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Yield and quality of malting barley

(Hordeum vulgare L. Valetta') in
response to irrigation and nitrogen
fertilisation
J. M. De Ruiter

Canterbury Agricultural Science Centre , New Zealand Institute

for Crop & Food Research Limited , Private Bag 4704, Christchurch,
New Zealand E-mail:
Published online: 22 Mar 2010.

To cite this article: J. M. De Ruiter (1999) Yield and quality of malting barley (Hordeum vulgare
L. Valetta') in response to irrigation and nitrogen fertilisation, New Zealand Journal of Crop and
Horticultural Science, 27:4, 307-317, DOI: 10.1080/01140671.1999.9514110
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01140671.1999.9514110

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New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 1999, Vol. 27: 307-317
0014-0671/99/2704-0307
$7.00 The Royal Society of New Zealand 1999

307

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Yield and quality of malting barley (Hordeum vulgare L. 'Valetta')

in response to irrigation and nitrogen fertilisation

J. M. DE RUITER
New Zealand Institute for Crop & Food
Research Limited
Canterbury Agricultural Science Centre
Private Bag 4704
Christchurch, New Zealand
email: deruiterj@crop.cri.nz

Abstract Interactions of soil water and nitrogen

(N) fertiliser application on the quality of barley
(Hordeum vulgare L. 'Valetta') for malting were
studied in a rain shelter experiment at Lincoln, New
Zealand. Treatments were arranged in a factorial
design, consisting of five levels of soil water (fully
irrigated, rain-fed, early drought, late drought, and
full drought) and four levels of N fertiliser (nil, 1
50, 2 50, and 3 50 kg N/ha). N treatments were
applied at emergence, appearance of the second
node, and at flowering, respectively. Variables indicative of grain quality (N concentration, grain size,
and screenings) and micro-malting characters (water uptake, malting loss, N index, wort-N, -glucan,
fine extract, coarse extract, and fine-coarse difference) were evaluated for responses to the water and
N treatments. Drought influenced the distribution
pattern of kernel mass along the main stem and tiller
spikes and also influenced the relative proportions
of grain in the standard size categories. The level of
N fertiliser had little effect on the kernel size properties. Screenings originated from both the proximal
and distal ends of tiller spikes and from the proximal end of the main stem spike. The less severely
water stressed treatments had fewer small kernels
and mean weight of kernels was greater over all
kernel positions. Grain N concentration responded

H99011
Received 4 March 1999; accepted 15 October 1999

to N fertiliser application but was unresponsive to

water treatment. The reverse was true for kernel size
and the malting characters of water uptake, malting
loss, extract levels, and fine/coarse difference.
Drought increased the levels of wort -glucan and
lowered wort N and N index whereas N fertiliser
caused an increase in wort -glucan and wort N but
lowered the N index. Interactions between water and
N effects were only significant for the latter. Both
the timing of drought and fertiliser treatment had
strong effects on the biochemical and physical characteristics of grain.
Keywords extract; P-glucan; grain size; Hordeum
vulgare L.; water use; wort N

INTRODUCTION
Consistency of grain quality is important in the
malting industry. Batches of seed with comparable
germination characteristics are desirable so that
adjustments can be made during malting to reduce
the impact of variable or substandard grain. Ideal
grain has a high mean weight (>40 g/1000 kernels)
with nitrogen (N) concentrations between 1.5 and
1.95%. Variation in grain quality can occur between
seasons and within farms as a result of paddock
management or local environmental effects. N
fertiliser and irrigation are the only practical ways
for growers to manage the quality of grain. Variation
in protein quality, (D-hordein composition), for
example, has been shown to vary according to N
fertiliser treatment and cultivar (Howard et al. 1996),
and this variation may be best accounted for by
available water/available N ratios early in growth
(Dalai et al. 1997). Variable grain size and N content
may also have deleterious effects on the quality of
malted grain for brewing. Heterogeneous malt
occurs when modification (degree of breakdown of
endosperm structure) in individual kernels proceeds
at different rates or when individual kernels are
undermodified (Edney 1996). Processing difficulties
may be averted by appropriate crop management in

