IEPS2014

International Education Postgraduate Seminar 2014

23-24 December 2014
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor
Malaysia

PROCEEDINGS
VOLUME 2
INNOVATION, ISSUES AND CHALLENGES FOR
EDUCATIONAL SUSTAINABILITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
2014

Published by:
FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
Faculty of Education
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
81310 Skudai, Johor, Johor Bahru
Malaysia
@ Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
All reserved. None of the publication of this proceeding can be republished or
transferred in any means, electronically or mechanically such as copying,
recording or storing for reproduction or accessed without the written consent
from the holders of the rights.
All the papers in this proceeding are presented at the International Education
Postgraduate Seminar 2014, 23 - 24 December 2014 at Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia.
Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia

Cataloguing-in Publication Data

International Education Postgraduate Seminar (2014 : Johor Bahru, Johor)

IEPS2014 International Education Postgraduate Seminar 2014:
PROCEEDINGS INNOVATION, ISSUES AND CHALLENGES FOR
EDUCATIONAL SUSTAINABILITY, VOLUME II, 23 24 December 2014,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor Malaysia /
Edited by: Lokman Mohd Tahir, Aede Hatib Mustaamal, Azlina Mohd
Kosnin, Halijah Ibrahim, Mohd Safarin Nordin, Sarimah Ismail, Najua
Syuhada Ahmad Alhassora, Ana Haziqah A Rashid, Farhana Diana Deris,
Mohd Rustam Mohd Rameli, Norhafizah Sulaiman, Nor Farhah Saidin.
ISBN 978-967-12174-5-0
1. Education, HigherMalaysiaCongresses.
2. Educational changeMalaysiaCongresses. I. Lokman Mohd Tahir,.
II. Aede Hatib Mustaamal. III. Azlina Mohd Kosnin. IV. Halijah Ibrahim.
V. Mohd Safarin Nordin. VI. Sarimah Ismail. VII. Najua Syuhada Ahmad
Alhassora. VIII. Ana Haziqah A Rashid. IX. Farhana Diana Deris.
X. Mohd Rustam Mohd Rameli. XI. Norhafizah Sulaiman. XII. Nor
Farhah Saidin. XIII. Tittle.
378.595

Designed by:
Graphic Unit, Faculty of Education, UTM
Proofreaders:
Najua Syuhada Ahmad Alhassora
Ana Haziqah A Rashid
Edited by:
Lokman Mohd Tahir
Aede Hatib Mustaamal
Azlina Mohd Kosnin
Halijah Ibrahim
Mohd Safarin Nordin
Sarimah Ismail
Najua Syuhada Ahmad Alhassora
Ana Haziqah A Rashid
Farhana Diana Deris
Mohd Rustam Mohd Rameli
Norhafizah Sulaiman
Nor Farhah Saidin

Message from the Patron

PROF. DR BAHARUDDIN ARIS

Assalamualaikum
greetings!

Wrt

Wbt

and

warmest

In consonance with Universiti Teknologi

Malaysias aspiration to be recognised as a world
class centre of academic and technological
excellence through its commitment in enhancing
innovative education and developing cutting-edge research while
perfecting the technical and professional workforce of the nation, I am
pleased that the Faculty of Education with strong support from its
Postgraduate Student Society (PGSSFP) is organising the first International
Education Postgraduate Seminar (IEPS2014).
One of the basic aims of research is to make human lives better, including
the researchers themselves. To achieve this, researchers need to go beyond
producing good dissertations. Research findings must be disseminated to
become part of international literature to allow a more robust and
condensed understanding of different phenomena in theoretical and
practical avenues. Sharing research findings and future objectives of
exploration via presentations and publications is essential in helping
researchers enhance self-development, expand intellectual horizon, and
acquaint with the publishing and sharing practices. Research cannot and
should not be done in isolation; I hope this seminar will not only provide
young and budding researchers a glimpse of the world of research that all
academicians need to embrace but also foster connections and
collaborations between researchers.
Seeing this seminar taking place gives me great pleasure. I applaud the
concentrated efforts between lecturers, support staff and postgraduates at
the Faculty. I am also very proud of all the presenters and participants who
are part of the community of this first IEPS2014. This is indeed a great step
forward for everyone!
Congratulations!

Message from the General Chair

DR AZLINA MOHD KOSNIN

Assalamualaikum Wrt Wbt and warmest
greetings!
It gives me great pleasure to welcome
everyone to the International Education
Postgraduate Seminar (IEPS2014).
With the aim to transform all of research activities of the education
postgraduates into an event of sharing and communication, IEPS2014
provides excellent opportunities for students to share initial findings and
research directions and to receive helpful critique that will guide them
towards better practices. This event will not only be helpful in informing
research practices but will also be a contributor in developing students as
future researchers and academicians.
The theme of this seminar, Innovation, Issues and Challenges for
Educational Sustainability is most accurate to be brought forward because
this theme signals the important shift in education. Be it in curriculum
development, assessment, leadership, science education, vocational
education, psychology, counseling, or multimedia education, the aims of
research in education must be geared towards achieving educational
sustainability.
To IEPS2014 Advisory and Organising Committee, I congratulate you for
spearheading this FIRST International Education Postgraduate Seminar
(IEPS2014). I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to the School
of Graduate Studies for the generous grant, support and contribution. This
appreciation also goes to everyone who have contributed in one way or
another. Thank you for seeing the potentials of our postgraduates, for
investing in their future, to inspire and to foster successful community.
To all delegates, presenters, and participants, this seminar is now all yours.
I hope everyone will find the seminar inspiring and enriching, through
discussions and networking with new acquaintances and colleagues.

Message from the Organising Chairperson

FARHANA DIANA DERIS

Assalamualaikum Wrt Wbt and warmest
greetings! Welcome to the FIRST International
Education Postgraduate Seminar!
In promoting educational sustainability, we need
to take into account the context in which we live in,
and the ways in which the world is interrelated; the
society today lives in a world that is decisively supported and
interconnected by technology. Embracing this monumental advancement,
educational institutions need to produce world-class human capital with
competent skills and intellectual capacity, commendable traits, values and
attributes that are pertinent in the present and future context and necessary
in thriving in this social and technological context.
This indeed highlights the importance of deliberation and exchange of
ideas, experience and opinions in the pursuit of improving the different
fields of education. Thus, this seminar, aptly themed, innovation, issues
and challenges for educational sustainability, is very timely. This seminar
also captures the overarching role of multiple perspectives in informing
practices, revolutionising the way teaching and learning are conceptualised,
and inspiring new methodologies. Therefore, I hope this two-day seminar
not only will enrich participants with research-related experiences but will
also pave the way for fruitful dialogues and insightful deliberations towards
achieving educational sustainability.
I would also like to take this opportunity to express my sincerest gratitude
and appreciation to everyone who have contributed in one way or another
to the success of this seminar, especially to the organising committee, the
Postgraduate Student Society, Faculty of Education (PGSSFP). To all
invited speakers, presenters and participants, thank you for your
participation and support, without which this seminar would not have been
possible.
See you again at the SECOND International Education Postgraduate
Seminar!

IEPS2014 COMMITTEE

Prof. Dr Baharuddin Aris

Patron

Assoc. Prof. Dr Muhammad Sukri Saud

Advisor

Dr Azlina Mohd Kosnin

General Chair

Dr Aede Hatib Mustaamal @ Jamal

Vice Chair

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Dr Nor Fadila Mohd Amin

Secretary I

Dr Halijah Ibrahim

Secretary II

Dr Nor Hasniza Ibrahim

Treasurer & PGSSFP Advisor

Pn Mulenawati Munawi

Assistant Treasurer

Assoc. Prof. Dr Lokman Tahir

Papers and Publication

Dr Mohd Safarin Nordin

Papers and Publication

Dr Sarimah Ismail

Papers and Publication

Assoc. Prof. Dr Noraffandy Yahaya

Technical, Equipment, and Broadcasting

Dr M Al-Muz-Zamil Yasin

Technical, Equipment, and Broadcasting

Dr Yusri Kamin

Logistics and Venue

Dr Abdul Halim Abdullah

Logistics and Venue

Dr Mahani Mokhtar

Protocol and Event Management

Dr Adibah Abdul Latif

Certificate, Token and Honorariums

Dr Noor Dayana Abdul Halim

Publicity, Graphic and Montage

Pn Siti Noraini Mohd Zali

Publicity, Graphic and Montage

Dr Norazrena Abu Samah

Website and Communication

Dr Hasnah Mohamed

Website and Communication

Dr Megat Aman Zahiri Megat Zakaria Website and Communication

Website and Communication
Website and Communication

ORGANISING COMMITTEE
Farhana Diana Deris
Suraiya Haji Muhamad
Fatimah Sarah Yaacob
Crystal Joan Peter
Kho Pui Wun
Nur Aqilah Mohd Norain
Norhafizah Sulaiman
Noor Izzati Ariff

Organising Chairperson
Organising Vice Chairperson
Secretary III
Vice Secretary (Department of Technical and
Engineering Education)
Vice Secretary (Department of Educational Science,
Mathematics and Creative Multimedia)
Vice Secretary (Department of Educational Foundation and
Social Science)
Treasurer II
Vice Treasurer

Sponsorship & Exhibition

Mohd Rustam Mohd Rameli
Nurul Sadah Saipuldin
Nor Farhah Saidin
Papers and Publication
Najua Syuhada Ahmad Alhassora
Ana Haziqah A. Rashid
Mohd Nur Al Sufi Romele
Publicity, Graphic and Montage
Nur Jannah Jamil
Logistics and Venue
Uzailun Nafais Zainal Abidin
Technical, Equipment, and Broadcasting
Sashendran A/L Vanarajan
Secretariat
Suhaimi Zakaria @ Othman
Latifah Abdul Raub
Protocol and Event Management
Muhammad Umar Khan
Norulbiah Ngah
Nurul Farhana Jumaat
Noor Azaref Naim
Rosidah Abdullah Sani
Zurina Hamid
Samira Nikian
Hazlin Haron
Miller Yong
Norashuha Tajuddin
Faridah Mat Nor
Siti Rahimah Mohd Yusop
Norhayati Ahmad
Rafaquat Ali
Ahmad Firdaus Abd Hadi
Siti Khadijah Lokman
Hafzan Ibrahim
Noriadah Abdul Karim
Diyana Zulaika Abdul Ghani

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ID NO.

TITLE

PAGE

Accuracy And Consistency Of ESL Learners'

Ratings On Oral Proficiency In Rater Training
Mardiana Idris & Mohamad Hassan Zakaria

Analysis Of Shots Distribution Area, Winners

And Errors In Squash Game: A Pilot Study
Diyana Zulaika Abdul Ghani & Zainal Abidin
Zainuddin

11

Generic Resources In Producing Incident

Report In The Oil And Gas Industry: A Case
Study
Nor Aini Abdul Rahman, Khairi Izwan
Abdullah & Masputeriah Hamzah

19

Anxiety Level In Malay Rural Children: A

Cross Sectional Study
Atefeh Ahmadi & Mohamed Sharif Mustaffa

27

Pentaksiran Kemahiran Proses Sains (KPS)

Dalam Sistem Pentaksiran Berasaskan Sekolah
(PBS)
Hamimah Abu Naim & Norlly Mohd Isa

37

12

Kemahiran Penaakulan Bagi Matapelajaran

Matematik Tambahan Dalam Kalangan Pelajar
Tingkatan Empat
Mohamad Nizam Arshad, Mohd Salleh Abu,
Abdul Halim Abdullah, Noor Azean Atan &
Mahani Mokhtar

46

15

Neuro Linguistic Programming: Swish Therapy

To Prevent Truancy Among Students In A
Public School In Malaysia
Aminuddin M. Sanusi, Syed Mohamed Shafeq
& Yahya Buntat

62

16

Kemahiran Hayat Sukan (KHS) Bagi Sukan

Sekolah (1M1S) Dalam Kalangan Pelajar
Sekolah Menengah Di Malaysia
Zali A. Rahman & Halijah Ibrahim

75

18

Correlation Between Psychosocial Stressors

With Job Performance Among Government
Employees
Syed Mohamed Shafeq Syed Mansor &
Khatereh A Malekian

87

21

Mathematical Problem Posing Difficulties In

Calculus Among Undergraduates
Zahra Ghasempour, Mdnor Bakar & Golam
Reza Jahanshahloo

103

26

English Poetry Stances By English As A

Foreign Language Readers
Shirin Shafiei Ebrahimi & Zaidah Zainal

116

27

Amalan Pengurusan Pembangunan Profesional

Guru Di Sekolah Dan Kompetensi Guru Di
Negeri Sabah
Roslitah Madon & Lokman Mohd Tahir

132

28

Hubungan Keperluan Pelajar, Iklim Bilik

Darjah,
Matlamat
Sekolah
Dengan
Pengetahuan Pedagogi Isi Kandungan Guru
Tingkatan Enam
Mokhtar Pet & Ahmad Johari Sihes

147

31

Neuro Linguistic Programming With Godiva

Chocolate Therapy In Addressing The Problem
Of Smoking Among The Students
Siti Sheahila Abdul Rashid, Syed Mohamed
Shafeq Mansor & Yahya Buntat

165

42

NLP Swish Therapy In Addressing the Problem

Of Sleep Among Students
Hasjazura Hassan, Syed Mohd Shafeq Syed
Mansor Alhabshi & Yahya Buntat

178

43

Lecturers Professional Development As A

Determinant Of Classroom Practices
AlGhamdi, Abdulkhaliq Hajjad & Ahmad
Johari Sihes

191

49

Pengaruh Penggunaan Alat Menggendong Bayi

Terhadap Ketidakselesaan Menggunakan Skala
Borg
Siti Rabiatul Adawiyah Mahasan, Zainal
Abidin Zainuddin, Asha Hasnimy Mohd
Hashim & Halijah Ibrahim

202

52

Pelaksanaan Pengajaran Dan Pembelajaran

Menggunakan Frog VLE Bagi Mata Pelajaran
Bahasa Melayu Di Sekolah Rendah
Zurina Hamid & Sanitah Mohd Yusof

216

54

Ke Arah Pengurusan Kurikulum Berkesan

Peranan Elemen Perancangan, Pengelolaan,
Kepimpinan Dan Pengawalan
Rosidah Abdullah Sani & Abdul Rahim
Hamdan

229

55

Coaching dan Mentoring Kepimpinan Pengetua

Cemerlang Terhadap Prestasi Pengurus
Pertengahan Dalam Meningkatkan Prestasi
Cemerlang Sekolah
Nuinda Alias & Khadijah Daud

241

61

Oral Commuication Apprehension Among

Libyan EFL Learners
Abdalnaser Alamaria, Abdul Rahim Salam &
Tina Abdullah

259

73

The Improving Of Cognitive Visual Spatial

Using Google Sketchup In Overcoming
Learning Difficulties In Geometry
Rohani Abd Wahab, Mohd Salleh Abu, Abdul
Halim Abdullah, Noor Azean Atan & Mahani
Mokhtar

275

77

Assessing Lecturers Beliefs On Teaching

Samah Ali Mohsen Mofreh, M. Najib Abdul
Ghafar & Abdul Hafiz Omar

286

79

Problem-Based
Learning
(PBL)
In
Mathematics: A Meta-Analysis
Najihah Mustaffa, Zaleha Ismail, Zaidatun
Tasir & Mohd Nihra Haruzuan Mohamad Said

301

82

Co-Curricular Marking System On Measuring

Leadership Development Among Secondary
School Students
Muhazian Md. Noor & Halijah Ibrahim

317

85

Rasch Model Analysis Of Assessment For

Learning In Higher Education
Erwin Akib & Mohamad Najib Abdul Ghafar

335

88

Model
Pembelajaran
Sinektik
Dalam
Meningkatkan Kreativiti Siswa Pada Mata
Kuliah Kewirausahaan Di Jurusan Kurikulum
Dan Teknologi Pendidikan
Zelhendri Zen & Ahmad Johari Sihes

344

90

Impact Of Creative Problem Solving On

Mathematics
Lim Keng Keh, Zaleha Ismail & Hamidreza
Kashefi

361

98

Studi Tentang Tahap Kompetensi Guru

Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri Bidang
Bisnis Dan Manajemen Di Kota Padang
Nellitawati & Yusof Boon

375

103

A Preliminary Study On Implementation Of

Aerobic Fitness Training In Tennis Coaches'
Training Program
Syahrul Ridhwan Morazuki & Zainal Abidin
Zainuddin

389

104

BebanTugas
Guru
Sekolah
Dan
PerananPentadbirSekolah
Hamdan Hamami & M Al-Muz-ZammilYasin

399

110

Pendidikan Karakter Dalam Mata Pelajaran

Budaya Alam Minangkabau Di Sd Kota Padang
Sumatera Barat
Zuwirna & Ahmad Johari Sihes

414

111

Kompetensi Mata Pelajaran Apresiasi Sastera

Kanak-Kanak
Elfia Sukma & Ahmad Johari Sihes

431

115

Basic Concept Of Counseling Post Natural

Disaster, Issues And Challenges In Indonesia
Ifdil & Faizah Abd Ghani

447

116

Barrier Beyond Control Of Secondary School

Teachers
Chia Lai Lai & Abdul Rahim Hamdan

458

119

Cabaran Penyelidikan Pembinaan Alat Teng

Teng Board (TTB)
Nurul Rafeeda Saarani, Zainal Abidin
Zainuddin, Halijah Ibrahim & Asha Hasnimy
Hashim

467

127

Tahap Kecergasan Atlet Judo Selepas

Menjalani Latihan Akrobatik Gimnastik
Mohd Nazri Azeli & Halijah Ibrahim

476

130

Implementasi Teori Kecerdasan Pelbagai

Dalam Pelaksanaan Kurikulum Program
Matrikulasi KPM
Abdul Rahim Hamdan & Jaafar Jamian

483

134

Sistem Pengujian Automatik Secara Visual

Untuk Menganalisis Pergerakan Motor Halus
Kanak-Kanak
Nurfadilah Darmansah & Halijah Ibrahim

499

138

Perlaksanaan Pendekatan Pengajaran Bersama

Dalam Kelas Inklusif
Muhamad Khairul Anuar Hussin & Abdul
Rahim Hamdan

515

141

Module Construction On The Prevention Of

Smoking Habit Among Primary School
Students
Roslee Ahmad & Norhayati Ahmad

531

143

The Reliability Of Scoring Item For Kemahiran

Melakar Task
Siti Khadijah Lokman & Halijah Ibrahim

543

144

A Meta-Analysis: Pedagogical Strategies For

Teaching Mathematics Among Aboriginal
Students
Zuriati Sabidin, Zaleha Ismail, Zaidatun Tasir
& Mohd Nihra Haruzuan Mohamad Said

552

151

Issues On Students Plagiarism: A Review

Andi Anto Patak, Hamimah Abu Naim &
Rohaya Talib

566

157

Keberkesanan Modul Pencegahan Dadah

Berasaskan Pendekatan Kaunseling Choice
Theory Bagi Meningkatkan Kesedaran Murid
Terhadap Penyalahgunaan Dadah
Nur Haslinda Hussin & Roslee Ahmad

576

160

Sifat Personaliti Guru Untuk

Kreatif
Azhari Mariani, Zaleha Ismail

Pengajaran

593

161

Catatan Awalan Terhadap Kajian Aspek

Kebolehpercayaan Instrumen Kemahiran Asas
Pergerakan Kanak-Kanak
Siti Sri Dalimah Suhaimi & Halijah Ibrahim

603

166

Instruments For Assessing Technological

Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) In
Teaching Mathematics
Zaleha Ismail & Norhafizah Sulaiman

617

167

Struktur
Dan
Perwakilan
Kepimpinan
Distributif Di Sekolah
Siti Khadadiah M. B. & Khadijah Daud

633

169

Epistemic Modality Markers As Persuasive

Elements In Science And Engineering Research
Abstracts
Maryam Mehrjooseresht & Ummul K. Ahmad

646

172

Penilaian Kursus MPS1843 Menggunakan

Model Konteks, Input, Proses Dan Produk
Suhaila Abdul Raub & Zaleha Ismail

659

177

Pendekatan Inkuiri dan Teknik Penyoalan

Terbuka Guru : Isu dan Pelaksanaannya dalam
Proses Pembelajaran dan Pengajaran Kimia
Arshad Jais, Noraffandy Yahaya, Nor Hasniza
Ibrahim, Mohamed Noor Hassan

672

183

Mathematics Teachers Higher-Order Thinking

Najua Syuhada Ahmad Alhassora, Hamidreza
Kashefi, Abdul Halim Abdullah

685

187

Validity And Reliability Of Instrument

Measuring Culinary Competencies: The Rasch
Measurement Model
Nornazira Suhairom, Aede Hatib Mustaamal
& Nor Fadila Mohd Amin

695

188

Tahap Kemahiran Berfikir Kritis Matematik

Pelajar Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri Di
Daerah Bone Sulawesi Selatan
Firdaus & Ismail Kailani

710

190

Analisis Pukulan Sudut Penalti Pasukan Hoki

Wanita Malaysia Di Peringkat Asia
Zurina Md Yusof & Halijah Ibrahim

723

210

Amalan Kaunseling Kesihatan Dalam Kalangan

Kaunselor Di Institut Penjagaan Kesihatan
Malaysia
Merikan Aren, Faizah Abd Ghani & Zainal
Abidin Zainuddin

732

211

The Nature Of Mathematical Creativity : A

Review
Mohd Amirul Azzim Aminuddin, Zaleha Ismail
& Hamidreza Kashefi

748

212

Kefahaman Dan Kemahiran Guru Dalam

Pentaksiran Kemahiran Berfikir Aras Tinggi
(KBAT)
Jayeswary Shammugam & Ahmad Johari Sihes

759

220

Pembangunan Gaya Pemikiran Keusahawanan

Guru Dan Penerapan Ciri-Ciri Keusahawanan
Pelajar
Dayang Sinar Igah, Mohd Anuar Abdul
Rahman
&
Khadijah
Daud

771

222

Integriti Pentaksiran Dalam Sistem Pendidikan

Di Malaysia: Satu Analisis
Hazlin Haron, Rohaya Talib & Adibah Abd
Latif

792

233

Kompetensi Dimiliki Guru Pelatih Prasekolah

Di Institut Pendidikan Guru
Miller Yong & Anuar Abd. Rahman

808

240

Pendidikan Swasta Dalam Arus Kemajuan

Pendidikan Negara
Mohan Sanyasi & Sanitah Mohd Yusof

825

249

Kesan Teknik Hypno Mind Booster Ke Atas

Motivasi Intrinsik Dan Ekstrinsik Pelajar
Saiful Lizan Suparman & Mohd Tajudin
Ninggal

841

250

Pembentukan Modul Islah Dalam Menangani

Masalah Disiplin Kritikal Dalam Kalangan
Pelajar
Faizah Abd. Ghani & Mohd Azhar Ab. Rahman

847

251

Interference Of L1 In Pronunciation Teaching

And Learning In Malaysian ESL Setting
Nur Aqilah Mohd Norain & Mohd Hilmi
Hamzah

866

253

Developing A Model Of Marital Intimacy For

Iranian Couples In Malaysia
Zoleikha Kamali & Syed Mohamed Shafeq Syed
Mansor

877

254

Perkaitan Kepimpinan Distributif Guru Besar

Dengan Kepercayaan Dan Kepimpinan Guru
Asmia Ayu Alias & Khadijah Daud

889

255

Concept And Models Of Academic Advising In

Higher Education Intitutions: Comparison
Between Malaysia And America
Nguyen Thuy Van & Hamdan Said

904

256

Alternation Between Walk And Run Kinematic Limitation At Stance And Swing Of
The Walk Gait
Hafizah Harun & Abd Hafidz Omar

922

257

The Need For Problem Base Learning (PBL) In

Teaching And Learning In Technical
Vocational Education And Training (TVET): A
Concept Paper
Sada Adamu Maigari, Mohd Zolkifli Abdul
Hamid & Adnan Ahmad

934

258

Identifying Competences Needed By Secondary

Schools Teacher In Designing Instruction
Haidir Arafah & Ahmad Johari Sihes

942

259

The Framework For Determining The

Relationship Between Personality Traits and
Career Decision Making Among undergraduate
Student
Monica Obi & Mohd Tajudin Ninggal

956

266

Perbandingan Kesan Motivasi Belajar Ke Atas

Model Tgfu Dan Model Inquiry Dalam
Kecergasan Fizikal Bagi Pelajar Sekolah
Rendah (Sr) Di Kabupaten Padang Pariaman
Syamsuar & Zainal Abidin Zainuddin

969

272

Story Telling Techniques In Enhancing The

Comprehension Skill In Bahasa Malaysia
Meena Ayaoo & Shafeeq Hussain Vazhathodi

981

277

Lesson Study In Malaysia

Wong Wai Yoke, Fatin Aliah Phang Abdullah

997

280

A Review On Career Decision-Making And

Factor Of Career Pathway In School Mohamed
Alfian Harris Omar & Syed Mohamed Shafeq
Syed Mansor

1014

282

Reading Habits Among Adolescence

Nur Aida Alias & Azlina Mohd Kosnin

1029

283

Positive Outcome With Neurofeedback

Treatment In A Case Of Child With Mild
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Wong Siao Yen & Yeo Kee Jiar

1035

285

Meaningful Diction Through Task Based

Approach
Pia Munusamy & Abdullah Mohd Nawi

1049

ACCURACY AND CONSISTENCY

OF ESL LEARNERS RATINGS ON
ORAL PROFICIENCY IN RATER
TRAINING
Mardiana Idris & Mohamad Hassan Zakaria

ABSTRACT
Rater training is fundamental in reducing rater variability in selfand peer assessments practice within the paradigm of assessment
as learning. Since Malaysian education system is examinationoriented in which assessment of learning (summative) and
assessment for learning (formative) dominate, ESL learners are
rarely asked to rate themselves or their peers as the system is still
sceptical in entrusting learners with the role of assessors. Learners
are normally perceived as unable to (1) assess accurately, (2) assess
consistently and (3) discriminate oral proficiency components in
their performance. Therefore, this study attempts to gauge learners
perspectives on these three assumptions. Quantitative analysis was
conducted using the Rasch model while a short semi-structured
interview was used to support the quantitative results obtained.
Findings show that learners are generally able and ready for
assessment as learning to be implemented in the ESL classroom.
They were generally able to rate other speakers and themselves
consistently as well as discriminating oral proficiency components.
These promising results would possibly launch a platform for selfand peer assessments practice which will consequently promote
active learning and effective learner-centred classroom in
Malaysia.

Keywords: Assessment as learning, Rater training, CEFR

INTRODUCTION
In many self- and peer assessments studies on oral proficiency,
rater training is fundamental in reducing rater variability as failing
to conduct such training results in construct-irrelevant
variance(Kang, 2012). Understandably, reducing rater bias or
mitigating rater effects are crucial to ensure fairness of judgments
particularly when these assessments are framed within assessment
of learning (summative) and assessment for learning (formative)
whereby scores determine placement and certification. However,
only a few rater training was reported for assessment as learning
(Earl, 2013): a new assessment paradigm that advocates learners
involvement with assessment criteria in order to foster learners
critical thinking and independent learning. Though this assessment
type corroborates with the objectives of successful language
learning, it has not been fully embraced in Malaysia, probably due
to the educational system that still favours high stakes
examinations (Lan Ong, 2010) and possibly from lack of exposure.
Furthermore, oral proficiency components entail complex and
intertwined features such as grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation
and fluency, to name a few, which demand more instructional
hours than most schools can offer. Consequently, oral proficiency
skills typically receive inadequate attention compared to other
language skills in the classroom.
Since Malaysian education system is examination-oriented,
learners are rarely asked to rate themselves or their peers as the
system is sceptical in entrusting learners with the role of assessors.
Learners are normally perceived as unable to (1) assess accurately,
(2) assess consistently and (3) discriminate oral proficiency
components in their performance. Therefore, this study attempts to
gauge learners perspectives through the following research

questions:
1. Do ESL learners apply the scale accurately in rater training?
2. Do ESL learners rate consistently in rater training?
3. To what extend does learner rater training sensitizes ESL
learners to oral proficiency components, namely overall
impression, range, accuracy, fluency and coherence?

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE STUDY

Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR)
Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) is an
empirically developed measurement for listening, speaking,
reading and writing. However, in this study, only speaking scales
were used as the instrument to elicit learners ratings in assessing
speakers, featured in Council of Europe (CoE) videos. The ratings
used in this study will be based on the reconstructed CEFR oral
assessment criteria (CoE, 2001), consisting of statements that
describe the language learners performance at six levels: A1, A2,
B1, B2, C1, and C2 as the highest level. CEFR was used in this
study as it was developed empirically, using the views of practicing
teachers. Though it may seem that it suits only European learners, a
few studies showed that it operates well in different regions and
different learners of the world (Glover, 2011). Since the task
excluded pair format, the components adapted were only within
five criteria: overall impression, range, accuracy, fluency, and
coherence. Interaction was not used in order to eliminate
interlocutor effect (Fulcher, 2010). Overall impression refers to
holistic ratings of the speakers through descriptive criteria. Range
reflects learners ability to formulate ideas by using differing
linguistic forms. Accuracy reflects on learners ability to maintain
consistent use of complex grammar while fluency deals with their
ability to express ideas spontaneously and speaks in natural flow.

Reconstruction activity of CEFR oral assessment criteria grid

Participants were grouped into three or four and each group
received global and analytic assessment scales of CEFR with
missing descriptors. Then, jigsaw activity began in which each
group discussed and filled in the missing descriptors (these missing
descriptors were on overall impression, range, accuracy, fluency
and coherence). Then, the researchers discussed the descriptors
with participants, steering them towards placing the descriptors
correctly in the grid. After these descriptors were correctly placed,
the original scale was given to each participant. The rational for
jigsaw activity was to sensitize them to the descriptors before they
viewed the videos (Ibberson, 2012)

METHODOLOGY
Participants
In this study, 10 Band 3 MUET (Malaysian University English
Test) learners were purposely selected. MUET is an English
proficiency test of the four language skills, administered to tertiary
level learners by Malaysian Examination Council. The results are
depicted in aggregated score that categorizes the learners into six
bands, ranging from Band 1 (extremely limited user) to Band 6
(very good user). Only participants who scored Band 3 (modest
user of English) were selected for this study as they could
understand the CEFR descriptors as well as provide more
responses for the interview. 6 females and 4 male participants
volunteered with 5 of them Malays, 4 Chinese and 1 Indian,
mirroring the three main races in Malaysia. All of them were 18
years old.

DVD of spoken performances illustrating CEFR levels

After reconstruction activity of the CEFR oral assessment criteria,
the participants viewed three DVDs of levels A1 (Tifaine: T), B2
(Paul:P) and C2 (Xavier: X) of CEFR spoken performance. They
were required to rate the speakers by filling in the CEFR rating
forms based on the CEFR criteria previously reconstructed. These
DVDs were viewed on CoE website (http://www.coe.int/) whereby
the calibrated examples were available for training purposes from
http://www.ciep.fr/. Ratings, comments and transcriptions of the
calibrated examples were also downloaded to guide and assist rater
training.
Quantitative analyses of ratings
Participants accuracy and consistency in rating the speakers were
computed using Rasch measurement model (Bond & Fox, 2007) by
means of Winstep computer programme (Version 3.72.3).
Although the sample size was small, it was adequate for analysis in
Winstep as it fulfilled the minimum 10 observations per category
(Linacre, 2014).
Qualitative analysis of interviews
A brief semi-structured interview on rater training were conducted
to explore participants (a) involvement with oral assessment
criteria, (b) understanding of CEFR oral assessment descriptors,
and (c) general view on rater training practice.

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

In Rasch analysis, testing the fit between data and the model is
conducted through quality control of fit statistics with z-scores (or
Zstd), mean-square (MnSq), Infit and Outfit (Linacre, 2014). The

value of Zstd was 0.0, indicating that the data fit the model. The
MnSq value for infit and outfit were 1.0 and 0.98 respectively
which indicate that the measurement is accurate. The subsequent
results were reported according to the research questions.

RQ1: 1. Do ESL learners apply the scale accurately in rater

training?
Accuracy in this study was viewed within the context of how
learners ratings matched the experts. The third column (Exact
Obs%) of Table 1 shows percentage of ratings that matched the
experts. Only five learners (L03, L10, L01, L02 and L05) achieved
agreement more than the acceptable percentage (70%) while L04
scored less than 50% agreement with the CEFR experts. This could
be due to L04 ratings of Xavier (C2 speaker), who rated him as C1
during rater training. However, L04 ratings were only one point
lower than expected but were still within proficient speakers range
(C1 and C2) according to CEFR oral assessment criteria. The last
column (Match Exp%) shows the agreement percentage that was
expected if the data fit the model perfectly. L03 met the
expectation of the model with 100% while L06, L07, L08 and L09
did not meet the expectation by only 2.6%. This indicates that the
four learners ratings were more random than the model predicts.
However, L01, L02 and L05 observed percentages show 10.7%
higher than the expected model, an indication that the ratings were
predictable.

Table 1 Learners rating agreement with CEFR experts

Learner
L03
L10
L01

Total Score
15
14
10

Exact Obs%
100.0
93.3
80.0

Match Exp %
100.0
93.4
69.3

L02
L05
L06
L07
L08
L09
L04

10
10
10
10
10
10
9

80.0
80.0
66.7
66.7
66.7
66.7
46.7

69.3
69.3
69.3
69.3
69.3
69.3
66.1

RQ2: Do ESL learners rate consistently in rater training?

Learners internal consistency of ratings was gauged through infit
and outfit mean square residuals (MSq). Ideally, both should be
close to one within the range of 0.5 to 1.5 (Linacre, 2014). Outfit
MSq is sensitive to extremely unexpected individual ratings
(outliers) while Infit MsQ is less sensitive to outliers but more
sensitive to unexpected rating patterns an indication of internal
consistency (Yan, 2014). In Table 2, only L04 appeared to have
Infit MsQ higher than 1.5, suggesting a tendency to rate
inconsistently and unpredictably. However, Infit and Outfit
statistics of nine other learners were within the range, indicating
that almost all learners were largely internally consistent. Since
L03 scored 100% agreement with the experts, the Infit and Outfit
statistics reported maximum measure as the learner was behaving
like a rating machine, thus no longer included in the
measurement situation. These results suggest that most learners
were able to rate consistently and rater training could have
contributed to the consistency. This is consistent with many studies
which found that rater training may become a mechanism to
eliminate
rater error and improve consistency (Farrokhi,
Esfandiari, & Schaefer, 2012; Carey, Mannell, & Dunn, 2010).

Table 2 Internal consistency of learners ratings

Learner
L03
L10
L01
L02
L05
L06
L07
L08
L09
L04

Model SE
1.83
1.05
0.58
0.58
0.58
0.58
0.58
0.58
0.58
0.56

Infit MSq
Max. measure
1.07
0.82
0.90
0.66
0.82
0.82
1.22
1.22
1.54

Outfit MSq
Max. measure
1.03
0.77
0.84
0.59
0.72
0.72
1.20
1.20
1.77

PtBis Corr
0.00
0.07
0.56
0.46
0.77
0.58
0.58
0.03
0.03
-0.46

RQ3: To what extend does learner rater training sensitizes ESL

learners to oral proficiency components, namely overall
impression, range, accuracy, fluency and coherence?
In relation to their involvement with rater training, many learners
repeatedly used the word helped and improve.
L03: I believe my oral skills will improve if I get involved with
rater training.
L01: With rater training, it helped me to understand oral
assessment criteria.
Although they acknowledged that rater training was helpful in
improving their oral skills, more than half requested for longer
training session.
In terms of understanding CEFR oral assessment descriptors,
majority felt that the descriptors were easily understood and all of
them concurred that they were able to categorize the speakers and
themselves according to the CEFR levels on overall impression,
fluency and coherence. However, only some learners were
confident in rating range and accuracy. All learners agreed that the
descriptors helped them in identifying their strengths and
weaknesses.
Generally, learners displayed positive disposition towards rater
training practice as evident from the responses below (verbatim):

L10: This training helps me to understand my oral abilities; I know

what I need to improve about my speaking.
L04: I think this oral assessment criteria will bring a lot of
advantages if me involve in this assessment criteria although it may
made me feel difficult because my English level is really low and
poor.
L05: I think that the oral assessment criteria helped me to know
how to differentiate each level according to accuracy, fluency,
range and coherence

CONCLUSIONS
Findings from this study suggest that ESL learners are generally
able and ready for assessment as learning to be implemented in the
classroom. They were generally able to rate other speakers and
themselves consistently as well as discriminating oral proficiency
components. These promising results would possibly launch a
platform for self- and peer assessments practice in ESL classrooms.
Such assessments will promote active learning and effective
learner-centred classroom. In order to improve accuracy of
learners ratings, better results would have been achieved if videos
of A2, B2 and B1 were shown. In fact, future studies might want to
use larger sample of ESL learners, longer period of rater training,
different oral assessment scales or different oral proficiency
components.

REFERENCES
Bond, T.G & Fox, C.M (2007), Applying the Rasch Model:
Fundamental measurement in the human sciences (Second
Edition), Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: London
Carey, M. D., Mannell, R. H., & Dunn, P. K. (2010). Does a raters
familiarity with a candidate's pronunciation affect the rating in

oral proficiency interviews? Language Testing, 28(2), 201

219.
Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of
Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment,
Language Policy Unit: Strasbourg
Earl, L.M. (2013). Assessment as Learning: Using classroom
assessment to maximize student learning (Second Edition),
Corwin: USA
Farrokhi, F., Esfandiari, R., & Schaefer, E. (2012). A Many-Facet
Rasch Measurement of Differential Rater Severity / Leniency
and Teacher Assessment. Journal of Basic and Applied
Scientific Research, 2(9), 87868798.
Fulcher, G. (2010). The reification of the Common European
Framework of Reference(CEFR) and effect-driven testing.
Advances in Research on Language Acquisition and
Teaching, 1526.
Glover, P. (2011). Using CEFR level descriptors to raise university
students awareness of their speaking skills. Language
Awareness, 20(2), 121133.
Ibberson, H. (2012). An investigation of non-native learners selfassessment of the speaking skill and their attitude towards
self-assessment. University of Essex.
Kang, O. (2012). Impact of Rater Characteristics and Prosodic
Features of Speaker Accentedness on Ratings of International
Teaching Assistants Oral Performance. Language Assessment
Quarterly, 9(3), 249269.
Lan Ong, S. (2010). Assessment profile of Malaysia: high-stakes
external examinations dominate. Assessment in Education:
Principles, Policy & Practice, 17(1), 91103.
Linacre, J.M. (2014) A User's Guide to Facets:Rasch Model
Computer Programs. Retrieved from www.winstep.com
Yan, X. (2014). An examination of rater performance on a local
oral English proficiency test: A mixed-methods approach.
Language Testing, 127.

