) The Full form ASCII is

a) American Coded Information Interchange
b) American Standard Code for Information Interchange
c) Ansi Standard Code for Information Interchange
d) None of the above
8) The basic component in the first generation computer was
a) Micro Chips

b) I Cs

c) Vacuum Tubes

d) Transistors

9) Kb means
a) Kilo Bit

b) Kilo Byte

c) Kilo Binary

d) Kilo Bit & Byte

10) Parallelogram is a symbol used to show

a) Starting of a Program

b) Computation

c) Input

d) Decision

Choose correct answers

1. --------------- is an important common type of key board
a) Dvorak

b) QWERTY

c) DX1

d) None

52

2. Printers having hammer like keys are called

a) Laser

b) Inkjet

c) Impact

d) Non impact

3. The port which sends data at one bit at a time is called

a) Serial port

b) Parallel port

c) USB

d) None

b) Service Provider

c) Network of National Libraries

4. INFLIBNET is
a) Local area net
d) None
5. Network navigation device is called
a) Routers & Switches

b) NICs

c) ISDN

d) Http

6. The maximum speed at which data can be transmitted is also called

a) Bandwidth

b) Through put

c) Mbps

d) None

7. Pen drive is
a) Output device b) Storage device c) Writing device

d) Input device

8. Linux is a type of
a) Shareware

b) Commercial

c) Open Source

d) Proprietary

Short Answer Questions

1. Distinguish between RAM and ROM
2. List the functions of an operating system
3. Explain different types of secondary memory
4. Write note on fifth generation computers
5. What do you mean by Information Technology?
6. What is a computer?
7. Expand EDVAC
8. Explain types of memory
9. Explain about INFLIBNET
10. Distinguish between data and information
11. Distinguish between Kb and KB
Essay Type Questions
1. Define computer program. What are its characteristics?
2. Explain different computer language and bring
disadvantages.

out

their

advantages

and

53

3. Discuss important applications of computer in business

4. Explain the importance of IT in business
5. Explain the advantages of microwave technology

6. Explain the features of computer

7. Explain the areas of usage of computers in personal life
8. Explain the usage of computers in education
9. Explain the generation of computers
10. Explain different types of printers
11. Explain the problems of computerization
12. Explain basic structure of computers
13. Explain some of the input and output devices
14. Explain different types of computers
15. Briefly explain the history of IT
16. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of IT
17. Distinguish data and information
18. Explain about academic search technique

54

IT & Society
Learning Objectives

To learn issues related to IT

To know about free software movement
About IT and healthcare
To learn about cyber issues and ethics
To learn about cyber laws
To learn about E waste and its management

Issues and concern:

When we speak of the impact of technology on society, we always talk about the positive effects
of technology and about how technology has made life easy. We talk about the Internet as an
information resource and a communication platform and conveniently ignore the fact that an
over exposure to it leads to Internet addiction. We often discuss how technology has made life
easy but easily forget that it has made us overly dependent on it.

Think of the days when there were no computers and no modern means of transport. Human life
was highly restricted due to the unavailability of technological applications. Daily life involved a
lot of physical activity. Life of the common man was not as luxurious as that of modern times,
but he was more active. Exercise was integrated into routine physical activities. It was contrary
to the sedentary lifestyle of today, which leaves no time for exercise and fills days with inactivity
and laze. Today we don't want to, and thanks to technology, don't even need to, walk, move
around or exert physically to get things done. We have the world is at our fingertips.

We think of technology as a boon to society. But it's not completely a boon. The Internet has
bred many unethical practices like hacking, spamming and phishing. Internet crime is on the rise.
The Internet, being an open platform lacks regulation. There is no regulation on the content
displayed on websites. Internet gambling has become an addiction for many. Overexposure to
the Internet has taken its toll. In this virtual world, you can be who you are not, you can be
virtually living even after you die. Isn't this weird? Children are spending all their time playing
55

online and less or almost no time playing on the ground. Youngsters are spending most of their
time social networking, missing on the joys of real social life.

Think of the days when there were no online messengers, no emails and no cell phones. Indeed
cellular technology made it possible for us to communicate over wireless media. Web
communication facilities have worked wonders in speeding long-distance communication. On
the other hand, they have deprived mankind of the warmth of personal contact. Emails replaced
handwritten letters and communication lost its personal touch. With the means of communication
so easily accessible, that magic in waiting to reach someone and the excitement that followed
have vanished.

Moreover, we have become excessively dependent on technology. Is so much of dependency

good? Is it right to rely on machines to such an extent? Is it right to depend on computers rather
than relying on human intellect? Computer technology and robotics are trying to substitute for
human intellect. With the fast advancing technology, we have started harnessing artificial
intelligence in many fields. Where is the digital divide going to take us? How is our 'tomorrow'
going to be? 'Machines replacing human beings' does not portray a rosy picture, does it? It can
lead to serious issues like unemployment and crime. An excessive use of machines in every field
can result in an under-utilization of human brains. Over time, we may even lose our intellectual
abilities. You know of the declining mathematical abilities in children due to use of calculators
since school, don't you?

The impact of technology on society is deep. It is both positive and negative. Technology has
largely influenced every aspect of living. It has made life easy, but so easy that it may lose its
charm one day. One can cherish an accomplishment only if it comes after effort. But everything
has become so easily available due to technology that it has lost its value. There is a certain kind
of enjoyment in achieving things after striving for them. But with everything a few clicks away,
there is no striving, there's only striking. With the developments in technology, we may be able
to enjoy all the pricey luxuries in life but at the cost of losing its priceless joys.

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Free Software Movement

The free software movement is a social and political movement with the goal of ensuring four
basic freedoms to the software users, such as the freedom to run their software, to study and
change their software, and to redistribute copies with or without changes. Although drawing on
traditions and philosophies among members of the 1970s hacker culture, Richard Stallman
formally founded the movement in 1983 by launching the GNU Project.

The aim of the movement is that the use of computers should not lead to people being prevented
from cooperating with each other. In practice, this means rejecting "proprietary software", which
imposes such restrictions, and promoting free software, with the ultimate goal of liberating the
computer user "in cyberspace". Stallman notes that this action will promote rather than hinder the
progression of technology, since it means that much wasteful duplication of system
programming effort will be avoided.

Members of the free software movement believe that all users of software should have the
freedoms listed in The Free Software Definition. Many of them hold that it is immoral to prohibit
or prevent people from exercising these freedoms and that these freedoms are required to create a
decent society where software users can help each other, and to have control over their
computers. Some adherents to the free software movement do not believe that proprietary
software is strictly immoral.

While social change may occur as an unintended by-product of technological change, advocates
of new technologies often have promoted them as instruments of positive social change. If it is
assumed that social change is not only affected, but in some points of view, directed by the
advancement of technology, is it ethical to hold these technologies from certain people? If not to
make a direct change, this movement is in place to raise awareness about the effects that take
place because of the physical things around us. A computer, for instance, allows us so many
more freedoms than we have without a computer, but should these technological mediums be
implied freedoms, or selective privileges? The debate over the morality of both sides to the free
software movement is a difficult topic to compromise respective opposition.
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The Free Software Foundation also believes all software needs free documentation, in particular
because conscientious programmers should be able to update manuals to reflect modification that
they made to the software, but deems the freedom to modify less important for other types of
written works.

The core work of the free software movement focused on software development. The free
software movement also rejects proprietary software, refusing to install software that does not
give them the freedoms of free software. According to Stallman, "The only thing in the software
field that is worse than an unauthorized copy of a proprietary program, is an authorized copy of
the proprietary program because this does the same harm to its whole community of users, and in
addition, usually the developer, the perpetrator of this evil, profits from it."

Some claims that it is inherently necessary to give every person equal opportunity to utilize the
Internet, assuming that the computer is globally accessible. Since the world has become more
based in the framework of technology and its advancement, creating a selective internet that
allows only some to surf the web freely is nonsensical. If there is a desire to live in a more
coexistent world that is benefited by communication and global assistance, then globally free
software should be a position to strive for, according to many scholars who promote awareness
about the free software movement.

A lot of lobbying work has been done against software patents and expansions of copyright law.
Other lobbying focuses directly on use of free software by government agencies and
government-funded projects. Most of the countries are taking efforts to pass legislation to
encouraging the use of free software by the government agencies. Like many social movements,
the free software movement has ongoing internal conflict between personalities and between
supporters of compromise versus strict adherence to values.

In 1998, some companies met to create a marketing campaign for free software which would
focus on technology rather than ethics. By 2005, some free software advocates use the term Free
and Open Source Software (FOSS) as an inclusive compromise, drawing on both philosophies to
bring both free software advocates and open source software advocates together to work on
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projects with more cohesion. Some users believe that a compromise term encompassing both
aspects is ideal, to promote both the user's freedom with the software and also to promote the
perceived superiority of an open source development model.

While some people prefer to link the two ideas of open source software and free software
together, it is important to understand the difference because they offer two separate ideas and
values. This ambiguity began in 1998 when people started to use the term open source
software rather than free software. People in the community of free software used these
separate terms as a way to differentiate what they did. The Open Source movement addresses
software being open as a practical question as opposed to an ethical dilemma. In other words, it
focuses more on the development. The Open Source movement ultimately determines that nonfree software is not the solution of best interest.

On the other hand, the Free Software movement views non-free software as a social issue and
free software as the solution to the problem. Those who work within the free software
community have searched for less ambiguous terms in efforts to refine their definition so there is
no confusion, but have struggle to find words that do not yield vagueness. Although the
movements have separate values and goals, people in both the open source community and free
software community collaborate when it comes to practical projects.

The switch from the free software movement to the open source movement has had negative
effects on the progression of community. The open source movement denies that selectivity and
the privatization of software is unethical. The two most prominent people attached to the
movement, Richard Stallman and Linus Torvalds, may be seen as representatives of the value
based versus apolitical philosophies, as well as the Gnu versus Linux coding styles.
Paradoxically as it seems, it is the symbiosis of their works that make up a complete operating
system known as Linux
IT & Industry
Business corporate is trying to develop a manufacturing culture to provide manufacturers with
structured methods and practices for implementing technologies in manufacturing environment.
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Initially they used robots for welding which requires support and the use of diverse data formats.
Simulation systems have been developed through using IT, which enabled the manufacturers to
virtually prepare prototype plant layouts, optimize raw material usage and asses ergonomic
factors prior to investing in plant redesigns and for starting new factories. Now corporate are
investigating ways to augment commercial modeling and simulation software system with
programmable human modeling capabilities to harness manufacturing resources. Moreover
researchers are developing natural language interfaces that can help to simulate human task in a
manufacturing operation environment.
IT & Business
Information Technology has revolutionized the phase of business around the world. Local
businesses have become international due to a simple website. I.T. has helped businesses in
advertising. I.T. has helped in customer service; huge corporations can attend to customer needs
through email and chat services. Networking internal and external in organizations has improved
the working of businesses. Staffs and clients likewise can get in touch with the managers for
feedback, progress reports and extensions. Business these days require a lot of planning, due to
high tech organization systems on computers, planning can be done on an organized pattern, with
schedule formats, grant charts etc. Huge databases can now be controlled and stored on network
and back up drives.

Together with the advancement of science and technology, technological innovations grew along
with it, resulting to the emergence of new equipment and gadgets. No matter how big or small
your company is, technology brings both intangible and tangible benefits to become cost
efficient and to meet the growing demands and needs of customers. Technological innovations
affect corporate efficiency, culture and relationship among employees, clients, suppliers and
customers. The type and quality of technology used affect the security of confidential business
information.

Due to the burden brought by administrative tasks, like inventory, bookkeeping and records
keeping, both big and small companies rely on computers to do their administrative works. The
birth of Internet and online social networking sites tremendously decreased the costs of business
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operations. It also makes it easier for companies to use the Six Sigma management
methodologies. Some firms shifted to outsourcing instead of hiring their own personnel due to
the low costs associated with it. Because of the huge impact of technological innovations to
companies, it is impossible for them to live with it. Computers, Photocopier, Telephone,
Computer printer, Internet, Paper shredder, Multimedia projector, Touch screen monitors,
Computer mouse, Laptop computers etc., are the commonly used high technology equipments in
the business houses.

Advantages of Technology to Business:

1.

Customer Relations. Technology affects the way companies communicate and establish
relations with their clients. In a fast moving and business environment, it is vital for them
to interact with clients regularly and quickly to gain their trust and to obtain customer
loyalty. With the use of Internet and online social networks, firms interact with
consumers and answer all their queries about the product. Establishing effective
communication with customers not only creates rapport with them, but it also creates
strong public image. It allows business enterprises to reduce and to cut carbon dioxide
emissions.

2.

Business Operations. With the use of technological innovations, business owners and
entrepreneur understand their cash flow better, how to manage their storage costs well
and enables you to save time and money.

3.

Corporate Culture. Technology lets employees communicate and interact with other
employees in other countries. It establishes clique and prevents social tensions from
arising.

4.

Security. Modern security equipment enables companies to protect their financial data,
confidential business information and decisions.

5.

Research Opportunities. It provides a venue to conduct studies to keep themselves

ahead of competitors. It allows companies to virtually travel into unknown markets.

6.

Corporate Reports. With technology, business enterprises communicate effectively with

their branch offices to deliver quality financial and operational reports.

7.

Industrial Productivity. Through the use of business software programs or software

packages, it automated traditional manufacturing process, reduces labor costs and
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enhances manufacturing productivity. It enables companies to increase efficiency and

production output.
8.

Business mobility. Technological innovations improved companies' sales, services,

shorted lead time on receiving and delivering goods and services. Enables them to
penetrate multiple markets at least costs.

9.

Research capacity. It enables them to conduct studies on various companies to gain

knowledge on the new trends in the market and way on avoiding them.

IT & Commerce
Information technology (IT) has become a vital and integral part of every commercial plan. From
multi-national corporations who maintain mainframe systems and databases to small businesses
that own a single computer, IT plays a role. The reasons for the omnipresent use of computer
technology in business can best be determined by looking at how it is being used across the
commercial world.

Communication
For many companies, email is the principal means of communication between employees,
suppliers and customers. Email was one of the early drivers of the Internet, providing a simple
and inexpensive means to communicate. Over the years, a number of other communications tools
have also evolved, allowing staff to communicate using live chat systems, online meeting tools
and video-conferencing systems. Voice over internet protocol (VOIP) telephones and smartphones offer even more high-tech ways for employees to communicate.

Inventory Management
When it comes to managing inventory, organizations need to maintain enough stock to meet
demand without investing in more than they require. Inventory management systems track the
quantity of each item a company maintains, triggering an order of additional stock when the
quantities fall below a pre-determined amount. These systems are best used when the inventory
management system is connected to the point-of-sale (POS) system. The POS system ensures
that each time an item is sold, one of that items is removed from the inventory count, creating a
closed information loop between all departments.
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Data Management
The days of large file rooms, rows of filing cabinets and the mailing of documents is fading fast.
Today, most companies store digital versions of documents on servers and storage devices.
These documents become instantly available to everyone in the company, regardless of their
geographical location. Companies are able to store and maintain a tremendous amount of
historical data economically, and employees benefit from immediate access to the documents
they need.

Management Information Systems

Storing data is only a benefit if that data can be used effectively. Progressive companies use that
data as part of their strategic planning process as well as the tactical execution of that strategy.
Management Information Systems (MIS) enable companies to track sales data, expenses and
productivity levels. The information can be used to track profitability over time, maximize return
on investment and identify areas of improvement. Managers can track sales on a daily basis,
allowing them to immediately react to lower-than-expected numbers by boosting employee
productivity or reducing the cost of an item.

Customer Relationship Management

Companies are using IT to improve the way they design and manage customer relationships.
Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems capture every interaction a company has
with a customer, so that a more enriching experience is possible. If a customer calls a call center
with an issue, the customer support representative will be able to see what the customer has
purchased, view shipping information, call up the training manual for that item and effectively
respond to the issue. The entire interaction is stored in the CRM system, ready to be recalled if
the customer calls again. The customer has a better, more focused experience and the company
benefits from improved productivity.
IT & Health care
By providing new ways for providers and their patients to readily access and use health
information, information technology (IT) has the potential to improve the quality, safety, and
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efficiency of health care. However, relatively few health care providers have fully adopted IT.
Despite considerable attention to the topic, much remains unknown about the role of IT in the
health care setting. Delivering quality health care requires providers and patients to integrate
complex information from many different sources. Thus, increasing the ability of physicians,
nurses, clinical technicians, and others to readily access and use the right information about their
patients should improve care. The ability for patients to obtain information to better manage their
condition and to communicate with the health system could also improve the efficiency and
quality of care.

This potential to improve care makes broader diffusion of IT desirable. However, further
research is needed to better understand what types of IT applications are most useful for
improving care in different settings and what circumstances are necessary to ensure successful
implementation.

Current studies show that some technologies lead to better care. However, the evidence base is
narrow, coming primarily from select institutions that developed their own systems, and may not
represent the average facility. The health care system generally uses less IT than other industries,
but surveys indicate that providers are increasing their investments. The extent of IT and the
types of IT deployed vary by setting and institution.

The prevalence of IT in any setting largely reflects the strength of the drivers and barriers to
investment. For many organizations, quality and process improvements are
primary drivers. For others, gains in efficiency motivate investment. Yet, the cost and the
complexity of IT implementation, including necessary organizational and workflow redesign,
pose considerable barriers, as does uncertainty regarding the stability of the IT industry.

In general, IT allows health care providers to collect, store, retrieve, and transfer information
electronically. However, more specific discussion of IT in health care is challenging due to the
lack of precise definitions, the volume of applications, and a rapid pace of change in technology.
Similar terms can be used to define different products, and the exact functions of a system will
depend on the specifics of its implementation in a given setting. Both the terms and the functions
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also change over time. For example, computerized provider order entry (CPOE), which can
minimize handwriting or other communication errors by having physicians or other providers
enter orders into a computer system, can apply only to prescription drugs, or may also include
additional physician orders, such as x-rays or other images, consultations, and transfers. For
electronic health records (EHRs, also known as electronic medical records, automated medical
records, and computer-based patient records, among other names), multiple definitions exist,
depending on the constellation of functions that are included. They can be used simply as a
passive tool to store patient information or can include multiple decision support functions, such
as individualized patient reminders and prescribing alerts. In general, the various IT applications
fall into three categories:
Administrative and financial systems that facilitate billing, accounting, and other administrative
tasks;
Clinical systems that facilitate or provide input into the care process; and
Infrastructure that supports both the administrative and clinical applications
E Governance
E-Governance is the application of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for
delivering government services, exchange of information communication transactions,
integration various stand-one systems and services between Government-to-Citizens (G2C),
Government-to-Business(G2B),Government-to-Government( G2G) as well as back office
processes and interactions within the entire government frame work. Through the e-Governance,
the government services will be made available to the citizens in a convenient, efficient and
transparent manner. The three main target groups that can be distinguished in governance
concepts are Government, citizens and businesses/interest groups. In e Governance there are no
distinct boundaries.

Difference between e-governance and e-government

Both the terms are treated to be the same; however, there is some difference between the two.
E-government" is the use of the ICTs in public administrations- combined with organizational
change and new skills- to improve public services and democratic processes and to strengthen
support to public. The problem in this definition to be congruent with the definition of e65

governance is that there is no provision for governance of ICTs. As a matter of fact, the
governance of ICTs requires most probably a substantial increase in regulation and policymaking capabilities, with all the expertise and opinion-shaping processes among the various
social stakeholders of these concerns. So, the perspective of the e-governance is the use of the
technologies that both help governing and have to be governed.

By E-Governance, one is looking forward for a corruption free government. E-government is

one-way communication protocol whereas E-governance is two-way communication protocol.
The essence of E-governance is to reach the beneficiary and ensure that the services intended to
reach the desired individual has been met with. There should be an auto-response system to
support the essence of E-governance, whereby the Government realizes the efficacy of its
governance. E-governance is by the governed, for the governed and of the governed.

Establishing the identity of the end beneficiary is a true challenge in all citizen-centric services.
Statistical information published by governments and world bodies do not always reveal the
facts. Best form of E-governance cuts down on unwanted interference of too many layers while
delivering governmental services. It depends on good infrastructural setup with the support of
local processes and parameters for governments to reach their citizens or end beneficiaries.
Budget for planning, development and growth can be derived from well laid out E-governance
systems.
IT for National Integration
A Nation or a State is composed of territory, population, government and sovereignty. The
people of the State may follow one or more religions. India has fifteen officially declared
languages besides many dialects. It has also people belonging to Aryan race, Dravidian race and
Mongolian race. It has in itself various types of cultures. It is an example of unity in diversity. It
is true that India is a unified country. It is also true that after Independence, India became really
strong and united after the merger of princely States into the Indian Union.

Similarly, those who belong to one religion feel that they should have a separate State of their
own. Their ill-founded aspirations are now threatening the unity of the country. Based on these
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aspirations, terrorism has taken its roots. Government is now threatened with these undesirable
protests and agitations. So the need has arisen to put down all these forces of separation.
Government is aware of this need and has already taken and is taking the required steps in this
direction.

As man is selfish, efforts are required to put an end to the disintegrating forces in the initial stage
itself. It is possible to do so by molding the minds of the youngsters. Educating could easily act
as an instrument to develop the spirit of unity. IT had a nation wide impact on the way
governance measures are undertaken. A large number of interconnected state and central
government departments ensure seamless service delivery to the public. Indian railway is an
example for this. Any person can book railway tickets at any time from any location to any
destination across the country by sitting at home and through a mouse click. Moreover the
central government has taken initiation to provide programs such as Sakshat, and INFLIBNET
to ensure educational services reach at the poor masses across the country. Moreover the central
government is supplying subsidized Akash tablet computer to the student community. All
these has in a way led to the national integration of sorts wherein government departments no
longer work in isolation and the governance reaches to the mass population in an efficient and
cost benefit manner.
Cyber Ethics
Cyber ethics is quite simply the study of ethics on the Internet. "Ethics begins when elements
within a moral system conflict." Cyber ethics is often called as Information System Ethics.
Information System ethics can be defined as "The study of moral, legal, ethical issues involving
the use of information and communication technologies"

There are many unique challenges we face in this age of information. They stem from the nature
of information itself. Information is the means through which the mind expands and increases its
capacity to achieve its goals, often as the result of an input from another mind. Thus, information
forms the intellectual capital from which human beings craft their lives and secure dignity.

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However, the building of intellectual capital is vulnerable in many ways. For example, people's
intellectual capital is impaired whenever they lose their personal information without being
compensated for it, when they are precluded access to information which is of value to them,
when they have revealed information they hold intimate, or when they find out that the
information upon which their living depends is in error. The social contract among people in the
information age must deal with these threats to human dignity. The ethical issues involved are
many and varied in Information System Ethics. Ethics is required in information Systems to
overcome the following ethical issues.
Privacy: What information about one's self or one's associations must a person reveal to others,
under what conditions and with what safeguards? What things can people keep to themselves and
not be forced to reveal to others?
Accuracy: Who is responsible for the authenticity, fidelity and accuracy of information?
Similarly, who is to be held accountable for errors in information and how is the injured party to
be made whole?
Property: Who owns information? What are the just and fair prices for its exchange? Who owns
the channels, especially the airways, through which information is transmitted? How should
access to this scarce resource be allocated?
Accessibility: What information does a person or an organization have a right or a privilege to
obtain, under what conditions and with what safeguards?

Information System ethics explores and evaluates:

1. the development of moral values in the information field,
2. the creation of new power structures in the information field, information myths,
3. hidden contradictions and intentionality's in information theories and practices,
4. the development of ethical conflicts in the information field. etc

Let us take a look at privacy by some examples. A few years ago, lawmakers gave the go ahead
to have monitors stationed in bathrooms at a Community College to determine if the facilities
were being underutilized. Students and faculty vehemently protested that the monitors violated
their privacy. State officials said that the value of the information gained through the study was
more important than the threat to privacy. Other issues like collection of private data of the users
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using internet by monitoring the traffic is strongly related to one's policy as that information can
be further used for illegal purposes. These types of privacy issues are needed to be addressed
properly so that they should not exploit one's freedom. If a person is in need of constructing a
Web page, he has to think that whether it was ethical to lift an image from someone's home page
and use it on his Web page without crediting the source. Such ethical issues come under
property.

One reason that topics such as online gambling and pornography have become such firestorms of
controversy in cyberspace is the simple fact that so many people have access to the Web sites.
Simply put, if no one had access to online pornography no one would care. With this another
issue "Censorship" comes which should be deal in efficient way as it is not easy to implement.
Ethical issues can also be religious, moral or any other. These type of issues are not easy to deal
with.

Similarly, let us take China into consideration on the issue of "Censorship". China has
implemented the methods of censoring the internet that are somewhat harder to bypass for people
generally unfamiliar with the way internet works. There is for example internet censorship as
implemented in China--using a list of banned words that are censored on the fly. As users in
china request a web page, the incoming page is first inspected by government servers and
verifies if a banned term is present. Human censors are also actively looking at what people
browse on the internet, and block websites as they see fit.

Crimes on internet are also increasing in a continuous manner. Crime is a general term that
embraces such crimes as phishing, credit card frauds, bank robbery, and Industrial espionage,
child porn, kidnapping children via chat rooms, scams, cyber terrorism, viruses, and spam. All
such crimes are computer related and facilitated crimes. Credit card frauds have grown in an
increasing manner. Leakage of Military information from internet is another internet crime.
Software known as Google earth, which shows information about different places including
military land or can lead to robbery planning, is becoming an ethical issue around the world.
Many people protest against this leakage of information but still one can't deny that it is one of
the major enhancements in Information Technology.
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The question about how to police these crimes has already been constructed, but this task is
turning out to be an uphill battle. Since the first computer crime law, Computer Fraud and Abuse
Act of 1984, the governments have been trying to track down and stop online criminals. The FBI
of different countries have tried many programs and investigations in order to deter Internet
crime, like creating an online crime registry for employers .The reality is that Internet criminals
are rarely caught. One reason is that hackers will use one computer in one country to hack
another computer in another country. And that criminal isn't working alone. Loosely organized
groups--which security experts call "Web gangs"--conduct much of the illegal activity online.
The structure of Web gangs may be patterned on that of traditional organized crime, in which the
members of the group may never come into contact with one another and may never be aware of
who they are working for.

The widespread availability of computers and Internet connections provides unprecedented

opportunities to communicate and learn. Unfortunately, although most people use the Internet as
a powerful and beneficial tool for communication and education, some individuals exploit the
power of the Internet for criminal or terrorist purposes.

We can minimize the harm that such individuals do by learning ourselves, and teaching young
people, how to use the Internet safely and responsibly. The term "cyber ethics" refers to a code of
safe and responsible behavior for the Internet community. Practicing good cyber ethics involves
understanding the risks of harmful and illegal behavior online and learning how to protect
ourselves, and other Internet users, from such behavior. It also involves teaching young people,
who may not realize the potential for harm to themselves and others, how to use the Internet
safely and responsibly.
Cyber Crime
Cyber crime is criminal activity done using computers and the Internet. This includes anything
from downloading illegal music files to stealing millions of dollars from online bank accounts.
Cybercrime also includes non-monetary offenses, such as creating and distributing viruses on
other computers or posting confidential business information on the Internet.
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Perhaps the most prominent form of cybercrime is identity theft, in which criminals use the
Internet to steal personal information from other users. Two of the most common ways this is
done is through phishing and pharming. Both of these methods lure users to fake websites (that
appear to be legitimate), where they are asked to enter personal information. This includes login
information, such as usernames and passwords, phone numbers, addresses, credit card numbers,
bank account numbers, and other information criminals can use to "steal" another person's
identity. For this reason, it is smart to always check the URL or Web address of a site to make
sure it is legitimate before entering your personal information.

As the cybercrime covers such a broad scope of criminal activity, the examples above are only a
few of the thousands of crimes that are considered cyber crimes. While computers and the
Internet have made our lives easier in many ways, it is unfortunate that people also use these
technologies to take advantage of others. Therefore, it is smart to protect yourself by using
antivirus and spyware blocking software and being careful where you enter your personal
information.

Computer crime encompasses a broad range of activities. Generally it may be divided into two
categories: (1) crimes that target computers directly; (2) crimes facilitated by computer networks
or devices, the primary target of which is independent of the computer network or device.
Crimes that primarily target computer networks or devices include:

Computer viruses

Denial-of-service attacks

Malware (malicious code)

Crimes that use computer networks or devices to advance other ends include:

Cyber stalking

Fraud and identity theft

Information warfare

Phishing scams

Spam

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Spam is the unsolicited sending of bulk email for commercial purposes, is unlawful in some
jurisdictions. While anti-spam laws are relatively new, limits on unsolicited electronic
communications have existed for some time.
Fraud
Computer fraud is any dishonest misrepresentation of fact intended to let another to do or refrain
from doing something which causes loss. In this context, the fraud will result in obtaining a
benefit by:

Altering computer input in an unauthorized way. This requires little technical expertise
and is not an uncommon form of theft by employees altering the data before entry or
entering false data, or by entering unauthorized instructions or using unauthorized
processes;

Altering, destroying, suppressing, or stealing output, usually to conceal unauthorized

transactions: this is difficult to detect;

Altering or deleting stored data;

Altering or misusing existing system tools or software packages, or altering or writing

code for fraudulent purposes.

Other forms of fraud may be facilitated using computer systems, including bank fraud, identity
theft, extortion, and theft of classified information.

Cyber terrorism
Government officials and Information Technology security specialists have documented a
significant increase in Internet problems and server scans since early 2001. But there is a
growing concern among federal officials[who?] that such intrusions are part of an organized effort
by cyber terrorists, foreign intelligence services, or other groups to map potential security holes
in critical systems. A cyber terrorist is someone who intimidates or coerces a government or
organization to advance his or her political or social objectives by launching computer-based
attack against computers, network, and the information stored on them.

Cyber terrorism in general, can be defined as an act of terrorism committed through the use of
cyber space or computer resources. As such, a simple propaganda in the Internet, that there will
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be bomb attacks during the holidays can be considered cyber terrorism. As well there are also
hacking activities directed towards individuals, families, organized by groups within networks,
tending to cause fear among people, demonstrate power, collecting information relevant for
ruining peoples' lives, robberies, blackmailing etc.

Cyber Extortion
Cyber extortion is a form of cyber terrorism in which a website, e-mail server, or computer
system is subjected to repeated denial of service or other attacks by malicious hackers, who
demand money in return for promising to stop the attacks. According to the Federal Bureau of
Investigation, cyber extortionists are increasingly attacking corporate websites and networks,
crippling their ability to operate and demanding payments to restore their service.
Cyber Security
Cyber security is the body of technologies, processes and practices designed to protect networks,
computers, programs and data from attack, damage or unauthorized access. In a computing
context, the term security implies cyber security.
Elements of cyber security include:

Application security

Information security

Network security

Disaster recovery / business continuity planning

End-user education.

One of the most problematic elements of cyber security is the quickly and constantly evolving
nature of security risks. The traditional approach has been to focus most resources on the most
crucial system components and protect against the biggest known threats, which necessitated
leaving some less important system components undefended and some less dangerous risks not
protected against. Such an approach is insufficient in the current environment.

To deal with the current environment, advisory organizations are promoting a more proactive
and adaptive approach. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), recently
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issued updated guidelines in its risk assessment framework that recommended a shift toward
continuous monitoring and real-time assessments.