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308

New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 1999, Vol. 27

the field to reduce the concentration of compounds

such as (3-glucans that cause poor filtration during
mashing. Levels of N in wort extract and a N index
(wort N content relative to N content of grain) are
considered useful indicators of modification during
malting and their relationships with crop
management may also present ways for reducing
variability in grain.
In Canterbury, there is potential for increased
production but quotas are restricted because of the
limited capacity of malting plants. There is often an
under-supply of high quality grain that may result
from sub-optimal crop management or reduced yield
because of water stress. Profitability for existing
growers is dependent on achieving stable, high grain
yield with acceptable quality for malting. In the
interests of maintaining best quality, growers often
use conservative management and accept a yield
reduction.
Relationships between yield and quality in barley
are often inconsistent (de Ruiter & Brooking 1994,
1996; de Ruiter & Haslemore 1996) and affected by
general soil fertility (Drewitt 1983), cultivar
(Brennan et al. 1997) and fertiliser N management
(Varvel & Severson 1987), soil water availability
(Drewitt & Smart 1981) and by patterns of pre- and
post-anthesis N uptake (Corke et al. 1989; Carreck
& Christian 1991). Studies have shown that variation
in grain N concentration may be a result of climatic
effects, such as periods of low radiation (Grashoff
& D'Antuono 1997) or high temperature (Savin et
al. 1997a). High grain N has been associated with
uptake of soil N during grain filling (Birch et al.
1997), but there is evidence that continued uptake
of N is not detrimental to grain quality provided soil
moisture conditions are near optimum during growth
(de Ruiter & Brooking 1994). The balance between
sources for acquisition of N and those for carbohydrate accumulation may explain why quality
improvements are possible in situations that are
normally considered adverse for high quality grain
production.
The objectives of this study were to determine
patterns for variation in grain quality and their relationship with yield components. The response of
crops to N fertiliser and soil water treatment simulating variable fertility and timing of drought were
examined to assist with identification of key malt
quality characters that could be used as indicators for
reliable production of high quality grain. The project
also aimed to quantify relationships between crop
growth environment, crop management, and quality
for malting.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A rain shelter experiment was conducted in 1995/
96 on a Templeton sandy loam (Udic Ustochrept,
USDA soil taxonomy) at the New Zealand Institute
for Crop & Food Limited Station at Lincoln (lat. 34
38'S, long. 17230'). The soil had an available water
capacity of 190 mm, assuming a maximum rooting
depth of 100 cm and mean wilting point at
volumetric water content (v/v) of 0.11. Previous
crops on the site were winter wheat followed by four
seasons of grass or fallow. The land was ploughed
on 20 April 1995 after spraying with Roundup (6
litres/ha; a.i. 360 g/litre glyphosate) and Pulse*0
penetrant (20 ml/ha). Two pre-season irrigations of
50 mm each were used to reduce the inorganic N by
leaching. Soil mineral N levels were monitored at
monthly intervals for 4 months before sowing.
Barley ('Valetta') was sown at 15 cm row spacing
on 20 October at 150 kg/ha to achieve a mean
population of 280 plants/m2. A MAF quick test
before sowing showed values for pH of 6.2, Ca 10,
K 9, P 21 (Olsen: ng/g), Mg 16, Na 8, and S 2 (mEq/
100 g dry soil for elemental values unless otherwise
stated). Other soil fertility variables determined in
the Crop & Food Research Soils Laboratory are
shown in Table 1. Fertiliser (15% potassic super at
0:7:7:8, N:P:K:S) was applied at 200 kg/ha and
incorporated during pre-sowing cultivation. Weeds
were controlled by applications of 1.5 litres/ha
MCPA and 17 g/ha of Glean (a.i. 750 g/kg
chlorosulphuron) plus surfactant on 16 November.
Treatments
Five water and three N treatments were arranged in
a factorial randomised incomplete block design with
two replicates. Individual plot size was 3.6 x 5.0 m
with 0.5 m border on all sides. Three drought
treatments (full drought, early drought, and late
drought) were located inside the shelter and two
treatments (rain-fed and fully irrigated) were
exposed to weather.
Irrigation treatments commenced on 15 November. The full drought treatment was not irrigated
throughout the experiment, except for a 17 mm rainfall as a result of shelter failure 42 days after sowing. The early drought treatment also received this
rain and the drought was fully relieved at the onset
of stem elongation. The late drought treatment received full irrigation (equivalent to the net crop water
use + soil water evaporation) up to stem elongation
and thereafter received no water until completion of
the experiment. Calculation of water use was by the

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de RuiterWater and nitrogen responses in malting barley

