Introduction
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3.2
Load Types
In design, the loads on buildings and structures are classified into different types
based on their frequency of occurrence and method of assessment. These are:
Dead loads
Imposed loads
Wind loads
Earth and liquid pressures
Other load effects such as thermal effects; ground movement; shrinkage
and creep in concrete; and vibration.
For each type of load, there will be a characteristic value and a design value.
These will be explained later in this chapter. The design of any particular
element of the frame of the structure or of the structure as a whole has to be
based on the design load or design load combination that is likely to produce the
most adverse effect on that element or the structure as a whole in terms of
compression, tension, bending, moment, shear, deflection, torsion and
overturning.
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Even with this classification there is still broad variation in the imposed loads, for
example within the high school building some space is used in classrooms and
laboratories. The imposed loads for these various buildings are different and
hence different values should be specified for design.
In structures such as highways bridges, it is necessary to consider traffic loads in
terms of both a concentrated load and a varying uniformly distributed load. In
addition, the effect of impact forces due to traffic loading must be accounted for.
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10
20
30
5 to 10
40
Over 10
50
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The effective wind loads on structures are dependent on the wind speed,
geographical location of structure or building, size, shape and height.
The wind normally blows in gusts of varying speed, and its direction depends on
the wind environment. Figure 1 shows a typical graph of speed versus time
during a gale.
The wind pressure, which is caused by changes of wind speed from Ve in m/s
(metres/second) to zero, as occurs when the wind meets a building and has to
change direction, is given by qs :
Dynamic pressure
( in pascals, Pa (N/m2))
Equation 1
The wind speed to be used in equation (1) is not the maximum recorded value.
It should be calculated from the relevant section of the code of practice. For
example from section 2.2.3 of BS 6399: 1997 Loading for buildings, Part 2: Code
of practice for wind loads.
If the shape of the structure is streamlined, then the change in wind speed is
reduced and hence the dynamic wind pressure will also be reduced (see the
relevant code of practice).
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They are the self-weight of structures or buildings, and are caused by the effect
of gravity, and so act downwards. Dead loads are calculated from the actual
known weights of the materials used (see Table 2). Where there is doubt as to
the permanency of dead loads, such loads should be considered as imposed
loads. Dead loads are the unit weight multiplied by the volume. For more
information, see the relevant code of practice or, in the UK, see BS 6399-1:1996
and BS 648: 1964.
Material
Weight
Material
Asphalt
2
42kg/m
Damp-proofing, 19 mm thick
Road and footpaths, 19 mm
thick
Bitumen roofing felts
Mineral surfaced bitumen
Blockwork
Solid per 25mm thick, stone
aggregate
44 kg/m
44 kg/m
Plaster
Two coats gypsum, 13mm
thick
Plastic sheeting (corrugated)
3.5kg/m
15kg/m
Per mm thick
Reinforced concrete
Rendering
Cement: sand (1:3), 13mm
thick
12.5kg/m
Brickwork
Clay, solid per 25mm thick
medium density
Concrete, solid per 25mm thick
Cast stone
Concrete
Natural aggregates
Lightweight aggregates
(structural)
Flagstones
Concrete, 50mm thick
Glass fibre
Slab, per 25mm thick
Gypsum, panels and partitions
Building panels 75mm thick
Lead
Sheet, 2.5mm thick
Linoleum
3mm thick
4.5kg/m
0.7kg/m
3
2400kg/m
30kg/m
30kg/m
Screeding
Board
Blackboard per 25mm thick
22kg/m
Plywood
55kg/m
Weight
55kg/m
Steel
59kg/m
Solid (mild)
Corrugated roofing sheets,
per mm thick
Tarmacadam
25mm thick
2250kg/m
2400kg/m
+240
3
1760
kg/m
-160
2
120kg/m
2.0 5.0kg/m
44 kg/m
30 kg/m
24-78kg/m
7850kg/m
10kg/m
60kg/m
54kg/m
Terrazzo
25mm thick
Tiling, roof
Clay
Timber
Softwood
Hardwood
Water
Woodwool
Slabs, 25mm thick
70 kg/m
590 kg/m
3
1250 kg/m
2
1000 kg/m
15 kg/m
6 kg/m
Table 2: Weights of building materials (Source: Adapted from Various extracts, British Standards for Students of
Structural Design, PP7312:2002 (British Standards Institute)) See also BS 648:1964 Schedule of weight of building
materials.
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They are gravity loads which vary in magnitude and location and are appropriate
to the types of activity or occupancy for which a floor area will be used in
service; see the appropriate code of practice or Table 1 of BS 6399 -1: 1996.
Moveable imposed loads. Such as furniture, stored material, people, etc. Caused
by gravity, act downwards. Considered in structural design and analysis as static
loads. Also called superimposed loads or live loads.
Moving imposed loads. Such as vehicles, cranes, trains, etc. Their dynamic
effects should be considered in addition to their static effects.
Wind loads
Due to dynamic wind movements, these depends on the wind environment and
on the aerodynamic and aeroelastic behaviour of the structure or building.
Variable in intensity and direction. Depend on:
1. Shape of structure/building
2. Height of structure/ building above its base
3. Location of structure/ building, directional and topographic effects.
See the relevant national code of practice or BS 6399:1997-Part 2:Code of
practice for wind loads.
Others
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