10

ANALYSIS OF SHOTS
DISTRIBUTION AREA, WINNERS
AND ERRORS IN SQUASH GAME:
A PILOT STUDY
Diyana Zulaika binti Abdul Ghani & Zainal Abidin bin Zainuddin

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to analyze the shots distribution
area, winner and error shots in squash game. Two matches from
two different tournaments, performed by four players divided
equally for professional elite and national back-up groups (age
21.27 5.22, height 1.69 0.98 m, weight 64 10 kg), were
analyzed via Sportscode software. Results indicated that majority
shots played at area 5 with 24% (303 shots of 1,261 total shots)
while area 4 was the least shots played with only 11% (139 shots of
1,261 total shots). Further analysis has shown that the winner shots
frequently performed at area 1 (26% of 41 winner shots). Similarly,
error shots also had recorded area 1 as the highest playing rate
together with area 2 (44% and 46% of 41 error shots respectively).
This study found that the area of shots distribution, winner and
error are related to the players strategy and it is depends on
players ability to direct the outcomes whether it is a winner shots
or causing errors. In conclusion, findings of this study will be used
to determine other performance indicators that lead to the
improvement of players performance.
Keywords: Shots distribution area; Winner; Error; Squash

11

INTRODUCTION
Performance indicators (performance parameters) are variables that
define the features of a performance that will contribute to the
results or outcomes of that performance. Performance indicators
used in many sports are very much alike. Factors that lead to the
performance enhancement during games such as rally length,
winners, errors, shot distribution, shot selection, shot execution,
defensive and attacking shots, service, passing, tackling, shots,
goals and set pieces are involved for the thorough analysis of the
match (M. D. Hughes & Bartlett, 2002) and to provide positive
feedback to players and coaches for better understanding and to
improve performance.
Squash court could be divided into three main parts which
are front, middle and back court. Players played all around court
using all of desirable shots such as drive, cross-court, drop, boast,
lob and other shots then generate their own playing pattern.
Different players performed different style of playing according to
their opponents response shots (Vuckovi et al., 2013).
It is important for the players to understand their strengths
and weaknesses in order to strategically plan their tactical game.
Therefore, the aim of this paper is to analyze shots distribution
between professional elite and national back-up players and also
winner and error shots during matches.

METHODS
Participant and sample of matches
The sample involved four Malaysian squash players (age 21.27
5.22, height 1.69 0.98 m, weight 64 10 kg). Matches were
recorded at two different tournaments: the Malaysia Open and the
National Junior Championship. Two matches were recorded with a
total 7 sets of videos.

12

Procedure
All matches were recorded using Sony Digital Video Camera
Recorder, model DCR-PC350E (lens Carl Zeiss Vario-Sonnar T,
720 x 576 pixels, 25 frames per seconds. Prior to testing, squash
court was labelled into six areas (Figure 1); front court (area 1 and
area 2), middle court (area 3 and area 4) and back court (area 5 and
area 6).

Figure 1 Dimensions of the courts labels

The total games played by the players were recorded. All

recorded data were then analyzed and compared between groups.
All video recordings were analyzed using Sportscode software.

Data Analysis
The analysis was conducted using Sportscode software. Two
designated code windows which are 1) area of shots distribution
and 2) winners and errors were used. The first designated code
window, comprises with all 35 forehand and backhand shots
including rules of let and stroke shots (Figure 2).

13

Figure 2 Code windows for shots distribution according to areas.

*
indicates Area 1,
indicates Area 2,
indicates Area 3,
indicates Area 4,
indicates Area 5 and
indicates Area 6

Second designated code window is specific for winner and

error shots which contains 32 shots for both forehand and
backhand (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Code window winner and error shots according to areas

*
indicates Area 1,
indicates Area 2,
indicates Area 3,
indicates Area 4,
indicates Area 5 and
indicates Area 6

Video analysis was carried out for two stages. The first
stage was for shots distribution that landed in particular area in
court (first code window). Second stage was for winner and error
shots performed throughout the matches (second code window).
Outcomes from sportscode video analysis were then analyzed using
14

Microsoft Excel 2010 and SPSS v16.0.

Squashs coaches (n=2) and experts (n=2) were involved in
the notational analysis. An Inter-observer analysis was conducted
to analyze the reliability of these observers. The coaches and
experts (observer) have analyzed the types of shots from two
matches, and a kappa coefficient (k) analysis was conducted. The
kappa coefficients agreement value of the types of shots from the
two matches are acceptable (k = 0.78) and the observers were
reliable to conduct further notational analysis

RESULTS
Total shots distribution
Figure 4 below shows the total number of shots during tournament.
As observed, majority players played shots at area 5 with 24% (303
shots of 1,261 total shots). Whereas, area 4 had recorded the least
shots played with 11% (139 of 1,261 shots) only.

Figure 4 Area of total shots distribution

15

Winner and Error shots distribution

A total of 81 shots from overall 1,261 shots have been identified as
winner and error shots during tournaments. Figure 5a described
area of winner shots distribution during rallies. From all 41 winner
shots, 26% are at area 1 (14 shots) while area 2 and area 6 both had
recorded same percentage of shots played with 23% (12 shots).
Area 4 is the lowest with only 4% (2 shots).
On the other hand, Figure 5b shown the area of error shots
distribution. High percentage of error shots occurred at area 1 and
area 2 with 44% (18shots) and 46% (19shots) respectively.
However, area 3 and area 4 had recorded none of error shots. This
shows that error shots are mainly happened at front court.

Figure 5a)Winner shots distribution b) Error shots distribution

DISCUSSION
Most of the shots performed at area 5. According to Vuckovic et
al. (2013), 41.76% of 10,062 shots were straight drives shot and
predominant in the back of the court at the left side (backhand)
with percentage of 70.4%. This are aligned with the findings of this
study. By playing at the back of the court, players have time to
strategize their playing strategy to win the rally. Furthermore, area
5 is the backhand area thus it gave advantage to the players with

16

stronger backhand techniques. Tong & Hong (2000) stated that

51.94% of all returns were played from the backhand area.
Winner shots occurred most at area 1 which are at the front
court. Mostly, players performed drop shots while playing at the
front court and according to Hughes et.al (2006), 62% of winner
distribution is drop shots. Murray & Hughes (2001) had revealed
that drop shots had highest percentage in winner distributions
among players and this shows that players execute the drop shots
when there are chances to attack during rally and when they are in
comfortable position to do so.
Playing at the front of the court could lead to the winner or
error as the highest error shots happened also at the front court
(area 1 and area 2). Drop shots were included in one of main shots
that triggered perturbations in squash game (Hughes et al., 2006).
Drop shots often force the players to run hastily towards front area
of the court and always cause disturbance to the playing rhythms of
the players during game. When the perturbations happens, players
are in the instability conditions and leads to the imprudent
mistakes. Therefore, it is depends on players ability to directed the
outcomes whether it is a winner shots or causing errors.

CONCLUSION
Playing area is an important indicator that determines players
playing strategy. Finding of this study found that area 5 is the
highest preferable area to play by players compared to the middle
and front court. This could suggest that players loved to use shots
that contribute at the back of the court.
However, the winner shots are happened to be highest at
the front court and most likely through drop shots. Moreover, not
only winner shots but errors also occur highest at the front court.
These indicate that one type of shots could give result in either
success or failure.
In conclusion, findings of this study will be used to

17

determine other performance indicators that lead to the

improvement of players performance.

REFERENCES
Hughes, M. D., & Bartlett, R. M. (2002). The use of performance
indicators in performance analysis. Journal of Sports
Sciences, 20(10), 739754.
doi:10.1080/026404102320675602
Hughes, M. T., Howells, M., & Hughes, M. (2006). Using
perturbations in elite mens squash to generate performance
profiles. In A. Rendimiento (Ed.), IV Congreso Mundial de
Ciencia y Deportes de Raqueta (pp. 3551). Retrieved from
www.altorendimiento.net
Murray, S and Hughes, M. (2001). Tactical performance profiling
in elite level senior squash. In: M.Hughes and I.M Franks
(eds.). Cardiff: CPA, UWIC. 185-194. Presented at World
Conference of Performance Analysis and Computers in
Sport.
Tong, Y.-M., & Hong, Y. (2000). The playing pattern of worlds
top single badminton players. In International Symposium on
Biomechanics in Sports.
Vuckovi, G., James, N., Hughes, M., Murray, S., Sporis, G., &
Pers, J. (2013). The effect of court location and available time
on the tactical shot selection of elite squash players. Journal
of Sports Science & Medicine, 12, 6673.

18

GENERIC RESOURCES IN
PRODUCING INCIDENT REPORT
IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY:
A CASE STUDY
Nor Aini Abdul Rahman, Khairi Izwan Abdullah & Masputeriah
Hamzah

ABSTRACT
This paper aims to investigate how generic resources (professional
practices) influence the production of incident reports in the oil and
gas industry. In order to do that, fifteen summary of incident
reports were analyzed in terms of their contents. Based on the
analysis, interviews were held with engineers in the industry to
probe further how professional practices influence the production
of the incident report.
Keywords: Generic resources, Professional communication,
Professional genre, Professional practices, Professional cultures

INTRODUCTION
Verbal and written communication is important in the workplace
as everyones communication skills affect both personal and
organizational effectiveness (Kreitner and Kinicki, 2008). The
authors further state that communication is not only about sending
and receiving messages but requires other important factors:
planning, organizing, directing and leading. Studies on workplace

19

communication (Lehtonen and Karjalainen, 2008; Crosling and

Ward, 2002; AC Nielsen Research Services, 2000) found that a
wide range of communicative events take place in the companies
in ensuring work effectiveness and efficiency. They include
informal work-related discussions, persuading colleagues, giving
feedback, networking, and explaining, instructing and
demonstrating.
The studies show that communication in an important tool
to ensure organizational effectiveness. It is undeniable that there
is a need for learners who will join the job market to equip
themselves with essential communication skills at the workplace.
While learning to communicate at the workplace could happen on
its own outside the classroom, the process could be made more
effective and systematic through formal instruction, as in
workplace-oriented English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
programmes. However, to effectively prepare learners for
communication at the workplace, ESP practitioners need to
understand what makes effective communication in an
organization. They need to understand the process of information
flow and the parties involved in the communication. There is also
a need to understand the culture and subcultures that influence
communication in specific contexts as has been highlighted by
Bhatia (2008) on the need to study the professional context,
Swales (1990) on discourse community and Widdowsons (1998)
community and culture.
In preparing learners for professional communication, ESP
practitioners need to be aware that one communicative act can
serve many functions. Communication is not seen as an isolated
act; rather, it combines a few functions to achieve one major
purpose and this is known as interdiscursivity (Fairclough, 1992).
As an illustration, a press release on a product or service can
serve many functions: for publicity, promotions, announcements,
accomplishments, as marketing tool, or providing financial data.
Thus, these various functions of press release are intertwined in
one text.

20

From the views held on interdiscursivity, it can be

concluded that text production is a highly complex process. It is
not a simple process of putting and organizing thoughts into
words. Rather, it involves a combination of activities to achieve a
designated communicative purpose. It also uses a combination of
genres in a particular social or professional setting in order to
achieve certain communicative purpose. This brings generic
resources (Bhatia 2010) into the picture. Generic resources refers
to professional practices, professional culture and professional
genre. Professional practices refer to using a particular genre to
achieve a specific objective and choosing the appropriate mode of
communication for that particular genre (Bhatia, 2010).
Professional cultures refer to the boundaries of several kinds of
constraints, such as generic norms and conventions, professional
and disciplinary goals and objectives and the questions of
professional, disciplinary and organizational identities (Bhatia,
2010). Professional genre refers to the types of texts that are
recognizable to readers and writers, and that meet the needs of the
rhetorical situations in which they function (Swales, 1990).
With that in mind, this study aims to identify one particular
generic resource professional practices that influence the
production of incident report in the oil and gas industry. Incident
report refers to a report produced when accidents such as
equipment failure, loss of life, or fire occur at the workplace.

METHODOLOGY
Interview data is collected from engineers working with a
contracting oil and gas company based in Houston, Texas. It
undertakes projects by well-known clients in the oil and gas
industry. The list of the company is obtained from a directory
Johor Industry Guide (2005). The current project involves
building a turret in Pasir Gudang, Johor. The top management of
the company consists of international staff while the middle and

21

lower management consist of both international and local staff.

The primary responsibilities of the company are to provide
a broad range of applications for tanker based floating production,
storage and offloading (FPSO / FSO) systems installed in water
depths ranging from shallow to ultra-deep. They include:
i.Internal Disconnectable Turrets
ii. Internal Permanent Turrets
iii. External Turrets
iv. Spread Mooring Systems
v. Tower Yoke Mooring Systems
vi. Import / Export CALMs and SALMs
There are two departments in the company: Engineering
and Operations. Since Operations Department produces incident
report, all engineers in the department will be interviewed to get
data for generic resources in producing incident report. The
department consists of eleven personnel: three personnel (nonengineers) handle Human Resources matters and seven engineers.
The Site Supervisor and the engineers will be interviewed
to obtain data for the study. HR personnel will not be interviewed
as they were not directly involved in reporting incidents. The Site
Manager of the company was contacted to explain the purpose of
the study. Once verbal consent was obtained, a letter was sent in
order to proceed with the research. Questions for the interview
were sent through email prior to the interview as the researcher
was requested to do so. This is to ensure the questions do not
contain any confidential matters.
In order to ask questions about the professional practices,
fifteen incident reports were analyzed as the first stage of the
study. Results obtained from the reports will be used to ask
questions about the professional practices in the company.
Data will be transcribed and coded in order to arrive at the
generic resources involved in producing the reports. The coding
process of the interview data will be adopted from Strauss and

22

Corbin (1990). The authors divide coding into two types: open
coding and axial coding. For open coding, words and phrases
found in the transcript or text will be coded or labelled. Axial
coding will be performed by grouping codes or labels given to
words and phrases determined in the open coding stage in order to
create themes or categories.
Interview questions asked about one generic resources refer
to the process of reporting incidents. The questions include
explanation on the entire process of reporting an incident, any
guidelines to follow in order to prevent future incidents, any
review done on safety procedure when an incident occurs, how is
the review done, who does the review and the outcome of the
review.

FINDINGS
Analysis of the reports which was done prior to the interview
showed that the incident reports served four functions: to describe
the incident, to describe the causes of the incident, to report the
findings based on investigations held and to provide
recommendations which can prevent future incidents.
Based on the interview data, the following categories were
found. Firstly, there were systematic steps taken to report an
incident. The steps were notification of incident, investigation and
corrective action. The second category was guideline used to
follow incident reporting. The guideline refereed to Health, Safety
and Environment (HSE) guidelines.
The next category referred to availability of review and all
interviewees stated that review was available
The next category was on how review was done and the
interviewees stated it was done in meetings. The following
category was on who does the review and the responses showed
that it was the responsibility of the safety team.
The final category was on outcome of review and the

23

interviewees reported that it could result a procedural change that

increases training its personnel, changes in work
process/procedures
and/or
increased
inspection
of
safety/protective items. However, non-procedural changes may be
implemented
also
such
as
increased/improved
mechanical/physical safety restraints, guarding, and/or safety
railings. Some incidents that occur can be classified as an act of
God such as lightning. Table 1 summarizes the coding of the
questions.

Table 1 Category of responses

Category 1
Category 2
Category 3
Category 4
Category 5
Category 6

Steps taken to report incident

Safety Guideline
Availability of Review
How the review is done
Who does the review
Outcome of review

From the data obtained, the following conclusions can be

made. Firstly, there are steps taken to report and resolve an
incident and employees were made aware of the steps. Secondly,
there is a guideline for them to follow in order to prevent future
incidents. Thirdly, there is a review on safety procedure every
time an incident occurs. Next, the review is done in a meeting. To
move on, the outcomes of the review result in areas such as
retraining, inspection of equipment and reinforcement of safety
policy. Finally, professional practices are bound by their
commitment in fulfilling the requirements set by Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) or HSE.

24

CONCLUSION
This study has shown that there are systematic steps taken in
reporting incident. This suggests that employees were aware of
the professional practices of reporting incident in the company
and abide by them.
As for pedagogical implications, it can be concluded that
meetings as a professional genre is to be highlighted in ESP
curriculum. Secondly, language features of meetings could also
be taught to learners. Also, conventions found in meetings could
be pointed out to learners.
In relation to further studies, studies on other professional
genres such as minutes of meetings could be conducted. This
could be done through content analysis approach of minutes of
meetings. Another study could to address the process of
conducting meetings and the language used in a meeting.

REFERENCES
AC Nielsen (2000) AC Nielsen Research Services Employer
satisfaction with graduate skills Research report.
Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs,
Canberra (2000).
Bhatia, V.K. (2008) Genre Analysis, ESP and Professional
Practice ESP 27:161-174.
Bhatia, V.K. (2010) Interdiscursivity in professional
communication Discourse & Communication 4: 32-50.
Crosling, G and Ward, I (2002) Oral Communication: The
Workplace Needs and Uses of Business Graduate
Employees. English for Specific Purposes 21: 41-57.
Fairclough, N., (1992) Discourse and Social Change, Cambridge:
Polity Press.

25

Kreitner,R. and Kinicki, A. (2008) Organizational Behavior 8th

Edition McGraw-Hill Irwin: New YorkCohen, A. M and
Hersh, W. R. 2005. A Survey of Current Work in
Biomedical Text Mining. Briefings in Bioinformatics,
6(1): 57-71.
Lehtonen, T and Karjalainen, S. (2008) University Graduates
Workplace Language Needs as Perceived by Employers
System 36: 492-503.
Swales, J.M (1990) Genre Analysis: English in Academic and
Research Settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Widdowson, H.G. (1998) Communication and Community: The
Pragmatics of ESP . ESP. 17(1): 3-14.

26

ANXIETY LEVEL IN MALAY

RURAL CHILDREN: A CROSS
SECTIONAL STUDY
Atefeh Ahmadi & Mohamed Sharif Mustaffa

ABSTRACT
Anxiety among children has increasing trend in recent years. Rural
children receive less screening programs, assessment and
interventions for anxiety. The aim of this study is to describe the
level of anxiety in Malay rural children by Malay-Spence
Childrens Anxiety Scale. 600 students from 4 schools of Pontian
by cluster sampling answered SCAS in a cross sectional study.
Cronbachs alpha for the total SCAS score was 0.85. Girls showed
significantly more anxiety than boys, and younger children
presented with less anxiety symptoms than older children in some
of sub constructs. As a conclusion, high level of anxiety among
rural Malay students in primary schools is an alarm for more
psychological consideration and also preventive actions.
Keywords: Anxiety, SCAS-Malay, Children, Rural

INTRODUCTION
Anxiety disorders are among the most common mental health
disorders with an increasing trend (Keeton, 2009). Both
international (Kessler et al., 2005; Liu, 2011; Merikangas et al.,
2010) and Malaysian (Gill, OH, & Pillai, 2010) studies have shown

27

that anxiety disorders during childhood have a prevalence rate

between 6 to 31.9%. Such disorders tend to interfere with a childs
social and individual functioning and have the tendency to become
chronic (Cramer, 2005; Grover, 2007; Reuschel, 2011). Moreover,
these disorders are highly comorbid with other mental disorders
and thus, may lead to increased prevalence of other parallel and
future psychiatric diseases such as depression and substance abuse
(Beesdo, 2009) if become chronic or maltreated (Emmelkamp,
2009). Childhood anxiety are usually under recognized by parents
and undertreated by clinicians (Fox, 2008). Recent administrative
data show that only 2.5% of age-eligible children receive early
intervention services. The majority of rural children with mental
health problems go under analyzed and untreated. Indeed, the gap
between need and service use is assumed to be wider in rural than
in urban areas, particularly for children with more severe needs
(APA, 2013). 17.1% of students in Malaysia have symptoms
suggestive of severe anxiety disorders (Malaysia, 2012). Despite a
high prevalence (10 to 20%) and substantial morbidity, anxiety
disorders in childhood remain under recognized and undertreated
in Malaysia (Gill et al., 2010). Those who lived in rural areas
had higher levels of physical symptoms and separation/panic
than those who lived in urban areas (Yen et al., 2010).
Increasing trend of anxiety among Malaysians with more people
believed to be experiencing some sorts of stress and mental distress
(Azizan, Razali, & Pillai) is the necessity of more attention to
psychological problems in Malaysia. The mental health issue is
more alarming because of the lack of community mental
health facilities, especially in the rural areas (Chong, Mohamad,
& Er, 2013). The aim of this study is to find the level of anxiety
among primary school students of Pontian (a rural region in Johor
Bahru, Malaysia) for the first time by SCAS-Malay.

28

METHOD
Procedure and Participants
University Technology Malaysia Faculty of Education and Ethics
Committee of Ministry of Education approved all steps of
this research. University Technology Malaysia, The Ministry of
Higher Education, The Ministry of Education and schools head
principals approved to conduct the present study among children.
In this study, primary schools were selected by cluster random
sampling in a rural district of Malaysia. 640 questionnaires were
distributed to children. The children completed the questionnaires
in their classrooms and school counselors were available to help
them if necessary. Data of 600 children was used in the final
analysis. 50.3% of students were boys and 49.7% were girls. They
ranged in age from 9 to 11 years (mean=10.17 years, SD=0.77).
Most of the participants have very low socioeconomic status (88%
with the income lower than 1000$/month). 93.6% of them are from
crowded families (families with 5 or more members) and most of
them belong to families with low education (89.2% of fathers and
87.3% of mothers have not university education).

Measure
SCAS-child version (Spence, 1998) was used to assess childrens
anxiety as a self-report instrument. It is a 44-item instrument
measuring child anxiety with 6 subscales. All items are rated on a
4-point scale, from never (0) to always. There are 6 positive
filler items in the child version. Internal consistency and validity of
the SCAS-child version has been reported to be excellent
(Tsocheva, Sasagawa, Georgiou, & Essau, 2013).

29

RESULTS
The internal consistencies of total scores and subscales were
estimated using Cronbachs alpha. Cronbachs alpha for the total
SCAS score in this rural population was 0.85. Generalized anxiety
disorder, fears of physical injury and obsessive-compulsive
disorder subscales showed the lowest alpha with the value of 0.50,
0.53 and 0.51. The subscale with the highest alpha was that of
panic, with a value of 0.68. Separation anxiety disorder and social
phobia subscales yielded values of 0.63 and 0.61. Table 1 presents
the means and standard deviations of the SCAS total scores and all
subscales for the total sample, girls and boys, and different ages.
The highest score in the total sample was for Obsessive
Compulsive Disorder, and the lowest was for the Physical Injuries
Fears subscale. Analysis of variance was run to clarify gender and
age effects. There was a statistically significant difference between
genders as determined for total SCAS score (F (1, 593) = 7.40,
p<0.05), fears of physical injury (F (1, 593) = 22.35, p<0.001), and
separation anxiety (F (1, 593) = 10.11, p<0.05). Post-hoc test
revealed that girls reported significantly higher levels of anxiety,
physical injury and separation anxiety symptoms compared to
boys. Girls did not significantly show more anxiety in all other sub
scales. Significant main effect of age were found for total SCAS
score (F (2,407) = 10.37, p<0.001), separation anxiety (F (2,407) =
11.38, p<0.001), social phobia (F (2,407) =14.39, p<0.001), and
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (F (2,407) =18.29, p<0.001). The
older age group had significantly higher total SCAS score, social
phobia, and Obsessive Compulsive Symptoms, and Separation
Anxiety as revealed in Post-hoc test.
Table 1 Descriptive data on the SCAS

Total Sample

Total
SCAS
Mean
(SD)

SAD
Mean
(SD)

SocP
Mean
(SD)

OCD
Mean
(SD)

Panic
Mean
(SD)

Mean

(SD)

GAD
Mean
(SD)

32.84

6.10

5.49

6.46

5.43

3.66

5.78

30

Fear

Male
9 years
10 years
11 years
Female
9 years
10 years
11 years

13.07
31.49
12.92
30.24
13.36
29.32
12.48
33.41
12.28
34.36
13.05
28.87
11.04
31.82
11.16
38.16
14.26

3.40
5.67
3.31
5.61
3.26
5.44
3.10
6.79
3.22
6.55
3.42
5.16
3.14
6.31
3.39
7.58
3.51

3.13
5.38
3.03
5.07
3.08
5.09
3.06
6.05
2.91
5.60
3.23
4.07
2.81
4.98
2.76
6.71
3.37

3.07
6.37
3.26
5.09
3.10
5.39
2.65
7.25
3.21
6.54
2.82
5.75
2.74
5.92
2.12
7.38
3.15

4.00
5.23
4.03
5.26
3.53
4.73
3.83
4.84
4.21
5.62
3.95
4.87
3.47
4.83
3.39
5.87
4.01

2.54
3.17
2.42
3.35
1.88
3.44
2.61
2.82
2.29
4.16
2.57
3.62
2.26
4.31
2.40
4.38
2.66

2.78
5.67
2.85
5.87
3.11
5.24
2.79
5.67
2.80
5.91
2.64
5.40
2.74
5.48
2.57
6.23
2.75

Note: SCAS: Spence Childrens Anxiety Disorder; SAD: Separation anxiety disorder; SocP:
Social Phobia; OCD: Obsessive Compulsive Disorder; Panic: Panic disorder; Fear: Physical
injuries fears; GAD: Generalized Anxiety Disorder

DISCUSSION
The present study aimed to find the level of anxiety in a large
sample of Malaysian children in a rural area. Our results showed
good internal consistency of total score and sufficient scores for
sub scales of the SCAS-C to assess anxiety symptoms in Malay
children. Cronbachs alpha for the total SCAS score was 0.85
and for subscales ranged from 0.50 to 0.68. Total SCAS score in
our research was 32.84 which is in the range of the scores
reported in previous studies which ranged from 18.11 to 38.78
(Essau, Olaya, Pasha, OCallaghan, & Bray, 2012; Ishikawa,
Sato, & Sasagawa, 2009; Li, Lau, & Au, 2011; Muris, Schmidt,
ENGELBRECHT, & PEROLD, 2002). In the line with
numerous previous studies, on total anxiety score boys scored
significantly scored lower than girls. Girls also showed
significantly higher rates for physical injury and separation
anxiety and non-significantly for other sub scales (Essau,

31

Conradt, & Petermann, 2000). Older childrens higher level of

anxiety in some subscales in conflict with some previous studies,
may be justified in the manifestations of fear and anxiety are at
least to some extent culturally determined (Muris et al., 2002). It
means some academic, peer and familial boundaries are
obstacles to sufficient psychological development to reduce
illogical anxieties and fears as children grow older.
Undoubtedly, characteristics of our rural sample (the mean of
age is among the youngest samples investigated for SCAS
psychometric properties, low educated parents, low
socioeconomic level, crowded family, physically lack of mother
at home and some cultural beliefs such as belief in the existence
of ghosts among all age groups) had influence on some
dissimilarities in this study results with compared to other
studies. There are some limitations in the present study which
need to be considered when interpreting our findings. First,
because of our focus on middle childhood, we only included 911 year-olds in our study and it is not clear whether our findings
can be generalized to other ages considered in SCAS-C. Second,
the participants were recruited from schools and not from
clinical settings. Because no diagnostic interview was
conducted, the clinical and diagnostic utility of the Malay
version of the SCAS has not yet been confirmed. Third, selfreport instrument was our data source. Although the best method
of diagnosing psychopathology in children is via multiple
informants, the internalizing nature of anxiety reduces this
accessibility (Essau & Barrett, 2001). Thus, only this instrument
cannot definitively diagnose the disease but it is an appropriate
choice for screening among the general population and a followup tool for patients. Future studies should replicate our study in
cities and also comparative studies should be done between rural
and urban areas in Malaysia.

32

CONCLUSION
Findings of our study show the level of anxiety among rural
primary school students is significant. Obsessive Compulsive
anxiety had the highest score among all sub constructs. Preventive
and therapeutic interventions are needed to reduce side effects of
anxiety in rural areas. Investigating the potential risk factors and
maintenance factors to dealing with their burdens is
recommended. In addition, higher level of anxiety among older
children can be related to chronicity and severity of problem
correlated to cultural, familial and academic issues. Ministry of
Health and Ministry of Education should pay more attention to
these alarming findings and try to find applicable solutions for
achieving better mental health among students.

REFERENCES
APA. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder
V. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Azizan, C. R., Razali, A., & Pillai, R. Promoting positive mental
health among students in Malaysia.
Beesdo, K., Pine, DS., Lieb, R., & Wittchen, HU. (2009).
Incidence and risk patterns of anxiety and depressive
disorders and categorization of generalized anxiety
disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 67(1), 47-57.
Chong, S. T., Mohamad, M., & Er, A. (2013). The Mental Health
Development in Malaysia: History, Current Issue and
Future Development. Asian Social Science, 9(6), p1.
Cramer, V., Torgersen, S., & Kringlen, E. (2005). Quality of life
and anxiety disorders: A population study. Journal of
Nervous and Mental Disease, 193, 196202.

33

Emmelkamp, P., Wittchen, HU. (2009). Specific phobias. In G. C.

Andrews, D.S.; Sirovatka, P.J. (Ed.), Stress-induced and
fear circuitry disorders. Refining the research agenda for
DSM-V (pp. 77-101). Arlington (VA): APA.
Essau, C. A., & Barrett, P. M. (2001). Developmental issues in the
assessment of anxiety.
Essau, C. A., Conradt, J., & Petermann, F. (2000). Frequency,
comorbidity, and psychosocial impairment of anxiety
disorders in German adolescents. Journal of anxiety
disorders, 14(3), 263-279.
Essau, C. A., Olaya, B., Pasha, G., OCallaghan, J., & Bray, D.
(2012). The structure of anxiety symptoms among
adolescents in Iran: A confirmatory factor analytic study of
the Spence Children's Anxiety Scale. Journal of anxiety
disorders, 26(8), 871-878.
Fox, J. K., Halpern, L. F. & Forsyth, J.P. (2008). Mental Health
Checkups for Children and Adolescents: A Means to
Identify, Prevent, and Minimize Suffering Associated With
Anxiety and Mood Disorders. Clin Psychol Sci Prac, 15,
182211.
Gill, J. S., OH, K., & Pillai, S. K. (2010). Anxiety Disorders
among Incarcerated Drug Users. Malaysian Journal of
Psychiatry, 19(1).
Grover, R. L., Ginsburg, G. S., & Ialongo, N. (2007). Psychosocial
outcomes of anxious first graders: A 7-year follow-up.
Depression and Anxiety. 24, 410420.
Ishikawa, S.-i., Sato, H., & Sasagawa, S. (2009). Anxiety disorder
symptoms in Japanese children and adolescents. Journal of
anxiety
disorders,
23(1),
104-111.
doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.04.003
Keeton, C. P., Kolos, A. C., Walkup, J.T. (2009). Pediatric
generalized anxiety disorder: epidemiology, diagnosis, and
management. Paediatr Drugs, 11(3), 171-183. doi:
10.2165/00148581-200911030-00003

34

Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K.

R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and ageof-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National
Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General
Psychiatry, 62(6), 593.
Li, J. C.-h., Lau, W.-y., & Au, T. K.-f. (2011). Psychometric
properties of the Spence Children's Anxiety Scale in a
Hong Kong Chinese community sample. Journal of anxiety
disorders, 25(4), 584-591.
Liu, J., Chen, X. & Lewis, G. (2011). Childhood internalizing
behaviour: analysis and implications. Journal of
Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 18, 884894. doi:
10.1111/j.1365-2850.2011.01743.x
Malaysia, C. R. C. (2012). Status Report on Children's Rights in
Malaysia by Child Rights Coalition Malaysia. Malaysia.
Merikangas, K. R., He, J.-p., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A.,
Avenevoli, S., Cui, L., . . . Swendsen, J. (2010). Lifetime
prevalence of mental disorders in US adolescents: results
from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication
Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American
Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(10), 980989.
Muris, P., Schmidt, H., ENGELBRECHT, P., & PEROLD, M.
(2002). < i> DSM-IV</i>Defined Anxiety Disorder
Symptoms in South African Children. Journal of the
American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,
41(11), 1360-1368.
Reuschel, L. M. (2011). Generalized Anxiety Disorder in Children
and Adolescents: Implication for Research and practice.
(Master), Illinois State University.
Spence, S. H. (1998). A measure of anxiety symptoms among
children. Behaviour research and therapy, 36(5), 545-566
.

35

Tsocheva, I., Sasagawa, S., Georgiou, G., & Essau, C. (2013).

Psychometric Properties of the Bulgarian Translation of the
Spence Childrens Anxiety Scale. J Psychol Abnorm Child,
1(101), 2.
Yen, C.-F., Ko, C.-H., Wu, Y.-Y., Yen, J.-Y., Hsu, F.-C., & Yang,
P. (2010). Normative data on anxiety symptoms on the
Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for children in Taiwanese
children and adolescents: Differences in sex, age, and
residence and comparison with an American sample. Child
Psychiatry & Human Development, 41(6), 614-623.

36

PENTAKSIRAN KEMAHIRAN
PROSES SAINS DALAM SISTEM
PENTAKSIRAN BERASASKAN
SEKOLAH
Hamimah Abu Naim & Norlly Mohd Isa

ABSTRAK
Kajian ini dijalankan bertujuan mengenalpasti amalan pentaksiran
Kemahiran Proses Sains (KPS) yang dijalankan dalam sistem
Pentaksiran Berasaskan Sekolah (PBS) dalam kalangan guru sains
Tingkatan 2. Kajian memfokuskan kepada kompetensi PBS dan
KPS dalam kalangan guru sains serta hubungan keduanya dengan
amalan pentaksiran KPS. Selain itu, pencapaian KPS dalam
kalangan pelajar serta hubungannya dengan amalan pentaksiran
KPS dan tahap kompetensi guru juga akan dinilai. Hasil dapatan
kajian, pengkaji akan membina Model Pentaksiran KPS dalam
bilik darjah bagi meningkatkan keberkesanan kaedah pentaksiran
untuk pembelajaran Sains tingkatan dua. Kajian adalah berbentuk
penyelidikan deskriptif kuantitatif iaitu mengesan hubungan
korelasi di antara pemboleh ubah. Jumlah responden kajian adalah
seramai 47 orang guru sains tingkatan 2 dan 705 orang pelajar
tingkatan 2 dari sekolah-sekolah menengah harian di negeri Johor.
Soal selidik ditadbir kepada guru-guru manakala Ujian Kemahiran
Proses Sains ditadbir kepada pelajar. Data kajian ini adalah
berdasarkan skor terhadap item-item dalam soal selidik dan juga
UKPS dan dianalisis menggunakan Model Pengukuran Rasch.
Kata kunci: Kemahiran proses sains, Pentaksiran berasaskan
sekolah

37

PENGENALAN
Matlamat Kurikulum Sains untuk sekolah menengah adalah
bertujuan untuk membekalkan murid dengan pengetahuan dan
kemahiran sains dan teknologi serta membolehkan mereka
menyelesaikan masalah dan membuat keputusan dalam kehidupan
seharian berdasarkan sikap saintifik dan nilai murni. Pendidikan
sains memerlukan perkembangan Kemahiran Proses Sains (KPS)
untuk membolehkan pelajar membina pemahaman serta berupaya
mengenal pasti dan menggunakan bukti saintifik yang berkaitan
dalam menyelesaikan masalah dan membuat keputusan (Harlen,
2000). KPS boleh dibahagikan kepada dua iaitu Kemahiran Proses
Sains Asas (KPSA) dan Kemahiran Proses Sains Bersepadu
(KPSB) (Padilla, 1983). KPSA merangkumi memerhati, mengelas,
mengukur dan menggunakan nombor, membuat inferens, meramal,
berkomunikasi dan menggunakan perhubungan ruang dan masa.
Manakala KPSB pula merangkumi mentafsir maklumat,
mendefinisi secara operasi, mengawal pembolehubah, membuat
hipotesis dan mengeksperimen (Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum,
2011). Penerapan sikap saintifik dan nilai murni perlu dijadikan
teras dalam setiap aktiviti pembelajaran (Lembaga Peperiksaan,
2013). Bagi memastikan matlamat tersebut telah diterima oleh
murid, satu penilaian perlu dilakukan bagi mengukur sejauh mana
tahap pencapaiannya. Proses mendapatkan maklumat ini perlu
dilakukan melalui pentaksiran semasa dan juga selepas proses
pengajaran dan pembelajaran dilakukan.

LATAR BELAKANG MASALAH

Pentaksiran menjadi satu strategi bagi meningkatkan pengetahuan
murid dalam model pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains. Guru perlu
mempunyai kemahiran mereka bentuk, merancang dan
menyediakan aktiviti-aktiviti yang memberi pengalaman murid
mengintegrasi konsep-konsep atau idea-idea sains mereka

38

(Gallagher, 1989). Pelaksanaan PBS hendaklah berpandukan

Spesifikasi Kurikulum Sains yang dibina oleh Bahagian
Pembangunan Kurikulum bersama-sama Panduan Pengurusan
Pentaksiran Berasaskan Sekolah (PPPBS) dan Panduan
Perkembangan Pembelajaran Murid (PPPM) yang disediakan oleh
Lembaga Peperiksaan (Lembaga Peperiksaan, 2014). Pelbagai
strategi pengajaran perlu dilakukan bagi mensepadukan
pentaksiran KPS dengan perlaksanaan PBS sebagai satu proses
pembelajaran. Arena (1996) berpendapat kesepaduan kemahiran
proses sains tersebut perlu dilakukan dalam pengajaran secara
berterusan. Scharmann (1989) mencadangkan kemahiran proses
sains murid dapat diimplimentasikan dengan memberi peluang
kepada murid mempraktikkan kemahiran tersebut dalam proses
pembelajaran.
Pusat
Perkembangan
Kurikulum
(2003)
menyarankan penentuan kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains
hendaklah dilakukan berdasarkan kandungan kurikulum,
kepelbagaian kebolehan murid serta sumber dan prasarana yang
ada. Suatu kurikulum yang diandaikan baik dan lengkap akan gagal
jika pelaksananya tidak memahami dan kurang berkebolehan
(Harris, 1992). Guru-guru sains sebagai pelaksana di peringkat
sekolah dalam menterjemahkan kurikulum sains dan PBS, perlulah
menguasai aspek-aspek dalam KPS dan kemahiran pentaksiran
bilik darjah yang diimplimentasikan. Persoalannya sejauh manakah
penguasaan guru-guru dalam KPS dan PBS bagi membolehkan
mereka mengimplimentasikannya dalam pengajaran dengan
berkesan? Bagaimanakah guru-guru sains menggabungkan KPS
dalam PBS dan PdP? Adakah pentaksiran KPS dalam sistem PBS
memberi kesan terhadap tahap penguasaan KPS murid?