Penman (1971) equation. During periods of irrigation, water was reapplied at weekly intervals in
amounts equivalent to the net change in the previous week's soil moisture to a depth of 100 cm. The
amount of irrigation on uncovered plots was adjusted
for actual rainfall outside the rain shelter.
The early drought treatment was chosen to
influence processes involved with setting of grain
number, whereas the effect of late drought was
anticipated to influence grain expansion alone. Full
drought was likely to affect both grain number and
grain size development. The fully irrigated treatment
outside the shelter provided optimum conditions for
both processes.
In the early drought treatment water was withheld
until early stem elongation (GS 31; Zadoks et al.
1974) and thereafter applied in weekly events at a
rate equivalent to the total evapotranspiration. Late
drought was imposed by withholding water from
plots from stem elongation until grain maturity.
The shelter covered the plots only during periods
of rainfall and for a maximum of 30 min following
the cessation of rain. The extent of warming within
the shelter was assumed to be negligible as solar
radiation was minimal during rainfall events. All
plots were individually equipped with 13 mm lateral
trickle reticulation with button emitters at 30 x 45 cm
spacing to supply water or N through fertigation. The
maximum application rate of irrigation water was
14 mm/h.
Nitrogen treatments were chosen to represent a
range of low to high fertility levels. Applications
were nil; one application of 50 kg N at sowing; two
applications of 50 kg N at sowing and second node
respectively; and three applications of 50 kg N each
at sowing, tillering, and second node, respectively.
The first application of N was applied as urea
(46% N) by hand 12 days after sowing. The fertiliser
was watered in with 2 mm rainfall or through the
irrigation water at tillering and at anthesis in amounts
equivalent to 5 mm of rainfall. In the non-irrigated
treatment fertiliser was watered in using a minimum
of irrigation water (~2 mm).
Soil water was measured by five repeat
measurements with a time domain reflectometer for
the 0-20 cm depth and by neutron probe. A single
probe access tube was positioned in each plot and
measurements were made at 10 cm intervals down
the soil profile to the 100 cm depth. Calculation of
water use by the crops were made directly from
changes in measured soil water at weekly intervals
during growth and adjusting for rainfall and
irrigation/fertigation.

309

Plant measurements
Yield components
Crop grain yield was determined on 1 m2 duplicate
samples from each plot at maturity. Grain was
threshed using a Kurt Pelz stationary thresher and
representative 250 g subsamples saved for thousand
grain weight analysis and kernel size distribution.
Total above ground biomass was determined on
0.1 m2 (2 rows x 33.3 cm row) quadrats at weekly
intervals beginning 3 weeks after emergence. All
plant material was dried in a forced-draught oven at
80C for 48 h before weighing.
Grain size distribution (main stems and tillers)
Permanent 0.1 m2 quadrats were located in all plots
and five plants were selected with main stems
identified during early stem elongation. Individual
kernels at known spike positions for main stem and
tiller ears were weighed and the distribution pattern
along the rachis was determined for each floret
position from base to spike tip. Remaining kernels
in the quadrat were passed over a set of screens to
determine the overall mean weight distribution in six
size classesthree above and three below the
standard screen dimensions (2.36 mm). In addition,
the size distribution was verified on samples from
the 1 m2 yield harvest. Three independent
subsamples of grain (100 g each) were analysed for
each plot and passed over the standard screens with
slot dimensions of <2.00, >2.00, >2.10, >2.36, >2.50,
and >2.76 mm, respectively for the standard size
classes of <5.0, >5.0, >5.5, >6, >6.5, and >7.
Grain quality
Grain subsamples from 1 m2 quadrats were prepared
for N analysis by grinding in a Cyclotec 1095 mill
(1 mm screen). N concentration was determined by
micro-Kjeldahl analysis on oven-dry samples. Grain
was dressed and sieved over a standard 6A screen
(2.36 mm slot) in preparation for malt analysis.
Grain not passing the screen was micro-malted according to Haslemore et al. (1985). Malt samples
were mashed by a modified IoB procedure (Slack et
al. 1986). Wort p-glucan concentration was determined on the mashing liquor by a FIA-calcofluor
procedure (Haslemore et al. 1990). Derived indicators of maltability were % fine extract, % coarse
extract, and fine-coarse difference. Physical indicators of grain modification of grain during steeping
was determined by % water uptake and malting loss
(calculated as the percent dry matter loss before kilning). A N index, indicating the relative lability of