Reasons for Cyber Security

The cyber community changes in an unbelievable pace. Unfortunately, along with these changes
are equally unbelievable threats. The nature of the Internet as a tool for communication and
education has been used and misused for personal gain, which resulted in cyber attacks and
unprecedented rise in cyber crime rates. These rates are expected to increase more rapidly in the
coming years if cyber security is not put in place. Following are some of the reasons for the
importance of cyber security.
1. Hackers are everywhere. He can be your business rival, your neighbor, or simply a
person out to take over your computer. He makes use of software loopholes and hijacks
your computer through backdoors, usually installed programs, or through cracking
software. When he finally marches into your computer, he can gain access to possibly all
your personal and confidential information such as bank accounts, credit cards, or top
trade secret. He can also use your computer to attack other networks, with you apparently
oblivious to all his malicious operations.
2. Internet scams and frauds are rampant. These include phishing, a very organized cyber
crime, which deceives people into giving their banking details. Cyber criminals,
pretending to be representatives from legitimate financial institutions, send e-mail
messages and ask unsuspecting people to verify their passwords, account numbers, and
other vital information. These attempts could effectively be counterattacked if they
werent too sophisticated to actually deaden spam filters.
3. Cyber theft is a common cyber crime. In fact, it is the most reported. Over time, it has
increasingly become so easy for cyber criminals to steal information from computers, not
only from individuals but for companies, banks, and other organizations as well. Though
they hardly report the case, big companies lose large amounts of money.
4. Virus can slow down your computer or, it can cause system crash. Virus reaches your
system through a number of entryways. One is through unsecured and unknown websites
from which you download files, programs, applications, or tools for free. As much as it

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can infect home computers, virus can leave damaging effects to companies, both big and
small.
5. Spyware, as the name hints, can spy on you. A computer program automatically installed
on your computer, spyware tracks personal information you entered and sends it to its
creator. In most cases, spyware is used to steal big sum of money. Unlike computer
viruses, spyware leaves the computer owners totally unaware of its presence. A study
revealed that 92% of users with infected systems dont know that spyware has broken
into their computers.
6. Adware can keep unwanted ads to show up. Like spyware, adware penetrates the system
through shareware. On its own, it downloads ads and allows them to run and pop up. This
proves to be quite annoying for computer owners. But whats even more troubling is that
adware can sometimes contain spyware. This increases the risk for cyber threats.

Why do we need cyber security? Cyber criminals are smart beings. They find ways to get into
our systems and create havoc in less time than we expect. And because they dont cease to
innovate and produce more sophisticated threats, we should always put our guard on and
reinforce whatever cyber security measures we have these days.
Cyber Laws
Cyber Law is the law governing cyber space. Cyber space is a very wide term and includes
computers, networks, software, data storage devices (such as hard disks, USB disks etc), the
Internet, websites, emails and even electronic devices such as cell phones, ATM machines etc.

Law encompasses the rules of conduct that have been approved by the government, which are in
force over a certain territory, and which must be obeyed by all persons on that territory.
Violation of these rules could lead to government action such as imprisonment or fine or an order
to pay compensation.

Cyber law encompasses laws relating to:

1. Cyber Crimes
2. Electronic and Digital Signatures
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3. Intellectual Property
4. Data Protection and Privacy

Cyber crimes are unlawful acts where the computer is used either as a tool or a target or both.
The enormous growth in electronic commerce (e-commerce) and online share trading has led to a
phenomenal spurt in incidents of cyber crime.
Electronic signatures are used to authenticate electronic records. Digital signatures are one type
of electronic signature. Digital signatures satisfy three major legal requirements signer
authentication, message authentication and message integrity. The technology and efficiency of
digital signatures makes them more trustworthy than hand written signatures.
Intellectual property refers to creations of the human mind e.g. a story, a song, a painting, a
design etc. The facets of intellectual property that relate to cyber space are covered by cyber
law. These include copyright law in relation to computer software, computer source code,
websites, cell phone content etc, software and source code licenses, trademark law with relation
to domain names, meta tags, mirroring, framing, linking etc, semiconductor law which relates to
the protection of semiconductor integrated circuits design and layouts, patent law in relation to
computer hardware and software.
Data protection and privacy laws aim to achieve a fair balance between the privacy rights of
the individual and the interests of data controllers such as banks, hospitals, email service
providers etc. These laws seek to address the challenges to privacy caused by collecting, storing
and transmitting data using new technologies

Need for Cyber Law

Cyberspace is an intangible dimension that is impossible to govern and regulate using
conventional law. Cyberspace has complete disrespect for jurisdictional boundaries. A person
in India could break into a banks electronic vault hosted on a computer in USA and transfer
millions of Rupees to another bank in Switzerland, all within minutes. All he would need is a
laptop computer and a cell phone. Further, Cyberspace handles gigantic traffic volumes every
second. Billions of emails are crisscrossing the globe even as we read this, millions of websites
are being accessed every minute and billions of dollars are electronically transferred around the
world by banks every day. Cyberspace is absolutely open to participation by all. A ten year76

old in Pakistan can have a live chat session with an eight year- old Indian without any regard for
the distance or the anonymity between them. Cyber space offers enormous potential for
anonymity to its members. Readily available encryption software and steganographic tools that
seamlessly hide information within image and sound files ensure the confidentiality of
information exchanged between cyber-citizens. Cyberspace offers never-seen-before economic
efficiency. Billions of dollars worth of software can be traded over the Internet without the need
for any government licenses, shipping and handling charges and without paying any customs
duty. Moreover, electronic information has become the main object of cyber crime. It is
characterized by extreme mobility, which exceeds by far the mobility of persons, goods or other
services. International computer networks can transfer huge amounts of data around the globe in
a matter of seconds. A software source code worth crores of rupees or a movie can be pirated
across the globe within hours of their release. Theft of corporeal information (e.g. books,
papers, CD ROMs, floppy disks) is easily covered by traditional penal provisions.

Jurisprudence of Indian Cyber Law

The primary source of cyber law in India is the Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act)
which came into force on 17 October 2000. The primary purpose of the Act is to provide legal
recognition to electronic commerce and to facilitate filing of electronic records with the
Government. The IT Act also penalizes various cyber crimes and provides strict punishments
(imprisonment terms up to 10 years and compensation up to Rs 1 crore).

The IT Act was amended by the Negotiable Instruments (Amendments and Miscellaneous
Provisions) Act, 2002. This introduced the concept of electronic cheques and truncated cheques.
Information Technology (Use of Electronic Records and Digital Signatures) Rules, 2004 has
provided the necessary legal framework for filing of documents with the Government as well as
issue of licenses by the Government. It also provides for payment and receipt of fees in relation
to the Government bodies. These rules were amended in 2003, 2004 and 2006.

The Indian Penal Code (as amended by the IT Act) penalizes several cyber crimes. These
include forgery of electronic records, cyber frauds, destroying electronic evidence etc. Digital
Evidence is to be collected and proven in court as per the provisions of the Indian Evidence Act
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(as amended by the IT Act). In case of bank records, the provisions of the Bankers Book
Evidence Act (as amended by the IT Act) are relevant. Investigation and adjudication of cyber
crimes is done in accordance with the provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure and the IT
Act. The Reserve Bank of India Act was also amended by the IT Act.

Evolution of key terms and concepts

To understand the jurisprudence of cyber law, it is essential to examine how the definitions of
key terms and concepts have developed.
Computer: According to section 2(1)(i) of the IT Act "computer" means any electronic
magnetic, optical or other high-speed data processing device or system which performs logical,
arithmetic, and memory functions by manipulations of electronic, magnetic or optical impulses,
and includes all input, output, processing, storage, computer software, or communication
facilities which are connected or related to the computer in a computer system or computer
network; Thus a computer has the following characteristics:
1. It is a high-speed data processing device or system.
2. It may be electronic, magnetic, optical etc.
3. It performs logical, arithmetic, and memory functions
4. These functions are performed by manipulations of electronic, magnetic or optical impulses.
Hence, Computer includes all input facilities, all output facilities, all processing facilities, all
storage facilities, all computer software facilities, and all communication facilities which are
connected or related to the computer in a computer system or network.

Let us examine the important terms used in this definition:

According to American law, electronic means relating to technology having electrical, digital,
magnetic, wireless, optical, electromagnetic, or similar capabilities.
Magnetic means having the properties of a magnet; i.e. of attracting iron or steel e.g. parts of a
hard disk are covered with a thin coat of magnetic material. Simply put, an optical computer
uses light instead of electricity to manipulate, store and transmit data. Development of this
technology is still in a nascent stage. Optical data processing can perform several operations
simultaneously (in parallel) much faster and easier than electronics.

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Optical fibre is the medium and the technology associated with the transmission of information
as light pulses along a glass or plastic wire or fibre. Optical fibre carries much more information
than conventional copper wire and is in general not subject to electromagnetic interference.
A data processing device or system is a mechanism that can perform pre-defined
operations upon information.
Logical functions, simply put, refer to non arithmetic processing that arranges numbers or letters
according to a predefined format e.g. arranging numbers in ascending order, arranging words
alphabetically etc.
Arithmetic functions, simply put, are operations concerned or involved with mathematics and
the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of numbers.
Memory functions, simply put, refer to operations involving storage of data.
Input facilities are those which transfer information from the outside world into a computer
system. E.g. keyboard, mouse, touch screen, joystick, microphone, scanner etc.
Output facilities are those which transfer data out of the computer in the form of text, images,
sounds etc to a display screen, printer, storage device etc. Hard disks, USB disks, floppies act as
both input and output facilities.
Processing facilities primarily refers to the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer.
Referred to as the brain of the computer, the CPU processes instructions and data.
Storage facilities include hard disks and other data storage facilities. This term would also
include the physical cabinet in which a computer is housed.
Computer software facilities refer to the operating system and application software that are
essential for a computer to function in a useful manner.
Communication facilities include the network interface cards, modems and other devices that
enable a computer to communicate with other computers.

Considering the wide definition given to the term computer by the IT Act the following are
examples of computers: desktop personal computers, mobile phones, microwave ovens,
computer printers, scanners, installed computer software, Automatic Teller Machine (ATM),
smart homes which can be controlled through the Internet

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Data: According to section 2(1)(o) of the IT Act data means a representation of information,
knowledge, facts, concepts or instructions which are being prepared or have been prepared in a
formalized manner, and is intended to be processed, is being processed or has been processed in
a computer system or computer network, and may be in any form (including computer printouts
magnetic or optical storage media, punched cards, punched tapes) or stored internally in the
memory of the computer; Thus, data is a representation of information, knowledge, facts,
concepts or instructions, prepared or being prepared in a formalized manner, processed, being
processed or sought to be processed in a computer.

Data can be in many forms such as, computer printouts, magnetic storage media e.g. hard
disks, optical storage media e.g. CD ROMs, DVDs, VCDs, punched cards or tapes i.e. a paper
card, in which holes are punched.

Computer software is a general term that describes a collection of computer programs,

procedures and documentation. Computer hardware, on the other hand, consists of the physical
devices that can store and execute computer software.

System software can be of various types such as:

1. Operating systems which form the platform for all other software on a computer,
2. Device drivers which allow computer programs to interact with a hardware devices such as
printers, scanners etc,
3. Programming tools which help programmers to develop and test other programs,
4. Compilers which compile the source code into the object code,
5. Linkers which link object code files (and libraries) to generate an executable file,
6. Utility software, that helps to manage and tune the computer hardware, operating system or
application software.

Application software include

1. Word processors (e.g. Microsoft Word),
2. Spreadsheets (e.g. Microsoft Excel)
3. Presentation software (e.g. Microsoft Power point)
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4. Media players (e.g Microsoft Windows Media Player)

5. Games (e.g. Need for Speed, Age of Empires)
6. Forensic software (e.g. Winhex, X-Ways Forensics)
7. Encryption software (e.g. PGP)
8. Internet browsers (e.g. Mozilla Firefox)
9. FTP clients (e.g. FireFTP) and hundreds of other types of software.

Computer System: According to section 2(1)(l) of the IT Act "computer system" means a
device or collection of devices, including input and output support devices and excluding
calculators which are not programmable and capable of being used in conjunction with external
files, which contain computer programs, electronic instructions, input data and output data, that
performs logic, arithmetic, data storage and retrieval, communication control and other
functions. Thus a computer system has the following characteristics:
1. it is a device or collection of devices which contain data or programs,
2. it performs functions such as logic, storage, arithmetic etc,
3. it includes input and output support systems,
4. it excludes non-programmable calculators.

Computer Network: According to section 2(1)(j) of the IT Act "computer network" means the
interconnection of one or more computers through:
(i) the use of satellite, microwave, terrestrial line or other communication media and
(ii) terminals or a complex consisting of two or more interconnected computers whether or not
the interconnection is continuously maintained. Thus, a computer network is
The interconnection of one or more computers through:
Satellite - Satellite Internet connection is an arrangement in which the outgoing and incoming
data travels through a satellite. Each subscribers hardware includes a satellite dish antenna and a
transceiver (transmitter / receiver). The dish antenna transmits and receives signals.
Microwave - The term microwave refers to electromagnetic waves of a particular frequency.
Microwave frequencies are used in radars, Bluetooth devices, radio astronomy, GSM mobile
phone networks, broadcasting and telecommunication transmissions etc.
Terrestrial line or Terrestrial lines include fibre optic cables, telephone lines etc.
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 Other communication media: Communication media refers to any instrument or means that
facilitates the transfer of data, as between a computer and peripherals or between two computers.
Other ways in which two computers can be connected include cables, hubs, switches etc.

Why Cyber law in India?

When Internet was developed, the founding fathers of Internet hardly had any inclination that
Internet could transform itself into an all pervading revolution which could be misused for
criminal activities and which required regulation. Today, there are many disturbing things
happening in cyberspace. Due to the anonymous nature of the Internet, it is possible to engage
into a variety of criminal activities with impunity and people with intelligence, have been grossly
misusing this aspect of the Internet to perpetuate criminal activities in cyberspace. Hence the
need for Cyber laws in India.

Does Cyber law concern the computer users?

Yes, Cyber law does concern you. As the nature of Internet is changing and this new medium is
being seen as the ultimate medium ever evolved in human history, every activity of yours in
Cyberspace can and will have a Cyber legal perspective. From the time you register your
Domain Name, to the time you set up your web site, to the time you promote your website, to the
time when you send and receive emails, to the time you conduct electronic commerce
transactions on the said site, at every point of time, there are various Cyber law issues involved.
You may not be bothered about these issues today because you may feel that they are very
distant from you and that they do not have an impact on your Cyber activities. But sooner or
later, you will have to tighten your belts and take note of Cyber law for your own benefit.

Cyber law Awareness program

Transacting on the Internet has wide legal implications as it alters the conventional methods of
doing business. To build enduring relationships with your online customers the legal issues of etransactions need to be addressed from the onset. This Awareness program will cover the basics
of Internet Security, basic information on Indian Cyber Law, impact of technology aided crime,
Indian IT Act on covering the legal aspects of all online activities, types of Internet policies

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required for an organization and minimum hardware and software security measures required in
an organization to protect data.
Health Issues
There is several health problems associated with computer use. All of them are avoidable,
through the use of ergonomic principles. Ergonomics is the science of fitting the job to the
worker, rather than expecting workers to accommodate themselves to uncomfortable equipment,
postures, and work organization. The following are descriptions of computer-related health
hazards and measures you can take to reduce or eliminate your chance of suffering from pain,
discomfort or a disabling condition because of extensive computer use.

Cumulative Trauma Injuries (CTDS)

As with any task done repeatedly, working on a computer for long periods of time can cause
inflammation of tendons, nerve sheaths and ligaments and damage to soft tissues. Depending on
an individuals sensitivity to the repeated movements of keyboarding, the cumulative effect can
be disabling. Resulting conditions are called cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs). If you
experience pain, numbness, tingling, or weakness in muscles or movement of arms, hands, and
fingers, it could be a sign or symptom of a CTD. The Risks of CTDs can be reduced by changing
the use of your computer. Position of the wrist must be neutral, or straight. In order to achieve a
neutral position, the keyboard needs to be placed so the arms bend at approximately a 90-degree
angle. Any bending of the wrist puts pressure on the tendons and nerves at the same time they
are being required to work. By bending the wrist, you are narrowing the space available for your
tendons and nerves. It is better to avoid resting the wrist or forearm on a hard surface while
keying. This is called contact stress and must be avoided. However, if you feel you really want a
wrist rest, make sure that it is well padded. Replace it when it begins to lose its cushioning. Do
not wear a wrist brace unless a physician prescribes it since braces also constrict nerves and
tendons in the moving hand and wrist.

Back, Neck and Shoulder Problems

Neck and shoulder pain and stiffness can occur from improper placement of the computer
monitor, mouse or document you are working from. If these items are not placed correctly, the
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muscles of your neck and shoulders are constantly working to keep the head and arms in an
awkward position. Phone use while keying can also contribute to neck and shoulder pain from
cradling the phone to your ear. This problem can be reduced by adjusting your line of vision
which should hit the top of the monitor, the mouse should be next to the keyboard at the same
height, and a document holder should be used to make sure paperwork is at the same distance,
angle and height as the monitor. Try to arrange the computer equipment in a straight line so you
are not twisting your back. One can reduce telephone related muscle stress, by using the speaker
function or purchase a headset. A chair that does not provide support for the lower back, or
lumbar, can cause back pain. If there is no lumbar support, back muscles experience fatigue
because they must do more work to keep the body in an upright position. An unsuitable chair
also adds to poor posture, such as slouching, that puts pressure on the spine. Try to get a good
chair that is adjustable and allows the user to move the seat pan up and down, the arm rests in
and out and the seat back forward and back. Chairs should be adjusted so the feet can be placed
squarely on the ground or a footrest. Chairs should also come in a few different sizes to best fit
the user.

Vision
Many people who use computers for prolonged periods of time complain of eye strain, eye
fatigue, eye irritation and blurred vision. Fortunately, correcting these problems can be relatively
easy and inexpensive. To reduce glare, tilt the screen down slightly so that that overhead
lighting does not hit the screen. Place monitors at right angles to windows so glare does not hit
the screen or the users eyes. Use blinds or curtains for controlling sunlight glare. Reduce room
lighting to half-normal office levels and use task lighting for paper work and other tasks. Try
these methods before relying on glare screens, as they are dust collectors and require continuous
cleaning. If there is flicker, or small and illegible characters, make sure the computer is operating
properly and that the screen and characters are big enough to read comfortably. Prolonged,
intense viewing of the monitor can also cause flickering sensations. Take breaks by looking
away from the screen for ten seconds; make phone calls or do other work and give your eyes a
rest. Dryness and irritation are also common complaints. Keep computers and desk areas clean to
keep dust levels down and help reduce eye irritation. Dont forget to blink when working at a
computer. Eyes need lubrication and with computer work, especially in a dry workplace,
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blinking is especially important, as is drinking plenty of water throughout the day. Wearing
contact lenses can aggravate the problem. Some people discover they either need corrective
lenses or a change in their lens prescription. This is not because computer work is actually
causing a worsening of vision, but the intensity of the work can aggravate an existing, but
undiscovered vision problem. If you wear glasses, they may not give you the most efficient
viewing of the screen and you may need a special prescription for computer use.

Radiation
Computers give off very low frequency (VLF) and extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation.
This type of radiation is called non-ionizing. It is not as strong as ionizing radiation, such as xrays, that are known to cause cancer. The source of computer radiation is the fly back
transformer in the rear of the monitor and radiation is therefore strongest at the back of the
machine. Newer computers are manufactured with radiation shielding to minimize emissions.
Research conducted so far does not indicate that radiation from computers is a significant health
hazard. Even so, a policy of prudent avoidance is recommended because computer radiation
studies have not fully answered all the questions about potential risks. Prudent avoidance means
to reduce exposure by placing people away from the source of radiation. The backs of computer
monitors should be at least three to four feet from any user.

In addition, organize your work area in such a way that the things you need are close at hand
and adjust lighting levels or reposition the monitor so that glare is eliminated and lighting is
appropriate for the task. Adjust your workstation so you are in proper alignment with your
computer. Its important that the equipment adjust to your comfort.
Contact your eye doctor or occupational health practitioner if vision problems persist. Report
symptoms of computer-related health problems immediately to your supervisor, union and
physician. Dont wait to get treatment and/or help for changing your workstation. TAKE
BREAKS! Every 30 minutes or so, get up or do alternate work like filing or phones. Short
stretch breaks will help revive you. Taking 30 seconds to stop and stretch or breathe deeply
while closing your eyes can be very effective. Youll probably notice your concentration and
productivity improving too. Dont forget to periodically look away from the screen and blink.

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E waste
Electronic waste is discarded electrical or electronic devices. Informal processing of electronic
waste in developing countries may cause serious health and pollution problems, though these
countries are also most likely to reuse and repair electronics. Some electronic scrap components,
such as CRTs, may contain contaminants like lead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominates flame
retardants. Even in developed countries recycling and disposal of e-waste may involve
significant risk to workers and communities and great care must be taken to avoid unsafe
exposure in recycling operations.

"Electronic waste" may be defined as discarded computers, office electronic equipment,

entertainment device electronics, mobile phones, television sets and refrigerators. This definition
includes used electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling, or disposal.

CRTs have relatively high concentration of lead and phosphors, both of which are necessary for
the display. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) includes discarded CRT
monitors in its category of "hazardous household waste".

Rapid changes in technology, changes in media (tapes, software, MP3), falling prices, and
planned obsolescence have resulted in a fast-growing surplus of electronic waste around the
globe. Display units (CRT, LCD, LED monitors), Processors (CPU chips), memory (RAM), and
audio components have different useful lives. Processors are most frequently out-dated (by
software) and are more likely to become "e-waste", while display units are most often replaced
while working without repair attempts, due to changes in wealthy nation appetites for new
display technology.

An estimated 50 million tons of E-waste are produced each year. The USA discards 30 million
computers each year and 100 million phones are disposed of in Europe each year. The
Environmental Protection Agency estimates that only 15 to 20% of e-waste is recycled, the rest
of these electronics go directly into landfills and incinerators.

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Electrical waste contains hazardous but also valuable and scarce materials. Up to 60 elements
can be found in complex electronics. In the United States, an estimated 70% of heavy metals in
landfills come from discarded electronics. Electronic waste is often exported to developing
countries.

One theory is that increased regulation of electronic waste and concern over the environmental
harm in mature economies creates an economic disincentive to remove residues prior to export.
Critics of trade in used electronics maintain that it is still too easy for brokers calling themselves
recyclers to export unscreened electronic waste to developing countries, such as China, India and
parts of Africa, thus avoiding the expense of removing items like bad cathode ray tubes (the
processing of which is expensive and difficult). The developing countries have become toxic
dump yards of e-waste.

Recycling of copper, silver, gold, and other materials from discarded electronic devices is
considered better for the environment than mining. They also state that repair and reuse of
computers and televisions has become a "lost art" in wealthier nations, and that refurbishing has
traditionally been a path to development.

Opponents of surplus electronics exports argue that lower environmental and labor standards,
cheap labor, and the relatively high value of recovered raw materials leads to a transfer of
pollution-generating activities, such as smelting of copper wire. In China, Malaysia, India,
Kenya, and various African countries, electronic waste is being sent to these countries for
processing, sometimes illegally. Many surplus laptops are routed to developing nations as
"dumping grounds for e-waste".

Uncontrolled burning, disassembly, and disposal causes a variety of environmental problems

such as groundwater contamination, atmospheric pollution, or even water pollution either by
immediate discharge or due to surface runoff (especially near coastal areas), as well as health
problems including occupational safety and health effects among those directly and indirectly
involved, due to the methods of processing the waste. Thousands of men, women, and children
are employed in highly polluting, primitive recycling technologies, extracting the metals, toners,
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and plastics from computers and other electronic waste. Recent studies show that 7 out of 10
children in this region have too much lead in their blood.

E-waste presents a potential security threat to individuals and exporting countries. Hard drives
that are not properly erased before the computer is disposed of can be reopened, exposing
sensitive information. Credit card numbers, private financial data, account information and
records of online transactions can be accessed by most willing individuals. Organized criminals
in Ghana commonly search the drives for information to use in local scams.

E-waste management Recycling

Today the electronic waste recycling business is in all areas of the developed world a large and
rapidly consolidating business. Part of this evolution has involved greater diversion of electronic
waste from energy-intensive down cycling processes (e.g., conventional recycling), where
equipment is reverted to a raw material form. This diversion is achieved through reuse and
refurbishing. Audiovisual components, televisions, VCRs, stereo equipment, mobile phones,
other handheld devices, and computer components contain valuable elements and substances
suitable for reclamation, including lead, copper, and gold.

One of the major challenges is recycling the printed circuit boards from the electronic wastes.
The circuit boards contain such precious metals as gold, silver, platinum, etc. and such base
metals as copper, iron, aluminum, etc. Conventional method employed is mechanical shredding
and separation but the recycling efficiency is low. Alternative methods such as cryogenic
decomposition have been studied for printed circuit board recycling, and some other methods are
still under investigation.

In developed countries, electronic waste processing usually first involves dismantling the
equipment into various parts (metal frames, power supplies, circuit boards, plastics), often by
hand, but increasingly by automated shredding equipment. The advantages of this process are the
human's ability to recognize and save working and repairable parts, including chips, transistors,
RAM, etc. The disadvantage is that the labor is cheapest in countries with the lowest health and
safety standards.
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Leaded glass from CRTs is reused in car batteries, ammunition, and lead wheel weights,[20] or
sold to foundries as a fluxing agent in processing raw lead ore. Copper, gold, palladium, silver
and tin are valuable metals sold to smelters for recycling. Hazardous smoke and gases are
captured, contained and treated to mitigate environmental threat. These methods allow for safe
reclamation of all valuable computer construction materials.

An ideal electronic waste recycling plant combines dismantling for component recovery with
increased cost-effective processing of bulk electronic waste. Reuse is an alternative option to
recycling because it extends the lifespan of a device. Devices still need eventual recycling, but
by allowing others to purchase used electronics, recycling can be postponed and value gained
from device use.

Benefits of recycling
Recycling raw materials from end-of-life electronics is the most effective solution to the growing
e-waste problem. Most electronic devices contain a variety of materials, including metals that
can be recovered for future uses. By dismantling and providing reuse possibilities, intact natural
resources are conserved and air and water pollution caused by hazardous disposal is avoided.
Additionally, recycling reduces the amount of greenhouse gas emissions caused by the
manufacturing of new products. It simply makes good sense and is efficient to recycle and to do
our part to keep the environment green.

Model Objective Questions

1. ---------------- is a social and political movement ensuring freedom to software users
a. Application software movement

b. Free software movement

c. Free operation system software

d. Free utility software movement

2. Software movement was founded by--------a. Richard Stallman

b. Microsoft

c. Bill Clinton

d. Bill Gate

3. Application of information and communication technology for delivering government service

is called ------------a. E Government

b. E Governance

c. E Service

d. None of these
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4. Criminal activity done by using computer and internet are called--------a. Political Crime

b. Cyber Crime

c. Civil Crime

d. None of these

5. Unwanted advertisement in internet is called----------------a. Net advertisement

b. Adware

c. Software

d. Advertisement software

6. Program compiling source code to object code is called ---------------a. Interpreters

b. Compilers

c. Utilizers

d. Programmes

7. Discarded electrical and electronic equipments are called------------------a. Used equipments

b. E waste

c. Old equipments

d. None of these

Short Answer Questions

1. Who are hackers?
2. What is spyware?
3. What is adware?
4. What do you mean by E waste?
5. What do you mean by cyber ethics?
6. What do you mean by cyber crime?
7. What do you mean by spam?
8. What is electronic signature?

Essay Type Questions

1. Write note on free software movement
2. Explain about the role of IT in Industry
3. Explain the advantages of IT in Business
4. Distinguish between E governance and E government
5. What is the role of IT in national integration?
6. Write note on cyber terrorism
7. Explain the need for cyber law
8. What do you mean by application software?
9. Explain different types of computer network
10. Explain the health issues related to computer
11. How can you manage e waste?
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Office Automation
Learning Objectives

To know about the historical background of office automation

To learn about the basics of office automation
To know about desktop publishing
To know about the handling of images

Industrial productivity has increased through the industrialization but offices have received very
little attention for increasing their efficiency and productivity. In the year ending 1983 the
industrial productivity has increased by 83% where as the office productivity has increased by
only 4%. The office is one of the key areas for automation in the organization. Unlike the
industrial workers, office workers have a fair amount of freedom in carrying out their task within
the overall office procedures. Comparing to the industrial work, the office work is interactive,
transaction oriented and the activities are varied and dynamic. After the introduction of
typewriter in 1870 and the telephone in the year 1920 into the offices, it has remained the same
till recently.
Meaning
Office automation is realized through the information technology concerned with four main
elements such as: generation, storage, processing and communication of information. This
technology is making office automation a reality. The information is generated through powerful
word processing system, processed and stored in a powerful database, moved from where it is
generated to where it is to be used.

Thus the term office automation refers to all tools and methods that are applied to office
activities which make it possible to process written, visual, and sound data in a computer-aided
manner. Office automation is intended to provide elements which make it possible to simplify,
improve, and automate the organization of the activities of a company or a group of people.

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In particular, it includes the following activities such as:

exchange of information

management of administrative documents

handling of numerical data and meeting planning and management of work schedules

In short Office Automation is all about using the computer to:

Make your work less tedious.

Trim hours off your workload.

Reduce repetitive keyboard strokes or mouse-clicks.

Make data entry easier with fewer tabs or mouse movements.

Take any job you do longhand and make the computer do it for you.

Definition
Olson and Lucas defined office automation as the use of integrated computer and
communications system to support administrative procedures in an office environment. But
according to Ellis and Nutt an automated office information system attempts to perform the
functions of the ordinary office by means of computer system. Hammer and Sirbu defines office
automation as the utilization of technology to improve the realization of office functions.

Thus the office automation is the use of information technology for generation, storage and
retrieval, processing and communication of information for improving the effectiveness of
office, which in turn will help to realize the objectives or business functions of the organization
in an efficient and competitive manner.

Office Automation does not always mean "punch a button and do everything from start to
finish". Sometimes the job still requires some manual steps through the work process. Of
course, additional automation can be added to the work process as the process is understood
more clearly. Programming too much into the work process in the first round of automation can
sometimes make the whole system inflexible and stop ideas from coming to the surface. For this
reason, automation sometimes occurs in stages as new understanding of the work process comes
to light.
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Office Automation may also be limited by the level of programs available to the user. Or,
perhaps they are limiting the automation to a level of programs that they are familiar with. Office
Automation does not always mean programming a new tool. Sometimes a better understanding
of the existing tools is all that is needed. A wise selection of the tools that are available may be
all that is necessary.
Historical Background
The history of modem office automation began with the typewriter and the copy machine, which
mechanized previously manual tasks. However, increasingly office automation refers not just to
the mechanization of tasks but to the conversion of information to electronic form as well. The
advent of the personal computer in the early 1980s revolutionized office automation. Popular
operating systems like DOS (Disk Operating System) and user interfaces like Microsoft Corp.'s
Windows dominate office computer systems. Today, most offices use at least one commercial
computer business application in the course of daily activity. Some large companies like AT&T
maintain extensive and complex office automation systems, while smaller companies may
employ only a word processor.

In order to process information, office automation systems must allow input of new information
and the retrieval of stored information. Input of new information refers to the physical transfer of
text, video, graphics, and sound into a computer. Input can be typed into the computer or scanned
(digitally reproduced) from another document or source. New advances in input devices
frequently allow direct handwritten input or voice dictation. Input of pre-existing information
means retrieving the electronic materials from an existing storage area. These storage areas can
be finite and local, such as the hard drive on the office PC, or as seemingly infinite and global as
the Internet, the worldwide collection of computer networks that is growing every year.

Basics of Office Automation

Generally, there are three basic activities of an office automation system: storage of raw data,
data exchange, and data management. Within each broad application area, hardware and
software combine to fulfill basic functions.
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Data Storage and Manipulation

Data storage usually includes office records and other primary office forms and documents. Data
applications involve the capture and editing of a file, image, or spreadsheet. Word processing
and desktop presentation packages accommodate raw textual and graphical data, while
spreadsheet applications enable the easy manipulation and output of numbers. Image applications
allow the capture and editing of visual images.

Text Handling: Text-handling software and systems cover the whole field of word processing
and desktop publishing. Word processing is the inputting (usually via keyboard) and
manipulation of text on a computer. Word processing is frequently the most basic and common
office automation activity. Popular commercial word processing applications include Word
Perfect (Corel) and Word (Microsoft). Each provides the office user with a sophisticated set of
commands to format, edit, and print text documents. One of the most popular features of word
processing packages are their preformatted document templates. Templates automatically set up
such things as font size, paragraph styles, headers and footers, and page numbers so that the user
does not have to reset document characteristics every time they create a new record.