OBJEKTIF KAJIAN
Objektif kajian ini dijalankan adalah seperti berikut :
a) i. Mengenalpasti perlaksanaan Pentaksiran Berasaskan Sekolah
(PBS) dan amalan pentaksiran Kemahiran Proses Sains

39

(KPS) dalam bilik darjah dalam kalangan guru sains serta

hubungan antara keduanya.
ii. Mengenalpasti kompetensi PBS dan KPS dalam kalangan
guru sains serta hubungan keduanya dengan amalan
pentaksiran KPS.
iii. Mengenalpasti pencapaian KPS dalam kalangan pelajar serta
hubungannya dengan amalan pentaksiran KPS dan tahap
kompetensi guru.
b) Membina Model Pentaksiran KPS dalam bilik darjah bagi
meningkatkan keberkesanan kaedah pentaksiran untuk
pembelajaran Sains tingkatan dua.
METHODOLOGI
Kajian yang akan dijalankan ini adalah berbentuk penyelidikan
deskriptif kuantitatif iaitu mengesan hubungan korelasi di antara
pemboleh ubah. Walaubagaimanapun bagi menyokong setiap data
yang diperolehi kaedah kualitatif juga digunakan (Cresswell,
2009). Penyelidikan deskriptif sesuai digunakan untuk mengkaji
tentang sesuatu kejadian yang sedang berlaku.
Persampelan
Kaedah Persampelan yang digunakan dalam kajian ini adalah
menggunakan gabungan kaedah persampelan bertujuan (purposive
sampling) dan kaedah rawak kelompok atas kelompok. Dengan
kaedah persampelan bertujuan, setiap individu yang dipilih
mempunyai ciri-ciri yang sama dari pelbagai aspek (Mohd Majid,
2000). Persampelan yang dilakukan adalah melalui kaedah
persampelan rawak kelompok atas kelompok (Najib, 2003)
bermula dari peringkat negeri (JPN), daerah (PPD), sekolah
(SMK) dan akhirnya menggunakan persampelan bertujuan untuk
memilih guru yang mengajar Sains tingkatan 2. Hasil dari proses
tersebut 47 buah sekolah telah terpilih. Setelah menentukan

40

sekolah sebagai sampel kajian, seorang guru yang mengajar Sains

di tingkatan 2 dari setiap sekolah akan dipilih oleh pentadbir
sebagai responden. Jumlah responden yang terpilih adalah seramai
47 orang guru sains tingkatan 2.
Lima orang guru dari 47 sampel kajian akan dilantik
sebagai peserta kajian. Pemilihan 5 orang guru ini adalah
berdasarkan persampelan suka rela atas faktor kesediaan seseorang
individu untuk ditemubual dan dijalankan prosedur pemerhatian ke
atasnya. Sesi temubual, penelitian dokumen pentaksiran KPS dan
juga pemerhatian semasa melaksanakan pentaksiran KPS akan
dijalankan terhadap peserta kajian.
Sampel pelajar adalah terdiri dari 15 orang pelajar tingkatan
2 dari setiap sampel guru. Pemilihan pelajar akan dilakukan secara
bebas oleh guru atas dasar kepercayaan dan integriti guru. Ini
mengambil kira kekangan masa, beban tugas dan faktor
kemudahan sedia ada di setiap SMK. Berdasarkan dari bilangan
guru dan pelajar masing-masing, bilangan sampel pelajar yang
diperolehi adalah 705 orang. Jumlah yang besar ini diharap dapat
memberikan nilai ralat yang lebih kecil dalam hasil kajian
(Cresswell, 2008).

Instrumen
Dua instrumen yang berbeza digunakan untuk guru dan pelajar
yang terlibat dengan PBS mata pelajaran Sains. Instrumen yang
pertama adalah instrumen soal selidik yang akan diedarkan kepada
guru-guru sains tingkatan 2. Instrumen ini yang merangkumi
demografi guru, amalan pentaksiran KPS, kompetensi KPS dan
kompetensi pentaksiran. Instrumen ini akan ditadbir ke atas 47
orang responden yang terdiri dari guru-guru yang mengajar Sains
tingkatan 2 di SMK di negeri Johor. Soal selidik digunakan bagi
membolehkan penyelidik melihat taburan sampel mengikut item
dan konstruk yang ditetapkan. Instrumen ini dibahagikan kepada 2
bahagian, bahagian A dan bahagian B. Dalam bahagian A, item-

41

item adalah berkaitan demografi guru yang merupakan latar

belakang peribadi dan profesionalisme sampel seperti pengalaman
mengajar, opsyen dan pendedahan terhadap perlaksanaan PBS.
Pada bahagian B pula, item-item merupakan kenyataan berkaitan
amalan pentaksiran KPS yang dijalankan oleh guru dalam bilik
darjah, tahap penguasaan guru dalam KPS dan juga tahap literasi
guru dalam bidang pentaksiran termasuk PBS. Sebanyak 100 item
dikemukan dalam Bahagian B yang menggunakan skala 1 hingga 5
dengan penafsiran; 1:Sangat Tidak Setuju, 2:Tidak Setuju,
3:Kurang Setuju, 4: Setuju dan 5: Sangat Setuju.
Instrumen kedua adalah Ujian Kemahiran Proses Sains
(UKPS). UKPS ditadbir ke atas 705 orang sampel yang merupakan
pelajar tingkatan 2. Ujian objektif aneka pilihan ini mengandungi
30 item objektif dengan pilihan jawapan A, B, C dan D. 20 item
akan menguji tahap penguasaan pelajar tehadap KPSA dan 10 item
akan menguji tahap penguasaan KPSB. Protokol temubual dan
dokumen-dokumen rasmi merupakan instrumen yang digunakan
dalam kaedah kualitatif. Temubual akan dijalankan ke atas 5 orang
peserta kajian yang terdiri dari guru yang mengajar mata pelajaran
Sains Tingkatan 2. Dokumen-dokumen rasmi yang akan diteliti
dan dikaji adalah surat-surat pekeliling, Panduan Pengurusan PBS,
Panduan Perkembangan Pembelajaran Murid (PPPM) Sains
Tingkatan 2, Huraian Sukatan Mata Pelajaran Sains KBSM
Tingkatan 2 dan dokumen-dokumen lain yang berkaitan.

Analisis
Data kajian ini adalah berdasarkan skor terhadap item-item dalam
soal selidik dan juga UKPS. Pemberian skor dalam soal selidik
adalah berpandukan kepada skala Likert seperti yang telah
dinyatakan manakala skor bagi UKPS adalah berdasarkan pilihan
jawapan yang betul sebagai skor 1 dan pilihan jawapan yang salah
sebagai skor 0. Data kajian ini disemak secara manual sebelum
menggunakan perisian Winsteps bagi menganalisis item-item

42

dalam soal selidik dan UKPS untuk memperoleh kesahan konstruk

soal selidik dan UKPS berasaskan Model Pengukuran Rasch.

JANGKAAN DAPATAN
Jangkaan hasil dapatan dari kajian ini adalah pembentukkan satu
model yang dinamakan Model Pentaksiran Kemahiran Proses
Sains (MPKPS). MPKPS akan membuktikan bahawa kompetensi
guru dalam PBS dan KPS serta tahap perlaksanaan PBS di sekolah
memberikan kesan secara langsung terhadap amalan pentaksiran
KPS dan seterusnya memberikan kesan secara langsung dengan
tahap pencapaian KPS pelajar. Dalam masa yang sama MPKPS
juga akan menunjukkan kesan langsung kompetensi guru dalam
KPS terhadap tahap pencapaian KPS pelajar. Perlaksanaan PBS
dijangka memberi kesan langsung kepada pencapaian KPS pelajar
melalui amalan pentaksiran PBS. Hubungan antara pembolehubahpembolehubah ini ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1 sebagai Model
Pentaksiran Kemahiran Proses Sains (MPKPS).

Rajah 1: Model Pentaksiran Kemahiran Proses Sains (MPKPS)

43

KESIMPULAN
Hasil dari kajian ini diharap dapat memberi gambaran bagaimana
amalan pentaksiran KPS yang terbaik yang akan dapat memberikan
impak terhadap tahap pencapaian KPS pelajar. Tahap kompetebsi
guru dalam KPS dan pentaksiran juga akan dapat dinilai untuk
proses penambahbaikan dalam proses pendidikan guru sama ada
sebelum atau di dalam perkhidmatan.

RUJUKAN
Arena Paul, 1996. The role of relevance in the acquisition of
science process skills. Australian Science Teachers Journal.
(42), 34-39.
Creswell, J. W., 2008. Educational research. Planning, conducting
and evaluating qualitative and quantitative approaches (3rd
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Gallagher, J. D., 1998. Classroom Assessment for Teachers. Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey: Merill Prentice Hall.
Harlen W., 2000. The Teaching of Science in Primary Schools. 3rd
Edition. London. David Fulton
Harris Md. Jadi, 1992. Reformasi kurikulum di Malaysia: Satu
pandangan ke atas proses perancangan, pembinaan dan
pelaksanaan: Jurnal pendidik dan pendidikan. ( 2 ), hal 1-15
Lembaga Peperiksaan, 2013. Dokumen Standard Prestasi: Sains
Tingkatan 2. Putrajaya: Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia.
Lembaga Peperiksaan, 2014. Panduan Pengurusan Pentaksiran
Berasaskan Sekolah. Putrajaya: Kementerian Pendidikan
Malaysia.
Mohd Majid Konting, 2000. Kaedah Penyelidikan Pendidikan.
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Mohd Najib Abdul Ghafar, 2003. Reka bentuk tinjauan soal selidik
pendidikan. Johor Bahru: Penerbitan UTM

44

Padilla, M. J., Okey, J. R. & Dillashaw, F. G., 1983. The

relationship between science process skill and formal
thinking abilities. Journal of Research in ScienceTeaching,
(20) hal 239-246.
Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum, 2003. Integrated Curriculum for
Secondary Schools Science Syllabus. Kuala Lumpur:
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.
Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum, 2011. Spesifikasi Kurikulum
Sains Tingkatan 2. Putrajaya: Kementerian Pelajaran
Malaysia.
Scharmann, L. C, 1989. Development of science process skill
instruction. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. Vol
26. hal 715-726.

45

KEMAHIRAN PENAAKULAN
BAGI MATAPELAJARAN
METEMATIK TAMBAHAN
DALAM KALANGAN PELAJAR
TINGKATAN EMPAT
Mohamad Nizam Bin Arshad, Mohd Salleh Bin Abu, Abdul Halim
Bin Abdullah, Noor Azean Bt. Atan & Mahani Bt. Mokhtar

ABSTRAK
Kertas kerja ini membincangkan bagaimana murid boleh
meningkatkan potensi pencapaian di dalam Matematik Tambahan
khususnya tajuk Pembezaan dengan menguasai Kemahiran
Penaakulan daripada tinjauan literatur . Berasaskan kepada Teori
Konstruktivisme, beberapa model penaakulan ditunjukkan yang
boleh meningkatkan tahap Kemahiran Penaakulan murid. Kertas
kerja ini juga membincangkan sama ada terdapat hubungan yang
signifikan kemerosotan pencapaian pelajar dalam TIMSS dan juga
Matematik Tambahan adalah disebabkan oleh soalan tidak rutin
yang memerlukan kemahiran penaakulan yang baik untuk
menyelesaikan soalan tersebut. Turut dibincangkan adalah impikasi
dan juga kesimpulan kepada kepentingan menguasai kemahiran
penaakulan seperti yang dihasratkan dalam PPPM2013-2025.
Kata Kunci: Kemahiran penaakulan, Konstruktivisme

46

1.1

PENGENALAN

Pada Oktober 2011, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (KPM)

telah melancarkan kajian semula sistem pendidikan negara secara
menyeluruh dalam usaha membangunkan Pelan Pembangunan
Pendidikan Malaysia (PPPM) 2013-2025 yang baharu. Ia adalah
bagi mempersiapkan generasi muda untuk menghadapi keperluan
abad ke-21. Jestru, guru perlu mempunyai kebolehan
membangunkan keupayaan murid membuat refleksi secara kritikal,
menaakul secara empirical, cerdas berfikir secara kolektif dan
mempunyai kemahiran yang baik dalam metakognitif (Cookson Jr,
2009).
Bagaimanapun, bagi mencapai hasrat KPM ini, salah satu
cabaran yang perlu ditangani oleh guru dalam pengajaran
matematik ialah memastikan murid-muridnya mempunyai
kemahiran penaakulan yang baik (Noor Shah Saad et-al., 2014).
Penaakulan Matematik merupakan satu aspek yang sangat penting
dalam bidang matematik di mana ianya merupakan asas yang
penting untuk mempelajari ilmu matematik itu dengan lebih
berkesan yang berasaskan pada logik dan seterusnya membimbing
minda dalam membuat kesimpulan dan keputusan yang tepat
(KPM, 2011). Kemahiran penaakulan amat penting dalam
menggalakkan murid berfikir lebih sistematis, analitis, kritis dan
logik, berkemahiran
menyelesaikan masaalah, berkebolehan
mengaplikasikan pengetahuan matematik dalam kehidupan
sebenar (Noor Shah Saad & Uzi, 2013). Perkara yang paling asas
dalam mantik ialah pentakrifan. Takrif menentukan maksud dan
sempadan (Mat Rofa Ismail, 2004). Maka dalam konteks
matematik, murid perlu mahir menggunakan unsur mantik yang
asas dalam penghujahan dan pembuktian matematik.
Begitu juga dengan topik pembezaan yang merupakan
salah satu konsep matematik bersifat analitikal iaitu murid
memerlukan kemahiran penaakulan yang sangat tinggi untuk
menguasai topik tersebut seperti yang dihasratkan dalam PPPM
2013-2025 (KPM, 2012). Pembezaan merupakan kesinambungan

47

kepada tajuk tajuk yang lain dalam matematik tambahan (KPM,

2012). Ini adalah kerana murid perlu terlebih dahulu mempelajari
komponen algebra, geometri, statistik dan trigonometri terlebih
dahulu sebelum mempelajari komponen kalkulus supaya
penguasaan dalam komponen tersebut akan membolehkan murid
menguasai komponen kalkulus dengan baik (KPM, 2012).
Penyelidik melihat kelemahan murid dalam bidang
teknologi, kejuruteraan, sains dan matematik apabila berada di
institusi pengajian tinggi awam dan swasta adalah disebabkan oleh
faktor kelemahan matematik tambahan pada peringkat asas
khususnya kalkulus (pembezaan dan pengamiran) (Ahmad Fauzi
Mohd et all., 2006; Titiuk Khwa dan Bibi (2000) ; Siew ting dan
Yudariah, 2000) . Jadi jelaslah di sini bahawa perlunya pendekatan
pengajaran konvesional yang diamalkan oleh guru sekarang ini
yang menekankan kepada berpusatkan murid diubah kepada PdP
yang lebih efektif dengan berpusatkan kepada murid. Maka,
kemahiran penaakulan secara logikal seharusnya diserapkan ke
dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran harus berfokuskan ke
arah pembinaan pengetahuan dan kemahiran berfikir pada aras
yang tinggi (KPM, 2012).

1.1

TINJAUAN LITERATUR

Matematik di peringkat tinggi melibatkan banyak konsep seperti

algebra, abstrak dan memerlukan penaakulan logik formal selain
fakta, konsep dan aplikasi (Ahmad Fauzi Mohd et-al., 2006). Jika
dilihat kepada soalan-soalan matematik TIMSS dan PISA, hampir
keseluruhan soalan berbentuk bukan rutin yang menguji aras
pemikiran pelajar secara tidak langsung. Hanya 35% sahaja
domain kognitif yang di uji dalam TIMSS dan PISA manakala
selebihnya adalah domain aplikasi(40%) serta penaakulan (25%).
Ini menunjukkan bahawa murid-murid di Malaysia gagal
menguasai dua komponen utama ini jika dilihat dalam laporan
TIMMS (2011), Malaysia hanya mampu menduduki tempat yang

48

ke 52 pada tahun 2010. Dapatan kajian ini secara tidak langsung

menunjukkan bahawa murid sebenarnya masih berfungsi pada
tahap penaakulan yang lebih rendah daripada tahap penaakulan
yang diperlukan dalam matematik khususnya matematik tambahan
seperti yang di hasratkan dalam PPPM 2013-2025 (KPM, 2013)
Pelbagai faktor penyebab telah dikemukakan oleh pakar
dalam bidang penyelidikan bagi menerangkan kemerosotan dan
permasalahan pembelajaran Matematik Tambahan. Faktor utama
yang menyebabkan kemerosotan dalam Matematik Tambahan
ialah tekanan peperiksaan yang secara tidak langsungnya
menghalang penggalakkan kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi (KBAT)
(Zohar, 2008; Zawojewski & McCarthy, 2007; Craft, 2005;
Maisuria, 2005; Hayes, 2004). Guru dilihat kurang memberi
peluang kepada murid untuk membina kefahaman secara
konstruktif dan membuat penerokaan sendiri.
Antara lain kemerosotan Matematik Tambahan ialah
ketidakseragaman pendekatan pengajaran yang diterima dengan
keperluan dan gaya pembelajaran murid yang menunjukkan
bahawa murid tidak tahu belajar dengan cara yang berkesan
(Rohani, 1993). Guru sendiri sebenarnya masih tercari-cari
pendekatan yang sesuai dalam pengajaran mereka dan disebabkan
faktor inilah murid tidak dapat menguasai matapelajaran tersebut.
Jadi bagi mengatasi masalah kemerosotan pencapaian matematik
dalam kalangan pelajar, guru sebagai golongan perlaksana di
sekolah haruslah memupuk kemahiran berfikir dalam kalangan
murid selari dengan kehendak PPPM 2013-2025 iaitu 60% soalan
peperiksaan SPM berbentuk terbuka dan memerlukan pemikiran
kritikal bagi menguji kemahiran berfikir, kemahiran penaakulan,
kreativiti, sintesis dan berhujah.

1.1.1

Kelemahan Pelajar dalam Aspek Kemahiran

Penaakulan

Dalam Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Menengah (KSSM) yang

49

bakal dilaksanakan sepenuhnya pada tahun 2017, unsur seperti

kemahiran berfikir secara kreatif dan kritis, logik dan kemahiran
berfikir pada aras tinggi yang menjadi keutamaan dalam kurikulum
tersebut bagi semua mata pelajaran secara amnya dan kurikulum
matematik secara khususnya (KPM, 2012).
Kementerian
Pendidikan Malaysia telah mendefinisikan KBAT sebagai
keupayaan untuk mengaplikasikan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan
nilai dalam membuat penaakulan dan refleksi bagi menyelesaikan
masalah, membuat keputusan, berinovasi dan berupaya mencipta
sesuatu (BPK, 2014). KBAT bukanlah sesuatu yang baru dalam
sistem pendidikan negara kerana ia adalah kesinambungan kepada
Kemahiran Berfikir Secara Kreatif dan Kritis (KBKK) yang di
lancarkan oleh kementerian pada 1994).
Bagaimanapun menurut PPPM 2013-2025 (KPM, 2013),
KBKK dalam kalangan guru dan murid masih berada pada tahap
yang rendah dan gagal mencapai matlamatnya. Oleh itu, KPM
telah melancarkan Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Menengah
(KSSM) dan Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah(KSSR) yang
akan disemak semula pada tahun 2017 yang memberi penekanan
kepada pengajaran yang berpusatkan murid dan pengajaran yang
dibezakan di samping turut memberi lebih penekanan kepada
penyelesaian masalah, tugasan berasaskan projek dan
melaksanakan pentaksiran formatif sekaligus berupaya melahirkan
pelajar yang mampu berfikir pada aras yang tinggi (KPM, 2012).
Dalam PPPM 2013-2025, kurikulum peperiksaan dan
pentaksiran untuk semua mata pelajaran Sains, Teknologi,
Kejuruteraan dan Matematik(STEM) akan dikaji semula sebagai
sebahagian daripada reformasi KSSR, KSSM dan penerapan
kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi (KPM, 2012). Fokus kertas kerja ini
adalah dalam bidang Matematik iaitu Matematik Teras yang wajib
diambil daripada tingkatan satu hingga lima yang bersifat umum
dan
merangkumi bidang Nombor, Bentuk dan Perkaitan.
Manakala Matematik Tambahan pula menegaskan pembinaan
konsep dan penguasaan kemahiran serta pembentukan sikap dan
nilai positif. Selain daripada itu, terdapat elemen lain yang perlu

50

diambil kira dan diserapkan ke dalam proses pengajaran dan

pembelajaran di bilik darjah secara terancang. Elemen utama yang
ditekankan dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran Matematik
Tambahan adalah seperti penyelesaian masalah, komunikasi dalam
matematik, penaakulan, membuat kaitan dan penggunaan
teknologi (BPK, 2012)
Mengikut Format Pentaksiran SPM 2013 (LPM,
2012),Matematik Kertas 1 akan menguji 40% soalan aras
pengetahuan dan 60% aras aplikasi diikuti kertas 2 iaitu menguju
60% pengetahuan dan 40% aplikasi. Matematik Tambahan Kertas
1 pula menguji 20% soalan aras pengetahuan dan 80% aras
aplikasi. Kertas 2 pula akan menguji 60% soalan aplikasi dan 40%
soalan penyelesaian masalah. Laporan daripada Lembaga
Peperiksaan Malaysia(LPM, 2013) menunjukkan bahawa murid
yang cemerlang tiada masalah untuk mencapai prestasi yang
tinggi untuk matematik Teras dalam peperiksaan Sijil Pelajaran
Malaysia (SPM) tetapi mempunyai masalah dalam pencapaian
Matematik Tambahan. Kelemahan dalam Matematik Tambahan
pula dikaitkan dengan kelemahan murid dalam penguasaan
Matematik Teras.
Murid lebih berkemampuan terhadap kefahaman
prosedural (konsep asas) dalam penyelesaian masalah dan murid
menunjukkan tahap kefahaman konseptual (kosep yang mendalam)
yang sederhana manakala sebahagiannya menunjukkan tahap
kefahaman yang lemah (G.S. Monk, 2001; Orton, 1993 &
R.Skemp, 1976). KPM (2012) dalam PPPM 2013-2025 merujuk
kepada konteks kemahiran berfikir, murid seharusnya perlu
menguasai pelbagai kemahiran kognitif termasuk penaakulan dan
pemikiran kritis, kreatif serta inovatif agar murid berupaya untuk
mengaplikasikan ilmu pengetahuan dan berfikir secara kritis di
luar konteks akademik. Malah, kajian terhadap perkembangan
penaakulan saintifik dalam kalangan murid lepasan SPM
mendapati sebahagian besar murid sains (75%) masih berfungsi di
bawah tahap penaakulan yang diperlukan di IPT (Syed Anwar Aly
& Merza, 2000; Hamidah & Merza, 2001).

51

Dapatan kajian Ismail Kailani & Ruslina Ismail @ Nawi

(2010) iaitu hasil diagnosis yang dijalankan menunjukkan
penguasaan konsep pembezaan dalam kalangan murid masih
lemah dan murid tidak dapat menguasai konsep pembezaan
dengan baik.. Masih ramai murid menjawab ujian diognostik
dengan tidak menguasai konsep dan kaedah semasa menyelesaikan
soalan pembezaan itu. Dalam penyelesaian masalah pembezaan,
murid biasanya akan menggunakan model polya namun gagal
dalam mematuhi fasa-fasa dalam model tersebut. Ini adalah
disebabkan kemampuan murid untuk berfikir secara kritikal adalah
sangat terbatas.
Keith Waber(2005) pula mendapati melalui kajiannya
bahawa murid membuat interprestasi sendiri bagi penyelesaian
kalkulus manakala R.Skemp (1978) pula mendapati kefahaman
kalkulus hanya difahami secara konsep (prosedural) sahaja oleh
murid iaitu tidak menyeluruh (konseptual). Siew Ting dan
Yudariah (2000) pula mendapati kebanyakan murid kejuruteraan
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) lemah dalam kalkulus asas
kerana pengetahuan sediada murid tentang topik tersebut sangat
terhad. Hasil kajian yang dijalankan oleh Titiuk Khwa dan Bibi
(2000) pula melihat hubungan antara pencapaian akademik murid
kejuruteraan Universiti Tun Husin Onn (UTHM) dengan
pencapaian murid di peringkat SPM bagi matapelajaran fizik dan
matematik tambahan khususnya topik pembezaan dan kamiran
yang mempengaruhi pencapaian mereka dalam bidang
kejuruteraan di peringkat diploma. Menurut Kaori Okano dan
Motonori
Tsuchiya
(2009)
pula
mendapati
selepas
mempelbagaikan cara pengajaran, murid mampu untuk menguasai
kalkulus pembezaan dan kamiran dengan baik walaupun
pencapaian matematik mereka tidak memuaskan semasa berada di
sekolah menengah.
Oleh itu perlu guru matematik khususnya perlu mengubah
amalan pengajaran matematik supaya tidak tertumpu kepada
penguasaan kandungan matematik sahaja. Pengajaran mereka
harus memfokuskan ke arah pembinaan pengetahuan dan

52

kemahiran berfikir pada aras tinggi. Malah persamaan yang paling

ketara di antara pentaksiran TIMSS dan kandungan kurikulum
Matematik Tambahan ialah dari segi kemahiran kognitif yang
melibatkan proses pemikiran berbentuk pengetahuan, aplikasi dan
penaakulan.
1.2.2

Model Penaakulan Dalam Pembelajaran Matematik

Matematik Tambahan sering kali dianggap sukar dan mencabar

oleh kebanyakan murid tetapi mereka sebenarnya boleh menguasai
matematik secara prosedural dengan baik walaupun fokus utama
PdP di sekolah menengah adalah pada kefahaman konseptual
untuk melonjakkan potensi murid ke tahap yang lebih baik ( Nor
Asnida, 2010) . Kertas Projek matematik tambahan yang mula
diperkenalkan pada tahun 2002 menunjukkan bahawa murid
terlalu bergantung kepada guru untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang
terdapat dalam Kertas Projek ini. Melalui perlaksanaan Kertas
Projek ini, murid perlu mendapatkan jawapan kepada tugasan yang
diberi melalui aktiviti seperti menyoal, membincang dan
menghujah idea, mengumpul dan menganalisis data, membuat
penyelidikan serta mengasilkan laporan bertulis. Bagaimanapun,
dalam proses melaksanakan tugasan tersebut, penaakulan dan
komunikasi secara matematik harus diberikan wajaran yang tinggi
berbanding keupayaan mendapat jawapan yang betul (BPK, 2012).
Penaakulan secara matematik sangat memerlukan keupayaan untuk
berfikir secara logik dan sistematik. Ini termasuklah penaakulan
intuitif berasaskan pola ketetapan untuk memperolehi penyelesaian
masalah bukan rutin (Noor Shah Saad et-al., 2014). Umum
mengetahui bahawa masalah bukan rutin ini melibatkan
penaakulan matematik yang lebih kompleks.
Bahagian Perkembangan Kurikulum (2012) telah mengenal
pasti bahawa untuk meningkatkan pencapaian pelajar dalam
bidang matematik, pelajar perlu mempunyai tahap penaakulan
yang baik. Saranan ini di sokong oleh Amalina Ibrahim (2012)
yang menyatakan bahawa kemahiran penaakulan ini dapat
53

membentuk dan meningkatkan pemikiran murid agar selaras dengan

tahap perkembangan kognitif murid.
Teori utama yang mendasari kemahiran penaakulan ini ialah
konstruktivisme yang mana salah satu ciri penting dalam teori ini
ialah membina pengetahuan sendiri (Noor Shah Saad, 2006). Dalam
Konteks penaakulan itu sendiri banyak memerlukan pelajar
membuat generalisasi iaiti membuat tekaan atau telahan
berdasarkan hujah atau bukti dalam menentukan sesuatu penemuan
atau penyelesaian (Noor Shah Saad & Uzi Abdullah, 2013) dan
sangat penting dalam PdP matematik daripada satu prosedur
kepada keinginan belajar metematik untuk memahami konsep
yang sebenar (Noor Shah Saad et al., 2014).
Kertas kerja ini cuba melihat kepentingan penguasaan
kemahiran penaakulan dalam kalangan murid untuk meningkatkan
prestasi pelajar dalam matematik tambahan khususnya topik
Pembezaan. Jadual 2 menunjukkan beberapa teori atau model yang
boleh digunakan untuk meningkatkan kemahiran penaakulan
murid.

Jadual 2 Model yang boleh digunakan untuk meningkatkan kemahiran

penaakulan murid
Teori
Pembelajar
an Jerome
Bruner
(1966)

Teori
Pembelajaran
Robert Gagne
Objek langsung
(1970)

Teori
Perkembangan
Kognitif
,
Jeane
Piaget
(1972)

Peringkat
Enaktif
(0
2 tahun)
Berkemampu
an membuat
aktiviti reflek
Peringkat

Fakta matematik
-Merupakan
persetujuan atau
pendapat dalam
matematik

Peringkat deria
motor (0 2
tahun)
-Berkemampuan
membuat aktiviti
reflek

Kemahiran

Perinkat

54

Teori Penaakulan
KBAT
Marzano
(1988) berdasarkan
Dimensi
Memperluas
dan
Menyempurnakan
Pengetahuan
Peringkat
deria
motor (0 2 tahun)
-Berkemampuan
membuat
aktiviti
reflek

Perinkat Praoperasi

Ikonik
(2 4 tahun)
Boleh
gunakan
otak untuk
menggambar
kan
imej
dalam
pemikiran
mereka
Peringkat
Simbolik
(5 7 tahun)
Boleh
berfikir
menggunaka
n
bahasa
dan
juga
boleh
manipulasik
an symbolsimbol

matematik
-Merupakan
operasi
atau
prosedur
yang
para pelajar dan
para
guru
matematik
dijangka
menjalankan
ecara tepat dan
cepat.
Konsep matematik
-Satu idea abstrak
yang
membolehkan kita
mengelaskan
objek
atau
kejadian
serta
menentukan
samada
objek
atau
kejadian
tertentu
merupakan
contoh
atau
bukan contoh ida
abstrak itu
Prinsip matematik
-Objek matematik
yang
paling
rumit.
Ia
merupakan
urutan
konsepkonsep
serta
hubunganhubungan konsep
itu.

Praoperasi
(2 6 tahun)
-Menggunakan
bahasa
atau
symbol
untuk
menggambarka
n konsep

(2 6 tahun)
-Menggunakan
bahasa atau symbol
untuk
menggambarkan
konsep

Peringkat
Operasi Konkrit
(7 12 tahun)
Berupaya
membuat
pengkelasan
objek-objek

Peringkat
Operasi
Konkrit
(7 12 tahun)
Berupaya membuat
pengkelasan objekobjek

Peringkat
Operasi Formal
(selepas
12
tahun)
mampu
untuk
berfikir secara
deduktif
dan
induktif

Peringkat
Operasi
Formal
(selepas 12 tahun)
mampu untuk berfikir
secara deduktif dan
induktif

Sumber : Noor Shah Saad (2006)

Kerangka model penaakulan bertujuan memudahkan proses
pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Jerome Bruner melihat konsep

55

manipulasi bahan konkrit sebagai sebahagian daripada proses

perkembangan mental serta idea pembelajaran sebagai organisasi
semula yang telah digabungjalinkan sebagai satu kaedah
pembelajaran iaitu pada peringkat enaktif(0-2 tahun), peringkat
ikonik(2-4 tahun) dan seterusnya peringkat simbolik(5-7 tahun)
dimana kanak-kanak akan menaakul menggunakan simbol sewaktu
menghubungkannya dengan realiti . Robert Gagne (1970) pula
menggunakan matematik sebagai perantaraan bagi membantu guru
dalam mengenalpasti kefahaman pelajar tentang konsep dan prinsip
bagi sesuatu tajuk yang sedang di ajar oleh guru yang banyak
melibatkan ayat, pernyataan dan simbol-simbol matematik yang
sangat diperlukan untuk meningkatkan kemahiran penaakulan murid.
Piaget (1966) secara amnya telah membahagikan
perkembangan kognitif kepada empat peringkat iaitu deria motor(0-2
tahun), pra-operasi (2-7 tahun), operasi konkrit (7-11 tahun) dan
operasi formal 12 tahun ke atas. Pada peringkat operasi konkrit,
pelajar boleh menggunakan logik bagi memahami sesuatu idea,
konsep dan proses tetapi dengan bantuan manipulasi fizikal dan
aritmetik. Aktiviti-aktiviti yang melibatkan penggunaan bahan
konkrit secara aktif di dalam kelas sangat ditekankan oleh piaget
kerana beliau percaya bahawa medium tersebut merupakan cara
pembelajaran yang paling berkesan untuk perkembangan penaakulan.
Pada peringkat operasi formal, penaakulan induktif dan deduktif
berkembang dan seterusnya berupaya memahami konsep secara
teoritikal dan abstrak. Dimensi pembelajaran Marzano pula adalah
sebuah model pengajaran berdasarkan apa yang terbaik daripada
kajian dan teori tentang pembelajaran. Empat kemahiran berfikir aras
tinggi dari Dimensi Memperluas dan Menyempurnakan Pengetahuan
boleh digunakan untuk memperdalamkan pemahaman murid
terhadap apa yang mereka pelajari dengan hujah-hujah yang konkrit
untuk menyokong perhubungan yang wujud. Dengan cara
ini,pemahaman dan penguasaan kemahiran kritis, kemahiran kreatif
dan strategi berfikir akan menjadi lebih mudah ekiranya seseorang
individu berkebolehan membuat penaakulan.

56

1.2

KESIMPULAN

Maklumat, keterangan dan hujah kritikal yang dinyatakan dalam

latar belakang masalah mencadangkan bahawa terdapat bukti
empirikel yang menunjukkan bahawa murid Malaysia menguasai
aspek kefahaman konsep dan kemahiran berfikir matematik aras
rendah (KBMAR) tetapi kurang menguasai kefahaman konsep dan
kemahiran berfikir matematik aras tinggi (KBMAT), khususnya
kemahiran penaakulan. Kemahiran penaakulan ini merupakan
salah satu komponen utama dalam KBMAT yang perlu dikuasai
oleh murid seperti yang ditetapkan dalam PPPM 2012-2025.
Kelemahan penguasaan kemahiran penaakulan matematik dalam
kalangan murid di peringkat rendah di jangka akan memberi kesan
secara signifikan terhadap kejayaan atau kesukaran pembelajaran
matematik di peringkat yang lebih tinggi lagi.
Kelemahan penaakulan ini sering di kaitkan dengan
kesukaran pembelajaran matematik yang dialami oleh murid.
Terdapat banyak bukti empirikal yang menunjukkan bahawa ramai
murid Malaysia mempunyai masalah dalam menguasai kedua-dua
aspek pembelajaran matematik berkenaan. Keperluan untuk murid
menguasai penaakulan matematik ini adalah pada tahap yang
mencukupi namun ianya menjadi konteks yang lebih besar apabila
mereka mempelajari konsep matematik yang bersifat analitik
seperti kalkulus ( Pembezaan, Kamiran dan lain-lain). Suatu kajian
sistematik dan rigorous perlu dilaksanakan bagi membolehkan kita
membangunkan strategi dan kaedah pembelajaran yang berkesan
dalam membantu murid menguasai kemahiran penaakulan ini
dalam pembelajaran matematik tambahan khususnya bagi topik
matematik bersifat analitik seperti pembezaan.
Oleh itu kaedah PdP di sekolah perlu dimantapkan
mengikut acuan PPPM 2013-2025 untuk melahirkan generasi yang
mempunyai kemahiran abad ke-21 antaranya yang sangat di
tekankan oleh KPM (2013) ialah kemahiran penaakulan. Guru
perlu memberi penekanan kepada kemahiran penaakulan agar
murid dapat membina konsep matematik yang baik dan seterusnya

57

dapat bersaing di peringkat antarabangsa.

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61

NEURO LINGUISTIC
PROGRAMMING: SWISH
THERAPY TO PREVENT
TRUANCY AMONG STUDENTS IN
A PUBLIC SCHOOL IN MALAYSIA
Aminuddin bin M.Sanusi, Syed Mohamed Shafeq & Yahya Buntat

ABSTRACT
Swish Therapy in Neuro Linguistic Programming therapy methods
(NLP) is used to reduce the truancy problem among students using
subconscious mind focusing on Visual, Audio and Kinesthetic
(VAK). It not only helps them to reduce truancy but also more
focus, intelligent, able to control emotions, and etc. This paper
aims to re-interprete picture subconscious response to changes in
behaviour, replacing the old practices. This case study involve
three respondents in qualitative method .Using semi structured
interviews and the respondents review before, during and after
therapy. Data were analysed manually involving coding and data
interpretations. Result show the respondent there are increase of
alert in class, enhance learning focus, can control themselves and
improve in their class attendance . These positive changes directly
affect the students' academic achievement and personal
development in creating an educational institution with competitive
human capital.
Keywords: Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP), Therapy Swish,
Visual, Audio and Kinesthetic(VAK)

62

1.0

INTRODUCTION

Based on the Malaysia Ministry of Education Report on

Disciplinary Misconduct 2007- 2011 the disciplinary problems is
at the average rate of 2.07%.Truancy in school is the most
disturbing problem among listed misconduct .Truancy should be
taken seriously by all because it implies an unhealthy implication
the students. Persistent absenteeism will be followed by a decline
in
academic
performance.(Baker,2001;
Bell,
Rosen,
Dynlacht,1994) and finally left school, ( Dryfoss,1990 ) serious
misconduct (Garry, 1996; Huizinga, Loeber, and Thornberry,
1995), pregnant teens and violence (Huizinga, Loeber, Thornberry,
& Cothern, 2000; Kelley, Loeber, Keenan, & DeLamtre, 1997;
Loeber & Farrington, 2000). Truancy affects deviant behaviour
(Fatimah Ali,2007 ; Bell, Rosen, dan Dynlacht,1994;
Dryfoss,1990;
Garry,1996;
Huizinga,Loeber,
and
Thornberry,1995; Rohrman,1993;), violence (Bell,Rosen and
Dynlacht,1994; Dryfoss,1990; Kelley 1997 ) failure examination,
irresponsibility
forming a rebellious, pretender and weak
character, negative future perspective (Newsome, AndersonButcher, Fink,
Hall,
& Huffer, 2008;Bell,Rosen,and
Dynlacht,1994; Dryfoss,1990; Rohrman,1993). Truancy is also a
good indicator of behaviour that can be predicted to social
breakdown such as disciplinary problems (Ried 1984,2013), petty
crime (Garry 1996), low educational achievement (Buscha and
Conte 2010) and teenage pregnancy (Hibbert and Fogelman 1990).
Therefore skipping school should be given serious consideration
before it becomes worse.

1.1

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Several approaches program are used by the Ministry of Education

to address the problem of school truancy such as Sekolah
Penyayang(CaringSchool) (1995), Rumahku Syuargaku (Home

63

Sweet Home) (2000), Jom Ke Sekolah ( Lets go to School) (2005),

Gerakan Hadir Ke Sekolah.(Movement go to School) (2011).,
And implemented program of student disciplinary system (SSDM )
(2008), e-Kehadiran ( electronic Attendent) (2009), e-Displin (
electronic Disciplin) (2010) the extent to which success cannot be
known to solve the problem because, this thenique are using
conscious mind and not
subconscious mind techniques.
Subconscious theraphy in Swish therapy is used to overcome
disciplinary problems of truancy among secondary school students.
It is an early prevention before it leads to other serious
symptoms . The subconscious mind is trained to work without
having to think and record the experience of a lifetime. The
subconscious mind has a larger share in the human mind. The mind
is continuously active even during sleep, and free from the
conscious mind activity. (Lin Chateron, 2009).

1.2

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF STUDY

This study aims to reduce student truancy problem by using the

Swish Pattern NLP therapy which is a subconscious mind. NLP
(Neuro Linguistic Programming) The researcher chose this
technique because the technique is carried out in order to take any
unwanted behavior and to change or transform the desire to be
someone or behavior intended (Shapiro, M., 2002; OConnor,
Joseph, 2001; Md Taib Mat, 2007; Bandler, Richard, 1985 ;Lin
Chartterton, 2009)
Swish pattern is a technique of behavior modification in
truancy .This therapy is use because use modality changes critical
to program the brain to the others. It can help change behaviors and
unwanted habits to produce a new self-image. It is effective to
generate positive behavior by creating the new image of a selfconstructed through submodaliti..( OConnor Joseph, 2001) .
Method used by the reviewer is an early preventive
measures before the students are involved in more more severe

64

symptoms such as circumstances misguided (Ried 1984,2003),

petty crime (Garry 1996) and low educational attainment (Buscha
dan Conte 2010) . This is due to the NLP therapy using the
subconscious mind. The subconscious mind is trained to work
without having to think and record the experience of a lifetime. In
partial conscious mind works is estimated at 90 percent of the
human mind compared to only 10 percent of the conscious mind (
Seligman,Martin, 2004; Dilts, Robert, 2010; Mat Taib, 2007). The
subconscious mind acts upon receiving instructions from the
conscious mind through the emotions, feelings, imagination.
Through the idea of motor signals, the conscious mind and the
subconscious mind can communicate a feeling or imagination
raises. The subconscious mind will comply with the conscious
mind, if positive then also positive acceptance and vice versa.