New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 1999, Vol. 27

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nitrogenous components during malting, was determined as the proportion of the grain N remaining in
the mashing liquor relative to the concentration in
the grain sample. N index is indicative of the potential N solubility in the grain sample for malting but
it also depends on the initial amount of grain protein, and the degree of modification through proteolytic activity during malting.
Uniformity trial and statistical analysis
The positioning of the rain shelter cover meant that
water treatments were not fully randomised across
the trial area. Therefore, variance components for all
variables within and outside the shelter were tested
to determine: (1) whether above ground effects as a
result of rain shelter position were significant; and
(2) if there was a systematic pattern in pre-sowing
soil NO3 levels that could be used as a covariate to
test fertiliser responses.
A uniformity trial was conducted on 25
September to determine NO3-N levels by sampling
soil to a depth of 20 cm in a 2 x 3 m centre grid
pattern within the rain shelter. Sampling was
repeated both inside and outside the shelter on 4
October. Soil nitrate was determined by water
extraction followed by direct measurement with a
nitrate electrode using a known-addition method.
The electrode response was calibrated with known
standards in aqueous solutions. These extracts were

compared with the standard KC1 extraction method

for mineral N (NO3 and NH4) content.
Analysis of variance for the uniformity trial and
main experiment were performed using Genstat 5
(Release 3) with standard tests for significance. All
variables were analysed according to a design
separating inside- and outside-shelter effects. In all
instances, the shelter effect was not significant.
Therefore, the experiment was treated as a fully
randomised complete block design with factorial
water and N treatments in a 5 x 3 design.
Responses of grain and malting quality variables
to level of fertiliser applied and crop water use were
tested by comparing residuals in statistical models
of increasing complexity. In all instances, the
simplest model was chosen by comparing models
with slope and intercept parameters for individual
and combined treatment responses.

RESULTS
Uniformity analysis
There were no systematic trends in soil nitrate-N (020 cm depth) concentrations within the rain shelter
on the first sampling date (mean 3.0 1.0 kg/ha). In
a second sampling, 1 week later, inside- and outsideshelter effects were also found to be not significant.
Soil N (nitrate extracted in water) to a depth 20 cm

Table 1 Soil fertility variables for 20 cm layers sampled on 16 October in the rain shelter. Nitrate and ammonium
were extracted in 2M KC1.
Depth
(cm)

Microbial
biomass C
(ugC/g)

Microbial
biomass N
(UgN/g)

Organic C
(%)

Total N
(%)

Nitrate
(HgN/g)

Ammonium
(HgN/g)

0-20
20-40
40-60

265
234
213

29.8
15.4
3.3

2.4
1.3
0.6

0.20

7.4
4.3
2.7

5.2
5.8
5.3

Table 2 Mean rainfall, irrigation, and calculated crop water use for {Hordeum vulgare ' Valetta')
in drought treatments, from 15 November to maturity (defined as time at disappearance of green
stem and attainment of stable kernel weight).
Treatment
Full drought
Early drought
Late drought
Rain-fed
Irrigated

Rain (mm)

Irrigation (mm)

Crop water use (mm)

17
17
17
62.1
89.3

17
260.5
68.6
5.1
291.6

124.4
241.1
186.2
150.5
345.1

de RuiterWater and nitrogen responses in malting barley

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inside the shelter were equivalent to 5.6 (1.7) kg

N/ha compared with 3.0 (0.7) kg N/ha outside.
There were no significant effects due to block
arrangement either inside or outside the rain shelter,
confirming that the site was quite homogeneous for
initial N fertility. Nitrate-N values were considered
to be very low for an early season sampling. The preseason irrigation was, therefore, effective in reducing
the mineral N content. Calculated total mineral N
content in the soil at sowing was c. 60 kg N/ha
(assuming a bulk density of 1.0). There was little
indication of a "bulge" at lower depths that may have
resulted from earlier leaching (Table 1).
Soil deficits and water use
Monitoring of water use was initiated on 8
November and continued at weekly intervals through
to maturity. During that period, water used by the
crop and the soil evaporation component were
assumed to be equivalent regardless of the N level.
This assumption was considered valid given that the
leaf area development profiles were similar for the
N treatments until a leaf area index of 2 was attained.
The maximum leaf area index attained was different
for the N treatments but the impact on the water
balance was considered negligible. The water
applied was therefore calculated as the mean of all
N treatment levels. Crop water use and associated
rain and irrigation applications are given in Table 2.
Maximum measured soil deficits for the full drought,
late drought, and rain-fed treatments were 159,150,
and 146 mm respectively. These were all recorded