Desktop Publishing: Desktop publishing adds another dimension to text manipulation. By

packaging the features of a word processor with advanced page design and layout features,
desktop publishing packages easily create documents with text and images, such as newsletters
or brochures.

Image Handling: Image-handling software and systems are another facet of office automation.
Images, or digital pictures, are representations of visual information. Visual information is an
important complement to textual information. Examples of visual information include pictures of
documents, photographs, and graphics such as tables and charts. These images are converted into
digital files, which cannot be edited the same way that text files can. In a word processor or
desktop publishing application, each word or character is treated individually. In an imaging
system, the entire picture or document is treated as one whole object. One of the most popular
uses of computerized images is in corporate presentations or speeches. Presentation software
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packages simplify the creation of multimedia presentations that use computer video, images,
sound, and text in an integrated information package.

Spread Sheet Program: Spreadsheet programs allow the manipulation of numeric data. Early
popular spreadsheets like VisiCalc and Lotus 1-2-3 greatly simplified common financial record
keeping. Particularly useful among the many spreadsheet options is the ability to use variables in
pro forma statements. The pro forma option allows the user to change a variable and have a
complex formula automatically recalculated based on the new numbers. Many businesses use
spreadsheets for financial management, financial projection, and accounting.

Data Exchange:
The exchange of stored and manipulated information is an equally important component of an
office automation system. Electronic transfer is a general application area that highlights the
exchange of information between more than one user or participant. Electronic mail, voice mail,
and facsimile are examples of electronic transfer applications. Systems that allow instantaneous
or "real time" transfer of information (i.e. online conversations via computer or audio exchange
with video capture) are considered electronic sharing systems. Electronic sharing software
illustrates the collaborative nature of many office automation systems. The distinction between
electronic transfer and electronic sharing is subtle but recognizable.

Electronic transfer software and systems allow for electronic, voice, and facsimile transmission
of office information. Electronic mail uses computerbased storage and a common set of network
communication standards to forward electronic messages from one user to another. It is usually
possible to relay electronic mail to more than one recipient. Additionally, many electronic mail
systems provide security features, automatic messaging, and mail management systems like
electronic folders or notebooks. Voice mail offers essentially the same applications, but for
telephones rather than computers. Facsimile transmissions are limited to image relay and have
suffered in popularity with the increase in the use of the personal computer. One popular
alternative, for example, is to send and receive faxes by modem.

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Electronic sharing systems offset the limitations of a store-and-forward electronic mail system.
Office automation systems that include the ability to electronically share information between
more than one user simultaneously are often called groupware. One type of groupware is an
electronic meeting system, which allows geographically dispersed participants to exchange
information in real time. Participants may be within the same office or building or thousands of
miles apart. Long-distance electronic sharing systems usually use a telephone line connection to
transfer data, while sharing in a localized area often involves just a local area network of
computers (no outside phone line is needed). An interesting byproduct of the electronic sharing
functions of an office automation system is telecommuting. A telecommuter works for a business
from another location (often home) using a computer and a connection to the office automation
system. Telecommuting is an increasingly popular style of work for many office workers and
companies.

Data Management
The last major component of an office automation system offers planning and strategic
advantages by simplifying the management of stored information. Task management, tickler
systems or reminder systems, and scheduling programs monitor and control various projects and
activities within the office. Electronic management systems monitor and control office activities
and tasks through timelines, resource equations, and electronic scheduling. As in data exchange,
groupware is gaining in popularity for data management. Each member of the work group or
larger group may share access to necessary information via the automated office system and
groupware.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Office Automation: Practical workplace issues of office

automation often involve the budget and physical considerations involved with creating,
exchanging, and managing information. Equipment, rewiring, training, security, and data entry,
all cost money and require space. Newly recognized medical problems such as repetitive motion
syndrome are a significant issue for some people using office automation systems. Repetitive
motion syndrome is a medical disorder associated with lengthy keyboard inputting and seating
arrangements. Likewise, environmental safety concerns might also include vision and overall
health considerations related to electromagnetic computer emissions.
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Telecommuting advances enable an increasing percentage of the workforce to maintain an office

at home and, at the same time, provoke considerable debate on the future of the central office.
Businesses must comply with software licenses or face lawsuits. Office automation systems can
be complex to acquire and costly to administrate for large organizations. The availability of vital
office information in such an easily obtained digital format requires considerable thought and
preparation for data security.

By integrating raw information with exchange mechanisms and management structuring and
guidance, office automation creates advantages as well as disadvantages. Benefits in using
electronic management systems include savings in production and service costs as information is
quickly routed for optimal office performance. Office automation can also be cost effective, as
powerful microcomputers continue to drop in price. While office automation often mirrors actual
paper transaction and activity, an office automation system may also complement the paper
system and provide output only available in digital format. Thus, office automation extends the
information activities of the office to surpass physical or geographic limitation.

By far the fastest growing segment of the office automation industry is for multifunction
peripherals. These machines incorporate a combination of functions into one. The first such
machines included a plain paper fax and a color printer in one unit. These products grew quickly
to incorporate scanners and related functions. By the late 1990s, these items registered over 100
percent growth rates.

There are actually a lot of areas wherein automation can be implemented in an office
environment. And automation helps the company in many ways such as minimizing the use of
papers thus contributing to the welfare of the environment. It can also save the company office
space when saving documents instead of file cabinets, they use virtual storage.

Implementing automation to offices will save the company from a lot of expenses especially in
archiving and saving documents. There are actually a lot of advantages that come with
implementing automation in offices but the main advantage is the cost effectiveness. A good
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example would be is when the company needs to archive documents. Instead of buying file
cabinets and a lot of papers, all the company needs is a computer which will serve as a database
of all the documents that need to be archived.
Another example of advantage of automation is the use of computers. Instead of using the
traditional typewriters, offices nowadays choose to use computers to efficiently create, edit,
copy, print, and send documents. Unlike when you use typewriters, when you typed something
incorrectly, you have to use a liquid to somehow erase it, or worse you have to type the whole
page again. So instead of going through the hassle of using manual system, it is wiser and costefficient to use automated systems such as the use of computers.

Advantages
Automating processes reduces your involvement in mundane clerical tasks, such as organizing
customer data or creating reports, and leaves you to concentrate on the parts of your business that
you prefer. It allows a few employees to perform the tasks of many, such as when one machine
automatically chooses, packs and labels products for shipping. Automation enables people with
lower skill levels to perform higher-level tasks, such as when a clerk creates an attractive and
compelling presentation by typing text into software templates that pull in third-party pictures,
videos and music. Automating information systems reduces storage space, speeds retrieval and
allows several employees to access the same data at the same time.

Disadvantages
But along with the many advantages come the disadvantages of implementing automation in
offices. a common disadvantage of using automated systems is the training of older people who
are more comfortable using the older system that a particular office has they may find the new
system hard to use.

Office automation can be expensive when you first invest in software and equipment. A
professional office suite or a machine that scans, duplicates and binds documents, for example,
can be quite expensive. Older or less-skilled employees who are used to manual methods might
find it difficult to operate and adjust to automatic processes. This could require additional and
time-consuming training. If the automated system does not function when the power is
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interrupted, then you might not be able to use manual methods to continue business. For
instance, if your product catalog exists exclusively on your computer and the system goes down,
you might be unable to take and process orders.

Objective Type Questions

1. Tools and methods applied to the office activity is called ---------------a. Office software

b. Office automation

c. Office service

d. None of these

2. DOS stands for

a. Direct Operating Service

b. Disk Operating System

c. Desk Operating System

d. None of these

3. GUI stands for

a. Graphic User Interchange

b. Graphic Used Information

c. Graphic User Interface

d. None of these

4. -------------- provides set of commands to format edit and print text documents
a. Spread sheet

b. Word processor

c. Accounting Package

d. None of these

5. ---------------- allows manipulation of numerical data

a. Word Processor

b. Spread sheet

c. Accounting Package

d. None of these

Short Answer Type Questions

1. What do you mean by office automation?
2. What are the features of office automation?
3. What is meant by data storage?
4. How can you handle the text?
5. What is meant by desk top publishing?
6. What is a spread sheet program?
7. What is meant by data exchange?
8. Write note on electronic transfer software
9. What is meant by data management?
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Essay Type Questions

1. Explain the features, advantages and limitations of office automation
2. Briefly explain about the office automation tools
3. Explain in details how the office automation tools benefits the society

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Office Automation Tools - Word Processing

Learning objectives

To know theoretical and practical knowledge of word processing

Meaning
Using a computer to create, edit, and print documents is called word processing. Of all computer
applications, word processing is the most common. To perform word processing, you need a
computer, a special program called a word processor, and a printer. A word processor enables
you to create a document, store it electronically on a disk, display it on a screen, modify it by
entering commands and characters from the keyboard, and print it on a printer.

The term word processor (WP) is a computer application used for the production (including
composition, editing, formatting and possibly printing) of any sort of printable material. Word
processor may also refer to a type of stand-alone office machine, (Electronic type writer) popular
in the 1970s and 1980s, combining the keyboard text-entry and printing functions of an electric
typewriter with a dedicated processor (like a computer processor) for the editing of text.

Although features and design varied between manufacturers and models, with new features
added as technology advanced, word processors for several years usually featured a monochrome
display and the ability to save documents on memory cards or diskettes. Later models introduced
innovations such as spell-checking programs, increased formatting options, and dot-matrix
printing. As the more versatile combination of a personal computer and separate printer became
commonplace, most business-machine companies stopped manufacturing the word processor as
a stand-alone office machine.

Word Processing Compared to Using a Typewriter

The great advantage of word processing over using a typewriter is that you can make changes
without retyping the entire document. If you make a typing mistake, you simply back up the
cursor and correct your mistake. If you want to delete a paragraph, you simply remove it, without
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leaving a trace. It is equally easy to insert a word, sentence, or paragraph in the middle of a
document. Word processors also make it easy to move sections of text from one place to another
within a document, or between documents. When you have made all the changes you want, you
can send the file to a printer to get a hard copy.

Word processors are descended from early text formatting tools (sometimes called text
justification tools, from their only real capability). Word processing was one of the earliest
applications for the personal computer in office productivity. Although early word processors
used tag-based markup for document formatting, most modern word processors take advantage
of a graphical user interface (GUI Concept) providing some form of what-you-see-is-what-youget editing. Most are powerful systems consisting of one or more programs that can produce any
arbitrary combination of images, graphics and text, the latter handled with type-setting
capability.
Features
Word processors vary considerably, but all word processors support the following basic features:
a) Insert text: Allows you to insert text anywhere in the document.
b) Delete text: Allows you to erase characters, words, lines, or pages as easily as you
can cross them out on paper.
c) Cut and paste: Allows you to remove (cut) a section of text from one place in a
document and insert (paste) it somewhere else.
d) Copy : Allows you to duplicate a section of text.
e) Page size and margins: Allows you to define various page sizes and margins, and the
word processor will automatically readjust the text so that it fits.
f) Search and replace : Allows you to direct the word processor to search for a
particular word or phrase. You can also direct the word processor to replace one group of
characters with another everywhere that the first group appears.
g) Word wrap: The word processor automatically moves to the next line when you have
filled one line with text, and it will readjust text if you change the margins.
h) Print: Allows you to send a document to a printer to get hardcopy.

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Features of Standard Word Processors

Word processors that support only these features (and maybe a few others) are called text editors.
Most word processors, however, support additional features that enable you to manipulate and
format documents in more sophisticated ways. These more advanced word processors are
sometimes called full-featured word processors. Full-featured word processors usually support
the following features:
i) File management: Many word processors contain file management capabilities that
allow you to create, delete, move, and search for files.
ii) Font specifications: Allows you to change fonts within a document. For example, you
can specify bold, italics, and underlining. Most word processors also let you change the
font size and even the typeface.
iii) Footnotes and cross-references: Automates the numbering and placement of foot
notes and enables you to easily cross-reference other sections of the document.
iv) Graphics: Allows you to embed illustrations and graphs into a document. Some word
processors let you create the illustrations within the word processor; others let you insert
an illustration produced by a different program.
v) Headers, footers, and page numbering: Allows you to specify customized headers
and footers that the word processor will put at the top and bottom of every page. The
word processor automatically keeps track of page numbers so that the correct number
appears on each page.
vi) Layout: Allows you to specify different margins within a single document and to
specify various methods for indenting paragraphs.
vii) Macros: A macro is a character or word that represents a series of keystrokes. The
keystrokes can represent text or commands. The ability to define macros allows you to
save yourself a lot of time by replacing common combinations of keystrokes.
viii) Merges: Allows you to merge text from one file into another file. This is particularly
useful for generating many files that have the same format but different data. Generating
mailing labels is the classic example of using merges.
ix) Spell checker : A utility that allows you to check the spelling of words. It will
highlight any words that it does not recognize.

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x) Tables of contents and indexes: Allows you to automatically create a table of

contents and index based on special codes that you insert in the document.
xi) Thesaurus: A built-in thesaurus that allows you to search for synonyms without
leaving the word processor.
xii) Windows : Allows you to edit two or more documents at the same time. Each
document appears in a separate window. This is particularly valuable when working on a
large project that consists of several different files.
xiii) WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get): With WYSIWYG, a document appears
on the display screen exactly as it will look when printed.

The line dividing word processors from desktop publishing systems is constantly shifting. In
general, though, desktop publishing applications support finer control over layout, and more
support for full-color document

Word processing typically implies the presence of text manipulation functions that extend
beyond a basic ability to enter and change text, such as automatic generation of:

batch mailings using a form letter template and an address database (also called mail
merging);

indices of keywords and their page numbers;

tables of contents with section titles and their page numbers;

tables of figures with caption titles and their page numbers;

cross-referencing with section or page numbers;

footnote numbering;

new versions of a document using variables (e.g. model numbers, product names, etc.)

Other word processing functions include spell checking (actually checks against wordlists),
"grammar checking" (checks for what seem to be simple grammar errors), and a "thesaurus"
function (finds words with similar or opposite meanings). Other common features include
collaborative editing, comments and annotations, support for images and diagrams and internal
cross-referencing.

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Typical usage
Word processors have a variety of uses and applications within the business world, home, and
education.

Business
Within the business world, word processors are extremely useful tools. Typical uses include:

legal copies

letters and letterhead

memos

reference documents

Business tends to have their own format and style for any of these. Thus, versatile word
processors with layout editing and similar capabilities find widespread use in most business.

Home
While many homes have word processors on their computers, word processing in the home tends
to be educational, planning or business related, dealing with assignments or work being
completed at home, or occasionally recreational, e.g. writing short stories. Some use word
processors for letter writing, rsum creation, and card creation. However, many of these home
publishing processes have been taken over by desktop publishing programs specifically oriented
toward home use which are better suited to these types of documents.

Distinction between Word Processors and other related forms of software:

Text editors were the precursors of word processors. While offering facilities for composing and
editing text, they do not format documents. Text editors are now used mainly by programmers,
website designers, computer system administrators, and, in the case of LaTeX by mathematicians
and scientists (for complex formulas and for citations in rare languages). They are also useful
when fast startup times, small file sizes, editing speed and simplicity of operation are preferred
over formatting.
Later desktop publishing programs were specifically designed to allow elaborate layout for
publication, but often offered only limited support for editing. Typically, desktop publishing
programs allowed users to import text that was written using a text editor or word processor.
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Almost all word processors enable users to employ styles, which are used to automate consistent
formatting of text body, titles, subtitles, highlighted text, and so on.

Styles greatly simplify managing the formatting of large documents, since changing a style
automatically changes all text that the style has been applied to. Even in shorter documents styles
can save a lot of time while formatting. However, most help files refer to styles as an 'advanced
feature' of the word processor, which often discourages users from using styles regularly.

Document statistics
Most current word processors can calculate various statistics pertaining to a document. These
usually include:

Character count, word count, sentence count, line count, paragraph count, page count.

Word, sentence and paragraph length.

Editing time.

Errors are common; for instance, a dash surrounded by spaces like either of these may be
counted as a word.
MS Office
Microsoft Word is the most widely used word processing software. Microsoft estimates that over
500,000,000 people use the Microsoft Office suite, which includes Word. Many other word
processing applications exist, including WordPerfect (which dominated the market from the mid1980s to early-1990s on computers running Microsoft's MS-DOS operating system) and open
source applications OpenOffice.org Writer, Libre Office Writer, AbiWord, KWord, and LyX.
Web-based word processors, such as Office Web Apps or Google Docs, are a relatively new
category.
Folder Creation
To create a new folder in Microsoft Office Word 2007, in Microsoft Office Word 2003, in
Microsoft Word 2002, in Microsoft Word 2000, or in Microsoft Word 97, follow these steps:
1. Start Word.
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2. In Word 2003, in Word 2002, in Word 2000, and in Word 97, click Save on the File
menu. In Word 2007, click the Microsoft Office Button, and then click Save.
3. In the Save As dialog box, click the drop-down arrow in the Save in box, and then select
the location of the new folder in the list.
4. In Word 2002, in Word 2000, and in Word 97, click the New Folder icon in the Save As
dialog box. This icon resembles a yellow folder that has a star on the upper-right corner.
In Word 2007 and in Word 2003, click the Create New Folder icon in the Save As
dialog box.
5. In the New Folder dialog box, name the folder, and then click OK.
6. In the Save As dialog box, notice that the folder that you created is now in the location in
which the document is to be saved.

Note: You can create a new folder any time that the New Folder or the Create New Folder icon
is present. For example, click Open File on the File menu, and then notice the New Folder icon.
When creating a new Microsoft Word document, you have the option of creating it from scratch,
or basing it on a template. The advantage of starting from scratch is that you have more control
and flexibility over how your document looks and how it is structured. Any styling and effects
present in the document will be there because you put them there. The disadvantage is that it can
take some time to create the look and feel you want, and in some cases you will be "reinventing
the wheel". Word templates are designed to speed up the process of creating stunning and
professional documents.

To get started, click the File tab > New. You'll notice that the top of the panel gives you the
option to create a blank document, a blog post and also to create your document on a template or
an existing document. Blank document is selected by default and that's the option we need, so
click Create. A new blank document opens and is ready for you to start editing. As soon as you
can, you should save the document and then periodically you should keep saving it so that you
don't lose your changes if your PC crashes or there is a power cut. A quick way to create a blank
Word document is to use the keyboard shortcut ctrl-n.

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A big part of your document management work will involve creating new Microsoft Word
documents. However, not every document you work on will be new; you will undoubtedly need
to open existing Word documents, whether they have been created by you or someone else.
Opening an existing Word document is easy, and there are several different ways of doing it.

The first method we'll look at is driven by the ribbon: with Word open, click the File tab > Open,
and the usual File Open dialogue box that you are probably already familiar with opens.

Navigate to where the document is and either double click it or select it with a single click and
then click Open. The document will then open in Word for you to edit. Be sure to save any
changes you make by clicking ctrl-s. Alternatively, if you want to keep a copy of the original
document as it looked before you made any changes, click the File tab > Save As, and then give
the document a new name. The newly named document is the one you are now editing and the
original document still exists with its original name. This is only one way (albeit a clumsy one!)
of keeping track of changes made to a document, and is useful if you think there is a big risk of
messing it up.

Another method of opening an existing Word document is to use the keyboard shortcut ctrl-o.
You'll find that many keyboard shortcuts work universally across all Microsoft Office products
and ctrl-o is one of them. After pressing ctrl-o, the File Open dialogue box that we met above
opens. Simply follow the same steps to find and open your document.

The final method that we're going to look at for opening an existing Word document is one that
you would use if you were navigating your documents using Windows Explorer. When you find
the document you want to work on in Windows Explorer, right click on it > Open With >
Microsoft Word. The document will open in Word, as described earlier.

Microsoft Word gives you five different views of a document, and each has its own advantages
over the others. They are Print Layout, Full Screen Reading, Web Layout, Outline and Draft and
you can guess what purpose some of them serve just by their names. There are two ways of
changing the view you have of a document. You can click the View tab and then choose a
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particular view from the Document Views tab, or you can use the view buttons next to the zoom
slider in the bottom right of the work space. We'll look at the different Word views now.

Print Layout View

This is the default view you'll find yourself in when opening a document. This view is best used
when your document will contain things like images, headers, and footers, columns, etc. Each of
these components will be visible. In this view you can see how the document will print according
to its page breaks.

Full Screen Reading View

Full Screen Reading view is optimized for reading a document on the computer screen. In Full
Screen Reading view, you also have the option of seeing the document as it would appear on a
printed page. You should view the document in full screen reading view to maximise the space
available for reading or commenting on the document.

Web Layout View

Use web layout view to view the document as it would look like as a web page. In this view you
can see the background, text is wrapped to fit the window, and images appear as they would
online.

Outline View
Using outline view you can view the document as an outline and show the outlining tools. This is
useful if you are moving sections of your document, or creating an outline.

Draft View
Use draft view, to view the document as a draft, to enable you to quickly edit the text. Certain
elements of the document, such as headers and footers, will not be visible in this view.
There are two page orientations you can use in Microsoft Word: portrait and landscape. You will
usually find that the portrait orientation satisfies your needs. For example, letters are usually
created in portrait. Indeed, portrait is the default orientation for new documents. Sometimes,

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however, you need a wider document. For example, sometimes I need to display a table that has
either too many columns or very wide columns, and portrait will make the table looked cramped.

The landscape page orientation is much better here as it provides more horizontal space. To
change the layout in Word, click Page Layout > Orientation, and select either the portrait or
landscape layout.

Margins are the blanks areas of space around the edge of your Word document. Although text
and other objects are usually inserted into the printable area within the margins, some items can
actually be positioned in the margins (for example, page numbers, headers and footers.).
Microsoft Word offers you the facility to use default margin settings or to define your own
margins. To adjust the margins in your document, click Page Layout > Page Setup > Margins.
Simply click on one of the images to apply the appropriate margins. The margins just applied
will affect all pages in your document. If you want to define your own margin settings, click on
Custom Margins at the bottom.

The first tab is for margin settings, so that's where we need to make our changes. The top area of
the window allows us to adjust the margin size for top, bottom, left and right of the page. There
are also input boxes for you to specify a gutter margin. You would use a gutter margin to add
extra space to the side or top margin of a document you plan to bind. A gutter margin ensures
that text isn't obscured by the binding.

Clip Art is the term given to pre-made images that are ready for use in your Microsoft Word
documents. There are many Clip Art categories, such as Christmas, Special Occasions, People,
Business, Decorative Elements, Animals, Cartoons and many more. To insert a Clip Art image
into a document, click Insert > Illustrations > Clip Art. When you click on the Clip Art button,
the Clip Art panel opens and is positioned to the right of the workspace. In this panel, you can
search for particular subjects You can also narrow down your search by using the Results should
be drop down list to restrict the search to Illustrations, Photographs, Videos, Audio or multiple
selections of those types.

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If you find that not enough images are returned for your search, try searching again with the
Include Office.com content checkbox checked. To insert a Clip Art image, click on it. Whilst the
image is selected, you should see the Picture Tools contextual tab displayed in the ribbon. You
can use the tools displayed there to manipulate the image. To delete a Clip Art image, select it
and then press either the delete key or the backspace key. Each time you open the Clip Art panel,
you'll find your last search there.

The types of images that you can insert into your Microsoft Word document are numerous. You
can insert Clip Art from Microsoft's Clip gallery, you can insert images created from graphics
applications like Adobe Photoshop, photos you take with your digital camera, scanned images
and images obtained from the internet. If you are using images from the internet, make sure you
have permission to use them first. To insert into your Word document an image stored on your
computer, click Insert > Illustrations > Picture.

In the Insert Picture dialogue box that appears, navigate to where your image file is located on
your hard drive, select it and click Insert. The picture is then inserted into your document where
your cursor is currently positioned. It makes sense sometimes to press the return key a few times
to make room for your picture before you insert it. While the picture is selected (and
immediately after you insert it, it will be), the Picture Tools contextual tab is displayed in the
ribbon. This tab is home to all the image manipulation tools available to us. For some quick
previews of the kind of effects we can apply to the picture, hover over some of the thumbnail
images in the Picture Styles group.

Moving images around your Microsoft Word document is a quirky affair and not at all intuitive.
If you've used graphics applications before, you might expect to be able to simply drag the image
and drop it where you need it. Alas, things are not so simple. You can actually drag and drop
your image, but strangely, you need to do something first. You can't drag and drop your image
immediately after inserting it into your document.

Let's look at a simple way of moving an image in your Word document. Select an image and the
Picture Tools contextual tab should appear in the ribbon. Click on Position in the Arrange group.
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As with many tools in Microsoft Word, you can see live previews of the effect when you hover
your mouse over a particular thumbnail image. Click on a positioning arrangement that suits
your needs. The square text wrapping in each description indicates that the text on the page will
flow around the image.

There doesn't actually need to be any text currently on the page for the image to be repositioned.
Now you can now drag and drop the image wherever you need it. Position the mouse over the
image so that the cursor shape turns into a 4-way arrow, then click and drag the image. Be
careful that you don't drag the resize handles. To delete an image, click on it to select it. Then
press either the delete key or the backspace key. Be aware that other elements on the page, like
text, will probably be affected by removal of the image.

By default, when you insert an image into your Microsoft Word document, the image is inline.
However, this arrangement doesn't look as good as it could. Let's change the text wrapping. The
text wrapping properties are set against the image, so select the image and in the Picture Tools
contextual tab, click the Format tab > Arrange >

Aligning Text and Objects in Microsoft Word

The default alignment for text in a Word document is for it to be left justified. However, you can
change that. The alignment buttons on the Home tab (in the Paragraph group) allow us to justify,
or align, not only text but other objects as well. The images on each button give you a good idea
of what each alignment option does. When aligning texts in Word, all you have to do is place the
cursor in a particular paragraph and click one of the buttons. The alignment affects only that
paragraph and no other. Of course, you can select multiple paragraphs and then click one of the
alignment buttons and all selected text will be aligned. Additionally, you can select objects as
well as text and align those too using the same buttons. If you want to align an image in your
document, you'll find that the Position command (Picture Tools > Format > Arrange) is more
versatile, though.
The Position command is available for all objects you can insert into your document. It gives you
the ability to position an object to the left, middle or right horizontally and top, middle or bottom
vertically. Microsoft Word gives you the ability to create many shapes in your documents, and
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some of the more useful ones are lines and arrows. You can use these to good effect to help
illustrate your points. For example, you might like to add some descriptive text for an image and
then "point" to the image. To create a line, click Insert > Shapes.

The options we need are positioned close to the top of the panel in the Lines category. They
allow us to draw straight lines, straight lines with corners, curved lines and closed polygons. We
can also draw lines that have arrows at one or both ends, too. To draw a line, either with or
without and arrow, click on a tool and then click and drag in your document. Clicking once for
the start of the line and again for the end has the same effect.

Adjusting the Line

You can select a line by clicking on it, and once selected you can move it in any direction by
using the arrow keys on your keyboard. To delete the line, just press the delete key or backspace.
Suppose you want to resize the line though, either to lengthen or shorten it. You can do that too.
First of all select the line and then hover the mouse over one end. When the cursor changes to a
"plus sign" (without arrows on it) you can click and drag to move that end. When the line is
selected, you might also notice that the Drawing Tools contextual tab appears in the ribbon. We
won't cover what effects you can apply to the line in this tutorial, but there are plenty worth
investigating by way of some trial and Shapes are good for helping you illustrate the points you
want to make to your readers and Microsoft Word 2010 now has a huge selection of shapes that
you can draw in your documents. After you add one or more shapes, you can add text, bullets,
numbering, and Quick Styles to them. To insert a shape, click Insert > Illustrations > Shapes.
The panel that opens shows the shapes you can insert.

The shapes are organized in the following categories:

Recently Used Shapes - the last few shapes you inserted into a document.

Lines - you can insert straight lines, straight lines with corners, curved lines, lines with
arrows on and closed polygons. Learn how to add lines with arrows in Word.

Rectangles

Basic Shapes - triangles, polygons and an assortment of other common "basic" shapes.

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Block Arrows - you can add block arrows that face all the different directions and you
can also add some interesting variations on the block arrow.

Equation Shapes - basic symbols used in equations, such as '+', '-', 'x' etc.

Flowchart - if you need to create a flowchart, Microsoft Word 2010 has all the flowchart
shapes covered.

Stars and Banners

Callouts - callouts are lines that end in a box for you to type in. They are useful for
explaining a certain element on the page.

Adjusting a Shape
Once you've inserted a shape into your document, you'll find that it is easy to resize it. Click the
shape to select it and you should see resize handles appear at each corner and along each edge of
the shape's bounding box. Click and drag on any of those handles to resize. Note that you can
keep the shape's proportions by dragging a corner handle. If you want to "squash" the shape, drag
one of the handles along an edge. Additionally, you can change a shape's orientation by rotating
it. With the shape still selected, you should see a green rotation handle at the top and set away
from the other handles. If you have the mouse over that handle, the cursor will change to a
rotation symbol. Click and drag to the left or right to rotate the shape anticlockwise or clockwise
respectively. To delete a shape from your document, select it and press the delete key on your
keyboard, or the backspace key.

A text box is an object that you can add to your Word document to emphasize or set off your
text. To add a text box, click Insert > Text > Text Box. A panel opens that displays a selection
of text box types for you to choose from. Click on the text box type you'd like to insert. The text
box is added to the page and it contains placeholder text for you to replace with your own.
Because all the text is selected, as soon as you start typing, what you type will replace the
placeholder text.
Adjusting the Text Box
While the text box is selected, you'll notice that there are drag handles at each corner of the box
and along each edge. You can drag those to resize the box. As you resize the box, the text adjusts
to fit the new dimensions. When you have the mouse over the boundaries of the box, the cursor
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changes to a double arrowed shape - when it does this, you are able to click and drag to move the
box around your document. You can also rotate the text box by clicking and dragging on the
green rotation handle at the top. Dragging left rotates the box in an anticlockwise direction
whereas dragging right rotates clockwise.

Styling Your Text Box

When text boxes are selected, the Drawing Tools contextual tab appears in the ribbon. You can
use the commands here to style your text box. Rather than go through all the different commands
you can use, let's look at an example and style a simple text box. Click on the Format tab within
the Drawing Tools tab and then click the More button (bottom right) in the Shape Styles group.
This is the style I'm going to use:

If you want to spice up your Word document, why not insert some WordArt? WordArt is
decorative text that you can add to a document quickly and easily. You can make changes to
WordArt, such as changing the font size and text colour, by using the drawing tools available in
the WordArt tab. To insert some WordArt, click Insert > Text > WordArt, and the following
panel will open.

When you select the style of WordArt you want to insert, the Edit WordArt window opens. Here,
you can select the font you want to use for your WordArt, along with the font size. You can also
bold and italicise your text. Use the big text box to type in the text you want displayed. When
finished, click OK. The WordArt is inserted into your document, and while it is selected, the
WordArt contextual tab displays in the ribbon. You can use the commands here to format your
WordArt. You'll notice a bounding box around your text: you can use the drag handles at the
corners and along the edges to resize your text.

If you have previously inserted some Word Art and now want to change the text displayed, select
the WordArt and then on the Format tab click Text > Edit Text. The Edit WordArt Text window
that we saw earlier opens. Again, we can change the text properties (font, size, etc) and what the
text says.

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Adding shadows to the objects you insert into your Word document can give those objects a 3D
look. You can add shadows to virtually any object you can insert: pictures, Clip Art, shapes,
SmartArt and charts. Many objects will display the Picture Tools contextual tab when selected,
whilst others will display their own contextual tab. Which ever tab is displayed, there are options
for you to add shadows to the object you inserted. Let's keep things simple and add a picture to a
Word document and then add a shadow to it. Click Insert > Picture, and navigate to a picture on
your hard drive. Select it and click Insert. You should see the Picture Tools tab displayed in the
ribbon. You'll find several styles in the Picture Styles group that use shadows. You can also use
the Picture Effects button to apply even more styles.

A live preview for each shadow effect is available, which means that you can hover over each
thumbnail to see a temporary preview of that effect applied. Click on the one you like. To
remove a shadow previously applied, select the picture and click Picture Effects > Shadow > No
Shadow. The effect is removed.