1.3

THEORETICAL FRAMERWORK OF STUDY

The title NLP reflects the principle that a person is a whole

mindbody system, with consistent, patterned connections between
neurological processes (neuro), language (linguistic) and
learned behavioural strategies (programming) (Dilts, Grinder,
Bandler, & DeLozier, 1980).
NLP was developed originally as a methodology called
model- ling (Dilts, 1998a; Gordon & Dawes, 2005), which is
intended to make human capabilities available for others to learn.
Modelling has been used to identify cognitive strategies that lie
behind capabilities such as motivating oneself, negotiating,
spelling (Dilts et al., 1980)
NLP emphasises the potential for self-determination
(Bandler & Andreas, 1985) through overcoming learnt selflimitation. Its motives were described, on the book jacket of
Bandler and Grinder (1975a), as sharing the resources of all those
who are involved in finding ways to help people have better, fuller
and richer lives. NLP challenges the assumption that personal

65

change necessarily involves long-term therapy and is only possible

with insight into the past (Bandler & Grinder, 1979, ). It embodies
a discourse of self-improvement and, like the emergent field of
positive psychology (Linley, Joseph, Harrington, & Wood, 2006),
emphasises well-being.

2. METHOD
2.1

PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE

Pilot test was conducted in public school to reduce truancy among

students by using subconscious mind. This purpose of study is an
exploratory shaped interpretations of case studies to obtain
qualitative data. The case study is used because it can give a clear
and deep view by involving researchers (Creswell, 2007). The
respondent of this case study is done by making observations of the
students in the class during the lesson and who are often absent
from school without permission.
Respondent in this study is based on truancy from school
for range seven to ten day. The selection of three case studies is the
most ideal as it prevents information leakage and observation if the
subject is too many. (McLeod, 2003). Students selected to receive
treatment therapy is in the early stages of truancy. Therapy is
performed on the selected students as a preventive measure from
becoming more serious truancy
2.2

INSTRUMENT

Semi-structured interviews are used by researchers to record all the

details of the conversation for a deeper understanding of client
truant behavior. In addition, the researchers also made reference to
the documents of the school and student discipline reports to gain a
deeper understanding of the client.

66

The features of the truant students in the study were not

more than ten days truant regularly, has received the first warning
and showed no interest when teachers teach in the classroom and
they are in form 4. Students are obtained by means of trigulation by
reference and the subject of the proposed name of the teachers who
taught From 4, the classroom teachers manage students and also
through observation by researcher on the attendant list. There are
selected randomly in listed name and purpose sampling.

2.3

DATA ANALYSIS

The researcher observed for 6 weeks or 30 school days with

marking of sample monitoring. Observation period of 6 weeks is
the ideal time (Lord et al, 2009) to detect changes in the behavior
of either from skipping to attending school in the use of NLP
Swish therapy . The researcher conducted semi-structured
interviews after 6 weeks of observation to obtain qualitative data
and feedback NLP Swish therapy. The information obtained is
transcribed verbatim to verify the effectiveness of the Swish
therapy.
Interpretation Phenomenology Analysis (IPA), used in this
case study is to provide focus and to compel the meaning of
questions, individual experiences, how they think of themselves
and interpretations of the meaning of the subjective experience of
the client to observe and communicate with the respondent. (Smith
and Mike Osbron, 2003). Data collected qualitatively can help
researchers understand the real picture in each case in depth and
establish the effectiveness of the therapy to the sample during
therapy sessions. (McLeod, 2003; Creswell, 2009).

67

3.0

FINDINGS

3.1

MEASUREMENT
SCALE
TO
DETERMINE
MASTERY OF NLP SWISH PATTERN
Table 1 Therapy NLP mastery guide-Swish Pattern

No

Percent Mastery Therapy

Experience
67 - 100
34 67
0 33

1
2
3

Assesment
High theraphy experience
Moderate theraphy experience
Moderate theraphy experience

Table 1 shows the measurement scale to determine mastery

of NLP therapy scores percent 0 % to 33% low theraphy
experience . Students who achieve this level gives a vague,
ambiguous in Visual Scores 34% to 67 % moderate theraphy
experience . Students who achieve this level can give it themselves
either in the form of visual, audio or kineststik. Score 67 % to
100% is dominated experience therapy. Students who achieve this
category can provide a clear picture of themselves all three visual,
audio and kinesthetic.
3.2

Interview Result

Table 2 Show the personal treat of the sample before and after theraphy
No
1

Sample
A

Treatment before
therapy
No mood, feeling
lazy, tired, rapid loss
of
concentration,
drowsiness,

Treatment after
therapy
Fit, at ease,
focused,
selfrestraint

Tired, no mood, not

giving
attention,
noisy, not completing
homework

Focused,self
control , alert,
focused while in
class

Tired,
no
mood,
boredom, low self-

Fit, focused, can

control

68

Score

Intepretation

37.4%

Moderate
theraphy
experience

47.7%

Moderate
theraphy
experience

67.7%

High theraphy
experience

esteem when
teacher asks,

the

themselves, can
answer
the
questions,

Table 2 shows the results obtained by the researcher on

Swish Pattern. Samples A and B are categorized as control therapy,
but both samples obtained different scores. A sample obtained a
37.4 % score while sample B obtain a 47.7 % score. This indicates
that the sample scored higher when able to create more visual
image in mind during therapy. Sample C which obtained 67.7%
there are is classified as highly theraphy experience of therapy .
Each sample has the same performance characteristics of the focus,
robust and self-restraint. Sample C is capable of scoring high when
the subconscious mind is capable of creating a better image
themselves.
Sample A,B and C has a behavior problem before the
therapies which lead to truancy. Each sample A, B and C has
similar behavioral changes that care being fit, focused and selfcontrolled after undergoing Swish therapy. This demonstrates the
use of the subconscious mind in the Swish therapy can reduce the
rate of students skipping school.

4.0

CONCLUSION

Pattern in NLP is a method or strategy in mind and can be used to

achieve a goal (Tosey P. dan Mathison J. 2010). Therapy NLP
Swish pattern is a pattern of self transformation and patterns of
intervention used to help cope with school truancy problems. It can
help change behaviors and unwanted habits. It was found to be
effective to modify and replace the negative behavior.

69

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74

KEMAHIRAN HAYAT SUKAN

(KHS) BAGI SUKAN SEKOLAH
(1M1S) DALAM KALANGAN
PELAJAR SEKOLAH MENENGAH
DI MALAYSIA
Zali bin A. Rahman & Halijah Ibrahim

ABSTRAK
Tujuan kajian yang akan dijalankan ialah untuk membina
instrumen Kemahiran Hayat Sukan (KHS) bagi pelaksanaan 1
Murid 1 Sukan (1M1S) dalam kalangan pelajar sekolah menengah
di Malaysia. Kajian ini juga akan mengenalpasti tahap kemahiran
hayat pelajar berdasarkan beberapa ciri demografi. Pada tahap
akhir kajian ini, diharapkan satu model KHS akan dapat dibina
sebagai satu tambahan dalam kerangka konsep pelaksanaan 1M1S.
Bagi memenuhi tujuan kajian ini, pendekatan kaedah campuran,
kualitatif dan kuantitatif akan digunakan. Dalam fasa penyelidikan
kualitatif, sampel kajian terdiri dalam kalangan pelajar dan guru
penasihat di tiga sekolah menengah. Responden akan ditemubual
secara separa berstruktur. Data akan dianalisis berdasarkan tema
untuk merumus dimensi kemahiran hayat dalam 1M1S. Dalam fasa
penyelidikan kuantitatif, kajian rintis akan dibuat untuk menguji
dapatan item-item bagi setiap dimensi dalam kemahiran hayat dan
kebolehpercayaan item berpandukan model pengukuran Rasch.
Kajian ini diharapkan dapat memberi pemahaman kepada guruguru penasihat sukan tentang kepentingan kemahiran hayat dalam
melaksanakan aktiviti sukan sekolah 1M1S di sekolah. Semoga

75

hasil daripada kajian ini akan dapat membantu pihak tertentu

terutamanya Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia dalam usaha
membangunkan keperibadian pelajar melalui aktiviti sukan dalam
Dasar 1M1S di sekolah.
Kata Kunci: Sukan, Kemahiran Hayat, 1M1S

PENGENALAN
Sejak awal sistem pendidikan diperkenalkan di negara kita, aspekaspek pembangunan pelajar tidak pernah diketepikan. Aktiviti
kokurikulum merupakan salah satu domain yang menjadi tunggak
kepada pembangunan diri individu. Kegiatan kokurikulum bererti
apa-apa kegiatan yang dirancang daripada proses pengajaran dan
pembelajaran di luar bilik darjah (kurikulum) yang memberikan
pelajar peluang untuk menambah, mengukuh dan mengamalkan
kemahiran dan nilai-nilai yang dipelajari di bilik darjah
(Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 1998). Terkini, Dasar Satu
Murid Satu Sukan (1M1S) telah dilaksanakan bermula 2011
bermatlamat untuk membangunkan modal insan melalui
penyertaan yang menyeluruh dalam kalangan pelajar dalam
kegiatan sukan sepanjang tahun (Kementerian Pendidikan
Malaysia, 2010). Matlamat dan objektif yang disasarkan bagi
1M1S adalah juga bertepatan dengan dengan Dasar Sukan Negara
yang berhasrat mewujudkan budaya sukan dalam kalangan rakyat
Malaysia. Budaya sukan yang dimaksudkan ialah menjadikan
sukan sebagai satu amalan hidup yang aktif, cergas, sihat dan
bersaing (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2011).
LATAR BELAKANG
Di persada antarabangsa, isu pembangunan pelajar diberi perhatian
kerana pelajar merupakan aset penting negara dalam menuju ke
arah negara maju. Justeru, institusi-institusi pendidikan telah

76

mengorak langkah menganjurkan program-program demi

memastikan pembangunan pelajar tidak keciciran. Programprogram pembangunan pelajar dilaksanakan juga untuk memupuk
nilai-nilai positif dan mengurangkan tingkahlaku negatif dalam
kalangan pelajar. Sebagai contoh, program First Tee Life Skills,
Going for the GOAL, Teaching Responsibility through Physical
Education and Sport (TPSR), Play It Smart, dan Sports United to
Promote Education and Recreation (SUPER) (Gould & Carson,
2008).
Sehubungan itu, program pembangunan pelajar telah mula
dilaksanakan dalam pelbagai bidang seperti institusi pendidikan,
sukan, program kurikulum dan program-program berasaskan
komuniti. Program ini dapat memberi kesan yang positif dalam
membantu pelajar dalam menangani masalah tingkahlaku, sikap
yang positif, berjaya dalam pelajaran, kehadiran ke sekolah dan
juga hubungan sosial. Penglibatan dalam kokurikulum akan dapat
membantu pelajar melakukan sesuatu perkara yang mereka rasa
seronok untuk dilakukan dan pada masa yang sama akan
membantu dalam kerjaya pada masa depan (Massoni, 2011;
Holland & Andre, 1987). Kesan penglibatan pelajar dalam aktiviti
kokurikulum juga akan membolehkan mereka berkongsi
pengalaman dan meningkatkan hubungan persahabatan sesama
rakan, khususnya dalam pembangunan sahsiah (Charles, 2012;
Hussein, 1993).
Negara kita juga tidak ketinggalan dalam usaha
membangunkan potensi diri yang positif dalam diri setiap
warganya. Dasar Pendidikan Negara (DPN) telah diolah agar
memenuhi pembentukan diri pelajar dalam menangani alaf baru.
Pembentukan personaliti individu dan kumpulan sosial dinyatakan
dengan jelas dalam Falsafah Pendidikan Negara ke arah
memperkembangkan lagi potensi individu. Perkembangan diri
individu seharusnya berkembang seimbang dengan alam sosial dan
fizikal di sekitarnya supaya tidak pincang dan berupaya pula
meneruskan warisan serta usaha masyarakat di samping mengubah
suai mengikut keperluan masa dan tempat (Robiah, 1998). Dalam

77

satu kajian impak terhadap pelaksanaan 1M1S di sekolah oleh

Bahagian Sukan, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (2013)
mendapati pentadbir, pelajar dan ibu bapa memberi persepsi yang
positif dan memberi sokongan padu dalam pelaksanaan 1M1S
(Kementerian Pendidikan, 2013).

KEMAHIRAN HAYAT SUKAN (KHS)

Pertubuhan Kesihatan Sedunia (WHO, 1999) mendefinisikan
kemahiran hayat sebagai kebolehan untuk tingkah laku adaptif dan
positif yang membolehkan individu untuk menangani secara
berkesan dengan tuntutan dan cabaran kehidupan. Gould dan
Carson (2008) mendefinisikan kemahiran hayat sebagai kemahiran
yang membolehkan individu untuk berjaya dalam persekitaran
yang berbeza di mana mereka tinggal, seperti sekolah, rumah dan
di kawasan kejiranan. Kemahiran hayat boleh menjadi tingkah
laku (berkomunikasi secara berkesan dengan rakan-rakan dan
orang dewasa) atau kognitif (membuat keputusan yang berkesan);
interpersonal (menjadi tegas) atau intrapersonal (menetapkan
matlamat).
Program kemahiran hayat dalam perspektif sukan pula,
menurut Wiese-Bjornstal, LaVoi & Omli (2009) merupakan satu
pendekatan yang digunakan untuk membantu pembangunan diri
pelajar dalam kemahiran psikologi dan sosial, bukan sahaja untuk
menangani cabaran dalam penyertaan sukan tetapi juga untuk
situasi kehidupan yang lebih luas.
Dalam kajian-kajian lepas mendapati pelaksanaan aktiviti
sukan bukan sahaja dapat meningkatkan penguasaan dalam
kemahiran sukan, malahan juga meningkatkan penguasaan dalam
kemahiran hayat dalam kalangan pelajar (Goudas & Giannoudis,
2008; Dalton, 2009; Jones & Lavallee, 2009; Barton, 2011;
Cauthen, 2012). Kajian juga mendapati jurulatih sukan berperanan
penting dalam menerapkan kemahiran hayat sukan dalam
mewujudkan iklim prihatin, orientasi masteri persekitaran dan

78

pembangunan individu yang positif (Holt, Tink, Mandigo &

FoxSource, 2008; Gould, Flett & Lauer, 2012). Jurulatih dapat
mewujudkan hubungan yang positif, mengukuhkan aspek
kemahiran hayat secara konsisten dalam pembangunan diri pelajar
melalui 'naturalistik' penyertaan dalam sukan (Carson, 2010).

PERNYATAAN MASALAH
Dewasa ini, masalah remaja di negara ini tidak pernah berkurangan
walaupun pihak berkuasa dan institusi yang bertanggung jawab
telah melaksanakan banyak program, khususnya program yang
melibatkan pembangunan diri remaja. Malahan peningkatan dalam
masalah juvana saban tahun yang dilaporkan oleh media tempatan
dalam kalangan remaja perlulah diambilkira. Berdasarkan statistik
yang dikeluarkan oleh Kementerian Dalam Negeri (KDN)
mencatatkan bahawa berlaku pertambahan sebanyak 5,305 kes
juvana iaitu 3,399 kes pada tahun 2012 dan 8,704 kes pada tahun
2013. Antara kes-kes yang melibatkan remaja seperti samun,
kongsi gelap dan penyalahgunaan dadah (Faizatul Nadia Mohd.
Tahir, 2014). Kajian terhadap kemahiran ini dapat menambahkan
lagi usaha pelaksana dasar dan aktiviti dalam melaksanakan
program untuk menanamkan sikap positif dalam usaha mengekang
masalah juvana dalam kalangan murid sekolah. Kemahiran hayat
boleh menjadi salah satu kemahiran kepada kanak-kanak dan
remaja bagi menghadapi cabaran seharian dengan berkesan dan
menghadapi tugasan yang diberikan (Theokas, Danish, Hodge,
Heke & Forneris, 2008).
Usaha dalam mengenalpasti wujudnya komponen
kemahiran hayat dalam aktiviti membolehkan jurulatih atau guru
penasihat dapat menyampaikan komponen kemahiran hayat secara
tersurat dan bukan lagi secara tersirat. Kajian menunjukkan remaja
yang diberi pendedahan secara langsung dalam program kemahiran
hayat mempunyai pengetahuan dan tahap pemahaman yang lebih
tinggi terhadap kemahiran hayat berbanding remaja yang tidak

79

diberi pendedahan (Petitpas, Cornelius & Raalte, 2008). Selain itu

juga, penyertaan remaja dalam sukan adalah atas dorongan minat
dan keseronokan. Hal ini menjadikan aktiviti sukan menjadi
tempat yang sesuai untuk mendedahkan murid kepada kemahiran
hayat. Sehingga ini, tiada lagi komponen kemahiran hayat dalam
modul pengajaran 1M1S (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia,
2010). Sehubungan itu, komponen kemahiran hayat dalam 1M1S,
bersesuaian dengan matlamat meningkatkan kualiti diri murid
seperti yang terkandung dalam dasar ini. Penambahan komponen
kemahiran hayat dalam elemen pengajaran kemahiran dalam
aktiviti sukan akan memperkasakan lagi pelaksanaan 1M1S.
Sehubungan itu, kajian yang akan dilaksanakan bertujuan
bagi mengenalpasti dan membina instrumen KHS pelajar dalam
pelaksanaan 1M1S. Kedua, kajian ini juga bertujuan untuk
mengukur tahap KHS dalam kalangan pelajar dalam 1M1S.
Ketiga, diharapkan satu model dapat dihasilkan bagi meramal KHS
dalam 1M1S dalam kalangan pelajar sekolah menengah di
Malaysia.

KERANGKA TEORITIKAL KAJIAN

80

METODOLOGI
Penyelidikan kaedah campuran akan digunakan dalam kajian ini.
Pengkaji akan menjalankan analisis rekabentuk
penerokaan
berurutan bagi membina instrumen yang sah. Dalam pendekatan
ini, kutipan dan analisis data secara kualitatif akan dilakukan pada
peringkat pertama dalam proses pembinaan item-item. Kaedah
temubual separa berstruktur akan dilakukan oleh pengkaji dalam
usaha meneroka item-item utama. Peringkat kualitatif ini akan
membolehkan pengkaji menerokai faktor-faktor kemahiran hayat
dalam 1M1S. Responden akan dipilih secara pemilihan sampel
secara bertujuan (purposive sampling). Di mana, responden akan
dipilih mestilah memenuhi kriteria yang dikaji dan mempunyai
input-input dalam persoalan kajian. Kaedah yang pengkaji
gunakan ialah temubual. Penentuan kriteria pemilihan tersebut
dapat diringkaskan seperti berikut:
a. Responden terdiri dalam kalangan pelajar di sekolah
menengah rendah, menengah atas dan tingkatan 6.
b. Responden terlibat dalam aktiviti 1 Murid 1 Sukan.

81

c. Kesanggupan respoden menjadi peserta kajian secara

sukarela.
Pada fasa kedua pula, pungutan dan analisis secara
kuantitatif akan dilakukan untuk melihat persoalan kajian
seterusnya. Item-item yang dibina akan dilakukan kajian rintis
untuk menentukan kebolehpercayaan dan kesahannya. Daripada
item yang diperolehi, instrumen KHS yang terhasil akan digunakan
untuk mengukur tahap KHS dalam 1M1S berdasarkan faktor
demografi untuk melihat sekiranya wujud perbezaan dalam
kalangan responden. Responden dipilih melalui pemilihan sampel
rawak mudah. Persampelan rawak mudah digunakan untuk
memastikan setiap unit atau subjek dalam populasi mempunyai
peluang yang sama untuk dipilih sebagai responden (Chua Yen
Piaw, 2006). Data yang terdapat sepanjang kajian ini dikumpulkan
dengan menggunakan instrumen yang dibina dalam satu soal
selidik. Setelah diuji dan dilaksanakan ujian keesahan dan
kebolehpercayaan, pengkaji akan menggunakan soal selidik yang
telah siap untuk mengukur objektif seterusnya iaitu mengukur
tahap KHS dalam kalangan pelajar yang terlibat dalam Dasar
1M1S berdasarkan, a. jantina, b. bangsa, c. tahun persekolahan
dan d. lokasi sekolah.

JANGKAAN DAPATAN
Dapatan kajian diharapkan dapat mengambarkan secara
keseluruhan pembangunan dalam diri pelajar dan menjadi nilai
tambah kepada pelaksanaan program itu sendiri. Pengkaji akan
membina instrumen kemahiran hayat dalam kajian ini bagi
menambahkan lagi alat penilaian bagi mengukur kesan dan impak
dalam program-program yang berkaitan dengan kokurikulum
amnya, dan pelaksanaan 1M1S khususnya. Pengukuran yang dibuat
secara sistematik akan dapat memastikan program dijalankan
dengan berkesan. Pengukuran yang tepat dan jitu juga akan dapat
memastikan program ditambah baik pada masa akan datang.

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Dapatan kajian juga diharapkan dapat membantu

mengenalpasti dimensi KHS secara lebih spesifik yang mana
sepatutnya terdapat dalam pelaksanaan 1M1S mengikut faktor
demografi. Dimensi kemahiran hayat yang telah dikenalpasti akan
dapat menambah baik atau memastikan pelaksanaan Dasar 1M1S
ke arah matlamat yang dihasratkan.
Kajian ini juga diharapkan dapat menyumbang dalam teori
pengajaran, khususnya dalam aktiviti kokurikulum. Bakal-bakal
guru yang sedang melanjutkan pelajaran di Institusi Pengajian
Tingi (IPT) dan Institut Pendidikan Guru (IPG), seharusnya diberi
latihan dan pemahaman terhadap kemahiran hayat ini supaya boleh
diaplikasikan oleh mereka apabila berkhidmat di sekolah kelak.
Kajian ini juga diharapkan dapat membantu guru penasihat dalam
amalan aktiviti latihan mereka sebagai satu nilai tambah dalam
usaha pembangunan personaliti pelajar. Diharapkan sebuah model
dapat dibentuk dalam kajian ini dalam membantu pembinaan
modul pelaksanaan pengajaran kemahiran hayat dalam sukan.

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86

CORRELATION BETWEEN
PSYCHOSOCIAL STRESSORS
WITH JOB PERFORMANCE
AMONG GOVERNMENT
EMPLOYEES
Syed Mohamed Shafeq Syed Mansor &
Khatereh A Malekian

ABSTRACT
Government employees encounter abnormal state of Job stress
because of the way of their work. One of the outcomes of stress is
its effect on job performance. Since the inside studies here are
generally uncommon, this study was directed to explore the
relationship between the Psychosocial stressors and job
performance among government employees. All government
employees participated in this study. The General Nordic
Questionnaire and Human Resource Productivity Questionnaire
were utilized for information gathering. The association coefficient
and regression models were utilized to inspect the relationship in
the middle of job stressors and their scales as autonomous
variables and job performance as the word variable. Besides, so as
to precisely survey the relations between variables, structural
mathematical statement models were used. The results uncovered
that the pervasiveness of stress among government employees was
in the moderate level (46.6%). Then, there was a negative and
critical relationship between stress in "Task domain" and "Socioorganizational domain" and job performance. Among the measures

87

in socio-organizational domain, hierarchical society and authority

demonstrated exceptionally negative and huge associations with
job performance (p= 0.001). As indicated by the got results, socioorganizational domain can be considered as the fundamental driver
of loss of gainfulness. Henceforth, it is recommended to make
further endeavors control the psychosocial factors in working
environments and stay away from performance decay, especially in
authoritative society and initiative measures.
Keywords: Job stress, Psychosocial stressors, Job performance

INTRODUCTION
It is generally accepted that stress is the result of an interaction
between an individual and a situation where the individual cannot
meet his demands and resist against pressures.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) defined occupational stress as individual harmful
physical and emotional responses when occupational conditions do
not meet capabilities, requirements and available facilities of the
workforce (Samartha, Lokesh et al. 2010).
According to statistics in 1999, NIOSH reported that 40%
of employees defined their jobs as extremely stressful. From
perspectives of 25% of the employees, job was considered as the
first stressor in their lives. Three-quarters of employees believed
that they are more stressed than the past generation. 29 percent of
workers felt relatively less or strongly high stress at their
workplace. In addition, 26% of the workers stated that often
peoples jobs put them under stress. They also reported that job
stress compared with financial problems or familial problems is
strongly associated with physical and mental problems.
However, several jobs as ambulance workers, teachers,
social services, customer service, prison and police departments are
considered as stressful jobs due to nature of the job. According to

88

NIOSH report, Government employees such as cashiers, heads,

managers and supervisors are stressful on the list of posts.
Employees of financial institutions such as Government employees
also experienced high job stress due to high sensitivity of the job,
dealing with public capital, mobility limitations, dealing with
different people from different social classes, various thoughts and
different expectations, management leadership style and lack of
helpful and professional communication among the employees.
Job stress considerably affects job performance. Job stress
can improve performance by increasing motives when the stress
does not exceed individual capabilities and capacities. However,
job stress may have a suppressive effect on individual and
organizational performance when the stress exceeds individual
coping capacity. The results of most studies showed a negative
relationship between job stress and performance (French, Lenton et
al. 2000; AbuAlRub 2004; AbuAlRub 2006; Chen, Huang et al.
2014).
However, if job stress affects key employees or a
significant number of the workforce within an organization,
organizational health and performance may be challenged. In this
case, not only efficiency of the employees within the organization
decreases, but also organizational performance changes
increasingly in the competitive market.
Several studies were conducted in the field of occupational
stress in Government employees in sector in Western societies. The
results suggested that a great number of Government employees
experience high and severe job stress (Lambert and Lambert 2001;
Bunn, Guthrie et al. 2013).
Hence, it is essential to conduct further research in this
area. As a result, the stressors can be identified to increase
awareness and knowledge of the employees under stress. In
addition, interventionist measures reduce the risk of psychological
problems in employees and increase their job performance.

89

THE STUDY FIGURE

Stress has many causes. In order to determine the factors causing
stress, different models and theories have been presented. Each one
of those models and theories are associated with several
shortcomings and errors. Several researchers and theorists have
attempted to present new models and theories to resolve the
shortcomings and errors in earlier models. Based on different
models, various tools in the form of questionnaires were developed
to assess psychosocial workplace conditions. In this study, it was
attempted to use General Nordic Questionnaire for Psychological
and Social Factors. According to the researcher, this questionnaire
was designed based on a combination of various theories and
conceptual models. This questionnaire is considered as a general
tool to measure psychosocial stressors in the workplace such as
occupational and organizational characteristics as well as
individual work-related behaviors, extensive details on workrelated perceptions and interactions with job. Then, shortcomings
of previous models and tools were resolved (Knardahl 2011).
QPS Nordic was used in researches to study psychosocial
factors, health and productivity at work. In addition, it was studied
how stress affects job performance as a one-way process. The
results were obvious (Choobineh, Movahed et al. 2010; Mehrdad,
Dennerlein et al. 2010; Arnetz, Lucas et al. 2011; Knardahl 2011).
According to existing theories, three functional, social
organizational and individual domains were identified for
psychosocial stress questionnaire. This questionnaire was also used
in various studies to investigate the association between
occupational stress and relevant consequences. In this study, a
hybrid model was used to investigate the relationship between
variables. As a result, the effects of job stress on performance (as
the main objective of this research) as well as the effects of various
job stress dimensions on performance were assessed.

90

RESEARCH TOOLS AND RESEARCH METHODS

This study examined the relationship between job stress and
performance. In addition, there was a causal relationship between
various aspects of occupational stress and performance. Hence, this
is a correlation study based on structural equations.
Different dimensions of job stress were considered as the
dependent variable while job performance was considered as the
independent variable in the research analytical model. The
statistical population included all Government employees including
directors and managers. The sample consisted of 215 employees
who were selected through census sampling method. Nordic
Psychosocial Stress and Human Resources Productivity
Questionnaires were used to collect data.
One of the tools used in this study was General Nordic
Questionnaire. This questionnaire consists of two parts. The first
part includes questions on demographic information such as age,
gender, work experience and level of education. The second part of
the questionnaire includes questions on job psychosocial stressors.
The original version of the questionnaire had 123 items. In this
study, a shortened and standardized version of the questionnaire
(34 items) was used. General Nordic Questionnaire for
Psychosocial Factors at workplace was developed by (Lindstrm,
Elo et al. 2000), was measure psychosocial factors at workplace in
three functional, social organizational and individual dimensions.
In the shortened version, functional dimension was
evaluated by 14 questions while scales of job demands, job control,
the expectations and predictability at work and socialorganizational dimension was evaluated by 17 questions and the
scales of social interactions, leadership style, teamwork
organizational culture and climate and individual dimension were
evaluated by one questions and the scale of dominancy over work
was evaluated by three questions. For each individual, total stress
score (simple sum of items) was calculated based on total score of

91

the questionnaire; moreover, stress points (simple sum of items per

dimension) was calculated for each three dimension.
In order to compare these results with those obtained in
other studies and based on the explanations given in manual of the
questionnaire, the mean score of each question was calculated.
Thus, the subjects were divided into three categories based on total
mean as high stress, medium stress and low stress. Therefore, those
subjects with a mean score less than 2.5 were categorized as low
stress while those subjects with a mean score between 2.5 and 3.5
were categorized as moderate stress and those subjects with a mean
score greater than 3.5 were categorized as high stress (Mehrdad,
Dennerlein et al. 2010; Knardahl 2011). Before data collection,
validity of the questionnaire in terms of clarity of items was
evaluated by researchers, experts and professors. Content validity
of the questionnaire was obtained as 0.82. Hence, validity of the
questionnaire was confirmed. The full version of questionnaire has
been used in various studies. The range of Cronbach's alpha values
was obtained between 0.60 and 0.88 using internal reliability
method. In this study, a shortened version was used due to long
duration of the full version. However, since psychological
characteristics of abstract of the Nordic Psychosocial Stress
Questionnaire were not specified (Cutcliffe 2009; Knardahl 2011;
Tuvesson, Eklund et al. 2011) , a set of items in accordance with
subscales of full version of the questionnaire were determined. A
sample of three subjects was studied in terms of reliability and
internal consistency. Using this method, following measures were
identified while the reliability was determined by calculating
Cronbach's alpha coefficient: leadership (2 items, Cronbach's alpha
= 0.86), role clarity (2 items, Cronbach's alpha = 0.71), control
over work (4 items, Cronbach's alpha = 0.74), supervisor support
(2 items, Cronbach's alpha = 0.83) and organizational climate (6
items, Cronbach's alpha = 0.71).
The second questionnaire used in this study was Labor
Productivity Questionnaire. This questionnaire consisted of 26
items designed based on the model achieved. The obtained model

92

helped the managers to identify the employees performance

problems. The above model was developed by Hersey and
Goldsmith in 1980 (Hersey and Goldsmith 1980). In this
questionnaire, 26 questions were used to assess dimensions of
labor productivity including ability (3 items), perception and
cognition (4 items), organizational support (4 items), motivation (4
items), feedback (4 items), reliability (4 items) and environmental
compatibility (3 items). Validity and reliability of labor
productivity questionnaire were already approved by Iranian
researchers. The reliability indices were reported as 0.89, 0.88 and
0.90 (Rethinam and Ismail 2007; Normala 2010). The subjects
were categorized based on job performance score likewise Nordic
Psychosocial Questionnaire categorization.
Both tools used in this study were designed based on fivepoint Likert Scale. The explanations in terms of research objectives
and the reasons behind those objectives were given to the subjects
before distributing the questionnaires. Moreover, in order to ensure
the confidentiality of individual data, the questionnaires were
distributed anonymously.

RESULTS
SPSS version 16 was used for statistical data analysis. The T-test,
correlation coefficient and regression models were used to examine
the relationship between different factors. Alpha level less than
0.05 was considered significant.
The mean age and standard deviation of the employees
were respectively within the range of 25-57. In addition, 86.7% of
the subjects were men while 10.9% were women. Moreover,
13.1% were supervisors while 86.9% were employees.
Furthermore, 62% of the subjects had academic degree while 38%
had diploma degree. Most employees had more than 20 years
work experience (43.1%).

93

Table 1, shows mean and standard deviation of scores of

the subjects in terms of each variable. According to Table 1, mean
and standard deviation of employees job stress scores were
respectively 0.45 and 2.77, which represent moderate stress level
among Government employees. The job performance was equal to
0.6, 2.61. Table 2, shows the prevalence of occupational stress with
respect to job performance. The correlation between age and job
stress score was (p=0.44, r=0.71) while the correlation between age
and job performance was (p=0.91, r=0.01). Then, no significant
relationship was found between age, job stress and performance.
Mean comparison of job stress and performance among men and
women was (p=0.391 p=0.6), managers and supervisors was
(p=0.286 p=0.163) using t-test method. Mean comparison of job
stress and performance with level of education (p=0.531 p=0.068)
and work experience (p=0.035 p=0.152) showed no significant
relationship using ANOVA (Table 3).
Pearson correlation coefficients between variables are
presented in Table 4. As it can be observed, the correlation
coefficients between all variables were significant except
individual dimension. The strongest significant correlation between
job stress and performance in terms of social-organizational
dimension was obtained as (p=0.001 r=-0.6) while the poorest
significant correlation between job stress and performance in
functional dimension was obtained as (p=0.001 r=-0.32). The
scales of organizational climate and culture and leadership style
had the highest significant negative correlation with job
performance among scales of occupational stress considering
organizational-social dimension (p=0.001 r=-0.46 r=-0.6). Table
5 showed that there is correlation coefficient between components
of stress considering psychosocial dimension with job stress and
performance.

94

Table 1 The mean and standard deviation of variables

Indexes

Overall
stress

Duty
Scope

Average
SD
Score Range

2.77
0.45
1-5

2.83
0.45
1-5

Social
Organizational
Domains
2.90
0.68
1-5

Individual
Domains
2.25
1.05
1-5

Job
performan
ce
2.61
0.6
1-5

Table 2 The overall prevalence of stress on job performance (in terms

of number)
Characteristics
examined
Job Stress

High
Medium
Low

Job performance
Low
Medium
High
4.37
0.73
0
33.57
21.19
1.45
3.84
21.16
3.65

Table 3 The mean and standard deviation of job stress and performance
based on gender, position, education and work experience

95

Table 4 Correlation matrix between variables

The significant is at the 0.01 level.

Table 5 The correlation coefficient between the components of stress in

the area of psychosocial job stress and performance

The significant is at the 0.01 level.

Job stress as independent variable with the highest correlation

coefficient and job performance as the dependent variable were
respectively entered into the process. Standardized coefficient
between overall stress and performance was equal to -0.6. Based
on path representing the relationship between various dimensions
of job stress and performance, the standardized coefficient between
organizational-social dimension and overall stress was equal to
0.73 while the standardized coefficient between functional
dimension and overall stress was equal to 0.42. According to
findings, the direct effect of overall stress on job performance was
equal to -0.6 while the indirect effects of stress considering socialorganizational and functional dimensions on performance were
respectively calculated as -0.37 and -0.21.
In addition, forward stepwise linear regression analysis was
used in order to investigate the relationship between various

96

organizational-social scales with job stress and determine the most

important factors affecting the score of stress considering social
organizational dimension.
This shows succession of independent and dependent
variables. This process covered both scales of organizational
culture and leadership scales, which showed an appropriate
goodness of fit (p<0.001 R2=0.97).
The standardized coefficient between the scales of
organizational culture and organizational-social domain was
between 0.5 while the standardized coefficient between the scales
of leadership style with social-organizational dimension was equal
to 0.49. The path representing of the relationship between socialemotional dimensions with job performance, the indirect effect of
stress in terms of social-organizational dimension on performance
productivity was equal to -0.37. Thus, the indirect effects of
organizational culture and leadership style scales on job
performance were respectively as -0.22 and -0.18.

DISCUSSION
The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between job
stress and performance among Government employees of Iran
using General Nordic Questionnaire in order to measure
psychosocial stressors at workplace. According to results, mean
performance can be observed at moderate stress level. Results of
the present study are in line with those obtained by (Yadav and
Halyal 1999; Imtiaz and Ahmad 2009; Juyal 2011), which showed
a strong correlation between participation and enthusiasm in mean
performance with moderate level of job stress among managers.
(AbuAlRub 2004) showed that the relationship between job
stress and performance of the employees is a U-shaped curve.
Accordingly, the nurses reported moderate level of job stress. They
believed that their job performance was better than those with high

97

and low stress levels. The results of this study are also consistent
with those obtained in the present study.
(Wright, Bonett et al. 1993; Daniels and Harris 2000) also
showed that there is a strong correlation between high levels of job
stress and organizational performance. These results are not in line
with those obtained in the present study.
Among three domains of stress, individual dimension of
stress had no significant relationship with job stress. Since this
dimension was measured only with one question in the shortened
version of the questionnaire, it can be problematic in achieving
more accurate results.
Organizational-social dimension of stress showed a
negative and significant relationship with job performance in
comparison with functional dimension.
The present study also showed that organizational climate
and culture and leadership style scale among stress scales
considering social-organizational dimension had a significant
negative correlation with job performance. These results are in line
with those obtained by (Eriksson 2011). Eriksson revealed that
organizational culture and climate has a direct or indirect effect on
loss of productivity through affecting workforce health.
(Ojo 2009) also confirmed findings of the present study.
Ojo indicated that organizational culture has a strong relationship
with job performance. (Badar 2011) also indicated that poor
management support, lack of public encouragement and
interactions are considered as the stressors, which have negative
effect on performance of the employees. Juyal (2011) also reported
that poor communication between partners among managers of
private Government employees sector was considerably associated
with job stress.
According to main factors causing stress in this study,
following measure improved psychosocial conditions at workplace
such as granting the essential rights and powers to eligible people
to control changes within an organization, establishing proper
communication with people at the right time, educational programs

98

in the field of communication, changes in organizational and

administrative culture, interventions related to tasks of peoples
jobs such as identifying job tasks, responsibilities and rights, using
principles of business and ergonomics at work in delegating tasks
to the employees and designing stress management programs.
Limitations of the present study included small sample size, nonresponsiveness of several supervisors and employees to
questionnaires and conducting the research in one of the state
Government employees. Then, it is less possible to generalize the
results. As a result, it is recommended to conduct the research with
larger sample sizes in wider geographic areas.