311

on 3 January. The maximum early drought deficit

of 103 mm occurred on 12 December. This was
relieved by weekly watering thereafter to a well
watered situation (soil water deficit of 55 mm on 9
January). The maximum deficit reached in the fully
irrigated treatment was 61 mm. This level of deficit
was not sufficient to cause any limitation on crop
growth or development given that the calculated
available capacity of the profile (0-100 cm depth)
was 160 mm.
Biomass and yield components
Significant differences in biomass accumulation due
to drought treatment occurred 60 days after emergence (data not shown). Early drought and fully irrigated treatments were similar, producing 10.8 and
12 t of dry matter, respectively (Table 2). The remaining drought and rain-fed treatments accumulated c. 8 t of dry matter. Higher yield may be partly
the result of the extended growth period in the treatment irrigated during grain filling. Maturity was
delayed by c. 2 weeks in the late watering treatments
because of a significant effect on the green leaf area
duration. The N effect on green leaf area duration
was minimal within the water treatments. However,
the mean effect of N fertiliser on dry matter was
highly significant (P< 0.001, Table 3). Significant
differences in dry matter accumulation between N
treatments were apparent at 32 days after emergence
(data not shown).
The yield component with greatest influence on
grain yield was grain number (r2 = 0.85). In contrast,

Table 3 Grain yield, yield component, and grain nitrogen (N) concentration for barley (Hordeum vulgare 'Valetta')
for drought and N treatment means. All measurements were made on 24 January (89 days after emergence). (TKW =
thousand kernel weight.)

Treatment
Drought treatment
Full drought
Early drought
Late drought
Rain-fed
Irrigated

Biomass
(t/ha)

Grain yield
(t/ha)

Grain number
per m2

TKW
(g/1000)

Grain N
(%)

LSD(P<0.05);d.f.=19

8.6
10.8
8.9
7.5
12.0
1.3

4.1
4.9
5.1
3.9
5.7
0.60

10 954
11 258
12 651
9 487
13 160
1 386

37.2
43.4
37.7
40.7
43.8
2.02

1.62
1.64
1.54
1.66
1.64
0.1 OX

Nitrogen treatment
ON
1 x50
2x50
3x50
LSD(P<0.05);d.f.=19

6.9
9.1
11.6
10.8
1.2

3.7
4.5
5.1
5.4
0.53

9 294
10 853
12 631
13 231
1 240

40.1
41.2
40.1
40.9
1.81

1.39
1.58
1.65
1.87
0.09(-

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10

15
20
Kernel position

25

10

15
20
Kernel position

25

10

Fig. 1 Mean kernel weight of malting barley {Hordeum vulgare 'Valetta') at the indicated positions from the rachis
base for: A, main stem ( = full drought, A = early drought, = late drought, = rain-fed, and O = fully irrigated);
and B, tiller ears.
kernel weight only explained 18% of the yield
variation. A significant proportion of this variation
could be accounted for by water treatment effects
(Table 3). Full drought and late drought significantly
reduced grain size compared to treatments with less
water stress late in the season.
Grain number/m2 ranged from 7312 (rain-fed, 0
N) to 15 896 for the fully irrigated high N treatment
(data not shown). N and water interactions were not
significant (P > 0.05). N treatment significantly
affected grain number in all water treatments (Table
3). The effect of N was particularly strong when
water was in good supply (fully irrigated and early
drought treatment). Differences between the early
and late drought treatments were only apparent in
low N treatments. Therefore, the effect of water
stress on floret set only occurred when N was
limiting.
Kernel weight
The maximum kernel weight was achieved in all
water treatments by 40 days after anthesis. N effects
on the pattern of grain size development were
minimal but the responses to water treatment were
more pronounced. The pattern of kernel mass along
the axis of the main stems (Fig. 1 A) and tillers (Fig.
IB) showed consistent responses to drought
treatment. The early drought and fully irrigated
treatments showed similar patterns, and late drought/
rain-fed/full drought treatments were also similar.
Kernel weights were progressively smaller from
kernel position 10 to the spike tip, with the smallest
grains occurring at the basipetal end of the spike. The
range of kernel weight/spike on the main stem was
1.18-1.42 gcomparedwithO.77-0.98 g/tillerspike.