In previous versions of Microsoft Word, you had to right click on the picture and choose the
formatting options to add a border. In Word 2010, however, the process is quicker and much
more simplified. To add a border to your picture, select it and then click Pictures Tools > Picture
Styles > Picture Border. Select a colour from the swatches displayed and the border will be
applied to the picture. To remove a border previously added to a picture, click Pictures Tools >
Picture Styles > Picture Border > No Outline.

You have the option of specifying different attributes for the picture border using the panel
shown above, as follows:

More Outline Colours - this option gives you the ability to use different colours than the
theme ones shown in the initial panel

Weight - use this to increase the border width

Dashes - use this option to apply different styles of dots and dashes

When you draw a shape in Microsoft Word, it has a default fill colour. However, you can change
the shape's fill to be a different colour, a gradient, a picture and even a texture. Let's draw a
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shape now, and change the shape's fill. Click Insert > Illustrations > Shapes. Choose any shape
you like and draw it on the page (click and drag). Here, I drew a basic rectangle.

To change the shape's fill, ensure that it is selected and then in the Drawing Tools contextual tab,
click Shape Styles > Shape Fill. The panel that opens displays a dizzying array of theme colours
for us to select for our shape's fill.

In addition to the theme colours displayed, we can also select the following options:

More Fill Colours - if you want to use a colour that isn't on of the theme colours, select
this option.

Picture - you can change the shape's fill to be a picture using this option. The picture you
choose will resize to fit the shape.

Gradient - this option allows us to specify a fill that displays one colour merging
smoothly into another. You can choose one of the simple ready made gradients, or you
can define your own, with as many colours as you wish.

Texture - Microsoft Word comes with a selection of textures for us to use as fills for our
shapes.

When you create a Microsoft Word document for other people to read, it's important to spot and
correct any spelling mistakes or grammatical errors you've made. You can let Word's spelling
and grammar checkers suggest corrections automatically while you work, or you can check the
spelling and grammar in the file all at once when you've finished writing your document.
Microsoft Word 2010 comes with a dictionary of standard grammar and spellings, but they are
not comprehensive.

Check Spelling and Grammar All At Once

Let's look at how to check spelling and grammar in Word, all at once. It's a good idea to
proofread your document once you've completed it, and using the Word spell checker should be
part of this process. When Word highlights mistakes you've made, it offers suggestions for
replacing the word, and there are several courses of action you can take:

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Use one of the suggested words to fix the error - select the word in the Suggestions list,
and then click Change.

Change the incorrect word manually - select the Not in Dictionary check box, change the
word and then click Change.

The highlighted word is actually a real word - add this to Word's dictionary by clicking
Add to Dictionary.

Ignore the incorrect word for now - click Ignore Once.

Ignore all occurrences of the word - click Ignore All.

Get Word to autocorrect the word - select the correct word in the Suggestions list, and
then click AutoCorrect.

To spell check your entire document, click Review > Proofing > Spelling & Grammar. If the
program finds spelling mistakes, a dialog box or task pane appears with the first misspelled word
found by the spelling checker. After you've fixed a misspelled word using the above steps, Word
moves onto the next one misspelled. Once the spelling mistakes are complete, Word moves onto
grammar checking. You can resolve grammar issues in the same way.

Check Spelling and Grammar Automatically

Microsoft Word can flag misspelled words while you type so that you can easily locate them, as
in the following example: When you right click on the misspelled word, Word offers you
suggestions for corrections.

As you can see, the right click menu offers you other options, such as ignoring the word and
adding it to the dictionary. Word highlights misspelled words by underlining them with a red
squiggle and grammatical errors by underlining them with a blue squiggle.

Turning Off Automatic Spelling and Grammar Checking

By default, automatic spelling and grammar checking is turned on. However, if you want to turn
it off, click the File tab > Help > Options > Proofing. You can hide spelling and grammar errors
using the two check boxes at the bottom of the window, and you can apply these changes to
either the current document, or all new ones using the drop down list.
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In addition to the spell checking and grammar checking tools that Microsoft Word offers, there is
also the Word thesaurus we can take advantage of to improve our documents. Using the
thesaurus, you can find synonyms (different words with the same meaning) and antonyms (words
with the opposite meaning).

In Microsoft Office Word you can look up a word quickly if you right-click anywhere in your
document, and then click Synonym on the shortcut menu. Type in a word into the Search for box
and press Enter. Alternatively, press ALT on the keyboard and click a word in your document.
Word displays a list of alternatives that you can use. If you find a word in the list that you'd like
to use, click on the down arrow that appears to the right and select Insert.

If you had selected a word in your document, the word you select in the Research pane will
replace it. If not, the word will simply be inserted into your document where the cursor was
positioned. If you want to continue your research and look up further synonyms for another word
in the list, click on it. That word will be placed in the Search for box and its synonyms will be
displayed in the list.

If you are familiar with Microsoft Office 1997, you may remember the days when to start typing
in the middle of a Word document, you had to press the Enter key repeatedly. After numerous
blank lines, the cursor would be at the position you wanted to start typing. Since Word 2000,
however, there has been a much easier way to position the cursor where you need it. When you
open a new Word document, simply double click where you want to start typing... and type.

Justification
As you have the mouse over different parts of your document, you will notice a justification
symbol that appears and is dependant on where in the document your mouse is. When you
double click, the justification currently displayed is the one that is used for the text you type. For
example, if you double click to the left of the page, Word will left align your text. If you double
click to the right of the page, right aligned text is created and if you double click in the centre of
the page you will get centred text.

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Move Text around Your Word Document

Sometimes, you will need to move portions of text around your Microsoft Word document after
you have finished typing it. To do so, first of all select the text you want to move, and then do
one of the following:

Click and drag the selected text where you want it. As you drag the text, you'll see a
dotted vertical insertion point that tells you where your text will go when you release the
mouse.

Copy the text by pressing ctrl-c, place the cursor where you want the text and then paste
it in by pressing ctrl-v. Note that this isn't really moving text. It's simply copying it.

Cut the text by pressing ctrl-x, place the cursor where you want the text and then paste it
in by pressing ctrl-v.

Often, people use tables to align different blocks of text. If you do use tables, you'll find it easy
to select a block of text you'd like to move as jumping from table cell to table cell by pressing the
tab key automatically selects the entire text in a particular cell.

Moving Text between Two Word Documents

It's possible to move text between two different Word documents. To do this you will have to
resize at least one Word window so that you can see both documents at the same time. Then you
can select the text and drag it across into the new document. You may be surprised to know that
you can actually move text between different Microsoft Office applications, too. Using the same
principle described above, you can move text from a Word document to an Excel spreadsheet,
for example. Or even a PowerPoint presentation.
You can add bullets in Microsoft Word to differentiate between the different points you want to
make. The bulleted points form a list. Word allows you to create both bulleted lists and
numbered lists. To start a bulleted list, click on the bullets command button in the ribbon and
then start typing. Whenever you press Enter, a new bullet point will be created. If you press
Enter twice, Word will realise that you have finished the list and will stop creating new bullets. If
you want to create a sub list, you can press the tab key.

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As with the first level of the list, pressing Enter twice ends the current list and will return to the
previous list. If you have already typed out some text that could be used as a bulleted list, you
can select the text and then click the bullet icon and bullets will be applied.

Changing the Style of a Bulleted List

If after creating a bulleted list you decide to change the type of bullets used, first of all select the
list and then click the down arrow to the right of the bullet command. Here, you can select from
all the different bullet types available.

Creating a Numbered List

Creating a numbered list in Word is very similar to creating a bulleted list, except you click on
the numbered list command instead. As you've probably guessed, one of the differences between
bulleted lists and numbered lists is that numbered lists are sequential. That is, position in the list
matters. If you want to, you can change the number that the list starts at. To do that, select the
numbered list and click the down arrow to the right of the numbered list button and then select
Set Numbering Value. In the Set Numbering Value dialogue box, amend the Set Value To to be
the starting number of the list.

In versions of Microsoft Word up to and including Word 2003, you could apply text animations.
However, the ability to add text effects and text animations was removed from the ribbon in
Word 2007. If you are running a version of Word prior to 2007, you can add text animation by
selecting your text and then clicking Format > Font. When the Font dialogue box opens, click on
the Text Effects tab. Choose the type of animation you want by clicking on its name. You can
have the choice of the following animations:

Blinking Background

Las Vegas Lights

Marching black Ants

Marching Red Ants

Shimmer

Sparkle Text

When you click OK, the animation will be applied to the selected text.
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Text Animation in Word 2007

Since text animation was available in versions prior to Word 2007, it could be present in older
documents. Therefore, even though you are using Word 2007, you might still see text
animations. How frustrating to see them but not be able to apply them! Well, there is a sneaky
way to create text animation in Word 2007: open up an old document that does contain text
animation, select the animated text and copy it (ctrl-c). Paste it (ctrl-v) into your new document.
If you continue typing at the end of that text, the animation will be applied to the new text you
type.

To Display or Hide Text Animation

To display or hide a text animation in Microsoft Word 2003, click Tools > Options > View, and
then select or clear the Animated text check box. Formatting text in Microsoft Word involves
tasks like bolding the text, italicising it, and changing the font and size. The commands to
perform all of these formatting tasks are found on the Home tab in the Font group. Select your
text and then click on the required formatting button to see the effects.

Alternatively, you can use the keyboard shortcuts for those commands. Here are the shortcuts for
some of the more commonly used formatting commands:

Bold: ctrl-b
<liItalic: ctrl-i

Underline: ctrl-u
</li

You can also set the formatting before you type by clicking the appropriate button or using the
shortcut, and then anything you subsequently type will be formatted. To unset the formatting, you
click the same command button or use the same shortcut. So you can see that these commands
act like toggles.

The Mini Toolbar in Word

You may notice that as soon as you select a block of text, a mini toolbar appears from nowhere.
This toolbar displays the more popular formatting commands that you are most likely to use, to
save you time.
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In addition to using tables to present tabular data in a Microsoft Word document, you might also
use a table to align blocks of text or other objects. To insert a table, click Insert > Tables > Table.
The panel that is displayed gives a representation of the tables that you could insert. In the
image, I've hovered over the square that lies in the third column and fourth row. Clicking on that
square, therefore, will insert a table with three columns and four rows. Indeed, as you hover over
different squares, Word tells you at the top of the panel how many rows and columns your table
will have. When you find a square that corresponds to the number of rows and columns you
need, click on it and the table will be inserted into your document. The table is placed where
your cursor is currently positioned.

Another way of adding a table to your Word document is to use the Insert Table option on the
above panel. In the Insert Table window that appears, you can specify the number of rows and
columns you want your table to have, and you can also specify:

Fixed Column Width - if you leave this at auto, Word will decide how wide your
columns will be.

AutoFit to Contents - the columns will adjust to fit the contents that are inserted into table
cells in a column.

AutoFit to Window - use this if a table that you have pasted into your document from
another application (for example Excel) exceeds the documents margins.

Remember dimensions for new tables - checking this box defaults the settings you apply
here to all new tables you insert.

In addition to using tables to present tabular data in a Microsoft Word document, you might also
use a table to align blocks of text or other objects. To insert a table, click Insert > Tables > Table.
The panel that is displayed gives a representation of the tables that you could insert. In the
image, I've hovered over the square that lies in the third column and fourth row. Clicking on that
square, therefore, will insert a table with three columns and four rows. Indeed, as you hover over
different squares, Word tells you at the top of the panel how many rows and columns your table
will have. When you find a square that corresponds to the number of rows and columns you
need, click on it and the table will be inserted into your document. The table is placed where
your cursor is currently positioned.
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Another way of adding a table to your Word document is to use the Insert Table option on the
panel. In the Insert Table window that appears, you can specify the number of rows and columns
you want your table to have, and you can also specify:

Fixed Column Width - if you leave this at auto, Word will decide how wide your
columns will be.

AutoFit to Contents - the columns will adjust to fit the contents that are inserted into table
cells in a column.

AutoFit to Window - use this if a table that you have pasted into your document from
another application (for example Excel) exceeds the documents margins.

Remember dimensions for new tables - checking this box defaults the settings you apply
here to all new tables you insert.

In addition to using tables to present tabular data in a Microsoft Word document, you might also
use a table to align blocks of text or other objects. To insert a table, click Insert > Tables > Table.
The panel that is displayed gives a representation of the tables that you could insert. In the
image, I've hovered over the square that lies in the third column and fourth row. Clicking on that
square, therefore, will insert a table with three columns and four rows. Indeed, as you hover over
different squares, Word tells you at the top of the panel how many rows and columns your table
will have. When you find a square that corresponds to the number of rows and columns you
need, click on it and the table will be inserted into your document. The table is placed where
your cursor is currently positioned.

Another way of adding a table to your Word document is to use the Insert Table option on the
panel. In the Insert Table window that appears, you can specify the number of rows and columns
you want your table to have, and you can also specify:

Fixed Column Width - if you leave this at auto, Word will decide how wide your
columns will be.

AutoFit to Contents - the columns will adjust to fit the contents that are inserted into table
cells in a column.

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AutoFit to Window - use this if a table that you have pasted into your document from
another application (for example Excel) exceeds the documents margins.

Remember dimensions for new tables - checking this box defaults the settings you apply
here to all new tables you insert.

Microsoft Word 2010 gives you a lot of flexibility in specifying borders for your tables. To have
a look at the border options, first of all select your table by right clicking anywhere in it and then
choosing Select > Table. In the Table Tools contextual tab, click Design > Table Styles >
Borders (the down arrow to the right of the Borders button).

The options here give you the ability to select all combinations of borders for the table: left,
right, top and bottom, outside, inside etc. These options control which borders are displayed. To
change the properties of the borders, i.e. the way they look, you'll need to use the Borders and
Shading option at the bottom of the Borders menu. This option allows you to change the
following properties of a border:

Style

Colour

Width

Often, you'll want to use a table to align objects on your page. In this case, the reader doesn't
need to see the borders at all. To make the borders invisible, you can select the table and then
click Table Tools > Design > Table Styles > Borders > No Border.

Microsoft Word 2010 removes much of the need to spend time getting the shading right on tables
in your documents. The table styles that come with Word provide a rich selection of different
styles you can apply to your tables. Live Previews let you see what those styles look like without
having to apply them. To apply a table style, place the cursor in any cell of your table and then
click Table Tools > Design > Table Styles > More Button (bottom right of the Table Styles
group). The following panel appears, displaying thumbnail images of the table styles available
for us to choose.

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These table styles offer combinations of borders and shading, some emphasizing header rows
and some alternating row colours. You can even format your table the way you want it to appear
and then save it as a new table style. To do this, click Table Tools > Design > Table Styles >
More Button > New Table Style, and the Create New Style from Formatting window will open.
Name the style and ensure that Style type is set to "table". Make sure the other selections are
correct (the default settings are usually appropriate) and then click OK.
The shading described above is applied using ready made table styles. However, you can apply
your own table shading without using table styles. Select a cell or range of cells and then click
Table Tools > Design > Table Styles > Shading. Select a colour from the panel that opens and
that colour will be applied as shading.

With the introduction of Backstage View in Microsoft Word 2010, the process of printing out
documents now appears very much different. To see the printing options available, click the File
tab > Print. The following panel will be displayed (click on the image to enlarge it).
Using this panel you can control:

Copies - how many copies of your document will get printed.

Printer - your default printer will appear here, but you can select others that are on your
network.

What To Print - initially set to Print All Pages but you can change this setting to print a
selection of pages, print the current page only or print a custom range of pages.

Print One Sided - this is the default, but you can change that to print on both sides of the
page.

Collated - this setting tells Word how to collate multiple prints that you request. Do you
want all page 1s printing first, followed by all page 2s etc. Or do you want an entire copy
of the document printing before moving onto the next copy?

Portrait Orientation - the default is portrait orientation, but you can change this to
landscape orientation.

Letter - the letter setting allows you to select from a set of commonly used letter sizes, for
example, legal, executive, A3 etc.

Margins - you can alter the size of the margins that are used on your document here.

1 Page Per Sheet - this is the initial default, but you can change it to be 2, 4, 6, 8 or 16.
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Print Preview in Word

The old way of presenting a print preview of your document has become obsolete. Now, the print
preview appears to the right of the print settings. You can page through your document by
clicking on the page scroller at the bottom (the left and right arrows), you can jump to a
particular page by typing it into the input box and pressing Enter, and you can also use the page
up and page down keys on your keyboard to navigate the document.

Changing Printer Properties in Word

Sprinkled throughout the Microsoft Word 2010 user interface are links that perform commands.
It's odd to see links instead of buttons on a modern interface, but I'm sure Microsoft know what
they're doing! On the print panel, there are links to change the Printer Properties (at the top) and
also the page setup (at the bottom). It's a good idea to save your document as soon as you create
it in Microsoft Word and then keep saving it periodically as you make changes. It's no fun to
make drastic changes to a document, have your PC crash and then lose all your hard work.
Fortunately, saving documents is easy.

As soon as you create a new document, you can save it by pressing ctrl-s. If you haven't yet
saved the document (and you won't have if you're just in the process of creating it), the Save As
dialogue box will open. Give the document a name in the File name box (the text here is
highlighted straight away, so as soon as you start typing, it will overwrite the current default
name), and navigate to a location on your hard drive where you'd like to save the document.
Click Save.

Once you've done the initial save, all incremental saves can be performed in a split second by
pressing ctrl-s. You won't be bothered again by the Save As dialogue box, unless you choose to
rename your document by clicking the File tab > Save As.

Auto saving In Word

In addition to the manual saving you can do in Word, there is also the Auto save function that
will prevent you from losing changes. This feature is a godsend for those people who save their
documents infrequently. The auto save function instructs Word to save your document after a
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certain amount of time has elapsed. You can configure the auto save settings by clicking the File
tab > Word > Options > Save.
Mail Merge
Introduction: Menu Items
Each application has menu items across the top of the screen which allow you to use the features
of your software. Notice the similarities between these two applications' menu items.
Many of the actions that can be taken through the menu items can be done through clicking a
shortcut icon.

File Management: New

To create a new document, go to File>New.
Usually, this will open a blank document into which you can begin typing text. In some
integrative applications, you must choose what type of file you would like to create.

File Management: Save, Save As, Open

To save a document, go to File>Save.
The first time you save, you can choose a destination and file name. After this point your
computer will automatically save it to that destination. If you would like to specify a new
destination or verify the original destination of an existing document, go to File>Save As.
In most applications, within the Save and the Save As windows, you will have the option to
change the file format. If you are working in MS Word, for instance, your file will automatically
be saved as a MS Word file.
To open an existing file, go to File>Open. The dialog box will look similar to the dialog box for
saving. Find the folder where your existing file is, highlight it, and click Open.

File Management: View, Print Preview, Print

As you work on your file, you may want to zoom in to get a closer look, or zoom out to get some
perspective. The zoom and magnification features in MS Word are located under the View menu
item. The magnification shortcut in MS Word is located at the top of the screen.

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Before printing your document, it is a good practice to go to Print Preview. This allows you to
see exactly what your pages will look like printed out. It is a good place to verify the total
number of pages of your document, margins, spacing, layout, page numbers, etc. Go to
File>Print Preview. When you are satisfied with what you see in the Print Preview, you may be
ready to print. The dialog box that appears when you go to File>Print will vary depending on the
type of printer you have.

Another feature you may want to refer to when preparing to print is Page Setup. Usually, this is
where you can designate your page layout as Portrait or Landscape. In MS Word, you can also
work with your margins through Page Setup.

Creating a Word Processing Document: Changing font, style, size and color of text.
Before changing font, style, size and color of text, you must first select (or highlight) the text you
wish to change. Click and drag the mouse over the text. If you want the changes to apply to all
text in your document, you may also go to Edit>Select All. As always, remember that the
Edit>Undo feature can take you back a step if you are not happy with a change you've made.
Word processing applications come with a set of fonts. You can always purchase more fonts to
add to your selection. In both AppleWorks and MS Word, there is a main menu item for Font. To
change size, style and color, applications will vary a bit.
In MS Word, most attributes to text can be made by opening the Format>Font dialog box. It
offers a nice preview window which shows you exactly how your text will look before you apply
the changes.

Creating a Word Processing Document: Cut, copy, and paste text.

To cut, copy, and paste text, you must first select some text. Click and drag your mouse over the
text you wish to cut or copy. If you do not select the text first, your Cut, Copy, Paste features will
be grayed out and unusable in your Edit menu as shown below. Once you have selected the text,
the usable features will be black and bold. After cutting or copying, move the cursor to the
location where you wish to paste the text.

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Creating a Word Processing Document: Alignment and spacing.

Alignment of text refers to where on the page, horizontally, your text will appear. For instance, a
title of an essay may need to be aligned to the center of the page, while the body of the essay
should be aligned to the left. Line spacing refers to how close together each line of text will
appear on a page. The most common spacing used is single or double. Often times a professor or
high school teacher will require students to use double or even triple spacing to allow more room
to grade and make comments.

To change the alignment or line spacing of text, first select (or highlight) the desired text to be
changed. (With alignment, you may only need to have the cursor blinking on the particular line
of text involved.) In both AppleWorks and MS Word, go to Format>Paragraph. A dialog box
will appear with alignment and line spacing options. If your word processing application has
shortcuts for alignment and line spacing

Creating a Word Processing Document: Columns

To create columns, first, make sure you know how many you want. Second, make sure you have
the cursor blinking where you would like the columns to begin or select the text you wish to put
in columns. Third, find the Columns feature in your software.
Once you've selected the appropriate feature, usually it will open a dialog box that will ask you
how many columns you want. You might also be able to specify the amount of space between
the columns. This is called the gutter.

If you want your document to return back to just one column after a certain point, you can insert
a Column Break or turn columns off. This might be located in your Insert menu, or you may just
have to move your cursor the desired ending location and return to the same dialog box, and turn
columns off.

Creating a Word Processing Document: Headers and footers.

Headers and footers allow you to add uniform content to the very top and very bottom of each
page of your document. Often times, the header or footer is where you'll see a document author,
title, chapter, date, time, and/or page number. The fundamental idea being the header and footer
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is that you only have to enter the information one time, and it will apply it to all your pages
automatically. Consequently, this feature is intended to be used as a tool for a multi-page
document. One way to check to see your resulting header and/or footer attributes is by going to
Print Preview.

Creating a Word Processing Document: Page numbers, date, & time.

In various circumstances, you might need to insert page numbers, a date, or the time into your
document. For instance, if you create a form letter that you know is sent off on a monthly basis,
and you know it only needs the date updated before each printing; you could use the Insert Date
feature. Your computer will automatically change the date for you upon printing. Similarly, the
page number feature will automatically number hundreds of pages, if necessary.
These features in AppleWorks can be found in the Edit menu. In MS Word, these things can be
inserted through the Header/Footer dialog box. Note that the date, time, and page number may
not appear as you might think until printing or unless you are in the Print Preview mode. This
will vary depending on the word processing application. For this feature to work properly, make
sure that your computer operating system has the correct date and time settings.

Creating a Word Processing Document : Margins and tabs.

Margins are the automatic spaces designated for all pages within a document from the edge of
the paper to where text will appear. To change or set margins, go to Format>Document.
In the Format>Document dialog box, you will be able to designate the left, right, top, and bottom
margins.

Tabs are locations along the horizontal path of each line of text which you can pre-set. The
cursor will jump to these locations when you hit the Tab key on your keyboard. You can set tabs
so that the text you begin typing will be aligned uniquely at each tab.
To set the tabs, first know where you want each tab to be located and which with type of
alignment. One way to change or set tabs, is to go to Format>Tabs. You may also be able to
work with your application's shortcuts. The shortcuts might allow you to simply drag and drop
an icon along a ruler. This can be nice because you can view all of your tab locations all at once.

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Creating a Word Processing Document : Page breaks.

A page break is something that can be inserted anywhere in a document to force the end of a
page and the beginning of a new one. One reason a page break might be useful is if you wanted
to make sure that a new chapter or sub-heading would automatically start at the top of its own
page. To do this, you would first be sure to put the curser in the exact location where you wanted
the break to occur. Then find your page break feature. In MS Word, go to the Insert>Insert Page
Break feature.

Creating a Word Processing Document: Tools-spell check, thesaurus, find-replace.

Word processing applications offer a tool that will compare your spelling by checking its own
dictionary. A spell check will guide you through a process of looking at each word that the
application's dictionary does not recognize. It might give you suggestions, or it might now have
any suggestions. It is up to you to ignore the spell check, choose a suggested revision, or make a
new revision. Spelling, grammar, and thesaurus tools will be located in various places depending
on your application.

If, during your writing and editing process, you want to use the online thesaurus feature, all you
need to do is select(or highlight) the word and open your thesaurus. You may also open the
thesaurus and type in as many words as you want to look up, one at a time. It will offer a list of
suggestions.

Finding a place within a long text document can be cumbersome. You can use the Find feature in
a word processing application to get to a particular place in your document very quickly by
typing in a keyword. Additionally, if you ever realize that you need to edit a word or phrase that
appears throughout your document several times, the Find/Replace feature will do the job
efficiently. To do this, open the feature from your Edit menu.

Integration: Inserting images.

Inserting images can be one way to use integrative applications. If you create or find images
through other applications and save them to a folder on your hard drive, you can insert them into
your own word processor. There should be a feature within your menus called Insert or Insert
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Image. Often times it will be located under File>Insert. A window will pop up that will allow
you to find the folder with your collected images. You may have to browse through folders or
directories until you find it. If you want to insert clip art, there might be a separate menu item
Insert Clip Art which will automatically take you to the folder filled with the application's library
of art.

Once you find it and choose it, it will appear in your word processing document, often as a
selected image. It will either be inline or floating. This is a critical difference. In line means that
it is fixed between the text where it appears with very limited modification. Floating means it can
be modified and relocated more easily. You should also wrap text around the image.
Be sure to follow copyright law and work within the Fair Use Guidelines if you use an image
you did not create. Clip art libraries that come with your software package need no citation. Most
images from the Internet, CDROM's, and directly from other artists will require some type of
citation depending on how you plan to use it. Look for the copyright statements before using
images.

Integration: Mail Merge

A mail merge is when you create a word processing document that has, within it, specific fields
or pieces of information from a database. In order to create a mail merge document, you need to
designate which database you want to merge with. The place where you begin creating a mail
merge can appear in various menus.
Find the Mail Merge feature in your software. Go to your Help feature to learn more. If you
already have a database and basic database skills, you may want to explore on your own further.
Power Point Presentation
Microsoft PowerPoint is the name of a proprietary commercial software presentation program
developed by Microsoft. It was officially launched on May 22, 1990 as a part of the Microsoft
Office suite, and runs on Microsoft Windows and Apple's Mac OS X operating system.

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Originally designed for the Macintosh computer, the initial release was called "Presenter". In
1987, it was renamed to "PowerPoint" due to problems with trademarks. PowerPoint was
officially launched on May 22, 1990. PowerPoint changed significantly with PowerPoint 97.
Prior to PowerPoint 97, presentations were linear, always proceeding from one slide to the next.

Operation
PowerPoint presentations consist of a number of individual pages or "slides". The "slide"
analogy is a reference to the slide projector. A better analogy would be the "foils" (or
transparencies/plastic sheets) that are shown with an overhead projector, although they are in
decline now. Slides may contain text, graphics, sound, movies, and other objects, which may be
arranged freely. The presentation can be printed, displayed live on a computer, or navigated
through at the command of the presenter. For larger audiences the computer display is often
projected using a video projector. Slides can also form the basis of webcasts.

PowerPoint provides three types of movements:

1. Entrance, emphasis, and exit of elements on a slide itself are controlled by what
PowerPoint calls Custom Animations.
2. Transitions, on the other hand, are movements between slides. These can be animated in
a variety of ways.
3. Custom animation can be used to create small story boards by animating pictures to enter,
exit or move.

Supporters say that, the ease of use of presentation software can save a lot of time for people
who otherwise would have used other types of visual aidhand-drawn or mechanically typeset
slides, blackboards or whiteboards, or overhead projections. Ease of use also encourages those
who otherwise would not have used visual aids, or would not have given a presentation at all, to
make presentations. As PowerPoint's style, animation, and multimedia abilities have become
more sophisticated, and as the application has generally made it easier to produce presentations
the difference in needs and desires of presenters and audiences has become more noticeable. The
benefit of PowerPoint is continually debated, though most people believe that the benefit may be
to present structural presentations to business workers. Its use in classroom lectures has
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influenced investigations of PowerPoints effects on student performance in comparison to

lectures based on overhead projectors, traditional lectures, and online lectures. Not only is it a
useful tool for introductory lectures, but it also has many functions that allow for review games,
especially in the younger grades. There are no compelling results to prove or disprove that
PowerPoint is more effective for learner retention than traditional presentation methods. The
effect on audiences of poor PowerPoint presentations has been described as PowerPoint hell.

Tips for Creating Better PowerPoint Presentations

Ever wonder how to create a good PowerPoint presentation? Creating professional, unique
PowerPoint presentations with the latest version of Microsoft Office is much easier than you
think. Following are some of the tips to create better presentations.

Grab viewers' attention

Creating slides that grab viewers attention is not about fitting as much as you can on the screen.
It's about using the space on your slides effectively. Don't crowd your slides, and only include
elements that contribute to the points you want to make. When you use graphics on a slide,
choose images that serve a purpose (such as a chart or diagram that displays a direct benefit of
your idea). Here are a few ways to help grab and keep your viewers attention.

1. Select or create your own theme.

Themes are the evolution of design templates in PowerPoint, but they're also much more than
that. Themes were introduced in Microsoft Office 2007 to help you easily create the right look
for your presentations and to coordinate all of your Microsoft Office documents almost instantly.
A theme is a coordinated set of fonts, colors, and graphic effects that you can apply to your entire
document with just a click. The same themes are available for your Microsoft PowerPoint
presentations, Microsoft Word documents, Microsoft Excel workbooks, and even your Microsoft
Outlook email messages (and, in Office 2010, your Microsoft Access database forms and
reports), so it's easy to create your own personal or business branding throughout all of your
documents.

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In PowerPoint, the theme also includes the slide master, slide layouts (and slide background
options).
When you apply a theme in your presentation, you automatically get slide layouts, colors, fonts,
and graphic effects that go together, and you can format content with just a few clicks.

In the PowerPoint Ribbon (at the top of your screen), find many built-in themes on the
Design tab. To preview a theme, in the Themes gallery, simply hover your pointer over
it. In Office 2010, you also see a selection of themes in this gallery that are automatically
updated periodically from Office.com.

Using the galleries on the Design tab, you can also mix and match a slide design with
different theme colors, fonts, and effects to quickly create your own look.

You can even easily create a completely custom theme. If you change the theme in your
presentation but the formatting doesn't change, you may not have used theme-ready formatting
when you created your presentation. When you start with a new PowerPoint 2010 or PowerPoint
2007 presentation, theme-ready formatting is automatic for fonts and colors on slide layouts and
for Microsoft Office graphics, such as Smart Art graphics, charts, and shapes.

2. Use video and audio to convey your message more effectively.

Dynamic content, such as a brief video that illustrates an important point, is a great way to
engage your audience. Using audio that helps convey your message, like recorded narration (you
can add this to slides when sending your presentation to others to view), can also help keep your
slides clean and approachable.

In PowerPoint 2010, video you insert from your files is now embedded by default, so you don't
have to include multiple files when sharing your presentation electronically. You can also
customize your embedded videos with easy-to-use tools, such as video trim, fades, and effects.
And with PowerPoint 2010, you can insert a video that you've uploaded to a website to play
directly in your presentation.
3. Use graphics to emphasize key points

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A well-chosen chart or diagram can often convey much more to your audience than can boring
bulleted text. Fortunately, creating charts and graphics has never been easier. In Office 2010 and
Office 2007, Office graphics coordinate automatically with the active theme in your presentation.

If Excel is installed on your computer, you automatically get the power of Excel charts when you
create a chart in PowerPoint. Just click the Chart icon on any content placeholder in the
PowerPoint presentation to create a chart.

When your chart is created, an Excel worksheet opens, and you can add and edit your data. And
when you select the chart in your document, you see the Chart Tools Design, Layout, and
Format tabs that make it easy to format and edit your chart. Find chart styles on the Design tab
that automatically coordinate with your active document theme.