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102

MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM
POSING DIFFICULTIES IN
CALCULUS AMONG
UNDERGRADUATES
Zahra Ghasempour, Mdnor Bakar & Golam Reza Jahanshahloo

ABSTRACT
Problem posing tasks involve learners in reformulating given
problem or generating new problem through Inquiry- basedlearning environment. However, the recent classroom instruction
of universities is yet limited to problem solving tasks alone.
Accordingly, this study investigates the types of problem posing
difficulties among undergraduates. The research instrument
consists of text book Integral problems reconstructed through
Modifying given and What, if not heuristics with structured
and semi-structured problem posing situations respectively. Onehundred twenty four undergraduates among moderate and high
achievers are participated in answering the test. After analyzing
answer sheets, twelve of respondents are enrolled in retrospective
interview. The pen-paper data indicated that the most difficulties of
undergraduates were in using whatif not? heuristics as
change original textbook problem context related to the integral
theory and the everyday life problem. It concluded that they were
more able to follow the processes of original textbook problem in
structured problem posing situation more than creating novel links
between Calculus concepts and real life via semi- structured
situations. In this regard, undergraduates specified the basic

103

difficulties in problem posing process including determining the

problems condition as demanded in tasks (D1); posing new
condition and demand by the right problem posing techniques, as
well as writing down the new problems with correct mathematical
language (D2); solving and refining the new generated problem
(D3). These findings elaborate that particular activities must be
designed and incorporated to problem posing tasks to foster
students problem determinations, constructions, solving and
verification abilities as improving undergraduates' problem posing
abilities.
Keywords: Mathematical problem posing, Problem posing
difficulties, Undergraduates, Calculus

1.1

INTRODUCTION

Since the 1986s, mathematical educational researchers around the

world have been geared towards designing problem posing tasks
as complement of problem solving tasks to engange learners in
the quality problems whose solution strategies are not
immediately known to each students. In other word, these
activities lead students to go beyond of doing a mathematical
activity and thinking about the relationship between mathematical
ideas as formulating new problems or reformulating already
solved problem. Despite of educational researchers, over the
decades, have studied students mathematical problem posing
performances in schooling level and preservice teachers, we
observe scarcity of the research that deal with problem posing
oriented approach in teaching of university level courses. Indeed,
the content analysis of seventy-two problem posing oriented
studies based on educational level, subject, and task organization
from1986 to 2012 concludes that less studies (about 11%) have
been conducted among undergraduates regarding to Calculus
subject and costructing new questions after solving textbook

104

problem as structured or semi- structured problem posing

situations. Furthermore, in these scarce studies, only researchers
have reported the effectiveness of problem posing tasks on
academic achievements and students creative thinking, or
described undergraduates problem posing patterns (Perrin, 2007;
Akay and Boz, 2008, 2010; Pelczer et al., 2008), whilst their
difficulties in performing these tasks have yet unkown.
Therefore, this paper intends to explore the types of problem
posing difficulties that first year students may face while posing
problems after solving a given original textbook problem via
applying problem posing heuristics, namely what if-not and
modifying given (Bairac, 2005; Brown and Walter, 2005). For
this goal, three facets of Schoenfelds (1985) problem solving
model are adapted as theoretical framework of this study. These
facets are including task organization, knowledge base, and
problem posing strategies.

1.2

METHODOLOGY

This study utilized an exploratory research method through

triangulation strategies to investigate the undergraduates in
problem posing activities. In this regard, data was collected
through mix- method procedures, namely in first phase, one
hundred twenty-four moderates and high achiever in calculus 1
among first year undergraduates of four available Iranian
universities (Islamic Azad University, Birjand branch; Birjand
University, Payame Noor University, and Industrial University)
were enrolled in mathematical problem posing test. After
analysing answersheets, in second phase, twelve of respondents
those presented at least one difficulties in fullfilling tasks were
purposefully selected for individual retrospective task-based
interview to obtain more evidences for confirming students
problem posing difficulties. To design relevant research
instrument regarding to the proposed theoretical framework, Abu-

105

elwans (2006) problem solving- posing process was applied

based on instructional objetives of Integral section of Calculus
1. Therefore, the research instrument consisted six of text book
integral problems reconstructed through "Modyfing given" and
What, if not? heuristics with structured, or semi-structured
problem posing situations (see Table 1). Meanwhile, as openended question, each task asked students to explain about their
difficulties after completeing it (i.e., Did you face any difficulties
while posing these problems? Explain). This tasks was validated
by two educational mathematics experts regarding to applied
problem posing situations and hurestics. Table 1 shows two
example of used tasks in this study.
Table 1 Two Example of problem posing tasks of this study
1) Original textbook problem:
a) Find anti-derivative of
cos x
dx

x
by using change
of variable method.
Structured Problem Posing
Situation
Modifying Given Heuristics:
b) According to the given
fractional function in (a):
i.Construct another indefinite
integral which will yield a
solution of another change of
variable.
ii.Solve the new problem.

2) Original textbook problem:

a) Find the volume of the solid
generated by revolving about x-axis the
region bounded by curve y= e x
,y=0,y=1
Determine
problem's
condittions
exactly, then solve it.
Semi-structured problem posing
situation
What, if not? Heuristics
b) Generate a problem involving
definite integral that compute the
volume of a solid item that you use in
daily life.
(Note: items same Birthday hat,a vase,
a ring,a ball,,,,)
i.
Determine problem's Condittions
exactly. and explain how evaluate new
conditions.
ii. Solve the new problem.

Collected data (i.e., pen-paper data and transcriptions of interview

video and audio-taped) was inductively analysed through

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qualitative thematic analysis of Creswell (2012) procedures

including; i) prepare the data; ii) define the unit of analysis; iii)
improving categories and a coding scheme; iv) assessing the
coding consistency; v) drawing conclusion. According to
screening all posed problems of answer sheets, the total units that
presented students difficulties in mathematics problem posing
tasks (i.e. blanks, incorrect posed problem based on problem
posing situation in the tasks, and ambiguous posed problem with
major mistakes) were to 256 units. In addition, 15 and 12 units
were obtained from open-ended question of test sheet and
retrospective interview respectively. Researcher found this
amount of units was sufficient for drawing conclusion and
achieving saturation points for confirming the types of
undergraduates problem posing difficulties categories (themes)
as can be seen in Table 2. To assess coding consistency, after
gathering the agreements of two partner coders whose were
lecturer of Islamic Azad University, Birjand branch, K-value of
Cohen's kappa was calculated. Conclusively, the substantial
agreement adopted from Landis and Koch (1977) was found
among experts (K-value= 0.719). Therefore, the matrix of Table 2
was used for coding all units. Finally, inferences were made for
presenting undergraduates mathematical problem posing
difficulties as meanings derived from the data.

1.3

FINDINGS AND DISSCUSSIONS

The analysing of students answersheets revealed that 20% and

64%participants were "Novice" or "Apprentice in applying
modifying given and what if not? heuristics through
structured and semi-structured problem posing situation
respectively. These meaning that undergraduates indicated
different difficulties in each stages of problem posing tasks (see
Table 2), so that difficulties in each stage have shaped the barriers
for performing problem posing tasks. Indeed, when students had a

107

difficulties in problem determination stage (D1), then they did not

attempt to pose new problem or completely fulfilled task
incorrect. The evidence of students misunderstanding of problem
context (D1.1) was Sub 16 on Task 5(b). His answer sheet was
blank in this task, however he greatly solved original text book
problem.

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Table 2 Three main categories, sub- categories, and description of

students mathematical problem posing difficulties in current study.
Categories

Sub-categories

Description

D1:
Difficulties in
problem
determination stage

D1.1:
Misunderstand the problem
context

Student could not correctly understand,

interpret and clarify information and
requirement of tasks, then he/she makes
blanks, or poses completely erroneous
problem.
Student does not know what to do tasks
and investigate problem, or he/she is
unable to pose new problems without
solving the original problem in first.
Student is unable to connect all new
generated data for formulating the
mathematical problems as whole, then
he/she does not clearly expose his/her
posed problems in formal math language,
or he/she completely neglects to write
down own posed problem.
Student does not perform checking
her/his solutions to correct errors, then
he/she does not mention that the
problems had missing data or no
solution.
Student is unable to transform or
generate all new data significantly, then
he/she does not pose any new questions
with different solution paths of original
textbook problems, or he/ she pose onestep of two step problems.

D1.2:
Unfamiliar with the topics

D2:
Difficulties in
problem
construction stage

D2.1:
Difficulty in formulating
posed problem

D2.2:
Pretermit the problems
verification-correction stage

D3:
Difficulties in
problem solving

*D3.1:
Difficulty in transforming
data

*: Before problem
construction stage
**D3.2:
Difficulty in solving posed
problem

**: After problem

construction stage

Student hardly indicates the types of

understanding
(procedural
and
conceptual) or
processes required to
develop a solution when he/she pose new
problems with different solution paths of
original textbook problem,
or they
cannot focus on solution paths.

The following excerpts of interview presented that Sub 16 was

unable in undesrtanding Task 5(b) information, so that he wrongly
concluded that Task 5 (b) was ill- formulated (lines 2 and 4) and
no attempt to complete it.

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1 Teacherresearcher

Please, explain why you did not construct a problem for

evaluating volume a real object such as ball, hat...? (She
referred to blank part of Task 5 (b) in answer sheet of
Sub (16).)

2 Sub 16

I thought that Task (5) in part (b) had incomplete given

conditions, due to there was not any significant
information about real object properties such its figure
as Task (4), then I could not complete part (b).
In part (b) was directly declared that you had free choice
for any real objects, then you must yourself generate all
of information regarding to your choice.
I could not understand it.

3 Teacherresearcher
4 Sub 16

Meanwhile, (D1.2) was evident in students responses to

interviewer and open- ended question of test sheet about their
difficulties in fulfilling each task as: I had never seen before it
(Sub 30, Task 5(b)). The majority of students stated that they did
not know how generate new problems (D1.2), if they were unable
to solve the original problem in first. Indeed, these kinds of
difficulties more revealed the students unfamiliarity with the
topics (i.e., some mathematics structures, and procedures), than
problem solving difficulties as prior studies noted it (Yeo and
Yeap, 2009; Siswono, 2004; Lavy and Bershadsky, 2003). The
first category (D1) has also reported in problem posing attempts
in Yu and Li (2008) and Siswono (2004) findings. These
researchers found students were unfamiliar with problem posing
tasks and did not know how to investigate. They also did not
know what to do, when to investigate problem, could not
understand the task requirement, and tended to jump into
conclusion too hastily.
Another, problem construction difficulties (D2) identified
if the posed problem had ambiguity or missing data, due to either
students were unable to organize all generated data to form a
mathematics sentences for their problem, or ignore checking
correctness of their solution paths. Sub 63 writing work showed

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that she was unable to formulate a correct mathematics sentences

(D2.1). She wrongly write Find the area of the regions enclosed
by parabola y x 2 2 x 3 and line y 6 x 7 in point 2. while
she must be written Find the area of the regions enclosed by
parabola and line in interval [0, 2]. In addition, line equation
(line equation by Sub63: y 6 x 7 ) had a minor error in sign
(correct equation: y 6 x 7 ) and she did not mention to
missing data in continue, it can be concluded that she had ignored
the simply look back and check solution path (D2.2). The (D2)
category is consistence with some prior findings (Siswono, 2004;
Chua and Yeap, 2009). In addition, Stoyanova and Ellerton
(1996) stated that semi- structured problem posing situations
reveal students weakness in describing a concrete situation to a
mathematical abstraction by symbolic expressions and creative
writing skills. In this regard, Chua and Yeap, (2009) found that
their participants had difficulty in connections step of problem
posing tasks, so that they were unable to connect two existing
concept to form a whole, as a result, they posed problems with
useless data (the over-conditioned), or insufficient and ambiguous
data (the inconsistent problems). Furthermore, Ticha and
Hospesova (2009) and Lavy and Bershadsky (2003) concluded
students also failed to verify that their made up problems had
missing data or unsolvable.
In addition, since problem posing tasks of this study have
required problem solving before (as exploring required new
information) and after (as solving new posed problems and
refining errors ) of constructing a new problem, researcher found
that the most of difficulties in problem posing were overlapped
and related to students problem solving difficulties in Calculus.
As a evidants, during the test sessions, students frequently asked
about the parabola equations and stated that Please remind
parabola formula (D3.1) so that teacher- researcher indicated
without prompting the parabola formula, students were unable to
be engaged in Task 4(b), then she wrote y= ax2+bx+c, or y-y0=

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a(x-x0)2 in blackboard in general and without any more

clarification. After recalling, some participants identified ability
in applying the various representations (graphic and symbolic) to
generate all new data of Task 4(b), while some of them had yet
weakness in that. As can be seen writing work of Sub 17 in
Figure 1, he was able to generate new required information
including line and parabola equations, however he indicated
difficulty in solving new posed problem, namely he could not
apply procedures of evaluating the area of regions enclosed by
parabola and lines in term of difficulty in procedural
understanding (D3.2).
New problem: Find the areas of the regions enclosed by parabola and
lines: y 6 x 7 , x=0, y x 2 2 3 .
2

Solve: 6 x 7dx
0

2 6(4)
6x2
7x
14 2
0
2
2

2 x 3dx

2 8
x3
2
x 2 3x
46
0
3
3
5

Figure 1 Sub17 difficulty in solving new posed problem for Task 4(b)
in term of D3.2.

In fact, the D3 difficulties revealed that the majority of students

were unable to apply strategies they have learnt in solving
Calculus problem to problem posing tasks, because they are
unaware that they are relevant to the task. It may be that even
when they recognize that a particular strategy is relevant, they do
not know how to apply it as Norton and Rutledge (2006) referred
it.

1.4

CONCLUSION

This study revealed that the most difficulties of undergarduates

were in applying whatif not? heuristics as change original

112

textbook problem context related to the integral theory and the

everyday life problem. In general, the responds indicated their
weakness in representation basic theorems as a cognitive aid, and
constructing a novel link between two existing mathematics
concepts or with the real life situations by using creative writing
skills. In this situation, they were only able to follow the processes
of original textbook problem in the imitation manner. In this
respect, the undergraduates identified the difficulties in different
problem posing stages including determining the problems
condition as demanded in tasks (D1), posing new condition and
demand by the right problem posing techniques, writing down the
new condition and demand based on correct mathematical
language (D2), solving and refining the new
generated
problem(D3). According to this study findings, we recommend to
educational authorities to design the particular activties for
fostering students abilities in determinating problem posing
tasks, formal mathematical language and writing, constructing
and formulating new problems, as well as verifying and solving
them as improving undergraduates problem posing abilities.

REFERENCES
Abu-Elwan, R. 2006. The Development of Mathematical Problem
Posing Skills for Prospective Middle School Teachers.
Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Sultan Qaboos
University, Muscat, Sultan of Oman.
Akay, H. and Boz, N. 2008. The effect of problem posing oriented
Calculus II instruction on academic success. K.Mara St
mam University.
Akay, H., and Boz, N. 2010. The effect of problem posing oriented
analyses-II course on the attitudes toward mathematics and
mathematics self-efficacy of elementary prospective
mathematics teachers. Australian Journal of Teacher
Education, 35(1), 57-75.

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Bairac, R. 2005. Some methods for composing mathematical

problems. International Journal for Mathematics Teaching
and
Learning,
Available
online
at:
http://www.cimt.plymouth.ac.uk/journal/bairac.pdf
Brown, S., and Walter, M. I. 2005. The art of problem posing (3rd
ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Association.
Chua, P. Y., and Yeap, B. H. 2009. Problem posing performance of
grade 9 students in Singapore an open-ended stimulus.
National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological
University, Singapore.
Creswell, J. 2012. Educational research: Planning, conducting,
and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Norton, A., and Rutledge, Z. 2006. Measuring tasks posing cycles:
Mathematical letter writing between algebra students and
preservice teachers. The Mathematics Educators, 19(1), 3245.
Perrin, J. R. 2007. Problem Posing at all levels in the Calculus
Classroom. School Science and Mathematics, 107(5), 182.
Pelczer, I., Voica, C. and Gamboa, F. 2008. Problem posing
strategies of first year mathematics students. Proceedings of
the 2008 the 32nd Conference of the International Group
for the Psychology of Mathematics Education .
Landis, J. R. and Koch, G. G. 1977. "The measurement of observer
agreement for categorical data" in Biometrics. 33, 159174.
Lavy, I., and Bershadsky, I. 2003. Problem posing via What if
not? strategy in solid Geometry: A case study. Journal of
Mathematics Behavioral, 22, 369-387.
Schoenfeld, A. H. 1985. Mathematical problem solving. Orlando,
FL: Academic Press.
Siswono, T. Y. E. 2004. Problem Posing: University students
abilities in developing theorems. Paper presented at the
National Seminar Penelitian Pendidikan dan Penerapan
MIPA, UNY, Yogjakarta.
Stoyanova, E., and Ellerton, N. F. 1996. A framework for research

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into students problem posing in school mathematics.

Technology in mathematics education. Mel bourne:
Mathematics Education Research Group of Australia.
Ticha, M., and Hospesova, A. 2009. Problem Posing and
Development of Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Preservice Teacher Training.Published in Proceedings of
CERME 6. Lyon France. 1941-1950.
Yeo, B. W., and Yeap, B. H. 2009. Mathematical investigation:
Task, process and activity. Technical Report ME2009-01,
Mathematics and Mathematics Education, National
Institute of Education Singapore.
Yu, P., and Li, M. 2008. Study on the relationship between
individuals CPFS structure and problem inquiry ability.
Journal of Mathematics Education, 1(1), 119-131.

115

ENGLISH POETRY STANCES BY

ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN
LANGUAGE READERS
Shirin Shafiei Ebrahimi & Zaidah Zainal

ABSTRACT
Because there is a huge need for research in the area of teaching
poetry effectively, it is interesting to study different aspects of
reading poetry to approach the best way of teaching it. This
research aims to show the effect of affective stances which are
among many types of strategies that English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) students employ while reading a poem. The
results can help the language and literature teachers to teach poetry
more comprehensively as well as the student to read and
understand poetry better.
Keywords: Poetry; Reading, Literary stance.

1.1

INTRODUCTION

Poetry is a great literacy genre to learn about for many reasons.

Poetry allows the reader to express emotions and feelings that no
other genres is able to do. It gives freedom to the poets to express
as little or as much as they wish. It is an important genre to teach
because poetry can be a wonderful source of enhancing reading.
Poetry provides the reader with a sense of aesthetic pleasure, it
brightens senses, connects us with ourselves and other people, and

116

makes us think because of the concise language used to convey a

message. That is why understanding poetry is not as easy as
understanding other literary genres as the words in poetry have a
denotative and connotative meaning. These words are informative
as well as expressive to convey the poet's tone and attitude. The
language use of a poem helps in viewing the world with new
perspectives. That is why poetry readers become skilful in
language usage. They get an understanding of the way words hold
complex and subtle meanings and experience the pleasure in
stitching words together.
Much has been written on the problems of teaching poetry
(Benton, 2000; Pike, 2000), but still few is known about teaching
poetry effectively. The objective of this study is to help in finding
an effective way of teaching poetry by exploring EFL students use
of reading affective strategies when they read English poetry. In
addition, this study also aims at examining the similarities or
differences in the strategies use with what they think that they
employ in actual English poetry reading.

1.1.1

Using Stances In Reading

According to Pike (2000), teachers do not allow students to

respond to the text personally but encourage them to get the
information. Their reason is that they are afraid that the students
would not succeed in the exams if they do not respond correctly
to the questions. Pike (2000) says that this efferent rather than
aesthetic stance in reading literature is mutual between students
and the teachers. Also, Pike (2000) also notes that it is easier for
the teachers to transfer the knowledge to the students than offering
them opportunities to respond to the text by themselves
individually and discuss various interpretations of a text.
Research (Scharer, 1995) also shows that students who are
not given the chance to use their prior knowledge in reading,

117

cannot give their ideas about a literary text aesthetically because

they are not prepared to do so and this is not an easy task that one
can achieve in a short time. Rosenblatt (1978) believes that
aesthetic stance ought to be the predominant stance in poetry
reading experience. This study aims to show whether students are
reading poetry using aesthetic stance or otherwise.

2.1

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A poem's affective stance elicits different responses in readers;

therefore, the mood of the poem has various significance. As
Altieri (2003) explains sensations embedded in poetry needs to be
shared, and if language is intermingled with sensations, the effects
become available for speakers. The availability of sensation
through art is limited by the imagination of the reader. This shows
an interrelation between a poem's voice and the readiness of a
reader to understand that voice, and between the style of address
and the type of audience.
He warns against totally subscribing to the poetics of
impersonality, stating that such an approach is limited to the
fundamentally passive conditions in being caught up in imaginary
structures. Therefore, Altieri (2003) warns against emphasising
too much on impersonality as an insight to poetics. However, he
believes that it should be one of several advantages from which
one can recognize the poetic process.
Interesting descriptions of Altieri (2003) are as follows:
Mood is less specific, more atmospheric, and environmental.
Emotion involves the construction of attitudes that typically
establish a particular cause that, in the case of the poems of this
study, is growing old and finally death. Feelings are elemental
affective states characterized by an imaginative engagement with
the sensation process. Mood builds vague states that the subject is
out of the control of what is subjective. Passion is the emotion in
which people project significant stakes for the possible identity that
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they think and is a kind of orientation of emotion. In summary,

moods reveal a mode of intentionality in which the subjectivity of
the subject is not important. Therefore, the difference between
moods and other affects is that subjectivity fluctuates adjusting
between a sense of participation and being that is taken up to some
states of mind that the subject can have.
Eliot (1980) also defines the affects of emotions and
feelings. He calls the poets emotion as a very complicated thing,
but not as complicated as the emotions of those with very critical
emotions. Yet, feeling is independent and fleeting, but not in actual
emotions. Mood is a comprehensive affect that although fleeting,
is inescapable and passive. The researcher aims to show her
concerns about the subtleties of affect by recognizing the
distinction between feeling, emotion, and passion in her selected
poems. Such a concern supports reading of the above mentioned
poems in light of the aesthetics of affect, especially mood. Mood
unclears the specificity of the subject, making the poem relevant to
readers in other situations.
Altieri (2003) names the role of the subject as feeling,
emotion, and passion affects. He believes that it is only
mood that has a passive affect. Mood is one of the four affects
defined by Altieri (2003) as modes of feeling where subjectivity
diffuses and sensation merges to something near the atmosphere
that penetrates into the whole scene or situation. The other
affective mode is feeling when momentary sensations are
revealed. When a specific situation causes a response, the affective
mode is emotion, because it is a means for presenting the
situation and establishing values regarding upcoming actions.
Passion happens when the affective mode turns to the main
aspect of the identity.
He continues explaining sensation as feelings or the
affect that was characterized by an imaginative involvement in the
process of sensation, sensation is the physical response that is
indirectly associated with sensory perception, directly associated
with physiological response such as frisson, itch, quiver, and chill.

119

Altieri (2003) posits that the affect theory superior to response

theories because the point of view is so crucial for understanding
poetry.
Altieri (2003) writes that affect provides a means of
referring to the entire range of states that are bounded on one side
by pure sensation and on the other by thoughts that have no visible
or tangible impact on our bodies. Therefore, affects are modes of
sensual responsiveness to the world that are specified by an
imagination. The relationship between sensation and thought and
the concept that the sensual responsiveness is, in affective
aesthetics, plus imagination provides a pattern for understanding
poetry, and a basis for considering sociocultural fervour as an
affect.

2.1.1 Reading Poetry for Stance

The stance scheme which is being used in this study belongs to
Rosenblatt's (1978, 1995) description of aesthetic (1978), efferent
(1978), and critical (1995) stances which is something necessary to
live through the experience of the text. Among these, the first two
stances are related to the states of feelings and the last is related to
the states of thoughts. In case of aesthetic or affective stance as the
main stance in reading literature, Eliot (1980) described four states
of mood, emotion, and feeling to which Altieri (2003) added
passion to the list. In short, the following table shows the general
types of literary stances.

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Table 1 Classification of literary stances

Rosenblatt (1978, 1995)

Aesthetic
(Affective):
emotional

Eliot (1980) Altieri (2003)

Mood

Mood

Emotion

Emotion

Feeling

Feeling
Passion

Efferent: factual
Critical: opinion, judgment
Readers who employ aesthetic stance experience the words
of the text as they become a poetic part of their awareness or their
reality. Aesthetic readers experience the process of reading and
evolution of interpretation rather than only getting to the
destination. In this regard, they live through the experience of
reading, construct meaning, affirm and evolve interpretations, and
are transformed by the experience.
On the other hand, efferent reading involves taking
information from the text for other purposes. In this case, the
reader takes the information without regarding the rhythm, sound,
and patterns of the words. For this kind of readers, information is
to solve a problem, therefore the focus is not on the process of
transformation. However, as Rosenblatt (1978) explains, the text
can be read using either of these stances. The reader can shift from
one to another as he lives the experience of reading and taking the
information out of the text.
In reading the poems as texts, Rosenblatt (1994) identifies
two stances that readers might take depending on their purposes for
reading: aesthetic and efferent. When readers take an aesthetic
stance in reading a literary work like poem, their attention shifts
inward and centres on what is being created during the actual

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reading: personal feelings, ideas, and attitudes. When taking an

efferent stance in reading, readers attention narrows in order to
build up the meanings and ideas to be retained.
Rosenblatt (1978, p. 24) explains that aesthetic reading
makes them admit the personal meanings as well as their feelings
and memories, the result of which leads to a focus on their
experiences in the transactions with a literary text. She describes
the Aesthetic stance as a preparedness to focus on lived-through
experience during a reading event, and to focus on both the public
and the private aspects of meaning shaped by the transaction
(Rosenblatt, 1995, p. 292; Rosenblatt, 2005, p. 11).
Efferent stance is a reading with the focus on what
information is to be taken from the reading event and put in
practice later (Rosenblatt, 2005, p. 11). Efferent reading is when
people read with the intention of putting the information they face
in a text toward other ends. Doing so makes them ignore the
personal meanings that strikes to their mind. However, she (1978,
p. 24) says that the readers direct their attention toward concepts
to be retained, ideas to be tested, actions to be performed after the
reading. Later, she (1995) calls the reader's opinions or judgments
about the literary text as the critical stance.
Rosenblatt posits that it is the reader, rather than the text,
that dictates the stance that is taken, any text can be read either
way, and that when reading any text, readers shift along a
continuum from the aesthetic to the efferent stance. Therefore,
reading is somewhere between efferent and aesthetic poles.
Readers responses are the critical components of teaching sociocultural content because broadening their critical view of the
diversity of world culture is an objective of teaching literature
reading. Beach (1993) identifies five different perspectives on the
reader/text transaction: experiential, developmental, social,
cultural, and textual. By understanding each perspective, teachers
can make a better decision for their English language learners.
The distinction that Rosenblatt (1978) makes between
efferent and aesthetic reading is significant to this study in a way

122

that it allows the researcher to account for the symbolizing

processes (p. 97) in which readers might go through while
transacting with poetries. Rosenblatt (1978) argues that readers
find some words emotional overtonesall too powerful, by
having an aesthetic point of view to a text, the result of which will
lead them to place their responses into contexts not at all directly
indicated by the text (p. 97). As she (1978) explains, readers
construct these contexts, as they draw on their personal
backgrounds, and as they situate their responses in the interpretive
frameworks they construct while reading. Therefore, readers are
able to interpret the same text in different ways. She (1978) insists
that meaning is not merely subjective because she believes that a
literary text is a structure that guides a readers response. She
(1978, p. 13) thinks writers set down notations for others, to guide
them in the production of a work of art. Therefore, her theory of
aesthetic reading compliments the semiotic perspectives on multimodality.
Rosenblatt does not restrict the theory of efferent-aesthetic
reading to transactions with literary texts as they are thought
traditionally. She (1978, p. xvii) declares that it describes the two
main ways we look at the world. According to her, efferent
reading is introduced originally for the ability of readers to
comprehend the people, objects, actions and so on, but in aesthetic
reading, readers might focus on the personal feelings and thoughts
that poetries might strike into their mind. It is worth mentioning
that Rosenblatts (1978) theory of aesthetic reading leads to an
understanding of how the participants construct meaning in their
transactions with the poetries. In reading, the reader uses strategies
and skills that are being more elaborated in the next section.

3.1

METHODOLOGY

The researcher judged what affective stance strategies the students

use in reading poems during the think-aloud session. A poem of
123

Shakespeare, All the World's a Stage, and a contemporary poem,

Choosing to Think of It by Stephen Dunn, were selected to be
given to 35 EFL students to do think-aloud protocol. There were 18
female and 17 males participating in this study. They were asked to
do the think-aloud protocol as well as filling out a Survey Of
Poetry Reading Strategies (SOPRS) to check if the stances that they
have during practice in their think-aloud sessions match with the
ones that they select in answering the survey or not. Therefore, the
mixed mode of qualitative and quantitative type of data gathering
and analysis serves this study to accomplish. The data taken from
quantitative research design is complimentarily helping to explain
the data from the qualitative research design to deepen the
understanding and interpretation of the results. As a result, the
research instruments of this study are two poems, think-aloud
protocols, and the survey.

Table 2 Gender of the pilot study participants

Frequency

Percent Cumulative Percent

Female

17

49

49

Male

18

51

100

Total

35

100

100

Table 3 Factor loading of the literary stances by EFL readers

Stance
type

Items in rank of order in Factor

use in each category
loading of
Quantitat
ive Data

Factor
loading of
Quantitat
ive Data

Efferent

Getting as much information 0.66

as possible from the poetry

0.73

124

Critical

and 0.54

0.51

Aesthetic Getting emotionally engaged 0.48

with the poetry

0.68

4.1

Making
judgment
opinion on the poetry

DISCUSSION AND RESULTS

From the perspective of the poets, the poems of interest in this

study are poems of emotion, in which they show the stages of the
sadness of life as produced by a particular situation. Considering
the poems from another point of view, they are poems of passion,
in which the situation described is aspects of ones identity.
Considering Altieris (2003) aesthetics of the affects, this
study tries to have a look at the use of affective words and images
in the poems. In the first step, it seems that the poem stands down
from expressing an affective stance. Affective stance means a
certain attitude that is categorized as one of the affects, rather than
a concatenation of several.
In reference to the poems of this study, the negative feeling
of death is not mood like, but it is passionate, with an identification
which has considerable importance for the subject. The affective
dimensions are emotion and feelings. The poems of this study
describe the poets or the personas emotional engagement with,
and anxiety about, the ageing process, life, and death. The anxiety
expressed is not mood like, as it establishes specific aspects of
dread.
In Reader-Response theory, a critic would consider the
poems of this study relevant to the readers, in parallel with their
relevance to the poets. This obviates the source of the affect in the
poem; therefore, the researcher decides to avoid this in reading for
the affects. These poems are memorialised in a moment of passion,

125

as the persona is going through the stages of life. It seems that the
poets express their emotions strongly with their empathy with the
poets who are going to die themselves. The emotions establish a
particular cause that leads to situate the agent in a narrative to
make identification. The main affect of the poetic presentation of
the emotion in both poems in this study is passion. As it was
explained earlier, passion is different with emotion. Passion of
sadness is absorbing, as if one is to make it a basic aspect of his
identity. As the poets are young, they cannot be dead, and so their
presentations of the dead poets seem to the reader like a clich. The
underlying emotions in the poems are true, but the secondary
passion is less impressive. Therefore, in reading the poems, the
researcher finds two affects and that are reinforced by comparisons
with the other poem in general and their word choices. For
example, in the sixth line of Shakespeares poem, the infant,
Mewling and puking in the nurse's arms, the action words of
Mewling and puking are active in comparison to the other nouns,
Mewl and Puke. It is also suggestive of an ongoing process,
rather than of an accomplished fact. Other passages in the poem
also suggest ongoing actions. The poems are also in an imperative
mood which suggests an urgency requiring action on the part of the
reader. In a way or another, the poems are spoken to the reader.
Moreover, there is not any exclamation points and question
marks. The affect is active all over the poems. The poets'
indignation at the unfairness is mitigated in the sestet by a rather
commonplace speculation about mortal life; throughout the poem,
the deadly mechanism of life is shown in earthly manifestations.
Nice to remind the affect of mood, due to its passive nature. The
affect is active and is tied to an identity. The action is seen all
through the poems that suggest actions on the part of the universe
as well as the human being. Yet, the identity is not of an individual,
certainly not of an individual human. The affected and affecting
entities are the people. For example, the school boy, soldier or
lover are representative of all people. Thus, the identity is split
between the point of view of the observing poet and the projected

126

point of view of the active natural entity or universe. For the poets,
the dominant affect is sorrow, expressed as an emotion. It seems to
the researcher that the poets' religious views to the world and life
can be another affective mode in these poems. It is more than
passion, as it has a different perspective and intensity called typical
passions by Altieri (2003). The poets made a different type by
enlarging the affective limits to the language and philosophy, not
only to experience or degree, in the affective register.
As Eliot (1980; p. 68) explains the only way of expressing
emotion in art is by finding an objective correlative or a set of
objects, situation, or events that shall be the formula for that
particular emotion; in a way that, when those facts, which have to
terminate in sensory experience, are given, the emotion is revealed
immediately. The formula for the emotions in the poems of this
study is the representative elements of periods of life without the
obvious words which express emotion or any of the affects. In fact,
they are not poems of mood, although the atmosphere is there.
Only few actions are taken place throughout the poems. The
identity of the poet, the observer, the reader, is secondary to the
stages of life, as they are listed without pathos. By reading the
poems for affects, one can reach to the poems emotion
considering the objective correlative entries.
These poems are not structurally complicated. The affect is
disentangled from the apparent factual list. They both have a sense
of anthropogenic responsibility to life. For example, the reader is
reminded of a man dying gradually after doing a lot of works in his
life time. Even, the environmental elements are described in a
negative way in these poems. The affect of these descriptions is an
emotion. In fact, just as man has no control over the forces of
nature, he has no perceivable escape from the death and although
There will be survivors, and even they will die. such scenes lead
to an emotion as they put the agent in a narrative and make a kind
of identification. The poets express an attitude numbering the
typical aspects of life under a critical microscope, which makes
identification. The poems are in a way that the reader will built his

127

beliefs over it. There is an underlying cycle in the first lines All
the world's a stage, and Today, ten thousand people will die,
and the last line's There will be survivors, and even they will die.
These stages have a start and a finish point. The constant reminders
of the modern life condition are present in many lines, and the
reader is left to determine the emotional values himself.
Choosing to think of it is an audience-embracing
extension of the first person. Had Dunn (1989) used I rather than
you, the poem gets a different meaning and therefore the dominant
affect would be diverted from emotion to passion, as it would get
significant stakes for the identity of the narrator. In this example,
the change of only one word changes the affective mode of the
whole poem. In this regard, it is obvious that the way the poets use
affective language and sensory images helps the readers to have a
response to the poem.
Apart from the result taken from the think aloud session, an
interesting result revealed in the quantitative part of the study
which was taken from Survey Of Poetry Reading Strategies
(SOPRS). These statements in this part are the stance related items
that are taken from a bigger questionnaire, SOPRS.
In the application of the aesthetics of affect to poems of
discussions in this research, there is a change in affective stance
from a poem to another. However, the result taken from the survey
shows that the strategies that the students use mainly are I check if
the characters in the poetry match with my personal identity,
refers to the affective stance of passion, I construct an attitude
by reading poetry, refers to the affective stance of emotion, and,
I try to be imaginatively engaged with the poetry to have a better
understanding, which refers to the affective stance of feeling.
As table 3 shows, EFL readers believe that they have efferent,
critical, and aesthetic stance toward poetry; however, in reality they
use aesthetic, efferent, and critical stance in reading poetry.

128

Table 3 Factor loading of the literary stances by EFL readers

Stance
type

Items in rank of Factor

order in use in each loading of
category
Quantitative
Data

Factor
loading of
Quantitative
Data

Efferent

Getting
as
much 0.66
information as possible
from the poetry

0.73

Critical

Making judgment and 0.54

opinion on the poetry

0.51

Aesthetic Getting
engaged
poetry

emotionally 0.48
with
the

0.68

Based on the discussion above, the following figure illustrates a

comparison between the stances that EFL readers have towards
poetry. As it is shown clearly in figure 1, EFL readers believe that
they use more aesthetic stance than they use in reality. There is not
much significant difference between the use of efferent and critical
stances as they think they use them.
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4

Quantitative
Qualitative

0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Efferent

Critical

Aesthetic

Figure 1 Comparison of factor loading of the literary stances taken from

qualitative (Think-Aloud) and quantitative data (SOPRS)

129

5.1

CONCLUSION

On the basis of the results from factor loading analysis, the order of
literary stances that EFL students use while they read English
poetry are efferent, critical and aesthetic stances in order.
Surprisingly, this result is contrary to Rosenblatt's (1978) theory
that aesthetic stance has to be the predominant stance in poetry
reading. It shows that still the reading experience in classroom is
not to the satisfactory level that engage the aesthetic stance of the
readers and that they are not involved in the emotions of the
literary works in general and poetry in particular. However, EFL
readers are more involved in getting the message and information
from the literary pieces and they are involved with efferent stance
both in practice and in their believes . They also believe that they
use more aesthetic stance than they use in reality. There is not
much significant difference between the use of efferent and critical
stances as they think they use them.

REFERENCES
Altieri, C., 2003. The Particulars of Rapture: An Aesthetics of the
Affects. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Beach, R., 1993. A teachers introduction to reader response
theories. National Council of Teachers of English.
Benton, P., 2000. The conveyor belt curriculum? Poetry teaching in
the secondary school II. Oxford Review of Education. vol.
26(1), pp. 8193.
Eliot, T. S., 1980. The Complete Poems and Plays: 1909-1950.
New York: Harcourt Brace.
Pike, M., 2000. Spirituality, Morality and Poetry, International
Journal of Children's Spirituality. Vol. 5(2). pp. 177-191.
Rosenblatt, L. M., 1978. The reader, the text, the poem: The
transactional theory of the literary work. Carbondale, IL:

130

Southern Illinois University Press.

Rosenblatt's, L. M., 1994. Reader, the text, the poem: the
transactional theory o f literary work. Carbondale, IL: Southern
Illinois University Press.
Rosenblatt, L. M., 1995. Literature as exploration. New York:
Modern Language Association.
Rosenblatt, L. M., 2005. The transactional theory of reading and
writing. In L. Rosenblatt (Ed.), Making meaning with texts (pp.
1-37). Portsmouth: Heinemann.
Scharer, P., Peters, D., & Lehmen, B., 1995. Lessons from
grammar school: How can literature use in elementary
classrooms inform middle school instruction? Journal of
Adolescent & Adult Literacy, vol. 39(1), pp. 28-34.