Mean kernel weights on tiller spikes were more

consistent over positions 5-20, but at the proximal
and distal ends of the spike the kernels were
comparatively shrivelled. Mean kernel weights were
significantly smaller on tiller spikes than on main
stems.
Kernel size distribution
Nitrogen effects
The effects of N application on the proportion of
each grain sample over the range of screen size
classes were smaller than the drought effects (Fig.
2A,B). Differences between N treatments were
significant in the middle and upper size classes,
except in the 6.5-7 category. Approximately 40% of
the total grain sample was in this category. There was
a smaller proportion of large grains (>7.0) in the
highest N application. The opposite trend occurred
for the 5.5-6 and 6-6.5 size categories where
additional N tended to increase the proportion of
small grain.
Water effects
Grain size distribution patterns for the water
treatments were significantly different over the entire
range of size classes (Fig. 2B). Full drought and late
drought caused large reductions in grain size. In
these treatments, 50% of the kernels were in the 6.06.5 size category and 30% of kernels in the
uppermost (>7) size class. In contrast, early drought
and irrigated treatments had at least 70% of the
kernels in the largest size category (>7) and only a
small proportion in the <6 class. The pattern for the
rain-fed treatment was similar to the less droughtaffected treatments in the lower size classes, but this

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<5.0

>5.0

>5.5 >6.0 >6.5

Screen size class

>5

313

>5.0

>5.0

>5.5 >6.0 >6.5

Screen size class

>7

Fig. 2 Cumulative kernel weight distributions for malting barley (Hordeum vulgare 'Valetta') at maturity for: A,
nitrogen (N) treatment means ( = 0 N (control), A = 50 kg N/ha, = 2 x 50 kg N/ha, and = 3 x 50 kg N/ha); and
B, drought treatment; means ( = full drought, = early drought, = late drought, = rain-fed, and O = fully
irrigated). Least significant difference (5%) between means are only shown for significant treatment effects.

500

<D

N fertiliser applied (kg/ha)

100

150

Fig. 3 Relationships indicating responses for malting barley (Hordeum vulgare 'Valetta') to total applied nitrogen
(N) fertiliser and water treatments for: A, wort (3-glucan; B, wort N; and C, N index. Water treatments A-E are: =
full drought, = early drought, = late drought, D = rain-fed, and O = fully irrigated respectively. R2 = coefficient
of determination for regression.

treatment had a lower proportion (50% of the

sample) of large size (>7) kernels.

strongly significant with a strong linear response

(^=0.66) over the range of total N applied.

Grain nitrogen
All grain was within accepted specification (<2% N)
for malting even in the high fertiliser N treatments,
(Table 3). Grain N concentrations varied from 1.39
to 1.85%. The effect of level of N application was

Soil water and soil nitrogen effects

on malt
<
Crop quality responses were related to total crop
water use and to total N fertiliser application rate
(Table 3). All responses of malt quality variables to

314

New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 1999, Vol. 27

water use except that of grain N concentration

snowed a strong significant linear effect. The scale
of the responses were dependent on the drought
treatment. The rain-fed and fully irrigated treatments
behaved similarly.

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Wort /3-glucan
Treatments that favoured a shortened grain filling
period (Treatments A and C: Fig. 3A) had the highest
levels of wort P-glucan. Wort (3-glucan contents
were high in the full drought (A) and late drought
treatments (C), and low in the rain-fed (D) and fully
irrigated treatments (E) (Fig. 3A).
Nitrogen index
Nitrogen solubility index (N index) was the only
malting quality variable with a significant water and
N interaction (Table 4). A statistical model
incorporating the interactive effects of water and N
was strongly significant and accounted for 88% of
the variation in N index (Figure 3B). Wort P-glucan
and wort N levels were also significantly influenced
by N and water treatment, but the interaction was not
significant.
High N application in the fully irrigated treatment
had the ideal N index, whereas in all other water
treatments the ideal N index values occurred at lower
N application rates. An exception occurred in the full
drought treatment in which N index values were less
than optimal regardless of N application.
There were few consistent trends in the fine and
coarse extract levels. However, the extent of modification, as indicated by the fine-coarse difference
values, showed that timing of drought effects was
significant (Table 4). There was a significant linear