Smart Art graphics, introduced in Office 2007, enable you to create a professional-quality
diagram as easily as you can type a bulleted list. Just type in the Smart Art text pane and the
diagram is automatically built. Smart Art layouts are available for many types of diagrams,
ranging from simple lists to process diagrams, organization charts, timelines, and much more.
Click the Smart Art icon on any content placeholder to add a Smart Art graphic.

When you type in the text pane, Smart Art adds your text to the graphic. Press Enter to add a
new shape or content at the same level, and then press the Tab key to create a sub shape or sub
content, as shown here.

When you select a Smart Art diagram, the Smart Art Tools tabs become available on the Ribbon.
On the Smart Art Tools Design tab, you can use galleries to select a style that coordinates with
the effects of your theme and you can choose from several color options that also coordinate with
your theme. You can even select a different Smart Art layout to apply to your active diagram.
The layout is updated, but your content and formatting remain. And you can point to options in
any of those galleries to see a preview of your selection on your active graphicbefore you
apply it.

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To convert a bulleted list to a Smart Art graphic, right-click in the list, point to Convert to
Smart Art, and then point to a layout to see a preview of the diagram on your active slide or
click to apply the layout of your choice. In Office 2010, dozens of additional Smart Art graphics
are available, including more organization chart and picture layouts, along with improved tools
for working with picture diagrams.

4. Use animations and transitions wisely.

Having text and graphics appear on screen just when you need them can be a nice touch.
However, overdoing animation can detract from your presentation's content. To emphasize your
points without overwhelming your audience, limit animation to key points and use consistent
animation choices throughout the presentation.

Customize, preview, and apply animations directly from the Animations tab in PowerPoint
2010. In PowerPoint 2007, go to the Animations tab and find the Custom Animation pane.
Animation effects in PowerPoint 2010 are improved to provide more realistic movement. You
can also trigger animation of an object when you reach a specific point in audio or video
playback. Watch a video on how to trigger animations in PowerPoint 2010 and one on how to
organize a slide deck into sections.

Consistent or complementary choices in slide transitions can also provide a professional touch
and help prevent distractions. Customize, preview, and apply transitions from the Transitions
tab in PowerPoint 2010 or the Animations tab in PowerPoint 2007. PowerPoint 2010 adds
several new three-dimensional slide transitions with stunning visual effects, such as the gallery
transition

Presentation can make a world of difference, and PowerPoint provides a host of tools for keeping
your slides consistent, precise, professional, and clear. You might be surprised how using the
slide master and layout formatting, for instance, can take you from basic to brilliant.

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5. Start by outlining your presentation.

Take the time to outline your presentation before you create your slides. Doing so can save time
and help you give a more clear and effective presentation. You can create your outline by typing
a slide title and bullet points for your main topics on each slide. But you can also use the Outline
pane to type your entire presentation outline in one window and add slides to your presentation
as you go. To do this:
1. In Normal view, on the left of your PowerPoint screen, in the Slides pane, click the
Outline tab. (If you don't see the Slides pane, on the View tab, click Normal.)
2. Notice that a slide number and icon appear for your first slide. Type a title to the right of
the icon, and then press Enter to create your next slide.
3. Press the Tab key to demote the text level and add points to the current slide in your
outline. Or press Shift+Tab to promote the text level and add an additional slide.

PowerPoint 2010 adds a new feature, called slide sections, that enables you to divide your
presentations into logical sections for easier organization, such as to assign a set of slides to one
author or to easily print just one section of slides.

6. Use masters and layouts to save time and help get better results.
The slide master is one of the most important PowerPoint tools for creating easy-to-use, greatlooking presentations. The master gives you a central place to add content and formatting that
you want to appear on all (or most) of your slides. Formatting and layout changes on the slide
master automatically update throughout the slide layouts in your presentation, saving you a
tremendous amount of time and effort and helping to keep your slides consistent. For example,
place your logo on the slide master, and it will appear on all slides in the presentation.

A slide master includes a set of slide layouts for different types of content. Nine slide layouts are
available by default in the Home tab, and they are formatted based on the slide master. You can
customize any of these layouts individually and even create your own custom slide layouts.

If you just need a single slide that doesn't fit an existing slide layout and won't need to be reused,
you can use the Title Only or Blank slide layout and create your own unique slide. But if you
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will reuse a layout for multiple slides in the same (or another) presentation, create or customize a
slide layout to avoid doing the same work multiple times and to keep your slides looking
professional and consistent.

7. Consider differences between print and on-screen presentations.

Presentations designed to be viewed on screen don't always work well when you print them.
Dark backgrounds that look good on slides, for example, rarely print well. Similarly, footer
content that you need in print is likely to be distracting on screen. Fortunately, PowerPoint
makes it easy to switch between print and screen presentation options.
When you format your presentation using a theme, slide master, and layouts, as described earlier
in this article, you can change from a light background to a dark background in just a click, and
text on your slides automatically changes color to be visible on the new background. Find the
slide background gallery on the Design tab, in the Background group.

To quickly show or hide footer, page number, and date content on all slides at once, on the
Insert tab, click Header & Footer. In the Header & Footer dialog box, choose to display them
or hide them, and then click Apply to All. ((Note that if you remove the footer, page number, or
date placeholder on any slide, the slide will not display this contenteven if you turn it on in this
dialog box.))

8. Use notes pages and handouts to help deliver the story.

Use the Notes pane that appears below the slide in Normal view to write notes to yourself for
your presentation or to create notes that you can print for your viewers instead of crowding your
slides with text. You can also format and print handouts that contain up to nine slides per page.

Custom colors, layouts, and graphics can do a lot for your presentation. But a misaligned
flowchart or a presentation that crashes on your client's computer isn't likely to make the
impression you want.

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9. Keep file size manageable.

A common cause of stress when you work in PowerPoint is that the file becomes too large to edit
or for the presentation to run smoothly. Fortunately, this problem is easy to avoid by
compressing the media in your files and using native PowerPoint features whenever possible
(such as tables, charts, SmartArt graphics, and shapes) instead of importing and embedding
objects from other programs. PowerPoint 2010 also gives you the ability to compress the
embedded video and audio files in your presentation. Learn about compressing media.

10. Use the tools available to get it right the first time.
You can use features like slide layouts to quickly create consistent slides or use tools such as
SmartArt graphics to create a professional-quality graphic in no time. But when you need to do
your own thingand that thing doesn't belong on a slide layout or fit an available graphic
stylePowerPoint still provides tools to save you time and improve your results.

11. Turn off (or manage) AutoCorrect layout options.

PowerPoint provides several automatic formatting options to help your slides conform to the
provided layouts. They can be big time-savers, but they can also be frustrating if you're not using
them intentionally and if they cause formatting (such as the font size in slide titles) to become
inconsistent from one slide to the next. If you don't want your text to shrink automatically to fit
content, you can easily disable those features in the AutoCorrect Options dialog box.

12. Know exactly what your viewers will see.

When you want to be sure that what you send is what viewers will see, you can save the
presentation in the PowerPoint slide show format so that the show starts for the recipients as
soon as they open the file. But some variables, such as whether media will play correctly on the
recipient's computer, may still affect what viewers see. PowerPoint 2010 introduces a new
feature that makes it easy to share your presentation perfectly with almost anyone, anywhere.
You can now create a high-quality video of your presentation, complete with your saved
narration and timings, in just a few clicks. PowerPoint creates the video in the background while
you keep working. Read how to create a video of your presentation, or watch a video about it.

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Creating a New Power Point Presentation

There are a variety of ways of creating your PowerPoint presentation, and one of them is to start
from scratch. In doing so, you are creating your presentation from a blank presentation, and you
have much more flexibility over how it looks. To start from scratch click the File tab > New

Ensure that Blank presentation is selected. You can click on the thumbnail image to select it if it
isn't, and then click Create (see hints in the image above). A new presentation based on a blank
presentation opens for you to start work on. As soon as you can, save the presentation so you
don't lose any changes. Learn how to save your presentation.

One way of creating a presentation is to start from scratch. However, you can save time and
effort if you base your new presentation on a template. A template defines the background, font
styles, colours and sizes for your placeholders, as well as selected bullets that match the
template. Using a template means, that you don't need to worry about defining those aspects
yourself. PowerPoint comes with a number of stylish templates built in that you can use
immediately, and you can download additional ones from office.com.
To create a PowerPoint presentation using a template, click the File tab > New

Clicking on a template category will display thumbnail images of all the templates within that
category. When you find a template you like the look of, click on its thumbnail to select it and
you will see a preview of it on the right of the panel. You can then click Create to create your
PowerPoint presentation based on this template.

Sometimes you just can't find a template that precisely matches what you need, and in these
circumstances, what many people do is use a template, that is the closest fit and then modify it.
There are many free templates available from within PowerPoint, and also freely downloadable
from other websites on the internet. In addition to using those that ship with PowerPoint, you can
also purchase stylish and professionally designed templates for PowerPoint presentations from
vendors like Smile Templates.

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Open Existing Presentations

There are several reasons why you might need to open an existing Microsoft PowerPoint
presentation instead of creating a new one. You might have previously saved an incomplete
presentation and now need to dos ome more work on it. Alternatively, you might want to open a
complete presentation and actually run it for an audience. Whatever the reason, opening an
existing presentation is quite easy.
Start PowerPoint and then click the File tab > Open.

When you find your presentation, either double click it to open it, or select it and then click
Open. The presentation will then open for you to either work on it or run it. The keyboard
shortcut for opening a presentation the same as that for opening existing documents in other
Microsoft Office programs: ctrl-o.

New Slides
There are a couple of ways to add a new slide. In each way, the slide that is currently selected is
important as the new slide will be placed after the selected one. This means that if you want to
insert a slide before the end of the presentation, you will need to select the slide that appears
before the one you want to insert. To select the slide, just click on it. You can select the slide in
whichever view you happen to be using, whether it's Slides View or Outline View.
Once you have selected a slide, click Home > Slides > New Slide.

If you click the top half of the New Slide button, the default Title and Content type slide will be
added. If, instead, you click the bottom half of the button, you will be able to select what type of
slide is added.

Once the new slide has been added, you can click into one of the editable content boxes to make
your changes. The keyboard shortcut for adding new slides is ctrl-m.

Now that you've learned how to add slides to a presentation, the time has come to learn how to
delete unwanted slides. Deleting slides can be performed in three ways. Select the slide and then

Press the delete key on the keyboard

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Pres the backspace key on the keyboard

Right click on the slide and select Delete Slide

Also, there are a variety of places that you can delete the slide in question. The easiest way is to
work in Normal View (on the View tab, in the Presentation Views group, click Normal). You
can then work on either Slides or Outline tab: find and select the slide you want to delete and
then press the delete key. You can select multiple slides by holding down the control key as you
click on additional slides. If you press the delete key now, you will delete all the selected slides.
If you have a group of slides that run in sequence, you can select them all by selecting the first
one and then holding down the shift key whilst you click on the last slide.

If you have many slides to delete, you may find it easier from an organizational point of view to
work in Slide Sorter View (read all about PowerPoint Views). The same process applies: select
single or multiple slides and then press the delete key.

Moving Slides In Power point

You've spent time planning how you want your presentation to look and you've painstakingly
designed it's look and feel. You've taken great care with every stylish slide you've added. You
can change the sequence of your slides by moving them around your presentation. To move a
slide in your presentation, all you have to do is drag and drop it where you need it. As you drag
the slide, you should see an insertion point that looks like either a horizontal or vertical line,
depending on which PowerPoint view you are using, that tells you where your slide will appear.
If you have many slides to move around, and want to get an overall view of how your slides are
organized, using the Slide sorter view is your best option.

You can move several slides around as a group by selecting them all first and then dragging and
dropping them. To select multiple slides, hold down the control key on your keyboard as you
click on additional slides. Alternatively, if the slides you need to select occur in an unbroken
sequence, you can select the first slide and then hold down the shift key as you click on the last
slide.

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Moving Slides with Keyboard Shortcuts

Another way to move slides around is to cut and paste them. Select the slide(s) you want to move
and then right click > Cut. Select the slide that is positioned before where you want the slide to
go and then right click > Paste. The slide(s) will appear after the selected slide. If you want to
speed things up, you can use keyboard shortcuts: select the slide you want to move, press ctrl-x
to cut it and then ctrl-v to paste it.

There are 6 different views you can use to look at your PowerPoint presentation and each one
has its advantages over the others. The default view in PowerPoint is normal view. This means
that when you start PowerPoint, and you don't change the view, you will be working in Normal
View. There are two place to change to a different view: at the top of the left side panel and at
the bottom of the workspace to the right (next to the zoom slider). To change to Slides View or
Outline view, click the corresponding tab at the top of the left side panel: To change to any of the
other PowerPoint view, use the small toolbar at the bottom:

Here is an explanation of how you should use the different views:

PowerPoint
View

Description
This is a great place to view the slides in your presentation as thumbnail-sized

Slides View

images while you edit. The thumbnails make it easy for you to navigate through
your presentation and to see the effects of any design changes. You can also easily
rearrange, add, or delete slides here
This is a great place to start writing your content, to capture your ideas, plan how

Outline View you want to present them, and move slides and text around. The Outline tab shows
your slide text in outline form.
Normal View

Normal view is the main editing view, where you write and design your
presentations.
Slide Sorter view gives you a view of your slides in thumbnail form. This view

Slide

Sorter makes it easy for you to sort and organize the sequence of your slides as you

View

create your presentation, and then also as you prepare your presentation for
printing.
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Use reading view to deliver your presentation not to an audience (via a large
screen, for example), but instead to someone viewing your presentation on their
Reading
View

own computer. Or, use Reading view on your own computer when you want to
view a presentation not in full-screen Slide Show view, but in a window with
simple controls that make the presentation easy to review. You can always switch
from Reading view to one of the other views if you want to change the
presentation.
Use Slide Show view to deliver your presentation to your audience. Slide Show

Slide

Show

View

view occupies the full computer screen, exactly like an actual presentation. In this
view, you see your presentation the way your audience will. You can see how your
graphics, timings, movies, animated effects, and transition effects will look during
the actual presentation.

Creating A Powerpoint Background

To change your presentation background, click Design > Background > Background Styles >
Format Background. Alternatively, you can right click on a free area on a slide (and area that
doesn't contain an object) and then select Format Background from there. Ensure that the fill tab
is selected (as in the image above) and then make changes according to what kind of background
you want for your presentation.

Solid Fill
To specify a solid fill colour, ensure that the appropriate radio button is selected and then click
on the Fill Colour swatch. A panel is displayed for you to select a colour. The colours in the
main part of the grid are all theme colours, so if you select one, you can be pretty confident that
the background will blend in well with the rest of the presentation's colours. At the bottom of the
colour selection panel are standard colours and if you want even more colours to choose from,
you can click More Colours at the bottom.

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Gradient Fill
A gradient is the smooth transition of one colour into another. When this option is selected, you
can choose from a selection of ready made gradients by clicking on the Preset colours button.
Alternatively, you can exercise more control by defining the gradient yourself. If you do this,
you will need to tell PowerPoint whether the gradient is linear, radial, rectangular, path or shade
from title. Additionally you will need to specify the gradient direction, angle, where the colours
are positioned on the gradient (with the Gradient stops) and the properties of each colour in the
gradient. These properties include what the colour is, how bright its is and also how transparent.

Picture Or Texture Fill

When specifying a picture or texture fill for your PowerPoint background, you are actually using
a picture as the background. PowerPoint comes with some built in textures you can use, or you
can select an image that is stored on your hard drive. When you select an image in this way, you
can choose to have the image appearing just once in the background, or to have it repeating like a
texture. As you can see from the screenshot, there are many other attributes you can set that
control the picture's appearance.

Pattern Fill
As with textures, PowerPoint ships with a selection of pre-made patterns that you can use as your
background. Patterns available for selection include dots, stripes, zig zags, brickwork and many
more. You can specify whatever foreground and background colours you want to use.

Resetting The PowerPoint Background

If you decide to reset your background, but you've made so many changes that it would take too
long to reverse each one, you can use the Reset Background button at the bottom of the Format
Background window. You can also tell PowerPoint to apply the background you just designed to
all slides in the presentation - using the Apply to All button. If you don't apply the background to
all slides, then only the currently selected slide is affected.

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Adding a Textbox in PowerPoint

When adding text to their PowerPoint presentations, many people limit themselves to using only
the placeholder boxes that are present by default when you add a new slide. For example, when
you add a title and content slide, there is always a title placeholder in which, you will see the
words "Click to add title" and a content placeholder that displays the words "Click to add text".
It's then a simple case of clicking into each of those boxes and then typing your content.
However, another way of adding text that gives you more flexibility over positioning is to add a
textbox. Click Insert > Text > Text Box.

Left click with the mouse and drag out the textbox. Once the text box has been drawn, you can
start typing in it. When you drag out your initial text box, it retains it's width, but the height
contracts temporarily to be the height of one line of text. When you type multiple lines, the
height will adjust to fit, but the width of the textbox will remain fixed.
This is what the textbox looks like:

You can see resizing handles at each corner and also halfway along each edge. You can resize
the textbox by clicking and dragging on any of those handles.

Moving A Textbox In PowerPoint

Moving a textbox around in PowerPoint is as easy as drag and drop. If you are not careful,
though, you will end up dragging the resizing handles. The first thing you have to do is select the
textbox as a whole. To do this position the cursor over one edge of the textbox until you see a
double headed cursor.

When you see the cursor change shape, click on the box. When the textbox is selected, the
dashed bounding lines become solid lines. Now you can move the textbox around either by
clicking and dragging with the mouse, or by pressing the arrow keys on your keyboard.

In Microsoft PowerPoint, placeholders are boxes with dotted borders that contain content and
reside within a slide layout. All built-in slide layouts that come with PowerPoint contain content

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placeholders. If you click on the bottom half of the New Slide button, PowerPoint displays all the
slide layouts you can insert, and on each you can see content placeholders.

If you insert a two content slide layout, for example, you will get three placeholders: one for the
slide's title, and two for the content. To add you own text, click in a placeholder and start typing.
You can style the text however you please, using the usual formatting options.

But how does PowerPoint know what placeholders should appear on each slide? This is
determined by the slide master. If you click View > Master Views > Slide Master, you can see
all the slide layouts available for use in your presentation. The layout on each is controlled by,
among other things, the content placeholders on them.

Click on any slide layout to select it and you'll see the placeholders already present. You can add
new placeholders by clicking Insert Placeholder in the Mater Layout group of the Slide Master
tab. If you click the top half of the button, you'll add the same placeholder as you added last
time, whereas if you click the bottom half, you get a choice of placeholders to add.

Usually, you won't add content placeholders to existing slide layouts (though you might).
Placeholders are more useful when you create a new slide layout.

Inserting Images In PowerPoint

To insert an image in PowerPoint, click Insert > Images. You can see that there are four different
types of image you can insert here, and we'll explore each one.

Insert A Picture
If you have an image, for example a photo you have taken, on your PC's hard drive, you would
click on the Picture button. Then you would navigate to the place on your hard drive where the
picture was located and either double click on it or select it and then click Insert.

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Insert Clip Art

When you click the Clip Art button, the Clip Art panel opens on the right of the workspace. We
can use this panel to search for Clip Art images of certain things. In the image above, I searched
for "telephone" and found four related images. To narrow down the search, you can click on the
Results should be drop down list and select one of the categories of:

Illustrations

Photographs

Videos

Audios

To insert a Clip Art image, click on it.

Searching Clip Art In PowerPoint

PowerPoint provides a large selection of ready made Clip Art images. These images are simple
in design but their use can really help get your point across in your presentation. One advantage
of using Clip Art is that the collection of images is right there ready for you to use. You don't
have to go out and take photos for your presentation, and you don't have to touch Photoshop.
When you click the Clip Art button, the Clip Art panel opens on the right of the workspace.

We can use this panel to search for Clip Art images of certain things. In the image above, I
searched for "telephone" and found four related images. To narrow down the search, you can
click on the Results should be drop down list and select one of the categories of:

Illustrations

Photographs

Videos

Audios

To insert a Clip Art image, click on it. You'll notice that the Picture Tools contextual tab appears
in the ribbon to help you perform picture related tasks. This tab will remain visible as long as the
item of Clip Art (or, indeed, any image) is selected. If there isn't a big enough selection of Clip
Art images for you here, you can always check the Include Office.com content checkbox when
you search. Additionally, you can visit the site yourself by clicking the link at the bottom of the
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panel. When you have finished working with Clip Art, you can close down the panel to reduce
clutter by clicking the "x" in the top right corner.

Inserting Sound In PowerPoint

Careful use of sound in your Microsoft PowerPoint presentation can do wonders to enhance it.
However, it's easy to get carried away and if you are not careful, you may confuse and distract
the audience too much from the message you are trying to convey. Bear this in mind and be
careful to use sound clips sparingly. Used wisely, sound (and video) effects can quickly catch
your viewers attention.
There are a few different ways to add a sound clip in PowerPoint.

Powerpoint Sound Clips

To insert a sound clip into your PowerPoint presentation, click Insert > Media > Ausio. You'll
notice that the audio button is split into two. Click on the lower half of the button and you'll find
the following options available to you:

Audio From File

This is the most straight forward option. If you have a sound file stored somewhere on your
computer, use this option to navigate to it, select it and insert it. The icon representing a sound
clip is inserted onto the slide you had selected.

While the sound clip is selected, you will be able to see the basic sound playback tools below the
clip: play, rewind, fast forward and volume controls. You can also position the playback point to
a specific place in playback using the timeline. The progress in minutes and seconds also appears
to the right of the timeline, to let you know how far through the recording you've progressed.
While the audio clip is selected, you'll also see the Audio Tools contextual tab displayed in the
ribbon, allowing you to perform a variety of audio tasks on the clip.

The Format tab mostly contains commands for use with video, but the Playback tab can be used
with sound clips.

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You can use the Clip Art library to insert pre made audio clips in much the same way that you
would insert Clip Art images. When you click The Clip Art Audio option, the Clip Art panel
appears to the right of the work space but the Results should be selection list is set to Audio.

Type in the type of sound you need into the search box and press Enter or click Go. A selection
of sound clips will be displayed for you to insert. Click on a particular clip and it will be inserted.

The record audio option gives you the ability to record your own sound clip within PowerPoint.
All you need is a microphone to record your voice. When you take this option, PowerPoint
displays a dialogue box that you can use to start and stop recording your voice. Type the name of
the clip in the Name box and then click the round and red record button on the right. Stop the
recording by clicking the blue rectangle button in the centre and start playback using the blue
triangle button on the left.

PowerPoint Spelling
You've spent a lot of time and effort into planning the structure of your presentation, designing it
and then adding the whistles and bells in the form of graphics, video or animation. There's one
last thing you need to check. Spelling! Poor spelling can really let down an otherwise
professional presentation, so you shouldn't neglect this important but often overlooked step.
Spelling and grammar mistakes can distract readers from the work that you put into your
documents, so you want to eliminate these mistakes. Fortunately, PowerPoint has it's own tools
to perform your proofing tasks.

You have different options when it comes to checking your spelling. You can allow PowerPoint
to use its automatic spellchecker as you create your presentation (the wavy red, blue, and green
lines). Alternatively you can postpone the spellchecking until you have completed your
presentation.

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Viewing PowerPoint Proofing Options

You can view your current PowerPoint proofing options by clicking the File tab > Options >
Proofing. This window gives you a lot of control over how PowerPoint will proof your
presentation. The first button allows you to set the auto correction settings.

Some of the options shown in the window that is displayed apply to all Microsoft Office
programs. Regardless of which program you are using to change the option, the setting that you
select applies to all the programs. These options are titled When correcting spelling in Microsoft
Office programs. Towards the bottom you can set PowerPoint specific proofing options in the
section titled When correcting spelling in PowerPoint.
Manually Proofing Your PowerPoint Presentation
At any point you can decide to spell check your entire presentation. Click Review > Proofing >
Spelling. The next misspelled word in the presentation is highlighted in the spelling window,
together with a brief description of the mistake and also possible actions on the word. For
example, this is a word that wasn't found in the PowerPoint dictionary:

There is a variety of buttons to the right of the window that allow us to take different actions,
such as to ignore the misspelling, add it to the dictionary or change it to one of the words that
PowerPoint suggested as a replacement. Moving on to the next example misspelling and we can
see a contextual misuse of the word "pear" in "a pear of shoes":

Slide Show Presentation

At any time during the creation of your PowerPoint presentation, you can run it to see a preview.
This will show you how your presentation looks when you run it for real.
There are several ways to start your presentation. You can:

click on the Slide Show button at the bottom of your workspace (next to the zoom slide)

press F5

click Slide Show in the ribbon > Start Slide Show, and then choose the most appropriate
way to run your slide show.

Generally speaking, you have two options: to start the presentation from the current slide, or
from the beginning.
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Microsoft gives you the ability to create self-running PowerPoint presentations, which are a great
way to communicate information without having to have someone available to run a slide show
presentation. For example, you might want to set up a presentation to run unattended in a booth
or kiosk at a trade show or convention, or send a CD with a self-running slide show to a client. A
self-running presentation restarts when it has finished and also when it has been idle on a
manually advanced slide for longer than five minutes.
PowerPoint Pointer
The pointer in PowerPoint is a really good tool to draw attention to elements you want your
audience to focus on. While you are running your presentation, you can activate the pointer and
then draw, write or highlight anything you want on the screen. This is a visual aid for your
audience and so this tool is only available when you are running your presentation.
To activate the pointer, right click on any slide and select Pointer Options > Pen. There are three
options available for the pointer:

Arrow - this is the default pointer and is good for pointing at things.

Pen - the pen pointer is good for drawing a circle around things and for impromptu
writing.

Highlighter - the highlighter pointer applies a highlight background, similar to the

highlighting you can do in Microsoft Word.

To use the pen and highlighter, you will need to click and drag.

You can change the colour of the ink used by right clicking again and selecting Pointer Options
> Ink Colour. Select the new colour and it will be used on all new drawings. It won't affect
anything you've already drawn. You can change the ink colour of the highlighter in the same way
that you can change the ink colour for the pen pointer.

At the end of your presentation, if you've drawn anything on slides, PowerPoint asks whether
you'd like to keep your ink annotations. If you choose Keep, what you have drawn is saved on
the slide and will be displayed next time the presentation is run. The drawing is saved as an
object that you can edit afterwards.

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Saving Your New PowerPoint Presentation

When you create a PowerPoint presentation you will have to save it at some point - and it's better
if you do this sooner rather than later. It's also a good idea to keep saving your work periodically
as you never know when you will lose power or when your computer is likely to crash. Keep
saving! If you don't, sooner or later you will lose some of your hard work. It's happened to us all,
and saving your changes takes so little time that there is no excuse.
If you are working on a new presentation, the first time you save, PowerPoint will prompt you to
give it a name and locate a place on your computer to save it. There are two ways to save: using
the ribbon and using the keyboard shortcut. Let's look at using the ribbon first: click the File tab
> Save.

The usual save as dialogue box will appear, prompting you to supply a name and location for the
presentation. Think of a meaningful name for your presentation and type it into the File name
input box. Try to avoid names like Presentation2 as you will soon forget what the purpose of the
presentation is. It's better to use names like "Introducing Science" etc. Once you have named
your presentation, navigate to a location on your computer's hard drive and save it there.

There is a quicker way of saving presentations using keyboard shortcuts. You can also perform a
file save by pressing ctrl-s. If this is the first time you have saved your presentation, you will
again be prompted to name it and find a place for it to be stored. Thereafter, you can periodically
press ctrl-s and your changes will be saved immediately.

To Save Your PowerPoint Presentation As A Web Page

Saving your Microsoft PowerPoint presentation as a web page allows you to then post it to the
web. PowerPoint is able to retain the presentation's integrity so that viewers on the web are able
to see it as though the presentation was being run as normal. The advantage of publishing your
presentation to the web is that you always have it available to you - provided that you have
internet access, of course.

To save a PowerPoint presentation as a web page, click File > Save As A Web Page. When the
Save As dialogue box appears, use the Save In box to navigate to the location of your web
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server. Don't forget to name your presentation and then click Publish. The Publish as a Web Page
dialog box will appear. Here, you need to make selections to customise how your presentation
will be displayed. Under Publish What, select Complete presentation if you want to publish all
slides or choose a selection of slides you want to publish. Leave the check next to Display
speaker notes if you want them to be available.
Preparing To Print In Powerpoint
In PowerPoint you can print notes pages, slides (one slide per page) and handouts of your
presentation. A presentation that has been printed out allows your audience to follow along as
you give your presentation and to gives them a record to refer to after the presentation. Before
you print anything, you need to prepare your presentation by setting the slide size, page
orientation, and starting slide number. Click Design > Page Setup > Page Setup, and in the Page
Setup dialogue we can change things like the slide orientation (portrait or landscape) and also the
dimensions of the printable area.

The Slides sized for drop down list allows you to select some commonly used sizes for printouts,
but you can also change the width and height manually using their respective input boxes. If you
want to print an overhead transparency, select overhead from the Slides sized for list. The
Number slides from box allows you to change what page number prints on the very first slide or
handout. By default, PowerPoint slide layouts appear in landscape orientation but you can
change this using the Page Setup or Slide Orientation button.

Printing The Presentation

Once you have made all the preliminary preparations outlined above, you are ready to print.
Click File > Print. On this panel you can specify how many copies you want to print and using
what printer. If you want to print only a selection of slides in the presentation, you can use the
Slides drop down list to select one of:

Print All Slides

Print Selection (only prints the slides you have selected)

Print Current Slide

Custom Range (then use the Slides input box below to type in the page numbers you want
to print)
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The next drop down list allows you to select full page slides, notes pages or the presentation's
outline to print, or if you want to print handouts you can specify how many slides per page.
Moving down, you can choose to print your presentation on one slide only or on both sides of the
paper. If printing on both sides you can select which edge (the short or long edge) of the paper
separates consecutive pages.
The remaining selections allow you to choose whether to collate your printouts and whether to
print in colour, grayscale or in black and white. There is also a sneaky little link at the bottom for
editing header and footer details. Once all teh settings have been addressed, click the big Print
button at the top.

Preparing To Print In Powerpoint

In PowerPoint you can print notes pages, slides (one slide per page) and handouts of your
presentation. A presentation that has been printed out allows your audience to follow along as
you give your presentation and to gives them a record to refer to after the presentation. Before
you print anything, you need to prepare your presentation by setting the slide size, page
orientation, and starting slide number. Click Design > Page Setup > Page Setup, and in the Page
Setup dialogue we can change things like the slide orientation (portrait or landscape) and also the
dimensions of the printable area.

The Slides sized for drop down list allows you to select some commonly used sizes for printouts,
but you can also change the width and height manually using their respective input boxes. If you
want to print an overhead transparency, select overhead from the Slides sized for list. The
Number slides from box allows you to change what page number prints on the very first slide or
handout. By default, PowerPoint slide layouts appear in landscape orientation but you can
change this using the Page Setup or Slide Orientation button.

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Objective Type Questions

1. Most word processors feature one or more ----------, which provide buttons that issue
commands
a. Menu bars

b. Tool bars

c. Status bars

d. Scroll bars

2. The title bar displays

a. The name of the program
b. The name of the file
c. Both
d. None of these
3.To remove data from one document and place it in another, you can use
a. Cut, and paste
b. Copy, and paste
c. File, and open
d. Delete, and paste
4.Word processors contain tools for creating
a.

Text

b. Number
c. Chart
d. All of the above
5. A word processing program is an example of
a.

System program

b.

Spread sheet program

c.

Template program

d.

Stand alone program

6.Which file starts MS Word?

a) Winword.exe
b) Word.exe
c) Msword.exe
d) Word2003.exe

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Short Answer Questions

1. What is the meaning of ruler in the MS word?
2. W h i c h k e y b o a r d s h o r t c u t b o l d s s e l e c t e d t e x t ?
3. Define the method of CUT-COPY-PASTE in windows?
4. What is the function of UNDO command?
5. What happens if you press F11 on a word document?
6. Write the Important Features of MS Word?
7. What are the uses and features of Microsoft PowerPoint?
8. What is difference between MS PowerPoint and MS Word?
9. How can you create a chart in power point
10. What are the steps to create a power point presentation with animation and
sound
11. What is difference between MS PowerPoint and MS Word?
12. What are the advantages of the computer based word processing?
13. What are the text formatting facilities available in Word?
14. What is mail merge?
15. What is tool bar?
16. How can you insert a slide in a presentation?
17. What do you mean by word processing?