131

AMALAN PENGURUSAN
PEMBANGUNAN PROFESIONAL
GURU DI SEKOLAH
DAN KOMPETENSI GURU DI
NEGERI SABAH
Roslitah Madon & Lokman Mohd Tahir

ABSTRAK
Kajian ini dijalankan untuk mengenal pasti amalan dan sumbangan
pengurusan pembangunan profesional guru di sekolah dan
kompetensi guru di negeri Sabah. Kajian ini adalah berdasarkan
kepada Model RPTIM yang diasaskan oleh Wood, Thompson dan
Russell (1981). Sebanyak lima fasa dalam pengurusan
pembangunan profesional di sekolah yang dikaji oleh penyelidik
iaitu amalan kesediaan, perancangan, latihan dalaman, aplikasi
latihan dan pemantapan. Sementara itu dalam kompetensi pula,
sebanyak 3 kompetensi yang terlibat dikaji iaitu kompetensi
pengetahuan, kemahiran guru dan sikap guru. Seramai lebih
kurang 500 responden dari enam buah zon pentadbiran pejabat
pendidikan daerah yang akan terlibat dalam kajian ini. Instrumen
yang akan digunakan ialah soal selidik dan data mentah yang akan
dianalisis menggunakan perisian "Statistical Package of the
Social Science (SPSS). Penganalisisan yang akan dibuat secara
kaedah deskriptif min dan peratus dan analisis regrasi.
Kata Kunci : Amalan Pengurusan Pembangunan,
Profesional Guru, Kompetensi Guru

132

PENGENALAN
Pekeliling Perkhidmatan Bilangan 6 Tahun 2005 tentang dasar
latihan Sumber Manusia Sektor Awam menyebut bahawa telah
ditetapkan iaitu setiap anggota perkhidmatan awam perlu
melengkapkan diri atau dilengkapkan dengan sikap (attitude),
kemahiran (skills) dan pengetahuan (knowledge) yang
bersesuaian, melalui program pembangunan sumber manusia yang
terancang yang berteraskan pembangunan kompetensi dan
pembelajaran berterusan.
Dalam konteks sekolah, hal ini merujuk kepada
pembangunan profesional guru. Abd. Rahim (2005) merujuk
pembangunan profesional guru sebagai wadah mengangkat
paradigm kompetensi guru. Blandford (2009) menyokong
kenyataan ini dengan menyebut bahawa dalam merancang
keberkesanan sebuah sekolah adalah penting pengurusan
pembangunan guru atau sumber manusia dirancang dengan teliti.

LATAR BELAKANG MASALAH

a) Isu Berkaitan Kesediaan Guru
Habib Mat Som (2005) menyebut bahawa cabaran guru dalam
peningkatan profesionalisme banyak berkait dengan tumpuan guru
itu sendiri atau kesediaan guru terhadap pelaksanaan tugas
terutama berkaitan sesuatu inovasi untuk peningkatan tahap
profesionalisme mereka.
Anggapan tugas mengajar mudah dan remeh, tidak
bersemangat, sentiasa murung dan bersikap acuh tidak acuh
semakin meningkat dalam kalangan guru sejak akhir-akhir ini
(Mohd. Yusof, 2002). Laporan Jemaah Nazir Sekolah Persekutuan
(2000) menulis bahawa guru bersikap presentism dalam tugas
seharian, bersikap defensif terhadap pembaharuan, gemar situasi
kerja familiar dan menolak corak kerja penuh persaingan, gagal
memahami kehendak pihak pengurusan sekolah dan pelbagai

133

fenomena lain di samping wujud

pengajaran.

masalah keberkesanan

b) Isu Berkaitan Amalan Perancangan

Jika dilihat dari sudut pelaksanaan, usaha membangunkan
profesionalisme guru banyak melibatkan kos sama ada dari sudut
penggunaan tenaga, kemudahan tempat dan masa.
Jadual 1.1 : Peruntukan Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia
untuk Latihan dan Kursus dalam Perkhidmatan.
Tahun
Peruntukan
1994
5 000 000.00
1997
71 000 000.0045
2000
599 500.00 60
2001
149 320.00 130
2002
380 020.00273
2003
570 306.00
Sumber : Mesyuarat Agihan Peruntukan LDP 2005 KPM

Oleh itu, kelihatan pembaziran yang ketara jika pengurusan

pembangunan profesional yang dianjur dan dilaksana oleh semua
agensi di bawah kementerian tidak mencapai matlamat dan hasil
berkesan. Amin (2008) telah menulis bahawa program-program
pembangunan profesional guru mendapat kritikan terutama dari
aspek amalan pengurusannya apabila pihak pengurusan yang
bertanggungjawab terhadap pengurusan program pembangunan
profesional guru tidak menyediakan objektif yang jelas terhadap
program, kekurangan tindak susul, tidak berkaitan atau tidak
memenuhi keperluan individu, dan kekurangan modal.
Lok (2008) berkata Kementerian Pendidikan seharusnya
menyediakan garis panduan standard dan lebih khusus supaya
tiada tekanan diberikan ke atas guru untuk menghadiri latihan. Isu
masa latihan dibangkitkan oleh guru. Hal ini ternyata berkait sekali
dengan pengurusan perancangan program pembangunan
profesionalisme guru. Zaini (2004) dalam Mohd Rashid (2009)

134

dan Junaidi (2004) menyebut pengurus organisasi seperti sekolah

gagal mengatasi masalah guru yang semakin kompleks terutama
membangun profesionalisme dan amalan pembangunan rofesional
guru yang seharusnya kontemporari supaya relevan dengan masa
kini dalam menjana keberkesanan P & P.
Azlin (2005) menyokong kenyataan ini melalui kajiannya
yang mendapati bahawa kebanyakan pengurus sekolah
menyerahkan sebahagian peranan mengurus pembangunan
profesional guru kepada penolong kanan, menyebabkan program
pembangunan profesional guru kurang berkesan di sekolah.

c) Isu Berkaitan Amalan Latihan Dalaman

Aspek pelaksanaan latihan dalaman program juga menjadi
perhatian dalam amalan pengurusan pembangunan profesional
guru. Sesetengah penyelidik menganggarkan bahawa terdapat 20
teknik latihan yang berbeza dan beratus-ratus kombinasi pelbagai
teknik yang popular dan sering digunakan oleh agensi latihan.
Walaupun didapati sesetengah kaedah latihan digunakan secara
berleluasa, namun kebanyakan rujukan tidak dapat memberi
jawapan kepada persoalan apakah kaedah atau teknik latihan
yang paling berkesan? Persoalan ini merujuk kepada cara
pelaksanaan pembangunan professional guru seperti kenyataan
Ibrahim (2001), sesetengah jurulatih bertindak seolah-olah mereka
tahu akan jawapannya dan terus menggunakan sesuatu teknik yang
disukainya tanpa mengambil kira kesesuaiannya dengan objektif
program pembangunan profesional guru.
Fasilitator yang kurang mahir akan hanya menambah
kelemahan dalam program pembangunan profesional guru seperti
yang disuarakan oleh Phil (2005) dalam Mimi et.al (2008) yang
menyatakan bahawa kritikan yang selalu diberi kepada peringkat
tenaga pengajar teknikal dan pengamal bidang teknikal
terutamanya dalam kalangan pengurus program pembangunan
guru ialah mereka kurang mengikuti perkembangan semasa dan
kurang pengalaman atau pengetahuan yang berkaitan dan

135

kadangkala tidak biasa dengan kemajuan teknologi dan juga cara

kerja yang wujud di tempat kerja. Khalid, Zuraida, Shuki dan
Ahmad Tajuddin (2009) pula menguatkan kenyataan ini dengan
mengatakan bahawa pendidikan dan latihan yang berkesan menjadi
faktor paling utama dalam menentukan kualiti guru dan kualiti
pengajaran.

d) Isu Berkaitan Aplikasi Latihan

Balkisnah dan Norhasni (2009) dalam kajian mereka menegaskan
bahawa terdapat empat faktor utama yang perlu diberi perhatian
untuk memastikan pembangunan profesional guru berjaya atau
dengan kata lain proses pemindahan latihan berlaku secara kekal
dan berterusan iaitu: 1) faktor guru yang mengikuti kursus
mestilah mempunyai keupayaan, bermotivasi dan mempunyai
personaliti yang sesuai dengan kursus yang dikuti; 2) faktor
persekitaran kerja yang menunjukkan budaya organisasi yang
saling menyokong dan menyediakan persekitaran kerja yang sesuai
dengan situasi program pembangunan guru yang diterima; 3)
sokongan organisasi yang berkait dengan pihak pengurusan yang
sentiasa memberi peluang dan galakan kepada guru untuk terus
mengaplikasikan kemahiran, pengetahuan dan sikap yang positif di
tempat kerja; dan 4) faktor reka bentuk latihan atau kursus.
Beberapa ciri dan input yang diperoleh dalam latihan
dalaman iaitu kesesuaian bahan latihan, ilmu teori dan praktikal,
keupayaan menyelesaikan masalah dalam pengajaran dan inputinput baru bagi memantapkan pengetahuan serta meningkatkan
kerjaya dan kompetensi guru perlu dikembangkan melalui latihan
demi latihan atau dengan kata lain melalui aplikasi latihan. (M Nur
dan Nurasamah, 2009).

e) Isu Berkaitan Amalan Pemantapan

Abdul Shukor (2004) menegaskan bahawa terdapat keperluan guru
besar memberikan sokongan terhadap budaya peningkatan ilmu

136

sebagai salah satu elemen kepimpinan sekolah yang berkesan.

Yahya (2012) telah menegaskan bahawa salah satu soalan yang
selalu ditanya tentang kursus ialah berapa banyak faedah yang
diperoleh atau sejauh mana program pembangunan profesional
guru dapat membantu secara langsung dan secara tidak langsung
dalam kalangan guru untuk meningkatkan profesionalisme
mereka dan pelajar di sekolah. Hal tersebut menguatkan hujah
Mohd. Nasir dan Sakina (2007) yang menyebut bahawa isu
latihan dan pembangunan profesional guru merangkumi
pembentukan polisi dan objektif latihan yang memerlukan maklum
balas daripada semua kakitangan; masalah impak latihan,
contohnya analisis organisasi yang tidak cukup sebelum
pelaksanaan, kurangnya sokongan pengurusan, pelatih yang tidak
bermotivasi, kemahiran yang diajar tidak berkaitan dengan
masalah, tiada tindakan susulan di tempat pelatih dan masalah
peruntukan bagi program yang tidak mencukupi.
Lok (2008) telah berhujah bahawa guru sepatutnya diberi
peluang untuk memfokuskan diri terhadap pengajaran dan
pembelajaran pelajar dan bukannya dibebani dengan masalah yang
merumitkan tugas mereka kerana selain mengajar, guru juga terlibat
dengan pelbagai aktiviti dan tugas lain dan ini akan menyebabkan
tanggungjawab mereka akan bertambah (Mohd. Affendy, 2004).
Akhirnya guru-guru melihat latihan yang diikuti dengan tugas
seharian menjadi dua perkara yang tidak berkaitan.

PERNYATAAN MASALAH
Komuniti masyarakat mempunyai persepsi bahawa sistem
pendidikan mempunyai mekanisme untuk menentukan guru
benar-benar kompeten dan memenuhi standard yang ditetapkan
(Muhyiddin, 2012). Bagi mewajarkan aspirasi ini, amalan
pengurusan pembangunan profesional guru di sekolah merupakan
cabang pengurusan yang penting untuk meningkatkan kompetensi
guru sekaligus membangunkan keberkesanan sekolah agar

137

penjanaan modal insan yang berkualiti untuk tujuan pembangunan

pendidikan tidak diabaikan (Herbert, 2006).
Malangnya, sehingga hari ini, isu membabitkan
profesionalisme keguruan terus mendapat perhatian. Jika program
pembangunan profesional guru tersebut masih kurang berkesan
meningkatkan kompetensi guru dari aspek pengetahuan,
kemahiran dan sikap guru, maka kemungkinan masih terdapat
aspek amalan pengurusan pembangunan profesional guru yang
kurang diberi perhatian sama ada dari aspek amalan kesediaan,
perancangan, latihan dalaman, aplikasi latihan dan pemantapan.

OBJEKTIF KAJIAN
Penyelidikan ini bertujuan untuk :
1) Mengenal pasti amalan pengurusan pembangunan pofesional
guru yang paling dominan (kesediaan, perancangan, latihan
dalaman, aplikasi dan pemantapan).
2) Mengenal pasti kompetensi guru yang paling dominan
daripada tiga aspek iaitu pengetahuan, kemahiran dan sikap
profesionalisme guru.
3) Mengenal pasti faktor peramal terhadap amalan pembangunan
profesional guru di sekolah (kesediaan, perancangan, latihan
dalaman, aplikasi dan pemantapan ) terhadap pengetahuan,
kemahiran dan sikap profesionalisme berdasarkan amalan
pembangunan profesional guru.
4) Membina profil kompetensi guru berdasarkan faktor demografi.

DEFINISI OPERASIONAL
Amalan Pengurusan Pembangunan Profesional
Amalan pengurusan pembangunan profesional sekolah dalam
kajian ini merujuk kepada aspek operasional pembangunan

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profesional seperti yang diklasifisikan dalam model RPTIM

(Wood, McQuarrie dan Thompson,1993). Aspek ini dibahagikan
kepada lima tahap proses yang saling berhubung kait i) kesediaan;
dalam tahap ini guru di sekolah membina kefahaman akan
keperluan usaha-usaha pembangunan profesional dan komited
untuk terlibat dalam aktiviti- aktivitinya ii) perancangan: dalam
tahap ini pihak pengurusan pembangunan profesional guru
merancang pelan yang khusus direka bentuk untuk membolehkan
guru mencapai perubahan yang dikehendaki dalam amalan
pendidikan iii) Latihan dalaman ; pada tahap ini pelan khusus yang
dibina untuk mencapai objektif-ojektif yang dinyatakan
diterjemahkan menjadi aktiviti pembangunan profesional iv)
pelaksanaan ; pada tahap ini pula aktiviti-aktiviti yang
dilaksanakan menjadi sebahagian daripada kerangka operasional
sekolah v) pemantapan; pada tahap ini perlakuan-perlakuan baru
hasil daripada aktiviti-aktiviti pembangunan profesional akan
diinstitusikan dan dijadikan sebagai sebahagian perubahan budaya
dan amalan profesional sekolah.
Konsep Kompetensi
Kompetensi merujuk kepada pengetahuan, kemahiran, dan sikap
atau personality traits yang perlu bagi melaksanakan sesuatu tugas
atau tanggungjawab. Menurut Daud Ibrahim (2003) bahawa,
kompetensi bermakna "competence, proficiency, skillful and skill".
Kompetensi ditakrifkan sebagai gabungan aspek pengetahuan,
kemahiran dan ciri-ciri peribadi atau sikap positif yang perlu
dimiliki serta diamalkan bagi melaksanakan sesuatu pekerjaan atau
jawatan.
Dalam kajian ini, kompetensi pengetahuan merujuk kepada
pengetahuan kandungan dan kaedah pedagogi dan pengurusan
kurikulum. Kompetensi kemahiran merujuk kepada aspek
kepimpinan guru. Sementara kompetensi sikap dalam kajian ini
merujuk kepada aspek nilai dan etika, refleksi dan komunikasi
berkesan dalam kalangan guru.

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SOROTAN KAJIAN
Dapatan kajian pengurusan pembangunan profesional guru oleh
Nasiriah (2001), kumpulan guru sangat memerlukan bidang latihan
dalam perkembangan kendiri (70.2%) dan perkembangan
kurikulum (53.2%) supaya mereka dapat meningkatkan kemahiran
dan kepakaran selaras dengan keperluan semasa. Hal ini
menjelaskan kelemahan dalam amalan pengurusan pembangunan
profesional guru di sekolah sehingga impak pembangunan
profesional guru kurang tercapai.
Mukhtar Abdul Rani (2002) telah membuat kajian kes
tentang pengurusan dan implimentasi pembangunan profesional
guru di tiga buah sekolah menengah di daerah Jelebu, Negeri
Sembilan. Kajian beliau merangkumi aspek analisis keperluan,
penceramah, pelaksanaan dan penilaian. Secara keseluruhannya,
kajian beliau mendapati bahawa implimentasi pembangunan
profesional guru yang terancang dapat membantu perkembangan
positif dalam meningkatkan kecemerlangan guru, pelajar dan
sekolah. Namun, kajian beliau juga mendapati masih terdapat
kekurangan dalam pengurusan pembangunan profesional guru dari
segi analisis keperluan guru sebelum mengadakan kursus.
Sekolah-sekolah yang dikaji juga didapati tidak merancang dengan
teliti dari segi pemilihan penceramah dalam sesi kursus. Selain
aspek pelaksanaan, pihak pengurusan juga mengabaikan perkaraperkara utama yang menjamin kelancaran dan keselesaan program
seperti peralatan aktiviti dan kaedah penyampaian dan penilaian
program.
Saedan (2002) menjalankan kajian untuk mengenal pasti
persepsi guru-guru sekolah menengah terhadap pengurusan
program pembangunan profesional guru peringkat sekolah. Kajian
beliau mendapati amalan pengurusan pembangunan profesional guru
di peringkat sekolah masih agak rendah, padahal sebahagian guru
menganggap pembangunan profesional guru penting untuk
peningkatan profesionalisme keguruan mereka. Hal ini berlaku

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kerana tahap sokongan pihak pengurusan sekolah adalah di tahap

rendah.
Kajian yang dilakukan oleh Pearson (2000) bertujuan untuk
menilai sejauh mana tahap amalan-amalan pengurusan
pembangunan profesional berasaskan kajian diamalkan di sekolahsekolah rendah dan menengah rendah di utara Carolina. Antara
lain kajian itu juga mendapati:
i. Amalan-amalan pembangunan profesional RPTIM cenderung
digunakan dalam usaha pembangunan sekolah oleh sekolahsekolah yang berprestasi tinggi dibandingkan dengan sekolahsekolah yang berprestasi rendah.
ii. Sekolah-sekolah rendah berprestasi tinggi lebih kerap
menggunakan amalan pembangunan profesional Model
RPTIM dalam pembangunan sekolah dibandingkan dengan
sekolah rendah yang lain.
iii. Sekolah-sekolah menengah berprestasi tinggi lebih kerap
menggunakan amalan-amalan pembangunan profesional
Model RPTIM dalam pembangunan sekolah dibandingkan
dengan sekolah menengah yang lain.
Barnett, B.R dan Lisa Bradley (2007) juga telah
menjalankan kajian di Australia berkenaan dengan impak
sokongan pihak pengurusan pembangunan profesional terhadap
kepuasan kerjaya dalam pembangunan kerjaya pekerja. Hasil
kajian mendapati bahawa sokongan pihak pengurusan mempunyai
hubungan positif dengan kepuasan kerjaya pekerja.

REKA BENTUK KAJIAN

Reka bentuk kajian menggunakan kaedah kombinasi 'embedded
concurrent design', iaitu kedua- dua data kuantitatif dan kualitatif
dikumpulkan serentak (Mixed Methods Approach) dan dua set data
ini membawa penekanan yang tidak sama rata yang dengan
demikian data yang diperoleh menjadi lengkap dan akurat
(Creswell,2009). Kaedah tinjauan deskriptif dilaksanakan dengan

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menggunakan soal selidik sebagai instrumen utama. kaedah

kualitatif pula merujuk kepada kaedah temu bual yang digunakan
dalam usaha menjawab soalan kajian elemen yang dapat
meningkatkan fasa dalam amalan pembangunan profesional guru.

SAMPEL DAN TEMPAT KAJIAN

Penyelidikan bertujuan untuk mengkaji amalan dan sumbangan
pengurusan pembangunan profesional guru di sekolah dan
kompetensi guru di negeri Sabah. Oleh itu, penyelidik akan
memilih lebih kurang 500 orang guru dari sekolah rendah yang
mengajar di negeri Sabah mengikut 6 zon pentadbiran pejabat
pendidikan daerah di negeri Sabah iaitu Zon Pantai Barat, Zon
Selatan, Zon Pedalaman, Zon Utara, Zon Sandakan dan Zon
Tenggara. Sekolah yang dipilih dari setiap bahagian pula terdiri
daripada bandar dan luar bandar dan dibuat secara rawak
sistematik.

INSTRUMEN KAJIAN
Alat pengukuran utama dalam kajian ini adalah borang soal selidik
kerana bersesuaian dengan kaedah kajian di samping dapat
menjimatkan masa dan kos penyelidikan. Mengikut Rohaya dan
Siti Jaleha (2003), soal selidik ialah alat formal yang digunakan
untuk memperoleh maklumat secara langsung daripada responden
mengenai sesuatu perkara yang hendak dikaji di mana soal selidik
merupakan pengganti diri pengkaji. Satu soal selidik telah
disediakan yang terbahagi kepada dua bahagian iaitu;
i. Bahagian 1 : Terdiri daripada maklumat latar belakang
responden iaitu maklumat jantina, umur, tempoh
perkhidmatan, kelulusan akademik dan kekerapan
menghadiri program pembangunan profesional guru.
ii. Bahagian II : Terdiri daripada 47 item soalan berkaitan lima

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fasa amalan pengurusan pembangunan profesional guru iaitu

kesediaan, perancangan, latihan dalaman, aplikasi latihan dan
pemantapan. Dan 32 item soalan berkaitan kompetensi guru
iaitu kompetensi pengetahuan, kemahiran dan sikap guru.
Skala likert digunakan untuk mengenal pasti amalan dan
sumbangan pengurusan pembangunan profesional guru dan
kompetensi guru. Item-item di dalam soal selidik ini dibina sendiri
oleh penyelidik mengikut kesesuaian kajian dan responden yang
terlibat berdasarkan fasa dalam Model RPTIM oleh Wood, F.H.,
Thompson, S.R., & Russel, F. (1981). Sementara item soal selidik
untuk kompetensi dibina berasaskan domain- domain dalam
Standard Guru Malaysia daripada Kementerian Pendidikan
Malaysia.
RUJUKAN
Abd. Rahim Abd. Rashid 2005. Profesionalisme Keguruan :
Prospek dan Cabaran. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka . Kuala
Lumpur.
Abdul Rahim Hamdan. 2007. Pengajian Kurikulum :. Skudai:
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Abdul Shukor Abdullah. 2004. Kepimpinan Unggul Tonggak
Pengurusan Pendidikan Cemerlang. Jurnal Pengurusan dan
Kepimpinan Pendidikan, 14, 18-32.
Amin Senin 2008 . Pembangunan Profesional Guru . Kuala
Lumpur: Utusan Publications & Distributors Sdn. Bhd.
Azlin Norhaini Mansor. 2006. Amalan pengurusan Pengetua: Satu
Kajian Kes. Tesis Dr Falsafah.
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Tinjauan Faktor-faktor Pendorong dan Penghalang Pemindahan
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Barnett, B.R. and Lisa Bradley. 2007. The impact of
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Blandford, S. 2009. Mengurus Sumber di sekolah. Penterjemah;

Zaharah Mohd. Salleh. Institut Terjemahan Negara
Malaysia Berhad. Kuala Lumpur.
Creswell, J.W. 2009. Educational Research: Planning,
Conducating and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative
Research. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Habib Mat Som. 2005. Profil Kesediaan Guru Sekolah Menengah
Terhadap Pelaksanaan Perubahan Kurikulum. Tesis Ph.D.
Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.
Herbert, E. 2006. "The Boos of the School": Effective Leadership
in Action. New York: Teachers College Press.
Ibrahim Bin Mamat 2001. Reka Bentuk dan Pengurusan Latihan;
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dalam Pengurusan Keselamatan Industri di Malaysia, Jurnal
Komunikasi, Jilid 20, 2004m.s 95-115
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Othman 2009. Pengaruh Jenis Latihan Guru dan
Pengalaman Mengajar Terhadap Efikasi Guru Sekolah
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Harian 05 Julai 2008.
Luggiers, R. 1994. Supervisor : A Skill Building Approach,
Illinois, Richard. D. Irwin Inc.
M Nur Mustafa dan Nurasamah Othman 2009. Motivasi Kerja,
Latihan dalam Perkhidmatan dan Kompetensi Profesional
serta Hubungannya Terhadap Prestasi Kerja Guru Pekan
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Mohd Rashid Wala 2009. Amalan Pengurusan Berasaskan Sekolah

di Malaysia . Dimuat turun dari http://ekspresimindarashid.blogspot.com/2009/11/amalan-pengurusanberasaskan- sekolah-di.html
Mohd. Affendy Mohd. Ali 2004. Keperluan Latihan Tenaga
Pengajar Politeknik Bagi Meningkatkan Kualiti
Pendidikan Teknik Vokasional. Kolej Universiti Teknologi
Tun Hussein Onn : Tesis Sarjana Pendidikan Teknik dan
Vokasional.
Mohd. Nasir Kassim dan Sakina Shaik Ahmad Yusoff 2007. Isuisu Pengurusan Sumber Manusia dalam Sektor Pendidikan
Mohd. Yusof Abdullah 2002. Motif Pemilihan Profesion Perguruan
Di Sabah. Prosiding Seminar Kebangsaan Profesion
Perguruan.Bangi : Penerbitan Universiti Kebangsaan
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Pendidikan Guru Malaysia Dalam Pembelajaran dan
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Mukhtar Abdul Rani 2002. Program Latihan Dalaman Sekolah. Satu
Kajian di Kalangan Guru di Tiga Buah Sekolah Menengah
di Daerah Jelebu Negeri Sembilan. UKM: Tesis Master.
Nasiriah Md. Yusuff 2001. Latihan dan Perkhidmatan: Bidang
Keperluan di Kalangan Guru Kanan Mata Pelajaran.
Latihan Ilmiah. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Pearson, D. 2000. The Application of Research Based Staff
Development Practises in Rural North Carolina Elemntary
and Middle School: A Comparative Analysis of the
Perceptions of Teachers from High - Standard and Low
acheving School. Tesis Doctor of Philosophy, Nort
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Rohaya Omar dan Siti Jaleha Abu Bakar 2003. Keberkesanan

Kursus Latihan Dalaman (In- house Training): Satu Kajian
di Maktab Persekutuan Pulau Pinang. Tesis Master. Kajang
Selangor: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Saedan Abdul Karim 2002. Persepsi Guru Terhadap Program
Perkembangan Staf: Tinjauan di Empat Buah Sekolah
Rendah di Zon Keramat Kuala Lumpur. UKM:Tesis Master.
Wood, F. H, Thompson, S.R., dan Russell, F. 1981. Designing
Effective Staff Development Programs .Alexandria,VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Develepment.
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How to Organize a School- Based Staff Development .
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
Yahya Othman 2012, Pengaruh Profesionalisme Guru Bahasa
Melayu Dalam Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran.

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HUBUNGAN KEPERLUAN
PELAJAR, IKLIM BILIK DARJAH,
MATLAMAT SEKOLAH DENGAN
PENGETAHUAN PEDAGOGI ISI
KANDUNGAN GURU
TINGKATAN ENAM
Mokhtar bin Pet, Ahmad Johari Hj Sihes

ABSTRAK
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji hubungan keperluan pelajar,
iklim bilik darjah, matlamat sekolah dalam mempengaruhi domain
pemikiran pengetahuan pedagogi isi kandungan (PPIK) guru
tingkatan enam. Kajian ini dijalankan menggunakan pendekatan
kuantitatif dengan disokong dengan pendekatan kualitatif melalui
temu bual. Guru tingkatan enam (GT6) yang terlibat sebagai
responden merupakan guru yang mengajar di sekolah tingkatan
enam negeri Johor. Persoalan kajian ini ialah (a) Bagaimanakah
pemikiran guru tingkatan enam terhadap keperluan faktor luaran
guru iaitu keperluan pelajar, iklim bilik dan darjah, matlamat
sekolah? (b) Bagaimanakah domain pemikiran PPIK GT6? dan (c)
Adakah terdapat hubungan diantara keperluan pelajar, iklim bilik
darjah, matlamat sekolah dengan domain pemikiran PPIK GT6?
Statistik deskriptif dan statistik inferensi digunakan untuk
menganalisis data kuantitatif dan analisis kandungan digunakan
bagi menganalisis data kualitatif. Dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan

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faktor keperluan pelajar merupakan faktor yang terpenting yang

mempengaruhi domain pemikiran PPIK GT6. Bagi faktor
keperluan pelajar, aspek motivasi pelajar yang terpenting iaitu
dengan nilai min 4.80. Domain pemikiran PPIK iaitu aspek
penguasaan isi kandungan dan kaedah mengajar mengikut topik
yang terpenting dengan nilai min 4.60. Hubungan antara domain
PPIK GT6 dengan faktor luaran guru adalah signifikan secara
positif dalam tahap yang lemah iaitu iklim bilik darjah dengan
pekali korelasi pearson bernilai 0.459, keperluan pelajar bernilai
0.443 dan matlamat sekolah bernilai 0.442. Kajian ini memberi
maklumat kepada pihak sekolah dan Kementerian Pendidikan
Malaysia dalam usaha mertabatkan pendidikan tingkatan enam
terutama memberi motivasi kepada pelajar dan meningkatkan
pengetahuan isi kandungan dan penguasaan pedagogi kepada GT6.
Kata Kunci: Domain pemikiran, Pengetahuan pedagogi isi
kandungan, Keperluan pelajar, Iklim bilik darjah, Matlamat
sekolah

1.0

PENGENALAN

Tingkatan enam merupakan satu kesinambungan pembelajaran

bagi pelajar lepasan Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) serta boleh
menjadi satu pilihan pelajar untuk melanjutkan pelajaran di
peringkat pra universiti. Pengajaran tingkatan enam dilakukan oleh
tiga katogeri guru tingkatan enam (GT6) iaitu guru cemerlang yang
mengajar mata pelajaran yang ditawarkan dalam tingkatan enam,
guru akademik tingkatan enam dan guru penolong (guru yang
mengajar peringkat pendidikan menengah). Kementerian
Pendidikan Malaysia (2012) mengambil langkah untuk
mentransformasi tingkatan enam selari dengan pendidikan pra
universiti yang lain. Trend penawaran pelajar melanjutkan
pelajaran tingkatan enam semakin meningkat
oleh pihak
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (KPM) menunjukkan usaha

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KPM untuk mertabatkan pendidikan tingkatan enam sebagai laluan

perdana ke pusat pengajian tinggi. Berdasarkan Buku Laporan
Tahunan daripada Majlis Peperiksaan Malaysia (MPM) daripada
tahun 2007 hingga 2013 terdapat kurang 50% pelajar mengambil
peperiksaan gagal mendapat kelulusan penuh (prinspal) sekurangkurang empat mata pelajaran di sekolah kerajaan.
MPM (2012) dalam usaha meningkatkan kualiti
pentaksiran pelajar mengambil peperiksaan Sijil Tinggi
Persekolahan Malaysia (STPM) telah menukarkan format
pentaksiran daripada sistem terminal kepada sistem pentaksiran
penggal bermula tahun 2013. Melalui pentaksiran baharu ini
pelajar akan dinilai berdasarkan peperiksaan selama tiga penggal
dan kerja kursus. Perubahan format pentaksiran ini memberi
tanggungjawab besar GT6 menerima perubahan dalam usaha
mentransfomasikan tingkatan enam sesuai dengan pendidikan
lepasan menengah iaitu menggunakan kaedah kuliah, kuliahperbincangan, tutorial dan projek (Abdull Sukor Shaari, 2011;
Kauchak, D., & Eggen, P., 2011; Kamarudin, 1990). Guru yang
mengajar tingkatan enam sewajarnya menggunakan kaedah yang
berbeza untuk membangunkan intelek pelajar tingkatan enam.
Pendekatan pengajaran inovatif juga dapat mengubah kepada
pengajaran yang menarik dan sesuai selaras dengan penekanan
Stodolsky dan Grossman (2000) mendapati bahawa guru-guru
perlu membuat perubahan dalam pendekatan pengajaran mereka
bagi menghadapi perubahan pelajar. ini bersesuaian dengan
pandangan Pascarella (2005) iaitu menekankan tentang pengajaran
selepas pendidikan menengah iaitu menekankan kepada bagaimana
pelajar boleh belajar dan membangunkan intelektual dengan
meluaskan penggunaan pendekatan pengajaran inovatif.

2.0

TINJAUAN LITERATUR

2.1

TEORI INTERAKSI SIMBOLIK

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Dalam bidang pendidikan, David Hargreaves merupakan tokoh

yang mengaitkan Teori Interkasi Simbolik berkaitan dengan
pemikiran dan tindakan guru dalam membuat keputusan tentang
pengajaran. Hargreaves, D.H. (1972) mengaplikasikan teori
interaksi simbolik dalam pendidikan iaitu menjuruskan kepada
makna yang dibentuk oleh masyarakat yang terlibat ialah guru dan
murid. Organisasi sekolah boleh membentuk realiti sekolah tetapi
bukan masyarakat yang mempengaruhi sekolah. Perspektif Teori
Interaksi Simbolik menghuraikan pemahaman tentang tingkah laku
manusia dilihat dari sudut pandangan subjektif iaitu tingkah laku
manusia merupakan satu proses merancang dan membentuk
tingkah laku berdasarkan pertimbangan jangkaan individu lain.
Individu bertingkah laku berdasarkan penafsiran masing-masing
dengan dipengaruhi oleh faktor persekitaran.

2.2

MODEL KEPUTUSAN PERANCANGAN GURU

Menurut Myers dan Myer (1995), setiap pelajar adalah unik dan
berbeza antara satu sama lain. Perbezaan ini menyebabkan
keperluan mereka adalah pelbagai dan berubah mengikut masa.
Pelajar-pelajar datang ke sekolah dengan pelbagai keperluan
seperti keperluan fizikal, keperluan psikologi dan emosi serta
keperluan akademik. Iklim bilik darjah merujuk kepada suasana
yang wujud dalam sesuatu bilik darjah iaitu perasaan psikologikal
dan sosial yang dibina oleh seseorang guru. Ada guru yang cuba
membina iklim yang menyokong, selesa, mesra dan tenang tetapi
ada juga yang suka kepada iklim yang mencabar, ada persaingan
dan tegang. Sistem sekolah menetapkan matlamat yang perlu
dilaksanakan oleh guru dan dicapai oleh pelajar. Matlamat dan
ekspektasi yang ditetapkan oleh sekolah selalunya memberi
tekanan kepada perancangan guru di sekolah. Shulman (1986)
menyatakan PPIK merujuk sejenis pengetahuan tersendiri yang
diperlukan oleh guru untuk mengubah isi kandungan sesuatu mata

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pelajaran bertujuan menjadikan pengajaran lebih menarik dan

mudah difahami oleh pelajar.

2.3
MODEL PEMIKIRAN DAN TINDAKAN GURU
CLARK & PETERSON
Clark & Peterson (1986) menjalankan kajian berkaitan
dengan proses pemikiran guru ialah untuk meningkatkan
kefahaman bagaimana dan mengapa proses dan aktiviti pengajaran
berlaku. Domain yang pertama ialah proses pemikiran guru dan
domain kedua ialah tindakan guru dan kesannya boleh
diperhatikan. Proses pemikiran guru berlaku di dalam pemikiran
minda seseorang guru dan keadaan ini tidak boleh diperhatikan.
Sebaliknya tingkah laku guru, tingkah laku pelajar dan skor
pencapaian pelajar boleh diperhatikan fenomena yang berlaku.
Tiga katogeri utama proses pemikiran guru ditekankan dalam
domain : (a) perancangan guru (pemikiran pre aktif dan pos aktif),
(b) pemikiran dan keputusan interaktif guru, dan (c) teori dan
kepercayaan guru. Fasa pengajaran guru yang yang berlaku secara
kualitatif berbeza diantara pre aktif, inter aktif dan pos aktif
dengan bentuk-bentuk pemikiran guru sebelum dan selepas
interkasi dalam bilik darjah. Teori dan kepercayaan guru pula
menggambarkan pengetahuan yang dimikili oleh guru akan
memberi kesan kepada perancangan dan interaktif pemikiran dan
keputusan guru.

3.0

SOALAN KAJIAN

Persoalan kajian seperti berikut:

1.
Bagaimanakah pemikiran guru tingkatan enam terhadap
keperluan faktor luaran guru iaitu keperluan pelajar, iklim bilik dan
darjah, matlamat sekolah?

151

2.
Bagaimanakah domain pemikiran pengetahuan pedagogi isi
kandungan guru tingkatan enam?
3.
Adakah terdapat hubungan diantara keperluan pelajar, iklim
bilik darjah, matlamat sekolah dengan domain pemikiran
pengetahuan pedagogi isi kandungan guru tingkatan enam?

4.0

METODOLOGI KAJIAN

Penyelidik menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif iaitu

borang soal selidik dengan disokong dengan pendekatan kualitatif
dengan menggunakan kaedah temu bual. Seramai 300 orang GT6
dipilih sebagai sampel kajian menggunakan borang soal selidik dan
empat orang guru dijadikan responden temu bual. 300 GT6 dipilih
secara rawak menggunakan sampel berkelompok dan temu bual
bertujuan digunakan menggunapakai temu bual berstruktur. Semua
responden terdiri daripada GT6 yang mengajar sekolah tingkatan
enam di negeri Johor. Instrumen kajian diambil daripada soal
selidik Hafidah Mohamed (2001). Soal selidik ini diubahsuai
supaya bersesuaian dengan tujuan kajian. Pengesahan isi
kandungan instrumen kajian di sahkan oleh dua orang pakar dalam
bidang kurikulum dan pengajaran. Sebelum kajian sebenar
dijalankan, kajian rintis dijalankan dengan nilai kebolehpercayaan
Cronbach Alpha diantara 0.770 hingga 0.887. Menurut Sekaran
(2000) nilai kebolehpercayaan Cronbach Alpha kurang daripada
0.6 adalah dianggap rendah dan tidak boleh diterima. Nilai
Cronbach Alpha antara 0.6 hingga 0.8 adalah dianggap berada
ditahap kebolehpercayaan yang baik. Berdasarkan rajah 1,
pemboleh ubah bebas terdiri daripada keperluan pelajar, iklim bilik
darjah dan matlamat sekolah, sementara pemboleh ubah bersandar
ialah pengetahuan pedagogi isi kandungan (PPIK).

152

Faktor Luaran Guru

Keperluan Pelajar
Pengetahuan
Pedagogi
Isi
Kandungan.

Iklim Bilik Darjah

Matlamat Sekolah
Pemboleh Ubah Bersandar
Pemboleh Ubah Bebas
Rajah 1 Hubungan Pemboleh Ubah Kajian

Bagi menjawab persoalan kajian 1 dan 2, penyelidik

menggunakan statistik deskriptif iaitu frekuensi, peratus, min dan
sisihan piawai dan disokong dengan analisis temu bual. Bagi
menjawab persoalan kajian 3, penyelidik menggunakan statistik
inferensi iaitu korelasi pearson untuk melihat hubungan diantara
pemboleh ubah bebas dan bersandar.

5.0

ANALSISI DATA

5.1

PROFIL KAJIAN RESPONDEN

Jadual 1 Taburan responden kuantitatif
Latar Belakang

Jantina
Kelulusan Akademik Tertinggi
Gred Jawatan Guru

Katogeri
Lelaki
Perempuan
Ijazah Sarjana Muda
Ijazah Lanjutan
DG41
DG44
DG48
DG52
DG54

153

Frekuensi
106
194
244
56
58
95
133
3
11

Peratus
(%)
35.3
64.7
81.3
18.7
19.3
31.7
44.3
1.0
3.7

Aliran
Mata
Tingkatan Enam
N=300

Pelajaran

Aliran Kemanusiaan
Aliran Sains

244
56

81.3
18.7

Merujuk jadual 1, profil kajian responden terdiri daripada

300 orang GT6 yang mengajar di sekolah tingkatan enam negeri
Johor. Seramai 106 (35.3%) merupakan responden lelaki dan 194
(64.7%) orang adalah responden wanita. Dari segi gred jawatan
guru, gred DG48 merupakan bilangan yang teramai iaitu 133
(44.3%) orang. Bagi aliran mata pelajaran, aliran kemanusiaan
merupakan yang terbanyak iaitu 244 (81.3%) orang dan aliran sains
seramai 56 (18.7%) orang. Nilai min pengalaman mengajar ialah
18.0 tahun dan nilai min mengajar sebagai GT6 ialah 10.2 tahun.