response of malt extract level to crop water use but

no effect of N on extract levels (Table 4). Good malts
were produced in both irrigated and full drought
situations but the best quality came from treatments
with the greatest seasonal water use.
DISCUSSION
Effect of applied nitrogen
Nitrogen stress in the rain shelter was observed
within 40 days of sowing in the control plots and
especially in plots not irrigated. Mineralisation rates
of 1.2-1.5 kg N ha/d have been reported in similar
Canterbury soils (Salvarjeh et al. 1987). At this rate,
there was insufficient soil N to sustain unlimited leaf
growth in the control and low N treatments for the
duration of the experiment.
There was little effect of N on grain size,
confirming the results of Grashoff & d'Antuono
(1997). Grashoff & d'Antuono (1997) also found
limited effects of N on the size range of grain
although N did have an effect on yield presumably
by enhancing grain number. In our study, N was
effective in maintaining high kernel numbers/spike
through reduced abortion or enhanced floret survival.
Soil water and soil nitrogen effects
on malt quality
This study has shown that kernel size was not influenced greatly by N treatment, but the soil water status and the timing of water stress did have an effect
on size distributions. The pattern of kernel size along
the rachis was different for main stem and tiller
spikes. Small kernels were more likely to originate

Table 4 Water and nitrogen (N) effects on barley (Hordeum vulgare 'Valetta') malt quality variables and indicators
of malt modification (WULin = linear response to seasonal crop water use; N Lin = linear response to total N fertiliser
applied; the N lin x water interaction for N index was significant at P < 0.01; NS = not significant).

Treatment effects
Uptake (%)
Malting loss (%)
Grain N (%)
Wort (3-glucan (mg/litre)
Wort N (%)
N index
Fine (F) extract (%)
Coarse (C) extract (%)
F/C difference (%)

Water, WULin

N, NLin.

Water x N

P < 0.001, P < 0.001

P< 0.001, P< 0.001
NS,P < 0.001, P < 0.001
P< 0.001, P< 0.001
P<0.001,P<0.01
P < 0.05, P< 0.05
P < 0.01, P < 0.05
P< 0.001, NS

NS,NS,0.001, P<
0.001, P<
0.001, P<
0.001, P<
NS,NS,NS,-

NS
P<0.05
NS
NS
NS
P < 0.05/NS
NS
NS
NS

P<
P<
P<
P<

0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001

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de RuiterWater and nitrogen responses in malting barley

from tiller spikes. For the majority of the grain filling period the crop was under moderate to severe
stress (Jamieson et al. 1995). The season was particularly dry and consequently soil deficits in the
rain-fed treatment closely followed the full drought
treatment. In these treatments, soil water deficits
remained constant once the maximum deficit was
reached. Drought responses were important for processes relating to the development of kernel size.
Screen size class analysis showed that timing and
level of drought caused large shifts in distribution
patterns. Best grain quality was obtained from treatment that minimised the impact of water shortage
during grain filling (fully irrigated and early drought
treatments).
In this experiment, water treatment had no effect
on the upper level of grain N, although treatments
with significant water stress late in development (full
drought, late drought, and rain-fed) tended to
produce a greater range of N concentrations. The
interaction between water and N treatment was,
however, not significant. In the irrigated treatments,
the concentration of N in the low N treatments was
higher, presumably because more N was mineralised
during the season under the wetter conditions.
Synthesis of hordein proteins in barley is known to
follow the pattern of dry matter accumulation during
grain filling (Swanston et al. 1997). Therefore it can
be expected that environmental influences that
lengthen the grain filling period would increase the
total N accumulated.
Grain N concentration has generally been the
primary variable for classifying grain for malting
quality. Howard et al. (1994), for example, showed
that protein level (D-hordein) was a sensitive
indicator of grain quality and growth conditions,
although other malt quality variables do have
significant statistical relationships with N content (de
Ruiter & Haslemore 1996). Desirable malting
characteristics include high malt extract levels, an
appropriate proportion of soluble protein, a large
component of starch and low levels of P-glucan. Low
wort N, and N index values around 40% are also
indicative of good quality malted grain.
Wort P-glucan
The content of P-glucan in grain and wort appear to
be uncoupled, if our results are compared with earlier
work (Coles et al. 1991) showing decreased levels
of grain P-glucan in treatments with high soil water
deficit. However, it should be noted that patterns for
wort P-glucan may not necessarily reflect those of
the native P-glucan in grain. We were unable to test