Essay Type Questions

1. What are the text formatting facilities available in Word?
2. Explain the features of word processor
3 How MS Word plays an important role in office performance?

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Practical Questions
1) Read the following instructions and prepare the letter in a mail merge document
which is to be send to the given addressees:
Heading - DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE (in Arial Font at font size 16, to be centralized,
underline)
Second line heading - University Campus, (in Times New Roman Font at font size 12,
centralized)
Third line heading Nileswer (in Times New Roman Font at font size 12 centralized)
Fourth line heading Kasargode , 670 867 (in Times New Roman Font at font size 12
centralized)
Fifth line heading - Tel: No. (by inserting Telephone Symbol) - 0497- 2782351 (in Times New
Roman
Font at font size 12, centralized)
Sixth line heading - Ref : Ex.CII/B.Com./Prl/2009 (in Arial Font at font size 12, Align left)
Seventh line heading - Date : 8th March, 2009 (in Arial Font at font size 12 Align Right)
Salutation Dear (insert the name of the addressee), (in Arial Font at font size 12, Justify)
Body of the letter -We are glad to inform you that your Final Year Practical Examination is
scheduled to be started from March 18, 2009. The detailed time table is available at the office on
the date of issue of the Hall Ticket. (in Arial Font at font size 12, Justify, there must be 1.5 line
spacing)
Complementary Clause - Yours truly, (in Arial Font at font size 12 Align left, after providing
three line space from the body of the letter)

Addressee (in Tahoma Font at font size 12 Align Left, Show it above the Salutation)
Kum. K. Preetha

Mr. Santhosh V. P

Kum. Susheela

Kuniyil House

V P House

D/O Appukkuttan

Near K S E B

Hospital Road

Parembath House

Mathemengalam

Kasergode

Manamthody

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2) Mail merge the following letter

CALICUT SOFTBALL ASSOCIATION

122/2 STADIUM BUILDINGS, K K ROAD
KOZHIKODE

Date.

To

Sir
Sub: Affiliation and players to the District softball association regExecutive committee of the District softball Association has decided to conduct the
District League softball championship during the month of December 2008. Hence I request you
to affiliate/renew your Institution/Club before 10th December 2008. Players registration form
also must be submitted in duplicate on that date.
Specimen copy of the players registration form is also enclosed herewith. All
correspondence should be sent to the secretary whose address is given below.
Dr. P C Kutty
Lecturer in Physical Education,
C A S College,
Calicut
Secretary

To
Sri. Ashref M V
Secretary
Winners Club
Manathana

Sri. Jayaram M
Lecturer in Physical Education
Rajagiri College
Kinassery

Sri. Narayanan S
Secretary
Jawahar Sports Club
Westhill

161

3) Using MS Word, mail merge the following letter (Heading- Centre, Arial 16)
Parthans Silks
Coimatore
31st March, 2008

(To Address)

Dear Sirs,
Sub: settlement of account reg:
We have not received any reply to our former letter dated 18th February, 2008, for the settlement
of your over due accounts amounts to Rs.

. We, therefore enclose a Duplicate

Statement of Accounts made up to 31st December, 2008.

An early settlement will be very much appreciated

Yours faithfully
For Parthans Silk

Sd/-

Manager

Letters to be addressed to
1. M/S Jasmine Textiles. Market Road, Payyannur for Rs.25,000
2. Messers Moidu Textiles, Main Road, Taliparamba. for Rs.50,000
3. Messers Meenakshi Textiles, J S Paul Corner, Kannur for Rs.1,50,000

162

4) Insert a Table with the following details, as shown below, by using MS Word and
Calculate total salary and sort the data based on Salary in an ascending order
EMPLOYEE STATEMENT
Names
Gopal Kamath

Age

Qualification

Post

Salary

28

M.Com

Executive

15000.00

(Adm.)
Damodheran K V

25

DCA

Operator

5000.00

Babu Mahendra

26

MCA

Executive (IT)

16000.00

Anil Gopalakrishnan

26

MBA

Executive (HR)

12000.00

Shanthi O Gopal

28

PGDCA

Operator

5000.00

Reghuramakrishnan

26

B Com

Clerk

3000.00

Anil P Nambiar

30

CA

Accountant

20000.00

Total

5) Insert a table with the following details using MS word

Heading first line must be in Font Arial Black; in font size 16; Alignment Centre
Heading second line; Font Time New Roman Bold Size 16; Alignment Centre
Column Heading; Arial Black- size 10 Bold- Centre
Cells; Times New Roman- size 12 Centre
Copy the Table in another file and sort the data on the basis of Age
Mohan Raj Traders, Kannur
Employee Details
Emp. Name

Age

Qualification Designation

No.

Basic

Join. Date

Pay

Gopalakrishnan K V

34

MBA

Manager

18000 26-10-98

Anilkumar P

32

MCA

Accountant

10000 10-08-96

Ram Mohan K P

20

B.Com

Clerk

8000 02-25-99

Manoj Kumar P V

25

M.Com

Clerk

6000 04-02-00

Krishna Kumar

28

B.Sc.

Asst. Manager

9000 08-01-02

Babugopalan

29

M.Com

Accountant

7000 08-06-01
163

Satheedevi P V

36

B.Sc.

Clerk

4000 05-04-96

Satheesh Kumar

26

SSLC

Driver

3000 06-10-98

6) Insert a Table with the following details using MS-Word ( Heading 16, Tahoma
Bold, Column
heading 15, Times New Roman Bold; Details in 12, Times New Roman , Item codes in Italics)
(b) Sort the Table based on Price, by copying into a new file
KUMARAN AGENCIES
Item Code

Machine Model

Sewing speed

Stitch Length

Price

(Maximum)

(Maximum)

(Rs)

1800 FX

Singer high speed over lock

1500spm

4mm

7,800

700 GH

Merrit high speed over lock

2500spm

4mm

5,000

700 FT

Usha high speed over lock

1200spm

5mm

6,200

4IZ00 GH

Singer zigzag chain stitch

1800spm

5.5mm

4,500

C007 JS

Usha high speed bed inter lock

1800spm

3mm

5,500

F 007 JP

Merrit high speed inter lock

1700spm

4mm

4,700

Usha high speed cylinder

3500spm

3.5mm

6,750

VC 008

164

Office Automation Tools: Spread Sheet (Excel)

Learning Objectives

To learn theoretical aspects and practical knowledge of electronic spreadsheet

A spreadsheet is an interactive computer application program for organization and analysis of

information in tabular form. Spreadsheets developed as computerized simulations of paper
accounting worksheets. The program operates on data represented as cells of an array, organized
in rows and columns. Each cell of the array is a modelviewcontroller element that can contain
either numeric or text data, or the results of formulas that automatically calculate and display a
value based on the contents of other cells.

The user of the spreadsheet can make changes in any stored value and observe the effects on
calculated values. This makes the spreadsheet useful for "what-if" analysis since many cases can
be rapidly investigated without tedious manual recalculation. Modern spreadsheet software can
have multiple interacting sheets, and can display data either as text and numerals, or in graphical
form.

In addition to the fundamental operations of arithmetic and mathematical functions, modern

spreadsheets provide built-in functions for common financial and statistical operations. Such
calculations as net present value or standard deviation can be applied to tabular data with a preprogrammed function in a formula. Spreadsheet programs also provide conditional expressions,
functions to convert between text and numbers, and functions that operate on strings of text.

Spreadsheets have now replaced paper-based systems throughout the business world. Although
they were first developed for accounting or bookkeeping tasks, they now are used extensively in
any context where tabular lists are built, sorted, and shared.

Visicalc was the first electronic spreadsheet on a microcomputer, and it helped turn the Apple II
computer into a popular and widely used system. Lotus 1-2-3 was the leading spreadsheet when
DOS was the dominant operating system. Excel now has the largest market share on the
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Windows and Macintosh platforms. A spreadsheet program is a standard feature of an office

productivity suite.
Distinction between Spread sheet and Database
A modern spreadsheet file consists of multiple worksheets (usually called by the shorter name
sheets) that make up one workbook, with each file being one workbook. A cell on one sheet is
capable of referencing cells on other, different sheets, whether within the same workbook or
even, in some cases, in different workbooks.

Spreadsheets share many principles and traits of databases, but spreadsheets and databases are
not the same thing. A spreadsheet is essentially just one table, whereas a database is a collection
of many tables with machine-readable semantic relationships between them. While it is true that
a workbook that contains three sheets is indeed a file containing multiple tables that can interact
with each other, it lacks the relational structure of a database. Spreadsheets and databases are
interoperablesheets can be imported into databases to become tables within them, and database
queries can be exported into spreadsheets for further analysis.

A spreadsheet program is one of the main components of an office productivity suite, which
usually also contain a word processor, a presentation program, and a database management
system. Programs within a suite use similar commands for similar functions. Usually sharing
data between the components is easier than with a non-integrated collection of functionally
equivalent programs. This was particularly an advantage at a time when many personal computer
systems used text-mode displays and commands, instead of a graphical user interface.

A number of companies have attempted to break into the spreadsheet market with programs
based on very different paradigms. Lotus 1-2-3, MS Excel etc. are important among them.

Concepts
The main concepts are those of a grid of cells, called sheet, with either raw data, called values, or
formulas in the cells. Formulas say how to mechanically compute new values from existing
values. Values are generally numbers, but can be also pure text, dates, months, etc. Extensions of

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these concepts include logical spreadsheets. Various tools for programming sheets, visualizing
data, remotely connecting sheets, displaying cells dependencies, etc. are commonly provided.

Cells
A "cell" can be thought of as a box for holding data. A single cell is usually referenced by its
column and row. Usually rows, representing the dependant variables, are referenced in decimal
notation starting from 1, while columns representing the independent variables use 26- letters AZ as numerals. Its physical size can usually be tailored for its content by dragging its height or
width at box intersections (or for entire columns or rows by dragging the column or rows
headers).

An array of cells is called a sheet or worksheet. It is analogous to an array of variables in a

conventional computer program. In most implementations, many worksheets may be located
within a single spreadsheet. A worksheet is simply a subset of the spreadsheet divided for the
sake of clarity. Functionally, the spreadsheet operates as a whole and all cells operate as global
variables within the spreadsheet. A cell may contain a value or a formula, or it may simply be
left empty. By convention, formulas usually begin with = sign.

Values
A value can be entered from the computer keyboard by directly typing into the cell itself.
Alternatively, a value can be based on a formula, which might perform a calculation, display the
current date or time, or retrieve external data such as a stock quote or a database value.

Real-time update
This feature refers to updating a cell's contents periodically with a value from an external
sourcesuch as a cell in a "remote" spreadsheet. For shared, Web-based spreadsheets, it applies
to "immediately" updating cells another user has updated. All dependent cells must be updated
also.
Locked cell
Once entered, selected cells (or the entire spreadsheet) can optionally be "locked" to prevent
accidental overwriting. Typically this would apply to cells containing formulas but might be
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applicable to cells containing "constants" such as a kilogram/pounds conversion factor. Even

though individual cells are marked as locked, the spreadsheet data are not protected until the
feature is activated in the file preferences.

Data format
A cell or range can optionally be defined to specify how the value is displayed. The default
display format is usually set by its initial content if not specifically previously set, so that for
example "31/12/2007" or "31 Dec 2007" would default to the cell format of date. Similarly
adding a % sign after a numeric value would tag the cell as a percentage cell format. The cell
contents are not changed by this format, only the displayed value. Some cell formats such as
"numeric" or "currency" can also specify the number of decimal places.This can allow invalid
operations (such as doing multiplication on a cell containing a date), resulting in illogical results
without an appropriate warning.

Cell formatting
Depending on the capability of the spreadsheet application, each cell can be separately formatted
using the attributes of either the content (point size, color, bold or italic) or the cell (border
thickness, background shading, color). To aid the readability of a spreadsheet, cell formatting
may be conditionally applied to data; for example, a negative number may be displayed in red.
A cell's formatting does not typically affect its content and depending on how cells are
referenced or copied to other worksheets or applications, the formatting may not be carried with
the content.

Named cells
In most implementations, a cell, or group of cells in a column or row, can be "named" enabling
the user to refer to those cells by a name rather than by a grid reference. Names must be unique
within the spreadsheet, but when using multiple sheets in a spreadsheet file, an identically named
cell range on each sheet can be used if it is distinguished by adding the sheet name.

168

Cell reference
In place of a named cell, an alternative approach is to use a cell (or grid) reference. Most cell
references indicate another cell in the same spreadsheet, but a cell reference can also refer to a
cell in a different sheet within the same spreadsheet, or (depending on the implementation) to a
cell in another spreadsheet entirely, or to a value from a remote application.

A typical cell reference in "A1" style consists of one or two case-insensitive letters to identify
the column (if there are up to 256 columns: AZ and AAIV) followed by a row number (e.g. in
the range 165536). Either part can be relative (it changes when the formula it is in is moved or
copied), or absolute (indicated with $ in front of the part concerned of the cell reference). The
alternative "R1C1" reference style consists of the letter R, the row number, the letter C, and the
column number; relative row or column numbers are indicated by enclosing the number in
square brackets. Most current spreadsheets use the A1 style, some providing the R1C1 style as a
compatibility option.

When the computer calculates a formula in one cell to update the displayed value of that cell, cell
reference(s) in that cell, naming some other cell(s), cause the computer to fetch the value of the
named cell(s). A cell on the same "sheet" is usually addressed as: =A1

In a spreadsheet, references to cells automatically update when new rows or columns are inserted
or deleted. Care must be taken, however, when adding a row immediately before a set of column
totals to ensure that the totals reflect the additional rows valueswhich they often do not.

Cell ranges
Likewise, instead of using a named range of cells, a range reference can be used. Reference to a
range of cells is typically of the form (A1:A6), which specifies all the cells in the range A1
through to A6. A formula such as "=SUM(A1:A6)" would add all the cells specified and put the
result in the cell containing the formula itself.

169

Sheets
In the earliest spreadsheets, cells were a simple two-dimensional grid. Over time, the model has
expanded to include a third dimension, and in some cases a series of named grids, called sheets.
The most advanced examples allow inversion and rotation operations which can slice and project
the data set in various ways.
Formulas
A formula identifies the calculation needed to place the result in the cell it is contained within. A
cell containing a formula therefore has two display components; the formula itself and the
resulting value. The formula is normally only shown when the cell is selected by "clicking" the
mouse over a particular cell; otherwise it contains the result of the calculation.
A formula assigns values to a cell or range of cells, and typically has the format: =expression
where the expression consists of:

values, such as 2, 9.14 or 6.67E-11;

references to other cells, such as, e.g., A1 for a single cell or B1:B3 for a range;

arithmetic operators, such as +, -, *, /, and others;

relational operators, such as >=, <, and others; and,

functions, such as SUM(), TAN(), and many others.

When a cell contains a formula, it often contains references to other cells. Such a cell reference is
a type of variable. Its value is the value of the referenced cell or some derivation of it. If that cell
in turn references other cells, the value depends on the values of those. References can be
relative (e.g., A1, or B1:B3), absolute (e.g., $A$1, or $B$1:$B$3) or mixed row or columnwise absolute/relative (e.g., $A1 is column-wise absolute and A$1 is row-wise absolute).

The available option for valid formulas depends on the particular spreadsheet implementation
but, in general, most arithmetic operations and quite complex nested conditional operations can
be performed by most of today's commercial spreadsheets. Modern implementations also offer
functions to access custom-build functions, remote data, and applications.

A formula may contain a condition (or nested conditions)with or without an actual

calculationand is sometimes used purely to identify and highlight errors.
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Functions
Spreadsheets usually contain a number of supplied functions, such as arithmetic operations (for
example, summations, averages and so forth), trigonometric functions, statistical functions, and
so forth. In addition there is often a provision for user-defined functions. In Microsoft Excel
these functions are defined using Visual Basic for Applications in the supplied Visual Basic
editor, and such functions are automatically accessible on the worksheet.

Charts
Many spreadsheet applications permit charts, graphs or histograms to be generated from
specified groups of cells that are dynamically re-built as cell contents change. The generated
graphic component can either be embedded within the current sheet or added as a separate
object.

Spreadsheets are a popular End-user development tool. EUD denotes activities or techniques in
which people who are not professional developers create automated behavior and complex data
objects without significant knowledge of a programming language. Many people find it easier to
perform calculations in spreadsheets than by writing the equivalent sequential program. This is
due to several traits of spreadsheets.

They use spatial relationships to define program relationships. Humans have highly
developed intuitions about spaces, and of dependencies between items. Sequential
programming usually requires typing line after line of text, which must be read slowly
and carefully to be understood and changed.

They are forgiving, allowing partial results and functions to work. One or more parts of a
program can work correctly, even if other parts are unfinished or broken. This makes
writing and debugging programs much easier, and faster. Sequential programming
usually needs every program line and character to be correct for a program to run. One
error usually stops the whole program and prevents any result.

Modern spreadsheets allow for secondary notation. The program can be annotated with
colors, typefaces, lines, etc. to provide visual cues about the meaning of elements in the
program.
171

Extensions that allow users to create new functions can provide the capabilities of a
functional language.

Spreadsheet programs
A "spreadsheet program" is designed to perform general computation tasks using spatial
relationships rather than time as the primary organizing principle. It is often convenient to think
of a spreadsheet as a mathematical graph, where the nodes are spreadsheet cells, and the edges
are references to other cells specified in formulas. This is often called the dependency graph of
the spreadsheet. References between cells can take advantage of spatial concepts such as relative
position and absolute position, as well as named locations, to make the spreadsheet formulas
easier to understand and manage.

Spreadsheets usually attempt to automatically update cells when the cells they depend on change.
The earliest spreadsheets used simple tactics like evaluating cells in a particular order, but
modern spreadsheets calculate following a minimal recomputation order from the dependency
graph. Later spreadsheets also include a limited ability to propagate values in reverse, altering
source values so that a particular answer is reached in a certain cell. Since spreadsheet cells
formulas are not generally invertible, though, this technique is of somewhat limited value.

Many of the concepts common to sequential programming models have analogues in the
spreadsheet world. For example, the sequential model of the indexed loop is usually represented
as a table of cells, with similar formulas (normally differing only in which cells they reference).
Spreadsheets have evolved to use scripting programming languages like VBA as a tool for
extensibility beyond what the spreadsheet language makes easy.

Disadvantages
While spreadsheets are a great step forward in quantitative modeling, they have deficiencies. At
the level of overall user benefits, spreadsheets have several main shortcomings, especially
concerning the unfriendliness of alpha-numeric cell addresses. Systematic study, and use, of the
advanced features of a modern spreadsheet software package can minimize the incidence of
these pitfalls.

172

Spreadsheets have significant reliability problems. Research studies estimate that roughly
94% of spreadsheets deployed in the field contain errors. Despite the high error risks
often associated with spreadsheet authorship and use, specific steps can be taken to
significantly enhance control and reliability by structurally reducing the likelihood of
error occurrence at their source.

The practical expressiveness of spreadsheets can be limited unless their modern features
are used. Several factors contribute to this limitation. Implementing a complex model on
a cell-at-a-time basis requires tedious attention to detail. These drawbacks are mitigated
by the use of named variables for cell designations, and employing variables in formulas
rather than cell locations and cell-by-cell manipulations. Graphs can be used to show
instantly how results are changed by changes in parameter values. In fact, the spreadsheet
can be made invisible except for a transparent user interface that requests pertinent input
from the user, displays results requested by the user, creates reports, and has built-in error
traps to prompt correct input.

Similarly, formulas expressed in terms of cell addresses are hard to keep straight and hard
to audit. Research shows that spreadsheet auditors who check numerical results and cell
formulas find no more errors than auditors who only check numerical results.

The alteration of a dimension demands major surgery. When rows (or columns) are added
to or deleted from a table, one has to adjust the size of many downstream tables that
depend on the table being changed. In the process, it is often necessary to move other
cells around to make room for the new columns or rows, and to adjust graph data sources.
In large spreadsheets, this can be extremely time consuming.

Adding or removing a dimension is so difficult, one generally has to start over. The
spreadsheet as a paradigm really forces you to decide on dimensionality right of the
beginning of your spreadsheet creation, even though it is often most natural to make these
choices after your spreadsheet model has matured. The desire to add and remove
dimensions also arises in parametric and sensitivity analyses.

Collaboration in authoring spreadsheet formulas can be difficult when such collaboration

occurs at the level of cells and cell addresses.

173

However, like programming languages, spreadsheets are capable of using aggregate cells with
similar meaning and indexed variables with names that indicate meaning. Some spreadsheets
have good collaboration features, and it is inadvisable to author at the level of cells and cell
formulas to avoid obstacles to collaboration, where many people cooperate on data entry and
many people use the same spreadsheet. In collaborative authoring, it is advisable to use the
range-protection feature of spreadsheets that prevents the contents of specific parts of a
worksheet from being inadvertently altered.
Other problems associated with spreadsheets include:

Some sources advocate the use of specialized software instead of spreadsheets for some
applications like budgeting, statistics.

Many spreadsheet software products, such as Microsoft Excel have a capacity limit of
65,536 rows by 256 columns (216 and

28

respectively). This can present a problem for

people using very large datasets, and may result in lost data.

Lack of auditing and revision control. This makes it difficult to determine who changed
what and when. This can cause problems with regulatory compliance. Lack of revision
control greatly increases the risk of errors due the inability to track, isolate and test
changes made to a document.

Lack of security. Generally, if one has permission to open a spreadsheet, one has
permission to modify any part of it. This, combined with the lack of auditing above, can
make it easy for someone to commit fraud.

Because they are loosely structured, it is easy for someone to introduce an error, either
accidentally or intentionally, by entering information in the wrong place or expressing
dependencies among cells (such as in a formula) incorrectly.

The results of a formula (example "=A1*B1") applies only to a single cell (that is, the
cell the formula is actually located inin this case perhaps C1), even though it can
"extract" data from many other cells, and even real time dates and actual times. This
means that to cause a similar calculation on an array of cells, an almost identical formula
(but residing in its own "output" cell) must be repeated for each row of the "input" array.
This differs from a "formula" in a conventional computer program, which typically
makes one calculation that it applies to all the input in turn. With current spreadsheets,
this forced repetition of near identical formulas can have detrimental consequences from
174

a quality assurance standpoint and is often the cause of many spreadsheet errors. Some
spreadsheets have array formulas to address this issue.

Trying to manage the sheer volume of spreadsheets that may exist in an organization
without proper security, audit trails, unintentional introduction of errors, and other items
listed above can become overwhelming.

While there are built-in and third-party tools for desktop spreadsheet applications that address
some of these shortcomings, awareness and use of these is generally low.
Spreadsheet risk
Spreadsheet risk is the risk associated with deriving a materially incorrect value from Excel or a
similar spreadsheet application that will be utilized in making a related (usually numerically
based) decision. Examples include the valuation of an asset, the determination of financial
accounts, the calculation of medicinal doses or the size of load-bearing beam for structural
engineering. The risk may arise from inputting erroneous or fraudulent data values, from
mistakes (or incorrect changes) within the logic of the spreadsheet or the omission of relevant
updates (e.g. out of date exchange rates).
Parts of work sheet

175

A major strength of Excel is that you can perform mathematical calculations and format your
data. Here we are going to learn how to perform basic mathematical calculations and format text
and numerical data.

In Microsoft Excel, you can specify the direction the cursor moves when you press the Enter key.
The cursor must move down one cell when you press Enter. You can use the Direction box in the
Excel Options pane to set the cursor to move up, down, left, right, or not at all. Following are
the steps to set the direction of the cursor.
1. Click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears.
2. Click Excel Options in the lower-right corner. The Excel Options pane appears.
3. Click Advanced.
4. If the check box next to After Pressing Enter Move Selection is not checked, click the
box to check it.
5. If Down does not appear in the Direction box, click the down arrow next to the Direction
box and then click Down.
6. Click OK. Excel sets the Enter direction to down.

In Microsoft Excel, you can enter numbers and mathematical formulas into cells. Whether you
enter a number or a formula, you can reference the cell when you perform mathematical
calculations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division. When entering a
mathematical formula, precede the formula with an equal sign. Use the following to indicate the
type of calculation you wish to perform:
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
^ Exponential
Following are the steps to make Addition
1. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
2. Type numeral to which another numeral is to be added in the selected cell. Eg.Cell A1
3. Press Enter to moves down one cell.
176

4. Type the numerals to be added in the selected cell. Eg. Cell A2

5. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
6. Type = cell A1+A2 in cell A4.
7. Click the check mark on the Formula bar. Excel adds cell A1 to cell A2 and displays the
result in cell A4. The formula displays on the Formula bar.
Note: Clicking the check mark on the Formula bar is similar to pressing Enter. Excel records
your entry but does not move to the next cell.

Subtraction
1. Press F5. The Go To dialog box appears.
2. Type B1 in the Reference field.
3. Press Enter. Excel moves to cell B1.
4. Type Subtract.
5. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
6. Type 6 in cell B2.
7. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
8. Type 3 in cell B3.
9. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
10. Type =B2-B3 in cell B4.
11. Click the check mark on the Formula bar. Excel subtracts cell B3 from cell B2 and the
result displays in cell B4. The formula displays on the Formula bar.

Multiplication
1. Hold down the Ctrl key while you press "g" (Ctrl+g). The Go To dialog box appears.
2. Type C1 in the Reference field.
3. Press Enter. Excel moves to cell C1
4. Type Multiply.
5. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
6. Type 2 in cell C2.
7. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
8. Type 3 in cell C3.
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9. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.

10. Type =C2*C3 in cell C4.
11. Click the check mark on the Formula bar. Excel multiplies C1 by cell C2 and displays the
result in cell C3. The formula displays on the Formula bar.

Division
1. Press F5.
2. Type D1 in the Reference field.
3. Press Enter. Excel moves to cell D1.
4. Type Divide.
5. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
6. Type 6 in cell D2.
7. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
8. Type 3 in cell D3.
9. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
10. Type =D2/D3 in cell D4.
11. Click the check mark on the Formula bar. Excel divides data in cell D2 by cell D3 and
displays the result in cell D4. The formula displays on the Formula bar.

When creating formulas, you can reference cells and include numbers. All of the following
formulas are valid:
=A2/B2
=A1+12-B3
=A2*B2+12
=24+53

AutoSum
You can use the AutoSum button

on the Home tab to automatically add a column or row of

numbers. When you press the AutoSum button

, Excel selects the numbers it thinks you want

to add. If you then click the check mark on the Formula bar or press the Enter key, Excel adds

178

the numbers. If Excel's guess as to which numbers you want to add is wrong, you can select the
cells you want.

Perform Automatic Calculations

By default, Microsoft Excel recalculates the worksheet as you change cell entries. This makes it
easy for you to correct mistakes and analyze a variety of scenarios.

Make the changes described below and note how Microsoft Excel automatically recalculates.
1. Move to cell A2.
2. Type 2.
3. Press the right arrow key. Excel changes the result in cell A4. Excel adds cell A2 to cell
A3 and the new result appears in cell A4.
4. Move to cell B2.
5. Type 8.
6. Press the right arrow key. Excel subtracts cell B3 from cell B3 and the new result
appears in cell B4.
7. Move to cell C2.
8. Type 4.
9. Press the right arrow key. Excel multiplies cell C2 by cell C3 and the new result appears
in cell C4.
10. Move to cell D2.
11. Type 12.
12. Press the Enter key. Excel divides cell D2 by cell D3 and the new result appears in cell
D4.

Align Cell Entries

When you type text into a cell, by default your entry aligns with the left side of the cell. When
you type numbers into a cell, by default your entry aligns with the right side of the cell. You can
change the cell alignment. You can center, left-align, or right-align any cell entry by selecting
appropriate tools from the tool bar.

179

Perform Advanced Mathematical Calculations

When you perform mathematical calculations in Excel, be careful of precedence. Calculations
are performed from left to right, with multiplication and division performed before addition and
subtraction.
Example:
1. Move to cell A7.
2. Type =3+3+12/2*4.
3. Press Enter.
Note: Microsoft Excel divides 12 by 2, multiplies the answer by 4, adds 3, and then adds another
3. The answer, 30, displays in cell A7.

To change the order of calculation, use parentheses. Microsoft Excel calculates the information
in parentheses first.
1. Double-click in cell A7.
2. Edit the cell to read = (3+3+12)/2*4.
3. Press Enter.
Note: Microsoft Excel adds 3 plus 3 plus 12, divides the answer by 2, and then multiplies the
result by 4. The answer, 36, displays in cell A7.

Copy, Cut, Paste, and Cell Addressing

In Excel, you can copy data from one area of a worksheet and place the data you copied
anywhere in the same or another worksheet. In other words, after you type information into a
worksheet, if you want to place the same information somewhere else, you do not have to retype
the information. You simple copy it and then paste it in the new location.
You can use Excel's Cut feature to remove information from a worksheet. Then you can use the
Paste feature to place the information you cut anywhere in the same or another worksheet. In
other words, you can move information from one place in a worksheet to another place in the
same or different worksheet by using the Cut and Paste features.

Microsoft Excel records cell addresses in formula in three different ways, called absolute,
relative, and mixed. The way a formula is recorded is important when you copy it. With relative
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cell addressing, when you copy a formula from one area of the worksheet to another, Excel
records the position of the cell relative to the cell that originally contained the formula. With
absolute cell addressing, when you copy a formula from one area of the worksheet to another,
Excel references the same cells, no matter where you copy the formula. You can use mixed cell
addressing to keep the row constant while the column changes, or vice versa.

In addition to typing a formula, you can also enter formula by using Point mode. When you are
in Point mode, you can enter a formula either by clicking on a cell or by using the arrow keys.
Example:
1. Move to cell A12.
2. Type =.
3. Use the up arrow key to move to cell A9.
4. Type +.
5. Use the up arrow key to move to cell A10.
6. Type +.
7. Use the up arrow key to move to cell A11.
8. Click the check mark on the Formula bar. Look at the Formula bar. Note that the formula
you entered is displayed there.

Copy with the Ribbon

To copy the formula you just entered, follow these steps:
1. You should be in cell A12.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Copy

button in the Clipboard group. Excel copies the formula in cell A12.

4. Press the right arrow key once to move to cell B12.

5. Click the Paste

button in the Clipboard group. Excel pastes the formula in cell A12

into cell B12.

6. Press the Esc key to exit the Copy mode.

Compare the formula in cell A12 with the formula in cell B12 (while in the respective cell, look
at the Formula bar). The formula are the same except that the formula in cell A12 sums the
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entries in column A and the formula in cell B12 sums the entries in column B. The formula was
copied in a relative fashion.

Absolute Cell Addressing

You make a cell address an absolute cell address by placing a dollar sign in front of the row and
column identifiers. You can do this automatically by using the F4 key. Example:
1. Move to cell C12.
2. Type =.
3. Click cell C9.
4. Press F4. Dollar signs appear before the C and the 9.
5. Type +.
6. Click cell C10.
7. Press F4. Dollar signs appear before the C and the 10.
8. Type +.
9. Click cell C11.
10. Press F4. Dollar signs appear before the C and the 11.
11. Click the check mark on the formula bar. Excel records the formula in cell C12.

Copy and Paste with Keyboard Shortcuts

Keyboard shortcuts are key combinations that enable you to perform tasks by using the
keyboard. Generally, you press and hold down a key while pressing a letter. For example, Ctrl+c
means you should press and hold down the Ctrl key while pressing "c."
Press Ctrl+c.
Now copy the formula from C12 to D12. This time, copy by using keyboard shortcuts.
1. Move to cell C12.
2. Hold down the Ctrl key while you press "c" (Ctrl+c). Excel copies the contents of cell
C12.
3. Press the right arrow once. Excel moves to D12.
4. Hold down the Ctrl key while you press "v" (Ctrl+v). Excel pastes the contents of cell
C12 into cell D12.
5. Press Esc to exit the Copy mode.
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Compare the formula in cell C12 with the formula in cell D12 (while in the respective cell, look
at the Formula bar). The formulas are exactly the same. Excel copied the formula from cell C12
to cell D12. Excel copied the formula in an absolute fashion. Both formulas sum column C.

