6.1 How can you tell whether a certain part is forged or cast? Describe the features that you
would investigate to arrive at a conclusion.
Numerous tests can be used to identify cast vs. forged parts. Depending on the forging
temperature, forged parts are generally tougher than cast parts, as can be verified when
samples from various regions of the part are subjected to a tensile test. Hardness
comparisons may also be made. Microstructures will also indicate forged vs. cast parts.
Grain size will usually be smaller in forgings than in castings, and the grains will undergo
deformation in specific directions (preferred orientation). Cast parts, on the other hand, will
generally be more isotropic than forged parts. Surface characteristics and roughness are
also likely to be different, depending on the specific casting processes used and the
condition of the mold or die surfaces.
6.2 Why is the control of volume of the blank important in closed-die forging?
If too large of a blank is placed into the dies in a closed-die forging operation, presses will (a)
jam, (b) not complete their stroke, and (c) subject press structures to high loads. Numerous
catastrophic failures in C-frame presses have been attributed to such excessive loads. If, on
the other hand, the blank is too small, the desired shape will not be completely imparted
onto the workpiece.
6.10 Why are end grains generally undesirable in forged products? Give examples of such
products.
As discussed in Section 6.2.5 starting on p. 283, end grains are generally undesirable
because corrosion occurs preferentially along grain boundaries. Thus end grains present
many grain boundaries at the surface for corrosion to take place. In addition, they may result
in objectionable surface appearance, as well as reducing the fatigue life of the component
because of surface roughness that results from corrosion.
6.62 In the free-body diagram in Fig. 6.4b, the incremental stress d_x on the element was
shown pointing to the left. Yet it would appear that, because of the direction of frictional
stresses, p, the incremental stress should point to the right in order to balance the
horizontal forces. Show that the same answer for the forging pressure is obtained regardless
of the direction of this incremental stress.
We will derive the pressure using the same approach as described in Section 6.2.2 starting
on p. 269. The equivalent version of Fig. 6.4 on p. 269 is shown below.
Using the stresses as shown in part (b), we have, from equilibrium and assuming unit width,
For the distortion-energy criterion, it should be recognized that _x is now tensile, whereas in
the text it is compressive. Therefore, Eq. (6.11) becomes
Thus
When substituted into the equilibrium equation, one obtains
Using the boundary conditions that _x = 0 (and therefore _y = Y 0) at x = 0, gives the value of
C as
Therefore, substituting into the expression for _y,
Note that ro = 0.5 in and ho = 2 in. The forging force is given by Eqs. (6.18) and (6.19) on p.
272 as:
From this, the following forces are calculated (recall that F = paveA):
The results are plotted below. For comparison purposes, the results from Problem 6.63 are
also included as dashed lines. As can be seen, the results are fairly close, even with the
rough interpolation done in this solution.
6.68 Derive an expression for the average pressure in plane-strain compression under the
condition of sticking friction.
Sticking friction refers to the condition where a Tresca friction model is used with m = 1 [see
Eq. (4.5) on p. 140]. Therefore, the following figure represents the applied stresses to an
element of forging, which can be compared to Fig. 6.4b on p. 269. The approach in Section
6.2.2 starting on p. 269 is followed closely in this derivation.
Integrating,
Therefore,
and
Note that this relationship is consistent with Fig. 6.10 on p. 273 for 0 < x < a. Since the
relationship is linear, then we can note that
6.69 What is the magnitude of when, for plane-strain compression, the forging load with
sliding friction is equal to the load with sticking friction? Use average-pressure formulas.
The average pressure with sliding friction is obtained from Eq. (6.15) on p. 271, and for
sticking friction it is obtained from the answer to Problem 6.68 using m = 1. Equating these
two average pressures, we obtain
Therefore, = 0.5.