315

this effect as no measurements of grain P-glucan

were made in our experiment. Grain P-glucan has
been shown to follow the pattern of dry matter
accumulation (Logue et al. 1994; Swanston et al.
1997) suggesting that P-glucan production occurs
during the normal grain growth process. The
amounts were reduced in periods of lower
transpiration rate (Coles et al. 1991) and by heat
stress after anthesis (Savin et al. 1997a).
Other factors, including the interaction of Pglucan with N (protein) composition, may offer some
explanation for the higher levels of P-glucan present
in the wort of the more highly stressed treatments
and consequently those with a weaker sink strength.
In our study, increased levels of fertiliser N were
associated with increased levels of residual p-glucan
in the wort, but there was also a significant water
treatment effect. A plausible explanation for raised
levels of P-glucan in wort (Fig. 3 A) could be related
to the observation that endosperm cell walls, containing high levels of P-glucan, cause restricted
access of enzymes to protein and carbohydrate
substrates (Edney 1996). The inverse ranking to
water treatment for wort P-glucan and wort N
responses is good support for this (Fig. 3A,B). There
is some suggestion that P-glucan affords protection
of the N components in the grain (Edney 1996).
The P-glucan in wort liquor is derived from
endosperm cell wall p-glucan that has been cleaved
and partially solubilised by P-glucanase activity
during malting (Edney 1996). Non-degraded Pglucan in the wort may cause significant filtration
problems during lautering by inhibiting the
separation of soluble extract from spent grains. This
may also cause increased viscosity during mashing.
In our experiment, the extent of enzymatic degradation appears to have been altered by the drought
treatment. For example, in the early and late drought
treatment, levels of wort P-glucan were high and
indicative of incomplete modification of endosperm
carbohydrates (including the p-glucans).

WortN
Wort N levels are indicative of high levels of
solubilised protein during mashing. While it is
desirable to have moderate levels of amino N and
soluble protein for yeast metabolism, excessive
levels are generally detrimental to quality. There
were significant responses of wort N content to N
fertiliser in water treatments that imposed late stress
on the crops. In these situations, N treatment may
result in higher levels of non-protein N in the wort,
which is generally considered detrimental to quality.

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316

New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 1999, Vol. 27

Nitrogen index
Higher N applications tended to decrease the solubility index (residual N in the wort relative to premalted N content). A high level of N remaining in
the wort is indicative of high levels of metabolised
cell wall protein or high levels of non-protein N
(amino and inorganic N). N resisting hydrolysis
during malting has significant effects on quality of
malt for further processing. A measure of N level in
the wort in relation to the initial concentration of N
in the grain provides a useful indicator of substandard malt. N indices around 40% are generally acceptable but lower values are preferable and are
indicative of improved quality. Wort-N concentration generally increased with fertiliser N application
and the N index showed a marked decline. Fertiliser
N application had a probable effect on the soluble
protein and non-protein N levels.
Under conditions of heat stress, higher protein
modification has been observed compared to controls (Savin et al. 1997b), indicating greater lability
of protein during malting. Free amino N in the wort
was not quantified in our experiment. However,
Savin et al. (1997b) suggest that stress during grain
filling increases wort amino N and reduces the N
index value. This is a result consistent with the
present study, given the reduced index values in the
late (grain filling) water stress treatment.

CONCLUSIONS
Nitrogen fertiliser level had a strong influence on the
N content of grain although no treatment caused N
concentrations that would have resulted in reject
quality (>2%) grain. This occurred irrespective of the
soil water status during growth. Grain quality was
acceptable for malting on the basis of N content even
in the high N treatments and with drought during
grain filling. This suggested that the crops were not
stressed to a point where grain size development was
severely restricted. Kernel size was not influenced
by N treatment however drought did influence the
patter of size distribution in main stem and tiller ears.
Water and N treatment had significant effects on
the N index values, a result that was significant in
terms of management for optimum quality. The
interaction of water and N treatment was significant
for N index, whereas the main effects alone were
significant for N and water treatment for the wort
quality indicators (P-glucan and wort N). N
application tended to exacerbate the levels of Pglucan and wort N thereby producing poorer quality

malt. Treatments that produced the best quality grain

were invariably those that had the highest seasonal
water use. These crops had desirable kernel size
distributions, good extract levels, low P-glucan but
higher wort N levels.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Richard Gillespie for managing the irrigation
treatments in the rain shelter. The assistance of Daniel
Coe, Craig Davies, Rachel Munro, Maryann Robson, and
Sarah Sinton with data collection is much appreciated.
This work was funded by the New Zealand Foundation
for Research, Science and Technology.

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