Cut and Paste

You can move data from one area of a worksheet to another.
1. Select cells D9 to D12
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Cut

button.

4. Move to cell G1.

5. Click the Paste button

. Excel moves the contents of cells D9 to D12 to cells G1 to

G4.
The keyboard shortcut for Cut is Ctrl+x. The steps for cutting and pasting with a keyboard
shortcut are:
1. Select the cells you want to cut and paste.
2. Press Ctrl+x.
3. Move to the upper-left corner of the block of cells into which you want to paste.
4. Press Ctrl+v. Excel cuts and pastes the cells you selected.

Insert and Delete Columns and Rows

You can insert and delete columns and rows. When you delete a column, you delete everything
in the column from the top of the worksheet to the bottom of the worksheet. When you delete a
row, you delete the entire row from left to right. Inserting a column or row inserts a completely
new column or row.

To delete columns F and G:

1. Click the column F indicator and drag to column G.
2. Click the down arrow next to Delete in the Cells group. A menu appears.
3. Click Delete Sheet Columns. Excel deletes the columns you selected.
4. Click anywhere on the worksheet to remove your selection.
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To delete rows 7 through 12:

1. Click the row 7 indicator and drag to row 12.
2. Click the down arrow next to Delete in the Cells group. A menu appears.
3. Click Delete Sheet Rows. Excel deletes the rows you selected.
4. Click anywhere on the worksheet to remove your selection.

To insert a column:
1. Click on A to select column A.
2. Click the down arrow next to Insert in the Cells group. A menu appears.
3. Click Insert Sheet Columns. Excel inserts a new column.
4. Click anywhere on the worksheet to remove your selection.

To insert rows:
1. Click on 1 and then drag down to 2 to select rows 1 and 2.
2. Click the down arrow next to Insert in the Cells group. A menu appears.
3. Click Insert Sheet Rows. Excel inserts two new rows.
4. Click anywhere on the worksheet to remove your selection.

Create Borders
You can use borders to make entries in your Excel worksheet stand out. You can choose from
several types of borders. When you press the down arrow next to the Border button

,a

menu appears. By making the proper selection from the menu, you can place a border on the top,
bottom, left, or right side of the selected cells; on all sides; or around the outside border. You can
have a thick outside border or a border with a single-line top and a double-line bottom.
Accountants usually place a single underline above a final number and a double underline below.

Merge and Center

Sometimes, particularly when you give a title to a section of your worksheet, you will want to
center a piece of text over several columns or rows. This can be possible by using tools.

184

1. Go to cell B2.
2. Type Sample Worksheet.
3. Click the check mark on the Formula bar.
4. Select cells B2 to E2.
5. Choose the Home tab.
6. Click the Merge and Center button

in the Alignment group. Excel merges cells B2,

C2, D2, and E2 and then centers the content.

To unmerge cells:
1. Select the cell you want to unmerge.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to the Merge and Center button.

A menu appears.

4. Click Unmerge Cells. Excel unmerges the cells.

To make a section of your worksheet stand out, you can add background color to a cell or group
of cells.

A font is a set of characters represented in a single typeface. Each character within a font is
created by using the same basic style. Excel provides many different fonts from which you can
choose. The size of a font is measured in points. There are 72 points to an inch. The number of
points assigned to a font is based on the distance from the top to the bottom of its longest
character. You can change the Font, Font Size, and Font Color of the data you enter into Excel.

In Microsoft Excel, each workbook is made up of several worksheets. Each worksheet has a tab.
By default, a workbook has three sheets and they are named sequentially, starting with Sheet1.
The name of the worksheet appears on the tab. Before moving to the next topic, move to a new
worksheet.

When creating an Excel worksheet, you may want to emphasize the contents of cells by bolding,
italicizing, and/or underlining. You can easily bold, italicize, or underline text with Microsoft
Excel.
185

Work with Long Text

Whenever you type text that is too long to fit into a cell, Microsoft Excel attempts to display all
the text. It left-aligns the text regardless of the alignment you have assigned to it, and it borrows
space from the blank cells to the right. However, a long text entry will never write over cells that
already contain entriesinstead, the cells that contain entries cut off the long text.

You can increase column widths. Increasing the column width enables you to see the long text.
The column width can also be increased by dragging with mouse.

Format Numbers
You can format the numbers you enter into Microsoft Excel. For example, you can add commas
to separate thousands, specify the number of decimal places, place a dollar sign in front of a
number, or display a number as a percent.

A decimal can be changed to a percent by following the given steps.

1. Move to cell B9.
2. Type .35 (note the decimal point).
3. Click the check mark on the formula bar.
4. Choose the Home tab.
5. Click the Percent Style button

. Excel turns the decimal to a percent.

Creating Excel Functions, Filling Cells, and Printing

By using functions, you can quickly and easily make many useful calculations, such as finding
an average, the highest number, the lowest number, and a count of the number of items in a list.
Microsoft Excel has many functions that you can use for mathematical calculations.

To use functions, you need to understand reference operators. Reference operators refer to a
cell or a group of cells. There are two types of reference operators such as range and union. A
range reference refers to all the cells between and including the reference. A range reference
consists of two cell addresses separated by a colon. The reference A1:A3 includes cells A1, A2,
and A3. The reference A1:C3 includes cells A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, B3, C1, C2, and C3. A union
186

reference includes two or more references. A union reference consists of two or more numbers,
range references, or cell addresses separated by a comma. The reference A7,B8:B10,C9,10 refers
to cells A7, B8 to B10, C9 and the number 10.

Functions are prewritten formulas. Functions differ from regular formulas in that you supply the
value but not the operators, such as +, -, *, or /. For example, you can use the SUM function to
add. When using a function, remember the following:
Use an equal sign to begin a formula.
Specify the function name.
Enclose arguments within parentheses. Arguments are values on which you want to perform the
calculation. For example, arguments specify the numbers or cells you want to add. Use a comma
to separate arguments.
Here is an example of a function:
=SUM(2,13,A1,B2:C7)
In this function:
The equal sign begins the function.
SUM is the name of the function.
2, 13, A1, and B2:C7 are the arguments.
Parentheses enclose the arguments.
Commas separate the arguments.
After you type the first letter of a function name, the AutoComplete list appears. You can
double-click on an item in the AutoComplete list to complete your entry quickly. Excel will
complete the function name and enter the first parenthesis. you can also calculate a sum by using
the AutoSum button

Calculate an Average
You can use the AVERAGE function to calculate the average of a series of numbers.
1. Move to cell A6.
2. Type Average. Press the right arrow key to move to cell B6.
3. Type =AVERAGE(B1:B3).
4. Press Enter. The average of cells B1 to B3, appears.
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In Microsoft Excel, you can use the AutoSum button

to calculate an average.

You can use the MIN function to find the lowest number in a series of numbers. Example:
1. Move to cell A7.
2. Type Min.
3. Press the right arrow key to move to cell B7.
4. Type = MIN(B1:B3).
5. Press Enter. The lowest number in the series, appears.

You can also use the drop-down button next to the AutoSum button

to calculate minimums,

maximums, and counts.

You can use the MAX function to find the highest number in a series of numbers. Example:.
1. Move to cell A8.
2. Type Max.
3. Press the right arrow key to move to cell B8.
4. Type = MAX(B1:B3).
5. Press Enter. The highest number in the series, appears.

You can use the count function to count the number of numbers in a series by using following
steps.

1. Move to cell A9.

2. Type Count.
3. Press the right arrow key to move to cell B9.
4. Choose the Home tab.
5. Click the down arrow next to the AutoSum button

6. Click Count Numbers. Excel places the count function in cell C9 and takes a guess at
which cells you want to count. The guess is incorrect, so you must select the proper cells.
7. Select B1 to B3.
8. Press Enter. The number of items in the series, appears.

188

Fill Cells Automatically

You can use Microsoft Excel to fill cells automatically with a series. For example, you can have
Excel automatically fill your worksheet with days of the week, months of the year, years, or
other types of series.

Adjust Column Width

Some of the entries in column B are too long to fit in the column. You can quickly adjust the
column width to fit the longest entry.
1. Move your mouse pointer over the line that separates column B and C. The Width
Indicator appears.
2. Double-click. The Column adjusts to fit the longest entry.

Create Headers and Footers

You can use the Header & Footer button on the Insert tab to create headers and footers. A
header is text that appears at the top of every page of your printed worksheet. A footer is text
that appears at the bottom of every page of your printed worksheet. When you click the Header
& Footer button, the Design context tab appears and Excel changes to Page Layout view. A
context tab is a tab that only appears when you need it. Page Layout view structures your
worksheet so that you can easily change the format of your document. You usually work in
Normal view.

You can type in your header or footer or you can use predefined headers and footers. To find
predefined headers and footers, click the Header or Footer button or use the Header & Footer
Elements group's buttons. When you choose a header or footer by clicking the Header or Footer
button, Excel centers your choice. The table shown here describes each of the Header & Footer
Elements group button options.

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Header & Footer Elements

Button
Page Number

Purpose
Inserts the page number.

Number of Pages Inserts the number of pages in the document.

Current Time

Inserts the current time.

File Path

Inserts the path to the document.

File Name

Inserts the file name.

Sheet Name

Inserts the name of the worksheet.

Picture

Enables you to insert a picture.

Both the header and footer areas are divided into three sections: left, right, and center. When you
choose a Header or Footer from the Header & Footer Elements group, where you place your
information determines whether it appears on the left, right, or center of the printed page. You
use the Go To Header and Go To Footer buttons on the Design tab to move between the header
and footer areas of your worksheet.

Set Print Options

There are many print options. You set print options on the Page Layout tab. Among other things,
you can set your margins, set your page orientation, and select your paper size. Margins define
the amount of white space that appears on the top, bottom, left, and right edges of your
document. The Margin option on the Page Layout tab provides several standard margin sizes
from which you can choose.

There are two page orientations: portrait and landscape. Paper, such as paper sized 8 1/2 by 11,
is longer on one edge than it is on the other. If you print in Portrait, the shortest edge of the paper
becomes the top of the page. Portrait is the default option. If you print in Landscape, the longest
edge of the paper becomes the top of the page.
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Paper comes in a variety of sizes. Most business correspondence uses 8 1/2 by 11 paper, which is
the default page size in Excel. If you are not using 8 1/2 by 11 paper, you can use the Size option
on the Page Layout tab to change the Size setting.

Print
The simplest way to print is to click the Office button, highlight Print on the menu that appears,
and then click Quick Print in the Preview and Print the Document pane. Dotted lines appear on
your screen, and your document prints. The dotted lines indicate the right, left, top, and bottom
edges of your printed pages.

You can also use the Print Preview option to print. When using Print Preview, you can see
onscreen how your printed document will look when you print it. If you click the Page Setup
button while in Print Preview mode, you can set page settings such as centering your data on the
page. If your document is several pages long, you can use the Next Page and Previous Page
buttons to move forward and backward through your document. If you check the Show Margins
check box, you will see margin lines on your document. You can click and drag the margin
markers to increase or decrease the size of your margins. To return to Excel, click the Close Print
Preview button.

You click the Print button when you are ready to print. The Print dialog box appears. You can
choose to print the entire worksheet or specific pages. If you want to print specific pages, enter
the page numbers in the From and To fields. You can enter the number of copies you want to
print in the Number of Copies field.

191

CALCULATIONS USING FUNCTIONS

FUNCTIONS

DESCRIPTION

EXAMPLE

SUM

Sum of the range specified

=SUM(A1:A15)

AVERAGE

COUNT
MAX
MIN
IF

Calculation of average of
the numerals in the
specified range
Calculate number of values
=COUNT(C5:C10)
in the range specified
Determines largest value in
=MAX(D2:D12)
the specified range
Determines the smallest
=MIN(E5:E15)
value in the range specified
Logical functions used to
=IF(F3>5000,C3*10%,C3*5%)
conduct conditional tests on
values and formulas

Following is the formula to get the examination result in which below 40 is failed, below 50 is
passed, below 60 is second class, below 80 is first class and above 80 is distinction
=IF(C4<40,"FAILED",IF(C4<50,"PASSED",IF(C4<60,"SECOND CLASS",IF(C4<80,"FIRST
CLASS",IF(C4>79,"DISTINCTION")))))

Creating Charts
In Microsoft Excel, you can represent numbers in a chart. On the Insert tab, you can choose from
a variety of chart types, including column, line, pie, bar, area, and scatter. The basic procedure
for creating a chart is the same no matter what type of chart you choose. As you change your
data, your chart will automatically update.

You select a chart type by choosing an option from the Insert tab's Chart group. After you choose
a chart type, such as column, line, or bar, you choose a chart sub-type. For example, after you
choose Column Chart, you can choose to have your chart represented as a two-dimensional chart,
a three-dimensional chart, a cylinder chart, a cone chart, or a pyramid chart. There are further
sub-types within each of these categories. As you roll your mouse pointer over each option,
Excel supplies a brief description of each chart sub-type.

192

To create the column chart, start by creating the worksheet. After you have created the
worksheet, you are ready to create your chart. Following are the steps to create a chart
1. Select cells A3 to D6. You must select all the cells containing the data you want in your
chart. You should also include the data labels.
2. Choose the Insert tab.
3. Click the Column button in the Charts group. A list of column chart sub-types types
appears.
4. Click the Clustered Column chart sub-type. Excel creates a Clustered Column chart and
the Chart Tools context tabs appear.

Context tabs are tabs that only appear when you need them. Called Chart Tools, there are three
chart context tabs: Design, Layout, and Format. The tabs become available when you create a
new chart or when you click on a chart. You can use these tabs to customize your chart.

You can determine what your chart displays by choosing a layout. For example, the layout you
choose determines whether your chart displays a title, where the title displays, whether your
chart has a legend, where the legend displays, whether the chart has axis labels and so on. Excel
provides several layouts from which you can choose. To provide layout to the chart, following
are the steps.
1. Click your chart. The Chart Tools become available.
2. Choose the Design tab.
3. Click the Quick Layout button in the Chart Layout group. A list of chart layouts appears.
4. Click Layout
5. Excel applies the layout to your chart.

When you apply a layout, Excel may create areas where you can insert labels. You use labels to
give your chart a title or to label your axes. When you applied layout 5, Excel created label areas
for a title and for the vertical axis.

193

You can use a style to change the color and format of your chart. Excel 2007 has several
predefined styles that you can use. They are numbered from left to right, starting with 1, which is
located in the upper-left corner.

Change the Size and Position of a Chart

When you click a chart, handles appear on the right and left sides, the top and bottom, and the
corners of the chart. You can drag the handles on the top and bottom of the chart to increase or
decrease the height of the chart. You can drag the handles on the left and right sides to increase
or decrease the width of the chart. You can drag the handles on the corners to increase or
decrease the size of the chart proportionally. You can change the position of a chart by clicking
on an unused area of the chart and dragging.

By default, Excel embeds the chart in the active worksheet. However, you can move a chart to
another worksheet or to a chart sheet. A chart sheet is a sheet dedicated to a particular chart. By
default Excel names each chart sheet sequentially, starting with Chart1. You can change the
name.

Any change you can make to a chart that is embedded in a worksheet, you can also make to a
chart sheet. For example, you can change the chart type from a column chart to a bar chart.
Other Mathematical Functions
Here are some of the mathematical subjects that can be tackled by using Excel as the tool:
polynomials and their properties, quadratic equations and quadratic formula, solving equations
by approximating their roots, solving systems of two equations and two unknowns, optimization,
linear programming, trigonometric functions, exponential and logarithmic functions, binomial
expansions and Pascal's Triangle, normal and discrete probability distribution functions, and
amortization.

194

Financial Functions
A good financial analyst will make intelligent use of spreadsheet functions that can help design
and build financial models efficiently and accurately, minimize spreadsheet risk, and increase the
confidence of users in the financial model.
Certain spreadsheet functions are also very helpful in analyzing and making sense of large
volumes of data, performing statistical analysis, sensitivity analysis, or creating charts, tables and
forms.
Some useful spreadsheet (MS Excel) functions include:
1. Audit functions
2. Grouping functions
3. Choose function
4. Range naming techniques
5. Calculate enable/disable option
6. Protecting worksheets
7. Filters (to display selected queries)
8. Data Sorting
9. Data input validation
10. Data tables for sensitivity analysis
11. Forms & Format controls for sensitivity analysis
Application in Accounting
Spread sheets are used to create record cash receipts, cash disbursements, and bank
reconciliations. These will be the most commonly used spreadsheets. Include dates, who the
payment was received from or paid to, the amount, the appropriate classification for tax
purposes, and a description column. The description column can be used to include internal notes
about the entry. Also include formulas to calculate the totals of each spreadsheet, where
applicable.

195

Spread sheets can also be used for receivables and payables. When sales are made but payment
not yet received, record the amount of the sale, the date of the sale and who the sale was made to
in the accounts receivable spreadsheet. When bills are received but not yet paid for by the
business, record the amount of the bill, the date the bill was received and who payment needs to
be made to. Customize these spreadsheets as needed for your business to include descriptions of
sales or notes regarding customers.

It is used to create financial statements using individual spreadsheets for the balance sheet, the
profit and loss statement and statement of cash flow. These spreadsheets can be linked to one
another as well as other accounting spreadsheets you have set up. For example, the cash on hand
reported in the balance sheet can be linked to the most recent bank reconciliation. The accounts
receivable and accounts payable can be linked to those spreadsheets.

You can use the sort and subtotal functions to analyze data within spreadsheets. For example,
you can sort the accounts receivable spreadsheet and subtotal the receivables by customer. Using
these Excel functions will enable you to quickly see ways to improve the businesss bottom line.

Objective Type Questions

1. Excel opens -------------- number of work sheet
a. 3

b.5

c. 4

d. 1

2. The intersection of a raw and a column in Excel is called ----------------a. Cell

b. Range

c. Formulae

d. Raw

c. Logical

d. Accounting

c. Work Journal

d. None of these

3. IF function is a ---------------- function

a. Arithmetic

b. Statistical

4. An Excel file is called----------------a. Work sheet

b. Work book

Short Answer Questions

1. What is a Cell?
2. What is a range?
3. What is pay roll?
196

4. What are the cell references?

5. How do you select a range?
6. How do you enter a formula in a cell?

Essay Type Questions

1. What are the advantages of using spreadsheet?
2. What are the different types of mathematical operators used in spread sheet
3. What are the functions used in a formulae

Practical Questions
1) Prepare a Payroll in MS Excel (Heading in Arial 16 Bold, underlined, all other details are in
Times New Roman 12)

CO-OPERATIVE SPINNING MILLS Ltd.

KANNUR
PAYROLL FOR THE MONTH OF March, 2008
Code
2101
2102
2103
2104
2105
2106

Employee
Name
Ram Mohan
Shaju John
Kishore Kumar
Anand Mohan
Dinesh Babu
Ajith Kumar
TOTAL

Basic
Salary
3800.00
3600.00
3400.00
3000.00
3800.00
4800.00
22400.00

DA

HRA

CCA

Gross
Salary

PF

Loan
Installment
1500.00
1200.00
1200.00

3900.00

LIC

400.00
480.00
880.00

Following details are given for the preparation Payroll

a) HRA is 20% of Basic
b) DA is 60% of Basic
c) CCA is 30% of Basic
d) PF contribution is 20% of Basic

197

Net
Salary

2) Prepare a mark list in the following form with imaginary marks out of 100; Sort
the mark list on the basis of percentage marks

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Roll
No.

Name

NATIONAL COLLEGE OF ARTS & SCIENC E

KOZHIKODE
Final B.Com Marklist
Paper I
Paper II Paper III PaperIV Paper
Accounting Banking Computer Auditing
V
Co-op.

Total
Marks

Percentage

1
2
3
4
5
6

3) Prepare a Mark List by showing Total Marks, % Marks and Class obtained by

each student by using formulae in MS Excel. Use the following data (Centre the
Heading, use font Arial 16 Bold, for the heading; Times New Roman size 12,
bold for the column heading and Times New Roman size 12 for the details)

SECOND YEAR MARK LIST 2007-2008

Reg.
No.

Name

Cost &
Mgt.

Subjects (Marks Out of 80)

Business
Advanced
ED and
Law
Accounting
BD

Cooperation

2801

Anumol Thomas

75

77

76

79

76

2802

Remya Balan

60

62

62

68

60

2803

Babu Gopinath

74

77

77

70

73

2804

ChandrikaPuthalath

65

62

68

65

60

2805

Manju Mohan

58

50

49

53

59

2806

Arun Joseph

33

30

24

27

25

Total

198

Class

4) Prepare a Payroll of the employees in the following form using Excel

PREMOD MOTORS
KOZHIKODE
SALARY STATEMENT FOR THE MONTH OF.
Sl.No.

Name

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

ANAND K P
BIJU P V
MOHANKUMAR
RAMADEVI
VIJAYAN K P
KRISHNATHARA
PREMOD
SADHEESHAN
SARALA K P
RAVIKUMAR
TOTAL

Basic
Pay
5000.00
6500.00
3500.00
5800.00
6500.00
7000.00
7800.00
3500.00
4000.00
2000.00

HRA

DA

Total
Salary

PF

Tax

Total
Deduction

Net
Salary

500.00
400.00
800.00
600.00
500.00
750.00

Note: D A is 65% of Basic; H R A is 20% of Basic; PF is 20 % of Basic

5) Prepare Salary Statement by computing net salary
DA is 85 % on Basic; HRA is30% on Basic; CCA is 20% on Basic; PF is 30% on
Gross; Tot Dedu. is PF and Loan; Net Salary is Gross- Tot Dedu.

SALARY STATEMENT
Empl

Name

Basic

DA

HRA

CCA

Gross

PF

Loan

No.
01 Sunil P

8500.00

850.00

02 Joseph K

8500.00

700.00

03 Shibu Jose

7000.00

530.00

04 Anila P V

5000.00

05 James K

8000.00

06 Babu P T

6200.00

TOTAL

43200.00

Tot.

Net

Dedu.

Salary

800.00

2880.00

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6) Calculate Total Mark, Percentage Mark and Sort the data by Names, using Excel
B.Com FINAL YEAR MARK LIST
Roll

Name

No.

Accounting

Banking

Computer

Auditing

Co-operation

Total

(Max. Mark 80)

(Max. Mark 80)

(Max. Mark 80)

(Max. Mark 80)

(Max. Mark 80)

Mark

111

Raman

70

65

72

70

68

112

Gopal

72

60

65

68

70

113

Sarala Devi

76

75

75

75

73

114

Anil Kumar

55

56

56

48

65

115

Babu Peter

60

56

58

56

57

116

Chandren C

55

65

58

57

65

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Office Automation Tools: Accounting Package

Learning Objectives

To learn about the concepts and theories of accounting package as well as the
practical knowledge of maintenance of accounts electronically

Accounting software is application software that records and processes accounting transactions
within functional modules such as accounts payable, accounts receivable, payroll, and trial
balance. It functions as an accounting information system. It may be developed in-house by the
company or organization using it, may be purchased from a third party, or may be a combination
of a third-party application software package with local modifications. It varies greatly in its
complexity and cost.

The best accounting software can help you manage the details of your small business, improve
client relations and streamline routine tasks with relatively few headaches. Small businesses need
nearly everything a large company requires to manage their books, but have a smaller budget and
less personnel to support those needs. Therefore, an affordable, all-in-one software are essential
to a business concern, that can manage numerous aspects of small business accounting, including
invoicing, customer and vendor contact information, inventory, payroll and reporting.

The most helpful accounting software for the business depends on the business type. Some
solutions are more suitable for service-oriented businesses rather than companies that need to
manage inventory, and others have limited tools for managing employees and payroll so are
more suitable for micro-sized businesses. Thus the accounting package must manage the
company's unique needs.

A good accounting package must be within a reasonable price range. When reviewing the
product one has to keep in mind that the piece of software must do many things and not a
handful of programs that may not even work together. Moreover it must be as easy to use as
possible.
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For installing an accounting package one must consider the following matters
a) Ease of Use: This criterion is extremely important. Many small business owners who are
thinking about buying a new accounting program may just barely be moving out of what
Excel did for them when they first started up. So, ease of use is paramount. In addition,
accounting is already complicated enough without adding the burden of a hard to use
program.
b) Help & Support: Software of this nature is complex and so is setting up the software
initially. Most providers offer only limited free services such as user manuals, help files
and FAQs. Telephone, email or chat support is usually only available with a service
subscription.
c) Accounts Receivable: This includes invoicing tools, estimate creation, billing tools and
shipping. All small businesses need these features.
d) Accounts Payable: This module includes the ability to track vendor payments, prink
checks and manage purchase orders.
e) Banking: The software should be able to work with your bank and perform automatic or
direct deposits, as well as create checks and deposit forms.
f) Payroll: The best accounting programs can manage employee profiles and status. They
can also track hours, benefits, deductions and taxes. Most will allow to create a payroll
check right from the program or through automatic or electronic payment.
g) Inventory Control: Most companies have to manage inventory and services. Good
inventory tools include the ability to track product, the capability to store a location with
an item number and warnings when stock levels get low.
h) Time Costing: This accounting tool can track time spent on projects and can bill based
on time spend on a project, project budgets, associated purchase orders and more.
i) Job Costing: Job costing tools can keep track of the cost of a job and may also be able to
create job cost estimates as well.
j) Fixed Assets: Fixed assets include depreciable or fixed items such as office furniture or
company cars, some accounting programs will help you keep track of these types of
assets.

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k) Conversions and Updates: Many small business owners may be upgrading from Excel
or another spreadsheet program, so it is essential to see whether the software could easily
upgrade between programs and between versions.
l) Reporting: Good reporting tools can greatly increase the chance of success. The
accounting programs that can run a good variety of useful reports must be selected.

There is a lot to think about when it comes to considering accounting software, but it is worth
thinking about since you will be working with it every day.

Financial accounting software is used to store and maintain daily business transactions like
purchases, sales, receipts, payments, purchase return, sales return, deposit; withdrawals etc.
there are several accounting packages available in the market. Most common among them are
Dac easy, Peach tree, Tally etc.

Tally is one of the most popular accounting packages developed in India by Tally Solutions (P)
Ltd. Tally does tallying of things. Tally can do moir than an accounting package. It can also
take care of inventory management also. It does not require any coding and that is why it is
easy to handle. It facilitates keeping accounts in the same traditional manner as in the case of
manual accounting. There is option to correct clerical mistakes and account classification also
is possible. With Tally one could be the owner, financial controller, accountant manager,
auditor or anyone connected with accounts.

Tally Solutions Pvt Ltd is a Bangalore-based ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) software
company that currently sells into more than 100 countries beyond its native India. Tally's
software is mainly used for vouchers, financial statements, and taxation in many industries, and
has specialized packages for retail businesses. More advanced capabilities are found in its ERP
package.

The tally assumes that the user has the fundamental knowledge of accounting and should be able
to distinguish between the debit and credit, sundry debtors and sundry creditors, capital and

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revenue and other terms used in accounting. Even if you are not well versed with accounting,
you can make use of tally effectively.

When you start Tally, a Tally screen appears on the desk top with three areas, such as Gate way
of Tally the area in which one can actually work on menus, masters and reports. This area can
be activated by pressing Ctrl + M. The second area is called Direct Command Area where one
can execute all the commands. This area can be activated by pressing Ctrl + N. The third area
consists of The Buttons, which contains useful buttons to perform various functions.

The right half of the gateway of Tally displays the company info. menu, with three choices either
to select company, or create company or to quit.

Company Creation
In order to create a new company, activate the gateway to Tally area and from the company info
area select create company by pressing c or by double clicking at create company. This brings
to the company creation screen where we have to provide all the details about the company you
wish to create. Without specifying the name of the company one cannot move further down. The
details include the address, income tax number, local sales tax number; inter state sales tax
number etc. The account maintenance option shows three types of options such as account only,
Accounts with inventory and Inventory only. If you want to maintain only the financial accounts,
then select accounts only. The account cum inventory option is the default option which enables
to have both inventory and financial accounts in the company. If you want to maintain only the
inventory, then opt the inventory only option. Without choosing one of these options, one cannot
move further.

In company creation menu you have to choose the date of the financial year from which you
want to maintain your account in Tally. Type only the beginning date of the financial year. In
general the financial year in India starts from 1st April. Without specifying the date you cannot
move further. Under books beginning from option you have to type the date from which you
actually want Tally to maintain your accounts. The use security control allows you to provide
security control to your company. One of the advantages of the Tally accounting package is that
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it offers multi currency accounting system. You cannot move further without specifying the base
currency in which you are maintaining the accounts. You have to specify the base currency
symbol also. In order to make the currency unique you have to specify the complete name of
your currency.

There is an option to denote the number of decimal places to denote the fractional part of the
currency. By default there is an option to show the amounts in lakhs and crores, which you can
change to millions. You can suffix the currency symbol and put space between amount and
symbol by options. On reaching at last option there appears a dialog box asking to accept the
information given. By pressing y or n, you can accept or reject the information.

From company info menu you can select already created company from the list of companies by
scrolling and selecting the required company by pressing the enter key. In order to shut down the
company, we have to proceed at the company info menu by pressing h key and selecting the
company which is to be shut down. When you shut down the company then it is removed from
the list of companies.

Tally numbers all the company you create by providing numbers like 0001, 0002 etc. and they
are stored in the hard disk of your computer in a separate directory of numbers under a folder
data. When you select a company to work it becomes an active company at the gateway of Tally.
You can make entries only by selecting the company. To alter the details in a company press a
at the company info menu and select the company and make required alterations.

Whenever you select a company you come to the Gateway of Tally of that company. Thus
Gateway of Tally is the entrance point from where you can access the different functions like
creating accounts, entering vouchers, view and print reports etc.

The left part of the Gateway of Tally screen displays the financial period as current period in
which you are working, current date for which you are entering the vouchers or viewing reports,
the list of selected companies and date of the last voucher entry you made. The right part of the
screen shows the gate way of Tally menu which displays the primary choices that are available in
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the tally. The primary choices that are available at the Gateway of Tally menu for which you
have chosen the option to maintain both accounts and inventory are available here. Apart from
this there is a panel of buttons exist on the extreme right side of the screen. In order to select the
underlined buttons press <Alt> + the function keys

One of the option at the primary choice is Account info which enables you to handle all the
information relating to the financial accounts. Normally it permits you to create and maintain
ledgers, groups, cost centers, cost category, currency and other information. By using the
Inventory Info you can handle the information relating to the inventory such as stock item,
stock group, stock categories, units of measurement and other information related to the
inventory. The third option is the Voucher entry which allows you to make daily voucher and
invoice entries. The Balance Sheet option allows you to display the balance sheet; the Profit
and Loss A/c option allows you to look at gross profit and net profit. The Stock Summary
option displays the stock position of all items. The Display option permits to view the report like
trial balance, account books, statement of accounts, inventory book, statement of inventory, cash
flow etc. the Multi Account Printing option is to be selected to print the account books. Quit
option allows you to quit Tally.

The Buttons like F1 enables to select another company; F1 enables to shut down a selected
company, F2 enables to change the date, F2 enables to change the period, F3 enables to change
the company, F3 enables to create another company, F4 gives a provision to back up the
company information, F4 allows to retrieve the information from the back up and F11 provides
the additional features. It is to be remembered that the underlined buttons are to be activated by
pressing Alt + functional keys. By pressing the F12, you can change the configuration of the
screen and reports in Tally.

From gateway of Tally, by pressing Account info, we can reach to the Account Info menu
consisting six options. The options cost categories and cost centre will be available only if you
had changed the default choice from No to Yes in the accounting features menu of the
company configuration. The first option in the account info window shows Groups which acts
as a classification manager allowing to classify and sub classify all accounts in Tally in a desired
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manner. When you create a ledger, you have to put it in a group to perform the functions of that
group. This function in tally is termed as Grouping of Ledgers. As per the requirement of
Indian accounting system, tally provides 28 predefined groups. Thus we can create account
straight away without creating a new group. Of these 28 predefined groups 15 are primary
groups and 13 are sub groups.
Capital which include reserve and surplus, Current Assets, Current Liabilities, Fixed Assets,
Investments, Loan Liability including bank overdraft, Suspense Account, Misc.Expense Assets,
Sales Account, Purchase Account, Direct Income, Indirect Income, Direct Expense, Indirect
Expenses, and Branch Account are the accounts coming under 15 predefined groups.

Apart from the predefined group there is a facility of customizing your accounting by allowing
you to create your own new group. You can also create a subgroup under a parent group.
Suppose the parent group under which you are going to create a sub group does not exist then
you can create by pressing Alt + C which will bring secondary group creation screen where
you can create new parent.

In order to create a primary group you must switch to the advanced mode option, press F12 and
the master configuration menu will pop up and at this menu set the option Allow Advanced
entries in masters to Yes and give the name and alias for the new group and when the cursor is
at option Under, select the option primary from the list of the groups. If you want to alter any
information from the created group, then select the alter option and press enter key and make
alterations. But the Tally does not permit to change the parent of a pre defined group, parent of a
group under bank account, cash in hand, and purchase account after entering vouchers. The
parent group under Sundry debtors and creditors also cannot be altered. You can also delete a
group, provided that the group is not a predefined group. It is not possible to retrieve a deleted
account later.

The next option in account info menu is Ledgers. Ledgers are the actual account heads to which
the transactions are identified. You can make all the voucher entries in these accounts. Whenever
a company is created, tally automatically creates two ledger accounts such as cash account and
profit & loss account.
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While creating ledgers you can give information at two levels such as normal and advanced.
When you create ledger accounts under normal level, make sure that the ledger menu is selected.
Then select the option Create, and then the ledger account creation screen will appear where
you have to give the details of the new ledger which is to be created. For altering any
information in a ledger, select the option alter in single ledger and oppress the enter key to select
the ledger and alter it. Tally does not allow altering the information in ledger if there are entries
in the accounts in cash, bank, purchases, sales, sundry debtors and sundry creditors. Similarly
you can delete a ledger provided there are no entries to that account. In order to delete a ledger
bring up the ledger in alteration mode and pres Alt + D.

You can create an account under multiple ledger creation option also. Here you can create, alter,
and delete ledgers simultaneously. To create an account under multiple creations, first select the
option ledger from the account info menu and select the option Multiple Create at the ledger
create screen by pressing the key R. Then the table showing the list of existing groups will
appear on the screen, then select the choice All items from the list and specify the name of the
ledger, the group it falls, and the opening balance, (Dr or Cr) of the ledger. You can also alter
and delete the account as usual.

The next choice after ledger is Cost Categories. Before learning about cost categories you
must have an idea about the cost centre. A cost centre is any unit in an organization to which an
expense can be allocated. The unit can be in any form depending on the type of the organization.
The concept of cost category helps to allocate the transactions to multiple sets of cost centres.
The cost category option will be available only when you have activated the option Maintain
Cost Centres at Accounting Features of company configuration menu. But the Tally has a
default creation of a single cost category called the Primary Cost Category.

Following are the steps to create various cost categories.

Make sure that the accounts info menu is active

Press<O> then the cost category menu appears on the screen

Under single cost category select the option to create

Then the cost category creation screen will appear

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Provide the information such as name of the cost category

Set the option to allocate revenue item to Yes

Set allocate non revenue item to No. It is to be remembered that you cannot make both
the option as Yes

Cost category can also be created under multiple creation option. Under this option select the
create option and provide details of the names of the cost category and other details. The display
and alter options are similar to that of group option.

The next option under the account info menu is Cost Centres. By pressing this option, a cost
centre menu appears to offer to create cost centres at single and multiple options. Under the
single cost centre option press create option, and then the cost centre creation screen appears
along with the list of categories. From the list of categories select the appropriate category under
which you wish ti place the cost centre and press<Enter>. If you want you can specify the alias
for the cost centre. The cost centre can be Primary cost centre or Secondary cost centre.
Secondary cost centre means the cost centre under another cost centre. If you are creating the
cost centre for the first time then a table with the option Primary Cost Centre only appears. If
you have already created some cost centres then the table will show the list you have created
along with the primary cost centre. Select the Primary Cost Centre from the list. The display
and alter options are similar to that of cost category. This package prompt you to work only on
secondary cost centre through the multiple cost centre mode.

The next option at account info menu is the most frequently hunted area in the accounting
package ie., Voucher Type. By default this accounting package provides different types of
vouchers for different transactions. However they may not fulfill your requirements. It also
provides option to alter the existing types according to your requirements.

To work on voucher type, make sure that the account info menu is active. The voucher type
menu is similar to that of groups menu but it does not offer multiple create option. In order to
create a new voucher, make sure that the voucher types menu is active and select the option
create and press enter key. Then the voucher type creation screen will appear where you have to
name the voucher, specify the type of the voucher, its abbreviation, method of voucher
209

numbering etc. if you want to number the voucher automatically, and then select the option
automatic. You can also give prefix and suffix to the voucher numbers in order to categorize the
vouchers.

The next choice after the account info in the gateway of tally menu is the Inventory Info. By
pressing the enter key inventory info screen appears on the screen. This menu has six options
such as Stock Group, Stock Categories, Stock Items, GoDowns, Voucher Type, and Unit of
Measure.

The stock items classified into separate Stock Group can help to locate stock items easily and
helps to report stock items in the stock statement. In order to create stock group, make sure that
the Inventory Info menu is present on the screen. Press the enter key to bring stock group menu
on the screen. Press the enter key to bring stock group creation menu and give required details.
Enter the stock group and its alias if desired. In the heading Under a table showing the list of
existing stock group along with option Primary Group appears on the screen. In order to create
a new primary stock group, select the option Primary from list and press enter key and to create
a sub group under an existing Stock Group, select the name of the Parent group from the list. If
the required parent group does not exist, then create it by pressing <Alt> + <C>. In the group
created, you can add various stock items. If you wish to get the total stock of the group then set
this option to Yes. Multiple stock group creation option also is available in the accounting
package.

One can also classify the stock into Stock Categories. There are several stock items that are
under different stock groups but are similar in nature. We can classify them under one category.
Eg. Mice under the group sound and mouse under the group accessories can be categorized
under input devices. Thus the stock category enables to put together different stock items of
similar nature which have been already classified under different stock group. The stock category
acts as a common tag for each item. To bring up stock category menu press <C> at the inventory
menu, choose the option create, the stock category creation menu appears on the screen and
provide required details such as the name of the category and its alias. Under the option under,

210

you can classify a stock category into sub categories. For a primary stock category, select the
option Primary from the list. Stock category can also be created by multiple options.

Stock Items are actual items in the stock, which can be accounted for issue and receipt of each
item. To create stock items, press <I> key at the inventory info menu. Specify the name of the
stock item and its alias. The part no. also can be provided to identify the part. You can give the
description of the stock items. Under the option Under, specify the group under which the stock
item false. Select the units of measure for this stock from the list. If the required unit does not
exist, then create it by pressing <Ctrl> + <U>, the unit creation screen appears. Specify the
symbol you would like to use. If the transactions take place in another unit also, then you have to
mention that unit also. This option is present only when you set the choice yes in alternative
for stock items. If desired the conversion rate can be changed during the voucher entry. There are
several options to evaluate the closing stock. You can select any one as per your requirement.
Stock items can be created by the multiple options also.

Under the option GoDowns, one can handle the details about godown. On selecting the godown
option enter the name of the godown and its alias and enter the address or location of the godown
after making the option use address foe godown to Yes in the inventory masters.

The Voucher Type option allows to create additional voucher types or to alter the existing
voucher. This option is similar to the voucher type in the account info menu.

Units of Measure is used to specify the various units of measure to specify the quantities of
stock item. On selecting the units of measure we can create, display and alter the different units
of measure to specify the quantities of stock items. This accounting package provides two types
of units such as simple and compound unit of measure. The simple unit measure is a unit that
consists of only one single as a unit of measure where as under compound units of measure there
are units with multiple factors. To create single unit of measure, select the option Create, then
the unit creation menu appears and provide the required details. You can create a simple or a
compound unit of measure. By default the creation screen displays a simple type, to change over
to Compound Creation, press the <Backspace> key to bring the cursor to type option, there pops
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up a window and select the option Compound from the menu. Then type the symbol to denote
the units of measure and its formal name. Depending up on the stock item it is possible to
represent the unit of measure in fraction by selecting the no. of decimals. From the list of
existing units select the first unit in the combination and give the equivalent of the first unit to
the second.

Voucher Entry
The voucher entry is the most frequently used area by the user. A voucher, which is also called a
journal, is a document containing the details of a transaction. The voucher entry option at the
gateway enables the user to create voucher. The extreme right of the voucher screen provides a
set of buttons with their respective functions. In a company which is maintained with both
accounts and inventory provides buttons for changing date (F2), for changing company (F3), F4
for recording contra entries, F5 for recording payment vouchers, F6 for recording receipt journal,
F7 for recording other journals, F8 for recording sales journals, F9 for purchase journal, F10 for
memos. The memos are a non accounting voucher, which will not affect any accounts and the
final reports.

In addition to this, there are buttons to create vouchers affecting only inventory. F7 to create
stock journal this is used for the transfer of materials from one godown to another. You can
show the details of goods transferred such as its cost, quantity, destination etc. F8 , to record
goods out, F9 to record goods in and F10 to record physical stock. It represents the physical
stock on a particular date. These functional buttons are to be pressed along with <Alt> key. You
can create post dated voucher by pressing <Ctrl> + <V> and optional vouchers by pressing
<Ctrl>+<L>. The optional voucher also is a non accounting voucher. In order to change the
company features we have to press F11 and to change the configuration of a voucher we have to
press F12.

All screens at the top left of the voucher box displays the type of the voucher which can be
changed by pressing the relevant key. All the vouchers display the number, reference, date of the
voucher etc. The date of the voucher can be changed by pressing F2. You can also show the
effective date along with the date of the voucher.
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In accounting vouchers, particulars column takes the information about the ledgers which is to be
debited or credited. When it displays To or Cr, specify the ledger to be credited and when it
displays Dr, or By, specify the ledger to be debited. You can change the prompt displays by
pressing the key B, C, D, and T or vice versa over the existing prompt. The debit/credit column
takes the value of the transactions. The bottom of the columns shows the total of debit and credit.
The voucher entry is complete only when the two columns are equal. A brief explanation is to be
mentioned in the provision foe narration.

Contra voucher (F4) is to be used to record the fund transfer between cash and bank account
only. The cash deposit to bank, cash withdrawals from bank, fund transfer between banks etc.
can be recorded by using F4.

The Payment voucher (F5) is used for all payments of cash or bank towards expenses,
purchases, payments to creditors etc. All payment vouchers must have at least one credit to cash
or bank. The Receipt Voucher (F6) is used for all receipt into cash or bank. Here the debit must
be given to cash or bank account and the credit must be given to the ledger from which you
received the amount.

The Journal Voucher (F7) is an adjustment voucher, where all amounts to be adjusted between
two accounts is passed. You can use credit and debit notes when the adjustment entry involves
outside parties such as debtors and creditors. A Credit Note is prepared when a credit buyer
returns goods and a Debit Note is prepared when you make a return to the creditor.

Viewing Reports
The main purpose of entering all the data is to generate them in the form of accounting reports.
The accounting package automatically prepares the reports on the basis of the recorded
transactions. You can view any report like Trial Balance, Profit and Loss Account, Balance
Sheet, Stock Statement, Account Summaries, Cash and Fund Flow Statement, Cost Centre
Analysis etc.

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The Gateway menu brings up the balance Sheet, Profit and Loss Account, Stock Summary etc. in
addition to this, by pressing the display menu, we can view the Trial Balance, Account Books,
Statement of Accounts, inventory Books, Statement of Inventory, cash Flow and Fund Flow
statements etc.

Balance Sheet
It is a statement of financial position in terms of capital, assets, and liabilities of the business
concern. From the balance sheet one can go in to deep up to the voucher. Normally it is in the
form of double columnar horizontal format displaying the closing balances of the primary groups
of assets and liabilities. Then liabilities include capital, current liabilities, loan liabilities net
profit if any and any other primary group that was created. The assets include fixed assets,
current assets, investment, loans and advances, miscellaneous expenses and net loss if any.

By means of help buttons available we can change the default appearance of the balance sheet.
By pressing <Alt> F1 (F1), the primary groups are displays in bold, subgroups are displayed in
normal style and ledgers are displayed in italics. Otherwise only the primary groups are
displayed as default. In order to change the period press F2, then a menu will pop up asking to
specify the from and to dates. This enables to view the statement as you desired. By pressing
appropriate buttons one can change the company, change valuation method, insert new columns,
delete columns etc.

The next option in gateway is to view the profit and loss account. By using help buttons one can
change date range and format of the report or go for the details and take print outs. In order to
view the trial balance, we have to press display menu from the gateway. By default, the trial
balance displays the list of all primary groups on the left and their closing debit or credit
balances on the right side. It also displays the name of the company and the date range of the
report. By using help buttons one can view the detailed groups and sub groups of ledgers,
change periods, change groups etc.

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Steps to make voucher entry creation

1. Create company
2. Change period by clicking F2
3. Create ledgers- Gateway > Account Info> Create
4. Voucher entry Gateway> Voucher Entry> select yes if you want to use
debit note or credit note
5. Display day book display> Day book
On 1-1-2013 Raju commenced business with Rs.50,000. Following are other transactions. Make
voucher entries and display day book
Jan 2 Purchased goods for Rs.3500
Jan 3 Sold goods to John Rs.1500
Jan 5 Purchased goods from Anju Rs.7000
Jan 6 Goods returned to Anju Rs.1000
Jan 10 Goods returned by John Rs.500
Paid rent Rs.2000

Steps to prepare a Cash Book

1. Create company
2. Change period by pressing F2
3. Create ledgers Gateway> Account Info> Ledger>Create
4. Enter opening cash Select cash account by Account Info> Ledger>Alter>select Cash>in
the date field enter date and type balance amount
5. Voucher entry- Gateway>Voucher entry>change date
6. Display Cashbook Gateway>Display>Account book>Ledger>Cash

Mohan Traders furnishes the following details. Display them in a cash book
1-1-2013, Cash Rs.25,000,
1-1-2013, Capital Rs. 75,000
1-1-2013, Building Rs. 30,000

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Their transactions for the month of January are given below

2-1-2013 Purchased goods for cash 23,000
3-1-2013 Sold goods for cash Rs.50,000
4-1-2013 Paid rent Rs.6000
5-1-2013 Paid salary Rs. 3000
6-1-2013 withdraw cash for personal use 5000
7-1-2013 Purchased furniture Rs. 7500

Steps for preparing Bank Reconciliation Statement

1. Create Company as account only with the financial year
2. Change period by pressing F2
3. Create Ledgers Gateway > Account Info>Ledger>Create
4. Voucher Entry- Gateway>Voucher entry
5. Enter Bank Date Gateway>Display>Account book>Cash/Bank account which was
already created>press enter two times. press F5>Enter passbook dates in the column bank
date>press F5
In the case of dishonoured cheque, the date of intimation is to be treated as bank date.

Prepare bank reconciliation statement of Standard Mills for the month of January 2013. Pass
book balances are given in the bracket
1-1-2013 SBT Current a/c balance Rs.60,000
2-1-2013 Issued cheque (No 101) to a supplier Babu Rs.3000 (31-1-2013)
2-1-2013 Paid salary by cheque (N0.102) Rs2000 (3-1-2013)
2-1-2013 withdrew from the current a/c for office use (No 103) Rs. 4000 (2-1-2013)
31-1-2013 Paid into Current a/c (31-1-2013)
Bank Charges debited in pass book Rs 300(31-1-2013)
Bank Interest credited Rs.800 (31-1-2013)

Steps to Create Cost Centre

1. Create company as account only
2. Change period by pressing F2
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3. Cost Centre Creation press F11 set Yes to Maintain Cost Centre under accounting
features Gateway > Accounts Info >Cost Centre > Create
4. Ledger Creation Gateway >Account Info > Ledger > Create
5. Voucher Entry Gateway > Accounting Voucher > Press F2 to change date
6. Display of cost centre break up Gateway > Display > Statement of Accounts > Cost Centre >
Cost Centre Break up > press enter > select Auto column > select Cost Centre > Show
total column Yes> Click F1 for detailed

Ahamed Agencies have three departments such as Production, Accounts and Marketing and
there are three salesmen such as Mohan, Vishwam, George who are working under marketing
department. The following information is available from their books of accounts.
2013
Jan 1 Cash sales Rs 300,000 (Mohan Rs.80,000-Vishwam Rs. 120,000 and
George Rs1,00,000)
Jan 2. Paid Salary Rs. 100,000 (Mohan Rs. 24,000, Vishwam Rs. 36,000 and George Rs.40,000)
Jan 15. Paid Commission Rs. 36,000 (Mohan Rs. 10,000, Vishwam Rs. 18,000,
George Rs. 8,000)
Jan 28 paid Telephone charges Rs. 7,000 (Accounts Rs. 3,000, Marketing Rs. 4,000)
Jan 30 Paid Rent Rs. 10,800 (Accounts Rs. 5,600, Production Rs. 5,200)
Show cost centre break up

Steps to Create Stock Group, Stock Item and Unit of Measure

1. Create Company with Inventory
2. Change period by pressing F2
3. Stock group creation Gateway > Inventory Info > Stock Group > Create
4. Creation of Units of Measure Gateway > Inventory Info > Units of Measure > Create.
After creation press backspace and record conversion of units
5. Create stock item Gateway > Inventory Info > Stock item > Create
6. Create ledger Gateway > Account Info > ledger > Create
7. Voucher entry gateway > Voucher entry use F2 to change date
8. Display Gateway > Stock Summary - press F1 for detailed
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Achyuth Ltd gives the following details

2013, Jan 1 Purchased following goods from ABC Ltd. 10 wooden tables @ 6000 per table, 2
dozen wooden chairs @ 12,000 per dozen and 5 steel table @5,000 each
Jan 15 Sold following goods for cash 2 wooden tables 7,000 each and 1 dozen wooden chairs
@13,000 per dozen
Jan 20 Purchased following goods from Woodland Industries 10 cane chairs @4,000 per chair
Display stock summary

Steps to Display Trial balance

1. Create company as accounts only
2. Change period by pressing F2
3. Create Ledger Gateway > Accounts Info > Ledger >Create
4. Voucher Entry Gateway > Voucher Entry
5. Display Gateway > Display > Trial balance > Click F1 for detailed

Mohan commenced business with Rs. 100,000 on 1-1-2013 Following are their other
transactions during the month
Jan 1 purchased furniture for Rs 25,000
Jan 2 purchased goods for Rs 12,000
Jan 3 sold goods for Rs. 7,500
Jan 4 remitted cash with SBT 5,000
Jan 6 purchased goods from Manoj Rs 25,000
Jan 8 purchased computer from Computer Point Rs. 25,000
Jan 10 advertisement Rs 2,000
Jan 15 rent paid Rs 3,000
Jan 29 cash sales Rs.10,000

Steps to Prepare Profit & loss Account & Balance Sheet

1. Create Company as Accounts only
2. Change period by pressing F2 on button panel
3. Group Creation Gateway > Accounts Info > Group > Create
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4. Ledger Creation Gateway > Accounts Info > Ledger > Create create under All Items,
if created in Multiple
5. Enter cash balance by selecting cash account in the alteration mode gateway > Accounts
Info > Ledger > Alter select cash in the field of opening balance enter the opening
balance amount and select Dr and save it
6. Enter closing stock Gateway > accounts Info > Ledger > Alter > Stock in the field of
closing balance enter the closing stock amount and select Dr and save it
7. Voucher entry Gateway > Voucher Entry relating to adjustments
8. Display Profit & Loss Account Gateway > Profit & Loss > Click F1 for detail
9. Display Balance Sheet Gateway > Balance Sheet > Click F1 for detail

Pran Ltd maintains their accounts manually. They wish to computerize their account from 1-42013. Following balances were extracted from their books on that date.
Cash 25,000; Sales 130,000; Purchase return 5,000; Wages 3,000; Building 20,000; Insurance
1,000; Purchases 60,000; Sales return 3,000; Furniture 18,000; Salaries 10,000; Rent 7,000;
Machinery 28,000; Bank loan 10,000; SBT current a/c 20,000; Capital 50,000
Adjustment
a) Salary outstanding Rs.2,000
b) Provide depreciation at5% on building
c) Prepaid insurance Rs 200
d) Closing stock Rs.20,000
Show profit & loss a/c and balance sheet

Steps to create Final Accounts from transactions

1.Create Company as Accounts Only
2.Change period by pressing F2
3. Set as Yes option to use debit/Credit notes under Accounting features if want to make debit
and credit notes
4. Ledger Creation gateway > Accounts Info > Ledger > Create select All items if want to
create multiple save
5.Voucher entry Gateway > Voucher entry
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6. Enter closing stock Gateway > Account Info> Ledger > Alter select stock enter the closing
stock amount under closing date
7. Display Profit & loss A/C Gateway > Profit & Loss Account > F1 for detail
8. Display Balance Sheet Gateway > Balance Sheet > F1 for detail
Mr Mahesh set up a business on 1st Jan 2013 with a capital of Rs.200,000. Following are his
other transactions
1-1-2013

Purchased furniture for Rs.20,000

Purchased goods for cash Rs.25,000
Opened current a/c with SBI Rs. 20,000

2-1-2013

Sold goods for Rs. 10,000

Purchased goods from Athul Rs. 30,000
Sold goods to Arjun Rs. 7,500

3-1-2013

Goods returned by Arjun Rs.1,500

Purchased computers from Computer Care Rs. 23,500

5-1-2013

Issued cheque to Athul Rs.15,000

7-1-2013

Received Rs. 5,900 from Arjun in settlement of his account

10-1-2013

Paid Rent Rs.2,000

11-1-2013

Paid Wages Rs. 600

15-1-2013

Cash sales Rs32,350

16-1-2013

deposited to bank Rs. 7,000

20-1-2013

Paid salary by cheque Rs. 2,500

22-1-2013

Withdrew from bank for office 1,500

Adjustment

Closing stock was valued at Rs.27,000 on 31st Dec.2013

Prepare Profit and Loss account and Balance sheet

Steps to create Final Accounts with Inventory

1. Create Company as Account with inventory
2. Change period by pressing F2
3. Set the Feature- Integrate account with inventory as Yes
4. Create unit of Measure Gateway > Inventory Info > Unit of measure > Create show Type,
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Symbol, Formal Name and number of decimal places- press backspace and show First
Unit, Conversion of unit and second unit
5. Create stock Item Gateway > Inventory Info > Stock Item > Create
6. Ledger Creation Gateway > Accounts Info > Ledger > Create Put Yes in the accounts of
purchase, purchase return, sales and sales return as Inventory values are affected
7. Voucher entry Gateway > Voucher entry use F2 to change dates
8. Display of Profit & Loss a/c Gateway > Profit & Loss account- pres F1 for detail
9. Display of Balance sheet Gateway > Balance Sheet - pres F1 for detail

Following are the transactions of Manoj Agencies during January 2013

1. Commenced business with cash 400,000, Building 600,000
2. Opened bank account with SBI Rs. 200,000
3. Purchased Furniture Rs. 10,000
4. Purchased 20 cases of super gold soap @240 per case from Northwern Agencies
5. Purchased 20 Doz. Cello Pens @120 per Doz. From PP Stores
6. Sold 1 case super gold soap @280 per case and 3 doz. Cello pens @130 per doz.
To Remash
7. Paid Rs. 2400 to PP stores
8. Paid Wages Rs.200
9. Paid Rent Rs.1500
10. Received commission Rs. 1000
1 case = 20 numbers, and 1 doz = 12 numbers
Prepare Profit and Loss account and Balance sheet

Objective Type Questions

1. The transactions involving cash and bank accounts are recorded through-------------a. Receipt voucher

b. Journal

c. Contra voucher

d. None of these

2. Carriage outward is placed under the group -------------a. Direct expenses

b. Indirect expenses

c. Indirect Income

d. Direct income

3. A ledger account can be deleted by using ----------- key combination

a. Alt+C

b. Ctrl+D

c. Alt+D

d. None of these
221

4. Customers accounts are opened under -------------- group

a. Sales

b. Sundry Debtors

c. Direct Income

d. Direct Expenses

5. Tally accounting package provides a list of ---------------- predefined account groups

a. 28

b.15

c.10

d. 25

6. ---------------- is used to record transfer of stock from one location to another

a. Stock journal

b. Physical stock journal

c. Rejection out

d. None

Short Answer Questions

1. What are the advantages of computerized accounting system?
2. Explain the features of an accounting package?
3. What is grouping of an account?
4. What is a cost centre?
5. Name different parts of an accounting package screen

Essay Type Questions

1. What are the methods of stock valuation?
2. Explain inventory vouchers?
3. How can you create ledgers in an accounting package?

Practical Questions
1. Show Final Account in accounting package
On Jan.2008, Kumar commenced business with cash Rs.2,00,000; Furniture Rs.50,000; Fixtures
Rs.22,000; cash at bank Rs.28,000.
Following are the other transactions during the month
On Jan. 10th, Purchased goods for cash Rs.25,000/
On Jan. 14th, Sold goods for cash Rs.28,000/
On Jan 18th,

Purchased goods from Basheer Rs. 6,000/

On Jan,25th,

Returned goods to Basheer Rs. 500/

On Jan.28th,

Sold goods to Ravi Rs.30,000/

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On Jan. 29th, Ravi returned goods worth Rs. 1,000/

On Jan.30th,
On Jan, 30

th

Cash paid into bank Rs.2,000/

Paid wages Rs.1,500/ and Salary Rs.2,500/

There was a closing stock of Rs. 28,000/

2) Show final accounts for the year ended 31st March 2008, in Tally after
considering the adjustments. Following are the account balances as on that date
Cash Rs.20,000/

Sales Rs.2,54,000

Purchase ReturnRs.10,000/

Wages Rs. 6,000/

Building Rs.40,000/

Insurance Rs.2,000/

Purchases Rs. 1,20,000/

Sales Return Rs. 6000/

Furniture Rs. 36,000/

Salary Rs. 20,000/

Rent Rs.14,000/

Machinery Rs. 40,000/

Bank Loan Rs. 20,000/

SBT Current A/C Rs. 40,000/

Capital Rs. 90,000/

Commission (Cr) Rs.6000/

Debtors Rs. 16,000/

Opening Stock Rs. 20,000

Adjustments:
a) Salary Out standing Rs. 4,000

b) Provide 5% Depreciation on Building

c) Closing Stock Rs. 40,000 d) Interest on Capital @6% e) Interest on Drawings Rs 100

3) Enter the following transactions in the books of Mohan Associates and display the
trial balance for the year ended 31st December 2008
Jan 1 Commenced business with cash Rs.2,00,000; Building Rs. 2,00,000 and Stock Rs.
1,00,000
Jan 2 Deposited with the bank

Rs. 50,000

Jan 8 Purchased Furniture through cheque Rs.20,000

Jan 12 Bought goods worth Rs. 12,500
Jan 16 Sold goods for cash
Jan 20 Paid Wages

Rs.18,500

Rs. 300

Jan 22 Sold goods to Ajay

Rs. 10,000

Jan 24 Cash Received from Ajay Rs. 9,750 and discount allowed to him Rs. 250
Jan 26 Cash sales Rs. 6,400
Jan 28 Paid into the bank Rs. 12,500
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Jan 30 Sold goods to Ajay

Rs.8,000

Jan 31 Paid for rent Rs.2,500; Salary Rs. 4,000; Electricity Charge Rs. 125

4) From the following Trial Balance of Sri Kumar, as on 31st March 2008, prepare
his final accounts using Tally
Opening Stock Rs.

5,20,000

Furniture Rs.

Sales Rs

17,04,000

Purchase Return Rs.

Purchases Rs.

10,90,000

Discount Received Rs.

Capital Rs.

14,70,200

Wages Rs.

9,80,000
19,000
6,000
1,90,000

Sales return Rs.

14,000

Bills Payable Rs.

80,000

Cash Rs.

31,200

Discount Allowed Rs.

16,000

Drawings Rs.

1,50,000

Electricity Rs.

16,000

Salary Rs.

72,000

Creditors Rs.

2,20,000

Sundry Debtors Rs.

4,20,000

Adjustments: a) Closing Stock was valued at Rs. 4,20,000

b) Depreciate furniture @10% p.a
c) Wages paid in advance Rs. 20,000
d) Provide interest on capital @5 % p.a
e)Salary outstanding Rs. 12,000.
5) From the following Trial Balance prepare the Trading and Profit & Loss account
and the Balance Sheet as at 31st Dec. 2008, after passing the following adjusting
entries by using Tally
Trial Balance as on 31-12-2008
Capital

1,00,000

Machinery

40,000

Building

64,000

Debtors

16,000

Trade Expenses
Stock on 1-1-2008

600
40,000

Salary

6,000

Rent for 11 Months

4,400

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Bad debts

5,600

Discount

1,320

1,720

Returns

2,520

6,400

Sales

2,16,000

Purchases

1,20,000

Commission

4,080

Wages

16,000

Carriage

1,000

Creditors

10,000

Cash

20,760
Total

3,38,200

3,38,200

Adjustments
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Allow interest on capital at 5% p a

Depreciate Machinery and furniture at 10% and 5% respectively
Salary is outstanding to the extend of Rs. 200
One months rent is outstanding
Closing stock is valued at Rs. 70,000

6) Anand had the following assets and liabilities on 31-3-2008

Machinery
Rs. 50,000;
Stock
Debtors (Rameshl)

Rs. 26,000

Creditors ( Ali Bros) Rs. 27,000

Rs. 28,000

Cash

Rs. 45,000

Bank Overdraft

Rs. 10,000

His transactions for the month of Jan. 2008are as follows

2008
Mar

Purchased from Ali Bros.

Rs. 6,000

Sold to Ramesh

Rs. 8,000

Cash sales

Rs. 6,000

Deposited into bank

Rs. 3,400

11

Cash purchase paid by cheque

Rs. 4,800
225

14

Repaid the overdraft

Rs. 1,800

15

Returned to Ali Bros.

Rs. 2,400

16

Ramesh returned the goods

Rs. 1,200

20

Ramesh paid into bank

Rs. 3,000

26

Cash Purchases

Rs. 7,600

30

Salary paid

Rs. 5,000

30

Paid Ali Bros.

Rs. 8,000

Display the Trial Balance

7. The SBI Current a/c of Gopal showed a balance of Rs. 20,000 on 1-1-2012. Their
banking transactions for the month of January are given below Passbook balances are
given in the bracket Prepare bank reconciliation statement
2012 Jan 1
Issued a cheaque to Raju Rs.3500 (2-1-2012)
2
Paid telephone charges by Cheque Rs. 1,500 (2-1-2012)
3
Withdrew from bank for office use Rs. 2000 (3-1-2012)
4
Paid in to Bank Rs. 1000 (4-1-2012)
5
A Customer, Venu paid direct into bank Rs. 5,000 (5-1-2012)
31
Bank charges Rs. 50 (31-1-2012)

8. From the following information create cost centre and display cost centre breakup
Name of the company Kumar Stores
Financial Year 1-1-2010
The company has two departments Paints and Polish
The transactions for the month of January 2010 were
Cash sales Rs. 100,000
Salary Rs.25,000(Paint 15,000, Polish Rs.10,000)
Advertisement Rs.35,000(Paints Rs.20,000, Polish Rs.15,000)
Rent Rs.10,000 (Paint 5,000, Polish 5,000)
9. Arjun gives you the following details
2012 Jan 1 Purchased 100 buckets @Rs.50 each, 8 Doz. Mug @100 per doz.
from Plasta Ltd
2012 Jan 15 Sold 15 Buckets @60 each and 3 doz. Mugs @130 per doz. for
cash
2012 Jan 20 Purchased 10 Kg coir @120 per Kg. from Ramu.
Display stock item summary
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