5.2

SOALAN KAJIAN 1

5.2.1

Pemikiran GT6 Terhadap Keperluan Pelajar

Berdasarkan jadual 2 nilai min tertinggi ialah bagi item 6 iaitu

keperluan pelajar dalam aspek motivasi yang tinggi dalam bilik
darjah apabila menerima pengajaran guru dengan nilai min 4.52.
Nilai Min keseluruhan ialah 4.52 dengan sisihan piawai bernilai
0.46. Berdasarkan jadual interprestasi skor Nunaly & Bernstein
(1994), menunjukkan faktor keperluan guru terhadap keperluan
pelajar adalah tinggi.
Dapatan ini disokong dengan jawapan-jawapan daripada
temu bual seperti berikut:
R1
Saya mesti ingat nama dan saya simpan nama kerana ia
boleh meransang pelajar dan akan rasa seronok belajar.
R2
Kita kena terangkan kepada pelajar tingkatan 6 ni peluang
untuk ke universiti bagi memberi motivasi kepada pelajar.

154

Jadual 2 Pemikiran guru Tingkatan Enam terhadap keperluan pelajar

Bil
1

Item

Pelajar perlu memiliki harga diri apabila berada di dalam bilik

darjah.
Pelajar berkemampuan mengawal emosi apabila berhubung dengan
rakan lain di dalam bilik darjah.
Pelajar mampu mengaplikasikan kecerdasan yang dimiliki.

Pelajar mampu mengembangkan nilai-nilai murni yang dipegang.

Pelajar boleh menyesuaikan diri dengan pelbagai kaedah

pengajaran yang digunakan oleh guru.
Pelajar perlu mempunyai motivasi diri yang tinggi di dalam bilik
darjah apabila menerima pengajaran guru.

Min

4.5
4.4
4.4
4.5

Min Keseluruhan
Sisihan Piawai

5.2.2

4.5
4.8

4.52
0.46

Pemikiran GT6 terhadap Keperluan Iklim Bilik Darjah

Jadual 3, menunjukkan domain pemikiran GT6 terhadap keperluan

iklim bilik darjah. Nilai min yang tertinggi bernilai 4.6 bagi item
ke 11 dan 12 yang menunjukkan komunikasi dua hala pelajar dan
keadaan bilik darjah harmoni diperlukan oleh guru dalam
pengajaran. Nilai min keseluruhan ialah 4.42 dengan nilai sisihan
piawai 0.42 yang menunjukkan GT6 memerlukan iklim bilik
darjah pada tahap tinggi.
Dapatan kajian ini disokong dengan temubual:
R3
Suasana kelas aman, tenang sedikit banyak boleh
mempengaruhi mood kita nak mengajar, dari segi fizikal kelas
hendaklah bersih ada kekemasan kat papan tanda , marker ada
boleh mempengaruhi mood kita mengajar.
R4
Hubungan dengan pelajar perlu ada hubungan dua hala.
Pelajar dewasa dia boleh bergerak sendiri walaupun tanpa ada
guru.

155

Jadual 3 Pemikiran guru Tingkatan Enam terhadap keperluan iklim bilik darjah.
Bil

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

5.2.3

Item

Min

Saya perlu mewujudkan komunikasi dua hala dengan pelajar

semasa pengajaran.
Saya perlu mewujudkan kumpulan pelajar yang boleh
bekerjasama di dalam bilik darjah semasa pengajaran.
Saya perlu membentuk sikap pelajar yang boleh menghormati
pelajar lain di dalam bilik darjah.
Saya perlu mewujudkan suasana harmoni di dalam bilik darjah.
Saya perlu berjenaka di dalam bilik darjah.
Saya boleh menggunakan kemudahan fizikal yang ada di dalam
bilik darjah semasa pengajaran.
Saya perlu sensitif dengan perbezaan kebolehan pelajar semasa
pengajaran.
Saya perlu mengekalkan disiplin bilik darjah yang berkesan
semasa pengajaran.
Min Keseluruhan
Sishan Piawai

4.6
4.5
4.5
4.6
3.9
4.2
4.5
4.5

4.42
0.42

Pemikiran GT6 terhadap Keperluan Matlamat Sekolah

Dalam jadual 4, item 21 dan 22 menunjukkan nilai min yang

tertinggi iaitu nilai min 4.6. Ini menunjukkan pihak sekolah perlu
merancang satu takwim sekolah yang sesuai dan matlamat sekolah
boleh membentuk semangat kekitaan yang luhur dikalangan warga
sekolah. Nilai min keseluruhan ialah 4.50 dan sisihan piawai 0.46.
Dapatan kajian menunjukkan keperluan GT6 terhadap matlamat
sekolah berada di tahap yang tinggi.
Melalui temu bual dapat menyokong dapatan kajian ini
berdasarkan:
R2
Visi dan misi sekolah dijelaskan dahulu dan ditampalkan di
dalam kelas sebab ni penting, untuk mencapai sasaran penting
sebab setiap kelas ada KPInya.
R4
Matlamat sekolah STPM memang jelas dan guru perlu
berusaha capai jika gagal guru kena buat audit mencari punca
dan langkah mengatasi.kat sekolah kita tak ada unsur

156

berpuak-puak, .kita bercampur gaul pra U dengan arus perdana.

Jadual 4 Pemikiran Guru Tingkatan Enam Terhadap
Sekolah

Keperluan Matlamat

Bil

Item

Min

17
18

Matlamat sekolah yang jelas adalah penting.

Sekolah perlu menetapkan pencapaian peperiksaan STPM
yang praktikal.
Sekolah perlu menetapkan visi sekolah yang jelas.
Sekolah perlu menetapkan misi sekolah yang jelas.
Kepentingan pihak sekolah merancang satu takwim sekolah
yang sesuai.
Sekolah perlu membentuk semangat kekitaan yang luhur
dikalangan warga sekolah.
Matlamat sekolah dapat memenuhi tuntutan pendidikan
sekolah di tahap antarabangsa.

4.5
4.5

19
20
21
22
23

Min Keseluruhan
Sisihan Piawai

5.3

4.5
4.5
4.6
4.6
4.3
4.50
0.46

SOALAN KAJIAN 2

Jadual 5 menunjukkan domain pemikiran GT6 dalam pengajaran

dalam bidang pengetahuan pedagogi isi kandungan. Berdasarkan
jadual tersebut didapati item 28 dan 29 mempunyai nilai min yang
tertinggi iaitu 4.6, ini menunjukkan bahawa GT6 perlu menguasai
topik dengan baik dalam memilih bahan bantu mengajar yang
bersesuaian dan GT6 boleh menyampaikan pengajaran dengan
berkesan jika menguasai pengetahuan pengajaran berasaskan isi
kandungan. Nilai min keseluruhan ialah 4.44 dengan sisihan piawai
0.40. Ini menunjukkan domain pemikiran GT6 dalam bidang PPIK
berada ditahap kepentingan yang tinggi.
Dapatan kajian ini disokong melalui temu bual di bawah:
R1
Cikgu seharusnya berbeza mengajar mengikut tajuk, saya
sebagai guru pengajian am akan menggunakan kaedah yang

157

berbeza contoh nya dalam mengajar graf dan statistik perlu

kaedah yang berbeza.
R4
Guru tingkatan 6 memang menguasai pengetahuan isi
kandungan sebab tingkan 6 ni luas dan mendalam kena tackle
macam-macam soalan.

Jadual 5 Domain pemikiran guru Tingkatan Enam dalam bidang pengetahuan

pedagogi isi kandungan
Bil

Item

24

Saya mengajar menggunakan kaedah pengajaran yang sesuai

berdasarkan topik.
Saya mengajar pelajar dengan menyusun pelbagai pengalaman pelajar
sedia ada bersesuaian dengan topik yang diajar.
Saya mengajar bersesuaian dengan pelajar yang memiliki pelbagai
pengetahuan yang berkaitan dengan isi kandungan.
Saya boleh
membuat perancangan yang baik berdasarkan
kefahaman yang mantap terhadap isi kandungan.
Saya perlu menguasai topik dengan baik supaya dapat memilih
bahan bantu mengajar yang bersesuaian.
Saya boleh menyampaikan pengajaran dengan berkesan jika
menguasai pengetahuan pengajaran berasaskan isi kandungan.
Saya perlu memastikan objektif pengajaran bersesuaian dengan isi
kandungan pelajaran.
Saya perlu menguasai pengetahuan pedagogi isi kandungan supaya
boleh mengajar dengan menggunakan kaedah yang sesuai.
Min Keseluruhan
Sisihan Piawai

25
26
27
28
29
30
31

5.4

Min

4.4
4.2
4.3
4.3
4.6
4.6
4.5
4.5
4.44
0.40

SOALAN KAJIAN 3

Jadual 6 menunjukkan pekali korelasi antara PPIK dengan

keperluan pelajar, iklim bilik darjah dan matlamat sekolah.
Hubungan signifikan yang positif antara PPIK dengan semua
keperluan berdasarkan faktor luaran guru iaitu keperluan pelajar,
iklim bilik darjah dan matlamat sekolah. Nilai pekali korelasi
dengan keperluan pelajar ialah .443, iklim bilik darjah .459 dan
158

matlamat sekolah .442. Berdasarkan jadual interprestasi saiz pekali

korelasi kajian Gravetter dan Walnau (2004) menunjukkan semua
tahap hubungan berada di tahap hubungan yang lemah. Melalui
temu bual hubungan antara PPIK dengan faktor luaran guru seperti
di bawah:
R1
Hubungan guru dengan faktor luar memang ada, kaitan
contoh kaedah pengajaran mesti mengambil kira latar pelajar .
Jadual 6 Pekali korelasi antara pengetahuan pedagogi isi kandungan dengan
keperluan pelajar, iklim bilik darjah dan matlamat sekolah.
Pemboleh Ubah

Keperluan
Pelajar

Iklim
Bilik
Darjah
.468**
1
.428**
.459**

Keperluan Pelajar
1
Iklim Bilik Darjah
.468**
Matlamat Sekolah
.410**
Pengetahuan Pedagogi
.443**
Isi Kandungan
N=300 **Signifikan pada aras p<.01 (2 arah)

6.0

Matlamat
Sekolah
.410**
.428**
1
.442**

Pengetahuan
Pedagogi Isi
Kandungan
.443**
.459**
.442**
1

KESIMPULAN DAN PERBINCANGAN

Berdasarkan dapatan kajian, faktor luaran yang diperlukan oleh

GT6 dalam pengajaran ialah keperluan pelajar dengan nilai min
4.52 dengan sisihan piawai 0.42, faktor iklim bilik darjah nilai min
4.42 dan sisihan piawai 0.42 dan matlamat sekolah dengan nilai
min 4.50 dengan sisihan piawai 0.46. Ini menunjukkan faktor yang
paling penting ialah keperluan pelajar, dikuti dengan matlamat
sekolah dan iklim bilik darjah. Hasil dapatan ini disokong melalui
temu bual ke atas GT6. Kajian ini selaras dapatan kajian Myers dan
Myers (1995) iaitu faktor berkaitan dengan pelajar sangat penting
yang boleh mempengaruhi domain pemikiran guru dalam
pengajaran. Menurut Kauchak, D., & Eggen, P. (2011), guru yang
berkesan sentiasa mempelajari budaya yang dipegang oleh pelajar
dan menggunakan maklumat tersebut membuat promosi
kebanggaan peribadi dan memberi motivasi kepada pelajar.

159

Hubungan yang positif antara guru dengan pelajar juga

mewujudkan motivasi kepada pelajar dalam pembelajaran (Parkay,
F.W., & Stanford, B.H., (2010). Menurut Hlas & Hildebrandf
(2010) menyatakan guru perlu perkara yang diajar sebelum
memikirkan cara, dan kepada siapa topik itu diajar.
Domain pemikiran GT6 dalam bidang PPIK dengan nilai
min 4.44 dengan berada di tahap kepentingan yang tinggi. Ini
menunjukkan PPIK berada ditahap kepentingan tinggi bagi domain
pemikiran GT6 dalam pengajaran pelajar tingkatan enam. GT6
perlu menguasai topik dengan baik supaya dapat memilih bahan
bantu mengajar yang sesuai dan GT6 boleh menyampai pengajaran
yang berkesan jika dapat menguasai PPIK dengan baik. Hasil
dapatan ini disokong melalui temu bual ke atas GT6. Dapatan
kajian ini selaras dengan kajian Hinton (1998) ke atas 43 orang
guru dan 805 orang pelajar mendapat peratus yang tinggi yang
diberi kepada guru yang mempelbagai kaedah pengajaran
berbanding guru yang kurang menggunakan strategi pengajaran.
Dapatan kajian oleh Peter (1997) dan Me Diarmid (1990) PPIK
membolehkan guru merancang dan mampu menunjukkan
perbezaan dalam pengajaran yang boleh menyumbangkan prestasi
pengajaran yang baik. Kajian oleh Peter (1997) dan Mc Diarmid
(1990) Pengetahuan isi kandungan perlu ada dalam perancangan
guru kerana pengetahuan yang banyak dalam mata pelajaran dapat
menunjukkan perbezaan dalam pengajaran dan menyumbangkan
prestasi pengajaran yang lebih baik.
Kajian yang dijalankan oleh Wong Khek Seng dan Tan
Piek Lee (1994) terhadap guru-guru Bahasa Melayu yang baik yang
menggunakan 40 orang pelajar di sebuah sekolah menengah
kebangsaan di Negeri Sembilan, dapatan kajian diperoleh ialah
pelbagai persepsi pelajar terhadap guru yang baik termasuklah
mempunyai pengetahuan mendalam terhadap isi kandungan mata
pelajaran, menggunakan pelbagai aktiviti dan teknik pengajaran
seperti menggunakan majalah, kuiz, memberikan kosa kata yang
banyak, memberikan latihan yang berfaedah, pelajar berpeluang
bertanya dan pelajar lebih banyak bercakap berbanding dengan

160

guru. Menurut Alimuddin (2008) kefahaman yang mendalam

dalam mata pelajaran yang diajar boleh menjadikan guru itu lebih
mudah dan berkeyakinan sewaktu menyampaikan pengajaran.
Dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan GT6 perlu menguasai PPIK untuk
menyampaikan pengajaran berkesan selari dengan NCTM (2000)
iaitu guru yang memiliki PPIK yang mantap mampu membuat
hubungan antara topik yang diajar.
Melalui kajian ini didapati pemboleh ubah keperluan
pelajar, iklim bilik darjah dan matlamat sekolah mempunyai
hubungan signifikan secara positif pada aras lemah dengan domain
pemikiran GT6 dalam bidang PPIK. Hubungan yang tertinggi ialah
iklim bilik darjah dengan nilai pekali korelasi iaitu .459, diikuti
dengan keperluan pelajar .443 dan matlamat sekolah .442.
Dapatan kajian ini selaras dengan dapatan kajian yang dijalankan
oleh Sahandri, Hafidah & Mohammad (2008) mendapati PPIK
mempunyai hubungan yang positif dengan keperluan pelajar, iklim
bilik darjah dan matlamat sekolah.
Dapatan kajian ini
menunjukkan faktor motivasi pelajar merupakan elemen yang
penting dalam faktor keperluan pelajar. GT6 boleh menyampaikan
pengajaran yang berkesan jika pelajar tingkatan 6 bermotivasi,
dengan itu GT6 sewajar memberi motivasi kepada pelajar sebelum
memulakan pengajaran sesuatu topik dan mata pelajaran. Pihak
sekolah perlu mengadakan program dan keputusan pentadbiran
yang dapat meningkatkan motivasi pelajar tingkatan enam untuk
terus belajar. Pihak KPM sentiasa berusaha menambahkan baik
sistem pendidikan tingkatan enam seperti kemudahan infrasruktur,
sistem pengajaran dan pembelajaran serta peruntukan kewangan
supaya langkah ini memberi ransangan kepada pelajar memilih
pendidikan tingkatan enam sebelum memasuki universiti.
Melalui kajian didapati penguasaan kandungan mata
pelajaran dan PPIK yang tinggi penting dapat memberi
keberkesanan kepada GT6 dalam pengajaran. Pihak sekolah dan
KPM boleh mengadakan kursus dan bengkel dalam usaha
meningkatkan penguasaan dalam bidang ini kepada GT6. Diantara
langkah yang boleh diambil ialah menggunakan perkhidmatan

161

tenaga pensyarah dalam menyampaikan sesuatu kursus berkaitan

topik dan mata pelajaran kerana golongan ini telah sedia tenaga
kepakaran. Pihak sekolah berusaha mewujudkan pusat sumber
supaya dapat menyediakan bahan bacaan menjuruskan peningkatan
ilmu pengetahuan dalam sesuatu topik dan mata pelajaran. Dalam
meningkatkan PPIK, pihak sekolah dan KPM boleh menggunakan
khidmat guru cemerlanag
dan guru berpengalaman dalam
berkongsi maklumat dalam PPIK. Selain itu usaha mewujudkan
satu modul pengajaran setiap mata pelajaran dalam tingkatan enam
dapat memberi garis panduan kepada GT6 dalam menyampaikan
pengajaran.
Kajian yang dijalankan secara umum berkaitan GT6,
dapatan kajian tidak dapat menggambarkan tentang sesuatu mata
pelajaran, bidang pendidikan tingkatan enam dan katogeri GT6.
Dengan itu kajian secara khusus yang berkaitan dengan mata
pelajaran, bidang mata pelajaran dan katogeri GT6 perlu dijalankan
untuk melihat hasil dapatan kajian yang berkaitan dengan mata
pelajaran, bidang pendidkan tingkatan enam dan katogeri GT6
yang terlibat dalam pengajaran tingkatan enam.

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Abdull Sukor Shaari. 2011. Pedagogi Dari Sekolah Ke Institut
Pendidikan Tinggi. Penerbit Universiti Utara Malaysia.
Sintok.
Clark, C.M. & Peterson, P.L. (1986). Teachers Thought Process
In. Witrock, M.C. Handbook of research on teaching. A
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164

NEURO LINGUISTIC
PROGRAMMING WITH GODIVA
CHOCOLATE THERAPY IN
ADDRESSING THE PROBLEM OF
SMOKING AMONG THE
STUDENTS
Siti Sheahila binti Abdul Rashid, Syed Mohamed Shafeq Mansor,
& Yahya bin Buntat

ABSTRACT
This study explores the concept of the use of therapy Neuro
Linguistic Programming (NLP) in addressing the problem of
smoking among secondary school students in the Malaysian
context. Thus, this therapy NLP was introduced to address the
problem in the secondary school. This case study is using
Qualitative method and 3 respondents were involved. The initial
survey was carried out through the review of data from the schools
discipline unit. 3 students were hard-core smokers. Therefore, a
technique or method named NLP first used to address this problem.
The results of the observation showed that 90 percent of the
students displayed some changes in terms of behavior and smoking
habit decreased.
Keywords: Neuro linguistic programming, Smoking, Students

165

INTRODUCTION
Smoking habits among school students were getting more serious
lately. According to Nik Aziz (1999 ) there was a rise in social
problems among students on a daily basis as reported in the media.
71 percent of the social problems is teen smoking (The Star,
Malaysia June 1, 1994 ). According to the study, the number of
students smoking while in school uniforms increased to at least 30
percent compared to the previous decade (Utusan Malaysia
Online/Arkibberita/2204/Aziz Isaac ) .

SMOKING PROBLEMS AMONG STUDENTS

The Global Youth Tobacco Survey ( GYTS ) , a school based
survey of students aged between 13-15, conducted in 131 countries
between 1999 and 2005 , showed 8.9 % of students who currently
smoked ; and one in five non-smoking student reported that were
likely to smoke by the following year. The study, which was
published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine , found
that among teens, smoking rose from about 67 percent in 1991 to
79 percent in 2009. Similarly, the increase in student smoking rate
in Malaysia has shown an upward trend . According to the
Ministry of Health Malaysia (2005), about 45 to 50 young people
under the age of 18 start smoking cigarettes in this country
everyday. In addition, 3 million people are estimated to become
smokers in 2006 or more than 20 percent of Malaysians , rose 1
percent, or 30,000 people each year. This shows the number of
smokers , including students in this country is at the ratio of 3:12
million ( Utusan Malaysia , 2010)

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The government had taken many steps to prevent the smoking
166

problem among the students like create 270 Quit Smoking Clinics
across the country since 2001 , but this effort failed because only
25% were successfully treated. ( Utusan Malaysia , January: 2010).
Schools also took action against students who smoke by caning
them. (The regulations / discipline school 1959 bil. 6/88,
bil.8543/(10), 1968)Since June 1, 2009 . All cigarettes on the
market carried 40 % pictorial warnings on the front and 60% in the
rear . Despite this , smokers only felt threatened phsychologically
and did not have much impact on underaged smokers who had the
luxury of more pocket money now. All the existing ( conventional
methods ) of elimination such as Fiber Nicotine Therapy (NRT ) ,
prescription drugs, Tak Nak campaign, pictorial warnings on
cigarette and Quit Smoking Clinics initiated by the Ministry of
Health and other parties were methods related to the conscious
mind. In view of the current literature, I am proposing an
alternative method of treatment using the subconscious mind. My
study explored the use of Godiva Chocolate therapy in Neuro
Linguistic Programming on the subjects.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF STUDY

In this study, Godiva chocolate therapy, is Using the concept of
'anchoring'. In NLP, a stimulus which triggers and is associated
with a physiological response is termed an anchor. Anchors can be
kinaesthetic, auditory or visual e.g. certain songs, images or smells
can be extremely evocative of emotional states ( Mahishika
Karunaratne, 2010 ). An anchor can be created by vividly imaging
a desired state of mind then simultaneously applying a chosen
anchor (e.g. making a fist is an example of a kinaesthetic anchor)
in order to create an association. In this method, two opposing
emotional states are experienced at once, resulting in the creation
of an original state. For this technique, both the negative state i.e.
the smoking habit and the desirable positive state are identified.
The researcher chooses this technique because it uses the strength
167

of anchoring to remove bad habits such as smoking. This is done

by equating the last thing as distasteful to quit smoking. As a
result, cigarettes are something hateful or nauseating to clients and
eventually, they continue to leave the bad habit. (Md Taib Mat,
2007) in contrast to other therapy such as Circle Of Excellence
(COE), which only develops yourself to be excellent but not to
remove these bad habits in depth.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF STUDY

Neuro Linguistic Programming ( NLP ) Godiva Chocolate therapy
was used as a method of treatment in this study . The term Neuro
linguistic programming can be broken down to three distinct
words: Neuro refers to the brain and neural network that feeds
into the brain. Neurons or nerve cells are the working units used by
the nervous system to send , receive, and store signals that add up
to information. Linguistics refers to the content , both verbal and
non- verbal , that moves across and through these pathways .
Programming is the way the content or signal is manipulated and
converted into useful information. The brain may direct the signal ,
sequence it , change it based on our prior experience , or connect it
to some other experience we have stored in our brain to convert it
into thinking patterns and behaviors that are the essence of our
experience of life By addressing the elements of VAK , the visual
( V ) , audio ( A) and Kinesthetic ( K ) , this therapy will be
conducted and reviewed based on the tendency of the existing
human senses .
Neuro linguistic programming (NLP) was developed in the
early 1970s by an information scientist and a linguist at the
University of California at Santa Cruz. They observed that people
with similar education, training, background, and years of
experience were achieving widely varying results ranging from
wonderful to mediocre. They wanted to know the secrets of
effective people. The basic premise of NLP is that the words we

168

use reflect an inner, subconscious perception of our problems. If

these words and perceptions are inaccurate, they will create an
underlying problem as long as we continue to use and to think
them. Our attitude is, in a sense, a self-fulfilling prophecy. With
this in view, I decided to use NLP with Godiva chocolate therapy
to address the problem of smoking among students in Malaysia.
NLP has proven that it is possible to weed out unhealthy traits and
replace them with positive thoughts, and patterns that promote
wellness.

METHOD
PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURES .
The scope of this study involved students in a secondary school
between the age of 13-17.. Selected samples did not exceed four to
five because a bigger sampling would have a small impact in this
qualitative study . Johathan A. Smith and Mike Osborn (2004 )
noted that 3 samples are allowed if someone researcher wishes to
undertake a research in IPA. The 3 students in the school
underwent the prescribed therapy . Past studies have shown that
students of this age are often vulnerable and affected by various
problems involving teachers, friends , family and themselves (
Loeber & Stouthamer - Loeber, 2006 , Wright & Bearer , 2005 &
Crosnoe & Elder , 2004). Purposive sampling method was used in
this study. 3 Students were selected for Qualitative research in
Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design (Creswell (2007) and Nana
(2005). In this study, smoking studaents were selected from the
heavy smokers in one of the secondary school in Malaysia.The
sample was recognised from the school discipline unit. According
to a study entitled Casual Smoking on the Rise Among U.S. Teens
(International Business Times 20110807.ebscohost.com ) The
study defined heavy smokers as those who smoked more than 11
cigarettes a day . Moderate smoking comprised six to 10 cigarettes
169

a day while light was smoking one to five cigarettes a day. So

heavy smokers who smoked 11 cigarettes and over were selected as
the sample at this time .

INSTRUMENT
Exploratory Qualitative method was used for the purpose of this
study. Researchers also used NLP Manual Rubric Score Godiva
Chocolate Therapy, ( Shila & Shafeq , 2012) to measure the sample
scores and Manual conducted involving VAK.. The techniques
used were therapy, observation , interviews and investigations
carried out on the samples. VAK in the form of a direct statement
from the sample was used as a method to get a lot of information
quickly in a short time (Merriam , 2001). The subjects were given
semi -structured interviews to obtain data as semi -structured
interviews were more systematic. Methods of each individual indepth interview was considered the most appropriate method (
Marton , 1994 and Marohaini , 2001) to employ documentary
evidence in symbolic artifacts such as letters , journals , diaries,
etc. ( Bogdan and Biklen , 1998 & Merriam , 2001).

DATA ANALYSIS
The samples underwent therapy once followed by measured
control. After undergoing therapy respondents A, B , C will be
monitored . Data were analyzed using NLP Manual Rubric Scores
Godiva Chocolate Therapy , which was divided into three
tendencies (senses)- visual , audio and kinesthetic ( VAK ) . Then,
the data were analyzed using sample VAK score table calculations.
The next step involved the samples being monitored for 6 weeks
or 30 school days with marking of sample monitoring.
Observation period of 6 weeks is the ideal time (Lord et al, 2009)
to detect changes in the behaviour. At the same time, the

170

respondents were asked to write their diary to record their progress.

Students were also interviewed after the therapy to get further
information. Data collected qualitatively can help researchers
understand the real picture in each case in depth and establish the
effectiveness of the therapy to the sample during therapy sessions.
(McLeod, 2003; Creswell, 2009). The researchers also used
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis approach ( IPA ) ( Smith
2004), to manage the information obtained from the respondents.
Via this approach, data were collected through interviews,
recordings and writing verbatim information given by the
respondents .

FINDINGS
The researchers had designed a manual scores NLP therapy which
required the samples to go through therapy sessions. During the
therapy sessions , the researcher asked sample semi-structured
interviews related to the experience of a sample. All feedback was
marked through the experience and the scores were calculated by
the researcher.

MEASUREMENT SCALE TO DETERMINE MASTERY

VAK GODIVA CHOCOLATE THERAPY
Table 1 VAK Submodality calculation-Godiva Chocolate
VAK Score
V 160 ( 10 p x 16 sbm )
A 160 ( 10 p x 16 sbm )
K 120 ( 10 p x 12 sbm )

%
100
100
100

V- visual, A- audio, K-kinesthetic, p-process sbm- submodality

171

Scores were recognized by researchers as VAK ( V - 160

score = 100 % i.e. 10 times the therapeutic process with
submodality 16 , A - 160 score = 100 % which is 10 times the
therapeutic process and submodality 16 K - 120 = 100 % score of
10 process submodality multiplied by 12 ) , in which all scores
were converted to a percentage and averaged in compliance with
the Godiva Chocolate therapy.
Table 2 Mastery Therapy NLP Guide - Godiva Chocolate Therapy
No

Percent Mastery
Therapy Capture
67 - 100
34 67
0 33

1
2
3

Assessment
High capture therapy
Moderate capture therapy
Low capture therapy

Table 2 shows that if the samples meet scores ranging from 0 to 33,
showed the therapy was low captured for the students, a score
between 34 to 67 showed the therapy was moderate for students
and scores between 68 and 100 showed the therapy was high
captured for students .

OBSERVATION RESULTS
Table 3 NLP manual rubric scores Godiva Chocolate Therapy - overall score
No

Visual

Audio

kinesthetic

Percentage

49/160 X 100
= 30.6%

48/160 X 100
= 30%

35/120 X 100
= 29.2%

89.8/3
= 29.9%

58/160 X 100
= 36.2%

69/160 X100
= 43.1%

59/120 X 100
= 49.2%

128.5/3
= 42.8%

98/160 X 100

112/160 X 100

98/120 X 100

212.9/3

Sampl
e

172

In

Lo
Th

M
Th

= 61.2%

= 70%

= 81.7%

= 71%

Th

Table 3 shows the total overall score of NLP Manual Rubric

Scores Godiva Chocolate Therapy, includes visual, audio and
kinesthetic. Sample A obtained 29.9 % score and classified as low
capture therapy while sample B obtain 42.8 % score should be
categorized as a moderate capture therapy. Sample C which
obtained 71 % is classified as high therapy capture .

Table 4 Differences tendency VAK

Sample

Visual

Audio

kinesthetic

Percentage

Inte

Low

Low

Low

29.9%

Low
The

Moderate

Moderate

42.8%

Mo
The

Moderate

71%

Hig
The

Moderate
high

high

Table 4, shows that, if visual,audio and kinestethec control were

weak, as Respondent A, then the whole therapy capture were weak
too, and tendency to quit smoking also low. Respondents B has
moderate control in visual, audio and kinesthetic , then also have
moderate capture in therapy. Finally, Respondent C has a visual
sense - moderate, audio - high, and kinesthetic - high. This shows
the tendency of highly efficient audio and kinesthetic for help.
Show even lower score in visual, still high capture therapy. It
means audio and kinaesthetic more importants than visual capture.

173

INTERVIEW RESULTS
Table 5 Effect of the sample before and after theraphy
Sample

Feature of Therapy
Effects Before

1.
Smoking
18
cigarettes per day
2.
Smoking after
meals
3. tired
4.Focus problem

Score

29.9%

1. Smoking 15
cigarettes per day.
2. Smoking in the
toilet
3. Sleeping in the
42.8%
classroom

1. Smoking 15
cigarettes per day
2. Smoking in the
bedroom
71%
3.
Always
experiencing
dizziness in the
classroom

174

Features
of
Therapy
Effects After
1. Smoking 12
cigarettes per
day .
2.
still
smoking after
meals
3. tired
4.
Focus
problem

Intepretation

1. Smoking
5 cigarettes
per day
2.
not
smoking in
the
toilet
anymore
3. Sleeping
in
the
classroom
1.Quit
Smoking
2.Feeling
very stable.

Moderate
Therapy

Lower Capture Therapy

High
Capture
Therapy

Captur

The results obtained by researchers on three samples ( table 5:

Schedule of score therapy and the effect on the samples before and
after therapy ) is the sample A gained 29.9 % which shows the
dominance of the therapy was very low , sample B has gained 42.8
% indicating he simply dominated the therapy while sample C was
71 % gained mastery therapy was very high . Effects of pretherapy sessions NLP ( Godiva Chocolate ) , samples A, B and C
share a common feature in that they were heavy smokers (smoked
at the rate of 15 cigarettes a day) . Samples B and C share
something in common , namely smoking in the school toilet . After
therapy A sample of the decrease in cigarette smoking habits of 6
cigarettes , while sample B of 10 stems and sample C at 15 bar
drop. This shows that the higher the share of therapy , the higher
the potential to reduce the problem of smoking among students .
Available NLP techniques can help reduce smoking among
students.

CONCLUSION
This approach is also effective in helping the students who smoke
to stop smoking and effectively to enhance the positive character of
the students while increasing the students academic achievement
and school . Finally , NLP therapy can be an alternative method to
address the problem of smoking among students . The school can
create more smoking prevention programmes using NLP therapy
students who smoke and the Ministry of Education Malaysia
should expose the PPDa teachers and counselors with NLP
therapy.

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Pengaruh Faktor Sosial Kesan Kempen Media Tak Nak
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Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. Volume I.
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Terrace, London SW17
Lord, P., Lamont, E., Harland, J., Mitchell, H. and Straw, S. (2009)
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application in treatment of phobias, 2010 Elsevier Ltd. St
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Selangor : Percetakan CL Wong Sdn Bhd. Md. Taib Mat
(2010), Anda Berhak Hebat, Selangor, MTM Consultant
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Secrets to Quick and Lasting Life Change with NeuroLinguistic Programming. HCi. pp. -229. ISBN 978-0-75730776-8.
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Smith dan Mike Osborn (2004)

177

NLP SWISH PATTERN THERAPY

IN ADDRESSING THE PROBLEM
OF SLEEP AMONG STUDENTS
Hasjazura Binti Hassan, Syed Mohd Shafeq Bin Syed Mansor
Alhabshi & Yahya Buntat

ABSTRACT
Swish Therapy in Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP) is one of
the method that will be use to reduce sleeping in class among
students by using subcounsions mind through visual, audio and
kinaesthetic (VAK). Its not only to reduce student sleep but its
also can increase students focus to study, more energetic, able to
control emotion and etc. The purpose of this paperwork is to
playback response subcounsions to create new behaviour and to
replace previous behaviour that unnecessary by everyone. The
qualitative case study involved 3 respondents in this research. The
instruments of this study are interview semi structure, respondents
check list form for before, during and after therapy. Data collected
where analyze using manual qualitative data coding and
interpretations code. Result of this research highlighted
respondents able to absorb swish therapy and explore experience;
no more sleeping in class during learning and teaching process
after go through this therapy. They also can increase focus to
learning and teaching process, able to control emotions and more
energetic. With this positive changes, able to increase academic
performance, students self discipline and to make school as a
centre to develop excellent and great human capital.

178

Keyword: Sleeping

INTRODUCTION
Sleeping in the classroom have become displeasing yet common to
be heard, and have become one of the prominent issues of certain
school these days (Jerome M. Siegel, 2001, Azizah Lebai Noor,
2002, Tengku Asmandi Tengku Mohamad, 2003, Fatimah Ali,
2007, Michelle Trudeau, 2007, Alina Saminsky, 2010 and Camille
Peri, 2012). Schools have become students alternative sleeping
haven for the students these days, after their homes. Referring to
the Dewan dan Bahasa Dictionary (2001), sleep can be defined
as the relaxing state with decreased number of physical movement
and awareness of the surroundings. Meanwhile, the behavioural
sleeping in the classroom during the teaching and learning process
can be defined as the relaxing state, with the physical movement
and awareness of the surroundings decrease for five minutes and
could be repeated continuously for five days (Hj Rozali,2012, Goh
Siew Lin,2012, Hjh Mariam, 2012, Karmalar 2012 dan Kassim,
2012). This behaviour could occur to any student, not necessarily
on the same subject, time and the period of teaching and learning
process. Not being able to answer prompted questions from the
teacher is an example of symptom that particular scenario. This
issue will affect the subjects learning performance, as while they
fell asleep, they missed out on the lesson given by the teacher
(Michelle Trudeau, 2007, Robert Stickgold, 2008, Mohdazan,
2009, Diana Zuckerman, 2010, Camille Peri, 2012 and Ken
Shores, 2012), lack of focus while studying (Michelle Trudeau,
2007, Robert Stickgold, 2008, Mohdazan, 2009, Alina Saminsky,
2010, Wan Mohamad Wasif, 2011, Camille Peri, 2012 and Ken
Shores, 2012), fatigue and tiredness (Mohdazan, 2009, Alina
Saminsky, 2010, Camille Peri, 2012, Ken Shores, 2012 and
Saralyn Lawn, 2012), emotional breakdown (Hansen, 2005,
Michelle Trudeau, 2007, Mohdazan, 2009, Diana Zuckerman,

179

2010, Wan Mohamad Wasif, 2011, Camille Peri, 2012, Ken

Shores, 2012 and Saralyn Lawn, 2012), and incapable to
remember the lesson taught (Piotr Wozniak, 2000, Robert
Stickgold, 2008, Diana Zuckerman, 2010 and Ken Shores, 2012).
Even after numerous efforts and actions have been carried out to
overcome the issue of sleeping in the classroom among students
during the teaching and learning process, from reprimanding and
instructing students to wash their faces (Azizah Lebai Noor, 2002,
Tengku Asmandi Tengku Mohamad, 2003, and Ken Shores,
2012), to changing seats to the seat with better lighting (Azizah
Lebai Noor, 2002, Tengku Asmandi Tengku Mohamad, 2003,
Fatimah Ali, 2007 and Ken Shores, 2012), the sleeping in class is
still in and showing less signs of improving.

BACKGROUND OF STUDY
In 2010, the statistic of the disciplinary case among students in
Malaysia enlists the neatness of appearance as the highest, bearing
20% of the overall statistic, followed by improper conducts and
punctuality (17%), criminal acts (16%), playing truant (14%),
misbehaviours (8%) and the lowest ranked were vandalism and
obscenity, bearing 5% and 3% respectively. Sleeping during the
teaching and learning process in the classroom was enlisted as the
improper conducts, ranked as the second highest problem in
disciplinary cases. Sleeping in the classroom during the teaching
and learning process among students has become a common and
prominent problem in schools (Jerome M. Siegel, 2001, Azizah
Lebai Noor, 2002, Tengku Asmandi, 2003, Fatimah Ali, 2007,
Michelle Trudeau, 2007, Alina Saminsky, 2010 and Camille Peri,
2012). Some of the resulting effects of this sleeping issue are
students could not cope with the lessons (Robert, 2008, Diana,
2010, and Kenneth, 2012), unable to focus during lessons
(Michelle, 2007, Robert, 2008, Alina, Diana, 2010), lethargy
(Alina, 2010, Camille, 2012, Kenneth, 2012), emotional swings

180

after waking up from the sleep (Michelle, 2007, Diana, 2010,

Saralyn, Kenneth, Camille, 2012), unable to memorise the lesson
(Piotr, 2000, Robert, 2008, Diana, 2010, Kenneth, 2012), low
motivation (Camille, Kenneth, 2012) and others. On the conscious
level, various treatments have been attempted to solve this sleeping
issue, such as getting reprimanded by teacher (Kenneth, 2012),
washing the face (Azizah, 2002 and Tengku Asmandi, 2003),
switching seats (Azizah, 2002 and Kenneth, 2012), quick nap
(Piotr, 2000, and Gisele and Kenneth, 2012), late start for school
session (Michelle, 2007, Robert, 2008, Alina, Diana 2010), intake
of multivitamins (Saifulislam, 2007, Hamid, 2011), SHICIDA
methods (Fyzul, 2010), intake of balanced and healthy meals
(Fyzul, 2010, and Hamid, 2011) and others. Notwithstanding, this
attempts have not shown significant impact and the sleeping
problem still occurs in the classroom.

OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
The main objective of this research is the application of NLP
therapy using the Swish pattern to overcome the sleeping during
the teaching and learning process in the classroom

SIGNIFICANT OF STUDY
This study intends to stimulate the interest and motivation of other
researches and practitioner of related field for further research in
attempt to improvise the method and to apply this method as a
reference to improve the negative problems among students
generally, and specifically, the sleeping problems among students.
The Ministry of Education and the Johor Education Department
could spread the awareness of this method to all counsellors in
schools to use the method to overcome the sleeping problem
among students. This method is a very useful tool for counsellors

181

in primary and secondary schools to control students in school

during the teaching and learning process. With that, it is hoped that
students are able to become more attentive in lessons, as the
sleeping problem does not occur. As a result, teaching and learning
will become more effective and smooth. Other than that, students
are able to improve their learning skills and thus, improve their
motivation to learn, as students are no longer facing the sleeping
problem and they are able to focus and pay more attention in class.
On the other hand, students attitudes and academic performances
will be improved. This method could also assist the parents at
home if they ever encounter the sleeping problem among their
children, especially when their children are studying and doing
their revision. This method gives them better option than giving
robust punishments, as punishments are proven not to be effective
in improving students discipline.

RELATED THEORY
The collaboration work of Richard Bandler and John Grinder, both
a student and an associate professor of linguistics respectively, in
the 1970s has produced the Neuro-linguistics Programming, better
known as the NLP (Bostic St. Clair & Grinder, 2001). The title
NLP is reflected to the principle of that a person is a whole
mindbody system, and patterned connections between
neurological processes (neuro), language (linguistic) and
learned behavioural strategies (programming) are consistently
coexistent (Dilts, Grinder, Bandler, & DeLozier, 1980, p. 2).
Originally developed as a methodology called modelling (Dilts,
1998a, Gordon & Dawes, 2005), the NLP was intended to make
human capabilities available for others to learn and ever since then,
the modelling method has been used to identify cognitive strategies
portrayed behind the capabilities of human, as in motivation,
negotiation and spelling (Dilts et al., 1980). The potential of selfdetermination through overcoming learnt self-limitation in the NLP

182

was emphasised by Bandler & Andreas (1985), which then the

same motives were implied on the book jacket of Bandler and
Grinder (1975a), defining the motive as the potential of resources
sharing of all those who are involved in searching ways to assist
people to have better and meaningful lives. The early publications
indicated the psychotherapeutic emphasis in NLP, as the studies
were co-founded by therapists from multiple fields; from Fritz
Perls, the founder of Gestalt therapy, Virginia Satir, the family
therapist and Milton Erickson, the hypnotherapist. Parallel with the
forms of brief therapy (McDermott & Jago, 2001), the belief that
long-term therapy was necessarily involved with individual
changes and can only be made possible with insigts into the past,
was challenged through the studies of NLP. Likewise the
emergence field of positive psychology that emphasises human
well-being (Linley, Joseph, Harrington & Wood, 2006), the NLP
personifies a discourse of self-improvement and might also be said
to portray a postmodern relativism through its interest in
individually defined and constructed reality. This belief was drawn
explicitly on Vaihingers (1924) principle that such constructions
are temporary hypotheses, based on what people act as if they
were true.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Using case study as the qualitative approach by collecting data
(Miles, 1994, Marohaini, Merriam, 2001), observation
(McLeod,2003, Creswell, 2007), interviews (Marton, 1994,
Schensul, 1999, Marohaini, Merriam, 2001, Creswell, 2007) and
audiovisual method (Bogdan and Biklen, 1998, Merriam, 2001,
Nana, 2005, Creswell, 2007), as in recordings and session report,
Interpretation Phenomenology Analysis (IPA) was used to
comprehend individual experiences, how the express themselves
and how they perceive their experiences (Bannister and Frensella,
1971, Gribbons, Berry and Herman Joan, 1997, Smith, 2004, Rick

183

Yount, 2006, Saul McLeod, 2008).

RESEARCH LOCATION
This study will be carried out in one secondary school in Johor.
This school are Kluang High School. These school are chosen
randomly among all secondary school in Johor. Every school is
given a chance to be chosen. Therefore, getting access to
respondents will be easy.

QUALITATIVE
INTERVIEW)

METHOD

(SEMI-STRUCTURED

Qualitative method was used for the purpose of this research,

namely the Therapy NLP Swish Pattern Manual Score method,
which was built by Zura, Amin and Syed Mohamed Syafiq. The
checklist comprises of two parts; Part A deals with the
demographic information of the samples, and Part B is devised into
three categories. The categories include Visual (16 sub-modalities),
Audio (16 sub-modalities) and Kinaesthetic (12 sub-modalities).
Researchers chose this pattern because to alternate the patterns
using the sub-modality scheme subsequently to build the
relationship of two mental, so that the mental will automatically
lead each other towards the transformation of the desired
objectives and behaviours, through the VAK senses (Shapiro, Mo,
2000, Olcohnor, Joseph, 2001, Md Taib Mat, 2007, Bandler,
Richard, 2008, Muhamad Jantan, 2009, & Lin Chatterton, 2009).
Compared to other techniques, such as the Visual Squash
technique, that is through the visualisation of any images desired to
be destroyed and to integrate certain different parts of individual,
the Circle of Excellence technique focuses on the improving selfachievement through the recollection of beautiful subconscious
memories, from adolescent to present, experienced by the samples

184

through the activation of VAK. Meanwhile, the Six Step

Reframing technique is a process of choosing our active responses
through the process of reframing steps, which are reframing the
references of actions, statement or events, finding other meanings
and translations, and searching through the clues. In the nutshell,
the Swish pattern is the most relevant approach to be used in this
research of the sleeping in classroom.

SAMPLING METHOD OF QUALITATIVE STAGE

This research is to observe the application of NLP therapy using
the Swish pattern to overcome the sleeping during the teaching and
learning process in the classroom. The scope of this study
encompasses secondary school students in Johor. Three samples
(n=3) consisting of 2 male and 1 female Form Four students
participated in this research. They were chosen from the name list
given by their subject teachers in school. Researchers have chosen
the names from the list of names of the students involved in this
research randomly.

PILOT TESTS
For constructing Therapy NLP Swish Pattern Manual pilot test was
conducted. Pilot test was conducted among 3 students from Kluang
High School, Kluang, Johor. Table 1 show pilot test conducted in
this study based on VAK ( Visual, Audio and Kinaesthetic )
aspects.
Table 1 shows the samples Swish Pattern overall scores that cover the VAK
aspects
SAMPLE
A

VISUAL
SCORE
%
50/128 X
39
%

AUDIO
SCORE
%
50/128 X
39
%

185

KINAESTHETIC
SCORE
%
42/120 X %
35

JUM.
%
113/3

%
37.6

IN

E
B

80/128 X
%

62.5

58/128 X
%

45.3

50/120 X %

41.
6

149.4
/3

49.8

94/128 X
%

73.4

101/128 X
%

78.9

62/120 X %

51.
6

203.9
/3

67.9

The analysis of the scores indicates that Sample A and B show that
they have achieved the moderate level of therapy experiences, with
the percentage of 37.6% and 49.8% respectively. Meanwhile,
Sample C shows a remarkable therapy experiences, with the
percentage of 67.9%. Overall, there are two types of experiences
level shown by the samples, which are moderate and high.

CONCLUSION
The NLP therapy approach through the application of Swish
pattern therapy to overcome the sleeping in the classroom, which
was design based on the metacognitive process, has shown the
signs of improvement among the students. This approach is proven
to be effective in assisting students to overcome their behavioural
sleeping in classroom. It is also could be used as the medium to
inculcate the positive behaviours and attitudes among students in
schools, thus improving their academic and the school overall
performance.

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190

LECTURERS PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT AS A
DETERMINANT OF CLASSROOM
PRACTICES
AlGhamdi, Abdulkhaliq Hajjad & Dr.Ahmad Johari Bin Sihes

1.1

INTRODUCTION

This study investigates lecturers professional development as a

contributor to classroom practices based on extant literature related
to the present study and theory underpinning it. This review
contains a portion of the variables proposed in the present study.

1.2

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

In the recent millennium, educators and educational stakeholders

across the globe are interested exploring ways in making changes
in higher learning institutions. Staff Professional Development
could be defined as holistic and sustained approach to improving
teachers effectiveness in making students higher achievers
(National Staff Development Council, 2009). Many studies have
demonstrated various factors determining lecturers classroom
practices. Some previous studies identify staff professional
development as one of the variables which contribute to classroom
practices. Guskey (1986) stresses that educational professional
development encompass structured activities in enhancing

191

educators professional skills, keeping them to-date or supporting

changes in educational environment. He further defines
professional development as a systemic attempt that brings forth
changes in the classroom.
Studies have demonstrated that the main perceived
professional development or competence that contribute to the
perceived quality of effective classroom change are namely, human
competence (Schnonert-Reichl & Lawlor, 2010), technology
competence (Hansen, Henning-Thurau, & Wochnowski, 2000),
teaching competence (Cabrera, Colbeck, & Terenzini, 2001) and
evaluation competence (Wong & Moni, 2014).
Fortunately, many organizations support and encourage the
development of their staff due to the fact that professional
development makes the staff well-rounded in their field (Lebeau,
2008) and many others do not.
In light of abovementioned assertions, this study proposes
to determine the causal relationship between lecturers professional
development and classroom practices in Saudi Arabia in
accordance with the related theory and the existing literature.

1.2.1

Statement of Problem

Little studies document competences as a prerequisite for

classroom practices (Berman & Ritchie, 2006; Diperna, 2004;
Jones et al., 1995). As-Subaiee (2009) identifies that most of the
staff are not confident to use modern teaching aids namely,
computer and internet in teaching. An-Nuh (2006) asserts that most
Saudi teachers lack the use of modern technologies in the lecture
rooms. As-Shahrani (2013) emphasizes the replacement of
traditional lectures with modern method to produce effective
teaching and learning. Al-Hakami (2004) reported that, students
complaint that most of their lecturers lack competences such as
human relation, evaluation, content knowledge or knowledge

192

competence, lecturers motivation of the students.

Accordingly, Ar-Rawaf (2007) found out that most of the failures
in the female teacher colleges are about evaluation as the
prevailing method in the colleges focus on exam achievement only.
At the same time, Shahata and Abal Khail (2001) found the
importance of improving university teaching method and
evaluation. Furthermore, As-Sulaiman and As-Somaadis (2008)
study found out that academic problems among the teachers
colleges in Saudi Arabia cling on staffs incapability of using
teaching aids, teaching methods, and evaluation. Al-Yawar (2009)
asserted that male and female students at the open Arabic
university in Jeddah face many obstacles which affect their
learning. These obstacles range from administrative obstacles such
as lack of attention to students, not responding to their complaints,
academic obstacles such as evaluation, teaching methods, and
environment obstacles such as lack of teaching aids in the
university.

1.2.1.1 Research Objectives

The major objectives of the present study are as follows:
1. To determine the lecturers classroom practices
2. To determine the lecturers professional competence.
3. To determine relationship between professional competence and
lecturers classroom practices.

1.2.1.2 Research Questions

1. How many factors determine lecturers classroom practices?
2. How many factors determine lecturers professional
competence?
3. What is the relationship between lecturers professional
competence and their classroom practices?

193

1.2.2

Research Hypotheses

The current study hypotheses are as follows:

H1: Lecturers classroom practices have a statistical significant
relationship with professional competence.
H0: Lecturers classroom practices do not have a statistical
significant relationship with professional competence.
H2: Variables designated for improving lecturers classroom
practices framework are statistically and significantly related to
measure lecturers classroom practices.

1.2.2.1

Contribution of Study

It is expected that this present study will add to the body of

knowledge in testing the theory of Guskey (1986) on professional
development in Arab environs, particularly, on classroom practices
in Al-Baha University. The researcher hopes that, the present study
will add an insight to teaching and learning in many higher
learning institutions in various Muslim countries and other learning
institutions across the globe.

1.2.2.2

Significance of Study

The present study will benefit the administrative staff at the AlBaha University and in specific the academic teaching staff. The
study shall be of benefit to the educational policy makers in the
High Ministry of Education in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The
study will be of important to the authority of Al-Baha University to
professionally enhance the staff and their classroom practices. The
study would benefit in promoting staff who use effective classroom
practice to motivate others. This study will also improve the
students learning outcome while improving teaching methods for

194

the faculty members in Saudi universities.

1.2.2.3

Theoretical Framework

The current study is based on Guskeys (1986) framework of

professional development and empirical studies that found the
causal relationship between staff professional development and
classroom practices as an outcome of students learning. This
framework emphasizes that the continuous professional
development programs influences teachers classroom practices via
students learning outcomes which brings about teachers belief in
teaching. The model is as follows:

Ch a n ge in

Ch a n ge in

Ch a n ge in

T EAC HE R S

STU DE NT

T EAC HE R S

CLASS R O O M
PRA CTICES

L E A R NI N G
OUT C O ME S

B E LIE FS A N D
A TTIT U DE S

STAFF
DEV EL OP ME NT

1.2.2.4

Conceptual Framework

Staff Development
1. Teaching competence
2. Human competence
3. Evaluation competence
4. Technology competence

Classroom Practices
1. Teaching method
2. Reply to students query
3. Control students behavior

This study framework proposes that, staff professional

development brings about effective change in classroom practices

195

1.2.2.5

Limitation of Study

The present study is limited by time, place and sample size. With
regard to time, it is proposed to be conducted within 2014 -2015. It
will be conducted in Al-Baha University in Saudi Arabia. he
sample will be withdrawn from the all twelve faculties in the said
universities.

1.2.2

Literature Review

The review of literature for this study is tabulated in Table 3.1

Table 3.1 Studies on Professional Development and Classroom practices

Variable
Teaching
competence

Human
Competence

Professional Development
Author
&
Findings
Date
Teaching competence has
Bhargava &
strong relationship with
Pathy (2011)
effective teaching
Ahmad, Said, Reflective teachers have
Zeb,
a big difference in their
Rehman,
classroom than nonAhmad
&
reflective teachers
Khan (2013)
SchnonertPositive relationship was
Reichl
and found between teachers
Lawlor
competence
and
(2010)
classroom practice as
most of the teachers
reported that they were
able to integrate the
mindful
attention
exercises within their
classroom
Niemiec & human competence and
Ryan (2009)
autonomy provided by
the educators has strong
implication on both

196

Gap
Sample is
too small
Non Arab
study

Participants
are
elementary
school
students

No mention
of
participants

Technology
competence

Keengwe
(2007)
Laal (2000)

Evaluation
competence

Reply
students
query

to

Control
students
behavior

of

classroom practices and

educational
reform
policies
Technology support was
a predictor of classroom
learning
The use of internet
contributes to teaching
and learning

Students appraisal of
teachers
improves
classroom
teaching
practices
Ololube
The more the teachers
(2008)
become
positive
in
evaluating the students
the more they are
effective in their teaching
Classroom Practices
Tawarah
Classroom
questions
(2013)
were
considered
an
important
skill
in
teaching
Ratcliff,
The more the teachers
Jones,
interacted with their
Costner,
students on instructional
Savagematters, the more the
Davis, Hunt, students engaged in
(2010)
learning
Wong
&
Moni (2014)

Only
ANOVA is
used
Not
large
sample and
study is too
old
Clinical study

African study

Position
paper

Western
study

Table 3.1 above showed few literature explaining the causal

Relationship between the variables of professional development
And classroom practices. The Table also shows the gap in the
previous studies.
1.2.4

Research Design

The present study is a quantitative study. The design of survey

questionnaire will involve the use of primary data that are sourced

197

from the previous study which will be administered to the sample.

The scale of questionnaire for data collection follows a six-point
Likert type scale.

1.2.4.1 Method
This study proposes to use factor Analysis, multiple regression,
correlation and ANOVA as a statistical technique to analyse the
data that will be collected from the sample.

1.2.4.2 Population, Sample, and Sampling technique

The target population of this study will be all lecturers (1,231) in
Al-Baha University. This statistics is known through the director of
employees at the Al-Baha University. Additionally, this statistics
can be known via the Al-Baha university website. The sample to be
need for this study will be 297 for academic teaching staff based on
the determining sample size table by Krejcie and Morgan (1970).
The samples shall be selected using random sample.

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relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination
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Ololube, N. P. 2008. Evaluation competencies of professional and
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Ratcliff, N. J., Jones, C. R., Costner, R. H., Savage-Davis, E., and
Hunt, G. H. 2010. The elephant in the classroom: The
impact of misbehavior on classroom climate. ERIC
Publication.
Schnonert-Reichl , K. A. and Lawlor, M. S. 2010. The effects of a
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Shahata, H. and Abal Khail, F. 2001. Teaching and university
evaluation: Future critique study. Arab Gulf Journal for
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Tawarah, H. M. 2013. Teachers effectiveness in asking
classrooms questions and their interaction with students
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Educational Sciences, 5(2): 117-122.
Wong, W. Y. and Moni, K. 2014. Teachers perceptions of and
responses to student evaluation of teaching: purposes and
uses in clinical education. Journal of Assessment and
Evaluation in Higher Education.

201

PENGARUH PENGGUNAAN
ALAT MENGGENDONG BAYI
TERHADAP KETIDAKSELESAAN
MENGGUNAKAN SKALA BORG
Siti Rabiatul Adawiyah Mahasan, Zainal Abidin Zainuddin, Asha
Hasnimy Mohd Hashim & Halijah Ibrahim

ABSTRAK
Amalan menggendong bayi menggunakan baby carrier adalah satu
kebiasaan untuk membawa bayi dari satu tempat ke tempat yang
lain. Kajian-kajian terdahulu telah menunjukkan amalan
menggendong bayi banyak membantu perkembangan fisiologi dan
psikologi bayi seperti tumbesaran, ikatan emosi, dan memudahkan
bayi tidur. Aktiviti menggendong bayi memberi ruang kepada
babywearer untuk memantau keselamatan bayi dengan lebih dekat,
mengurangkan kadar tangisan bayi dan merapatkan hubungan di
antara mereka. Walau bagaimanapun, fokus kajian terdahulu
adalah dari aspek bayi dan tidak banyak kajian yang dilaksanakan
terhadap babywearer. Sehubungan itu, kajian awalan ini
dilaksanakan bertujuan untuk melihat kesan pengaruh
pengggunaan alat menggendong bayi (penggunaan wrap carrier,
soft structured carrier (SSC) dan in arm carrier) dengan
mengenalpasti kesakitan dan ketidakselesaan bahagian badan
babywearer menggunakan skala Borg CR10. Seramai 7 orang
subjek dalam kalangan siswi Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
(UTM) yang berumur antara 24 hingga 27 tahun
(M=24.43,SD=1.51) dipilih untuk menjalani Ujian Berjalan 30
Minit di atas treadmill sambil menggunakan baby carrier. Kajian

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dilakukan secara terkawal di dalam makmal dengan patung berupa

bayi seberat 5 kg digunakan untuk menggantikan bayi. Analisis
data yang dijalankan mendapati kesemua jenis carriers
mencatatkan nilai kesakitan dan tidak selesa pada semua bahagian
(neck, shoulder, upperback, lowerback, hips, thighs, legs dan arms)
tetapi bacaan tertinggi untuk ketiga-tiga carrier adalah untuk
anggota shoulders dan legs. In arm carrier pula turut mencatatkan
kesakitan yang tinggi pada bahagian arms. Hasil kajian awalan ini
berjaya mengenalpasti bahagian anggota badan yang menunjukkan
kesan kesakitan dan ketidakselesaan akibat penggunaan baby
carries dan dapatan ini akan digunakan dalam kajian sebenar.
Kata
Kunci:
Babywearer,
Menggendong Bayi

Kesakitan,

Ketidakselesaan,

PENGENALAN
Tanggungjawab menguruskan rumahtangga bagi seorang wanita
adalah berterusan. Tugas ini makin bertambah selepas melahirkan
anak di mana tugas harian ini akan ditambah dengan keperluan
menumpukan perhatian kepada anak. Ramai dari kalangan ibu
yang memilih untuk menggendong atau mendukung anak semasa
melakukan kerja harian bagi mengatasi masalah ini.
Menurut Zylia Ahmad (2014), menggendong bayi
bermakna memegang atau membawa bayi atau kanak-kanak kecil
menggunakan kain pembawa bayi. Pernyataan ini selari dengan
pernyataan Blois (2005) yang menyatakan bahawa, menggendong
bayi adalah amalan memakai atau membawa bayi dalam anduh
atau menggunakan pengangkutan yang lain seperti mengguna
stroller dan carrier. Ibu bapa yang menggendong bayi pula
dipanggil sebagai babywearer iaitu individu yang menggendong
bayi menggunakan baby carriers atau alat penggendong bayi
(Babywearing Institute, n.d., http://www.babywearingschool.com/).
Secara umumnya, menurut Zylia Ahmad (2014), baby
carrier adalah sebarang alat atau kain yang boleh digunakan untuk

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menggendong bayi dengan selamat dan selesa. Penggunaan alat ini

membantu babywearer melakukan kerja tanpa perlu menggunakan
tangan untuk menyokong bayi. Dengan kata lain kedua-dua tangan
babywearer bebas bergerak tanpa kesulitan untuk melakukan
aktiviti-aktiviti lain. Sebagai contoh, ibu dapat melakukan cucian,
menyiram bunga, memasak dan mengemas rumah dan pada masa
yang sama tidak mengabaikan keperluan bayi, menjaga
keselamatan bayi malah berupaya menyusukan bayi mereka.
Penganjur dan Pengajar The Babywearer School, Frome
(2013) menyatakan 2/3 daripada Negara di seluruh dunia masih
menggunakan cara menggendong bayi sebagai alat harian untuk
memantau keselamatan bayi mereka. Kaedah ini telah digunakan
sejak turun-temurun dan diamal oleh pelbagai budaya dan kaum di
seluruh dunia. Sebagai contoh, menggendong atau mendukung bayi
masih menjadi pilihan rakyat negara Nepal, Alaska, Peru dan
Mozambik
(Babywearing
Institute,
n.d.,
http://www.babywearingschool.com/), China dan Indonesia
(MyMetro, 2014). Namun begitu, di Malaysia penggunaan alat
penggendong bayi masih kurang diamalkan kerana babywearer
mungkin tidak berminat, mungkin kurang kemahiran mengenai
penggunaan alat tersebut dan perasaan bimbang akan keselamatan
bayi semasa menggendong. Sesetengah babywearer yang mencuba
kaedah tersebut hanya mampu bertahan dalam jangkamasa pendek
kerana masalah ketidakselesaan.
Beberapa dapatan kajian mengenai penggunaan beg galas
yang hampir menyerupai konsep menggendong bayi menjelaskan
impak yang buruk dari segi perubahan postur badan dan aktiviti
otot (Al-Khabbaz et al., 2008), mereka akan mengalami kesakitan
pada bahagian belakang dan musculoskeletal (Negrini and
Carabalona 2002, Sheir-Neiss, Kruse, Rahman, Jacobson &Pelli,
2003, Korovessis, Koureas, Zacharatos & Papazisis, 2005) dan
menyebabkan keletihan serta kaitan di antara hubungan keletihan
dan sakit belakang dijumpai (Negrini dan Carabalona, 2002).
Kenyataan kesakitan ini turut disokong oleh Pascoe DD,
Pascoe DE, Wang & Shim (1997) yang menjalankan kajian

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berkaitan beg galas di USA melaporkan gejala-gejala biasa apabila

menggalas beg ialah sakit otot, sakit belakang, kebas dan kesakitan
pada bahu. Hasil kajian daripada (Al-Khabbaz, Shimada, &
Hasegawa, 2008) membuktikan gejala-gejala musculoskeletal yang
tersebar luas adalah pada bahagian leher (44%), bahu (57.9%), atas
belakang (36.7%) dan bawah belakang (35%). Hubungan di antara
kaedah menggendong bayi dan penggunaan beg galas dapat
dikaitkan melalui perubahan atau kesan yang berlaku selepas
aktiviti tersebut dilaksanakan.
Walaubagaimanapun, kajian-kajian terdahulu (Hiscock,
2010, Mori, 2010), telah menunjukkan kesan positif jika ibu selalu
melakukan aktiviti menggendong atau mendukung bayi mereka.
Kesan positif ini bukan sahaja wujud kepada bayi malahan kepada
ibu bapa. Antara kesan positif terhadap bayi yang selalu digendong
atau didukung adalah wujud satu ikatan, respon dan ketenteraman
terhadap bayi (Esposito, Yoshida, Ohnishi, Tsuneoka, Rostagno,
Yokota, Okabe, Kamiya, &Hoshino, 2013), bayi tidur lebih mudah
dan lama di waktu malam (Hiscock, 2010), kesan fisiologi dan
perkembangan fizikal yang positif (Cong, Ludington-Hoe, Walsh,
2011, Gammie, 2013) dan mengurangkan masalah tingkah laku
dan sosial anak (Mori, 2010). Kajian juga menunjukkan aktiviti
menggendong bayi mampu menguatkan kualiti hubungan di antara
ibu bapa dengan anak secara psikologi, sosial dan emosi (Sullivan
et al., 2008, Valizadeth, Ajoodaniyan, Namnabati, Zamanzadeh,
Layegh, 2013). Fokus kajian terdahulu adalah dari aspek bayi dan
tidak banyak kajian yang dilaksanakan terhadap babywearer.
Sehubungan itu, kajian awalan ini dilaksanakan bertujuan
untuk melihat kesan pengaruh pengggunaan alat menggendong
bayi (penggunaan wrap carrier, soft structured carrier (SSC) dan
in arm carrier) dengan mengenalpasti kesakitan dan
ketidakselesaan bahagian badan babywearer menggunakan skala
Borg CR10.

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JENIS-JENIS PENGUJIAN
Pengujian yang dilaksanakan ke atas subjek adalah menggunakan
alat penggendong bayi dan skala Borg CR10.
Penggunaan Alat Menggendong Bayi
Berikut merupakan penerangan ujian yang dilaksanakan subjek
menggunakan baby carrier dan tanpa menggunakan baby carrier
iaitu;
Tanpa Penggunaan Carrier (In Arms)
Subjek dikehendaki menggendong atau mendukung bayi
menggunakan sokongan kedua-dua belah tangan semasa
melakukan Ujian Berjalan 30 minit. Sebelah tangan subjek
dikehendaki menyokong bahagian punggung bayi manakala
sebelah lagi menyokong bahagian belakang bayi supaya tidak jatuh
ke belakang. Subjek boleh menggunakan mana-mana tangan untuk
menyokong kedudukan bayi tersebut mengikut kesesuaian subjek.

Rajah 1 Menggendong Bayi Tanpa Menggunakan Carrier (In Arms)

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Penggunaan Wrap Carrier

Subjek dikehendaki menggendong atau mendukung bayi dengan
menggunakan wrap iaitu sejenis kain panjang atau kain elastik
yang membalut mengelilingi babywearer dan bayi dengan keadaan
bayi diletakkan di dalam fabrik tersebut di bahagian hadapan
babywearer.

Rajah 1 Menggendong Bayi Menggunakan Wrap Carrier

Penggunaan Soft Structured Carrier (SSC)

Subjek dikehendaki menggendong atau mendukung bayi
menggunakan SSC yang merupakan alat penggendong bayi yang
mengikat seluruh bahagian pinggang dan bahu babywearer dengan
menggunakan buckle pinggang dan strap bahu bagi menyokong
tambahan berat bayi.

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Rajah 3 Menggendong Bayi Menggunakan SSC

Skala Borg
Skala Rating Perceived Exertion (RPE) telah dicipta oleh Borg
(1982) di mana dicadangkan bagi melihat tahap ketegangan otot
yang terbaik ketika melakuan aktiviti. Beliau menjelaskan bahawa
RPE mengintegrasikan signal, persepsi dan pengalaman menjadi
tahap tanggapan kesukaran melakukan aktiviti. Skala Borg RPE
adalah skala bagi tanggapan kesukaran melakukan aktiviti. Ia
adalah alat untuk menganggarkan keupayaan dan tenaga, kadar
pernafasan, dan keletihan semasa melakukan kerja-kerja fizikal.
Skala RPE baru iaitu Borg CR10 menggunakan nombor 010 di mana menunjukkan perasaan subjek rehat kepada
penggunaan tenaga maksimum (Borg 1998). Skala Borg CR10 pula
adalah skala nisbah-kategori (CR) dan pada nombor 10 ini adalah
mewakili intensiti-intensiti yang melampau. Ini adalah skala
intensiti yang umum bagi magnitud yang paling subjektif yang
boleh digunakan untuk mengukur tanggapan kesukaran melakukan
aktiviti dan rasa sakit (Borg. G., 1998).
Pengujian kajian yang dilakukan adalah berdasarkan skala
Borg CR10 yang digunakan untuk mengukur tanggapan kesukaran
melakukan aktiviti dan rasa sakit (Borg, 1998). Penggunaan skala

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Borg CR10 ini sesuai dengan ujian yang dijalankan iaitu nilai-nilai
kesakitan dan ketidakselesaan pada bahagian anggota badan (neck,
shoulder, upperback, lowerback, hips, thighs dan legs) apabila
menggunakan wrap carrier, SSC dan in arm carrier.

METODOLOGI KAJIAN
Seramai 7 orang subjek dalam kalangan siswi Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia (UTM) yang berumur antara 24 hingga 27 dipilih untuk
menjalani Ujian Berjalan 30 Minit di atas treadmill sambil
menggunakan baby carrier (wrap carrier, SSC dan in arm carrier)
dan menggendong patung berupa bayi seberat 5 kilogram (kg) yang
digunakan untuk menggantikan bayi. Subjek bebas daripada
sebarang masalah kesihatan dan penyakit yang berbahaya. Kajian
dilakukan secara terkawal di dalam Makmal Kecergasan
Penyelidikan Fakulti Pendidikan, UTM.
Subjek disoal nilai-nilai kesakitan dan ketidakselesaan pada
minit pertama (0 minit), minit kedua (15 minit), dan minit terakhir
(30 minit) pada bahagian anggota badan (neck, shoulder,
upperback, lowerback, hips, thighs dan legs) menggunakan skala
Borg CR10, skala 0 hingga 10. Hasil data yang diperolehi
dianalisis dengan menggunakan program Statistical Package for
Microsoft Excel 2007.

ANALISIS DATA

Jadual 1 (a) menunjukkan maklumat deskriptif berkenaan umur,

tinggi dan berat badan subjek. Analisis menunjukkan min bagi
umur keseluruhan subjek adalah 24.43 (SD= 1.51), min bagi tinggi
(cm) keseluruhan subjek adalah 161.36 (SD=5.81) dan min bagi
berat keseluruhan subjek (kg) adalah 55.16 (SD=6.61).

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Jadual 1(a) Maklumat Deskriptif Mengenai Umur,

Tinggi Dan Berat Subjek

Pembolehubah
Keseluruhan
(n=7)
Min (M)
SD
24.43
1.51
Umur
161.36
5.81
Tinggi (cm)
55.16
6.61
Berat (kg)
(Nota SD= Sisihan Piawai)
Jadual 2(b) Keputusan Min Skor Ujian Kaedah Menggendong

Bayi (Baseline, Wrap Carrier, In Arm dan SSC)

Jadual di atas menunjukkan keputusan min skor bagi ujian

kaedah menggendong bayi iaitu baseline, menggunakan wrap
carrier dan SSC serta tanpa menggunakan carrier (in arm) pada
minit 0, minit ke 15 dan pada minit ke 30. Bahagian nilai-nilai
kesakitan dan ketidakselesaan yang disoal adalah pada bahagian
(neck, shoulder, upperback, lowerback, hips, thighs, legs dan arms
(hanya untuk ujian tanpa menggunakan carrier).
Analisis data menunjukkan min skor skala borg bagi ujian
baseline, nilai-nilai kesakitan dan ketidakselesaan min skor
bahagian neck meningkat dari minit 0 (0), minit ke 15 (0), dan pada
minit 30 (0.86). Min skor nilai-nilai kesakitan dan ketidakselesaan
bahagian shoulder juga meningkat iaitu minit 0 (0), pada minit 15
(0.14), dan pada minit 30 (0.86). Min skor bahagian upperback
pula menunjukkan peningkatan minit 0 (0), pada minit ke 15(0.6),

210

dan pada minit ke 30 (0.7). Min skor bagi bahagian lowerback

meningkat minit 0 (0), pada minit ke 15 (0.1) dan pada minit 30
(0.3). Bagi min skor bahagian hips minit 0 (0), pada minit ke 15
(0.3), dan pada minit 30 (0.7) manakala min skor bagi bahagian
thighs pula pada minit 0 (0), pada minit ke 15 (0.4), dan pada minit
30 (1.0). Bagi min skor bahagian legs minit 0 (0), pada minit ke 15
(1), dan pada minit 30 (2.6). Analisis data bagi ujian baseline
mendapati min skor pada bahagian legs menunjukkan bacaan
tertinggi bagi kekerapan nilai-nilai kesakitan dan ketidakselesaan.
Analisis data menunjukkan min skor skala borg bagi ujian
wrap carrier, nilai-nilai kesakitan dan ketidakselesaan min skor
bahagian neck meningkat dari minit 0 (0.1), minit ke 15 (0.3), dan
pada minit 30 (0.86). Min skor nilai-nilai kesakitan dan
ketidakselesaan bahagian shoulder juga meningkat iaitu minit 0
(0.43), pada minit 15 (1.57), dan pada minit 30 (2.71). Min skor
bahagian upperback pula menunjukkan peningkatan minit 0 (0.1),
pada minit ke 15(2.0), dan pada minit ke 30 (2.6). Min skor bagi
bahagian lowerback meningkat minit 0 (0), pada minit ke 15 (0.9)
dan pada minit 30 (1.0). Bagi min skor bahagian hips minit 0 (0),
pada minit ke 15 (0.3), dan pada minit 30 (0.6) manakala min skor
bagi bahagian thighs pula pada minit 0 (0), pada minit ke 15 (0.6),
dan pada minit 30 (1.1). Bagi min skor bahagian legs minit 0 (0),
pada minit ke 15 (2.3), dan pada minit 30 (3.6). Analisis data bagi
ujian wrap carrier mendapati min skor pada bahagian shoulder dan
legs menunjukkan bacaan tertinggi bagi kekerapan nilai-nilai
kesakitan dan ketidakselesaan.
Analisis data menunjukkan min skor skala borg bagi ujian
tanpa carrier (in arm), nilai-nilai kesakitan dan ketidakselesaan
min skor bahagian neck meningkat dari minit 0 (0), minit ke 15
(0.3), dan pada minit 30 (0.57). Min skor nilai-nilai kesakitan dan
ketidakselesaan bahagian shoulder juga meningkat iaitu minit 0
(0), pada minit 15 (1.86), dan pada minit 30 (3.0). Min skor
bahagian upperback pula menunjukkan peningkatan minit 0 (0),
pada minit ke 15(0.9), dan pada minit ke 30 (2.0). Min skor bagi
bahagian lowerback meningkat minit 0 (0), pada minit ke 15 (0.4)

211

dan pada minit 30 (0.9). Bagi min skor bahagian hips minit 0 (0),
pada minit ke 15 (0.3), dan pada minit 30 (0.1) manakala min skor
bagi bahagian thighs pula pada minit 0 (0), pada minit ke 15 (0.7),
dan pada minit 30 (1.3). Bagi min skor bahagian legs minit 0 (0),
pada minit ke 15 (2.7), dan pada minit 30 (4.3). Min skor bagi
bahagian arm pula menunjukkan pada minit 0 (0.9), minit ke 15
(3.6) dan minit ke 30 (5.1). Analisis data bagi ujian tanpa carrier
(in arm) mendapati min skor pada bahagian shoulder, legs dan
arms menunjukkan bacaan tertinggi bagi kekerapan nilai-nilai
kesakitan dan ketidakselesaan.
Analisis data menunjukkan min skor skala borg bagi ujian
SSC dari minit 0 (0), minit ke 15 (0.3), dan pada minit 30 (0.57).
Min skor nilai-nilai kesakitan dan ketidakselesaan bahagian
shoulder juga meningkat iaitu minit 0 (0.14), pada minit 15 (1.57),
dan pada minit 30 (2.29). Min skor bahagian upperback pula
menunjukkan peningkatan minit 0 (0), pada minit ke 15(1.3), dan
pada minit ke 30 (1.4). Min skor bagi bahagian lowerback
meningkat minit 0 (0), pada minit ke 15 (0.4) dan pada minit 30
(0.7). Bagi min skor bahagian hips minit 0 (0), pada minit ke 15
(0.1), dan pada minit 30 (0.4) manakala min skor bagi bahagian
thighs pula pada minit 0 (0), pada minit ke 15 (0.7), dan pada minit
30 (1.7). Bagi min skor bahagian legs minit 0 (0), pada minit ke 15
(1.9), dan pada minit 30 (3.3). Analisis data bagi ujian SSC
mendapati min skor pada bahagian shoulder dan legs menunjukkan
bacaan tertinggi bagi kekerapan nilai-nilai kesakitan dan
ketidakselesaan.

KESIMPULAN KAJIAN
Tujuan kajian awalan ini dilaksanakan adalah untuk melihat kesan
pengaruh pengggunaan alat menggendong bayi (penggunaan wrap
carrier, (SSC) dan in arm carrier) dengan mengenalpasti kesakitan
dan ketidakselesaan bahagian badan babywearer menggunakan
skala Borg CR10. Seramai 7 orang subjek dalam kalangan siswi

212

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) yang berumur antara 24

hingga 27 tahun (M=24.43, SD=1.51) dipilih untuk menjalani
Ujian Berjalan 30 Minit di atas treadmill sambil menggunakan
baby carrier. Kajian dilakukan secara terkawal di dalam makmal
dengan patung berupa bayi seberat 5 kg digunakan untuk
menggantikan bayi. Analisis data yang dijalankan mendapati
kesemua jenis carriers mencatatkan nilai kesakitan dan tidak
selesa pada semua bahagian (neck, shoulder, upperback,
lowerback, hips, thighs, legs dan arms) tetapi bacaan tertinggi
untuk ketiga-tiga carrier adalah untuk anggota shoulders dan legs.
In arm carrier pula turut mencatatkan kesakitan yang tinggi pada
bahagian arms. Kenyataan kesakitan ini turut disokong oleh Pascoe
DD, Pascoe DE, Wang & Shim (1997) yang menjalankan kajian
berkaitan beg galas di USA melaporkan gejala-gejala biasa apabila
menggalas beg ialah sakit otot, sakit belakang, kebas dan kesakitan
pada bahu. Hasil kajian daripada (Al-Khabbaz, Shimada, &
Hasegawa, 2008) membuktikan gejala-gejala musculoskeletal yang
tersebar luas adalah pada bahagian leher (44%), bahu (57.9%), atas
belakang (36.7%) dan bawah belakang (35%). Hubungan di antara
kaedah menggendong bayi dan penggunaan beg galas dapat
dikaitkan melalui perubahan atau kesan yang berlaku selepas
aktiviti tersebut dilaksanakan.
Hasil kajian awalan ini berjaya mengenalpasti bahagian
anggota badan yang menunjukkan kesan kesakitan dan
ketidakselesaan akibat penggunaan baby carries dan dapatan ini
akan digunakan dalam kajian sebenar.

RUJUKAN
Al-Khabbaz, Y. S. S. M., Shimada, T., & Hasegawa, M. (2008).
The effect of backpack heaviness on trunk-lower extremity
muscle activities and trunk posture. Gait & Posture, 28(2),
297302. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2008.01.002

213

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Keluarga Harmoni

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PELAKSANAAN PENGAJARAN
DAN PEMBELAJARAN
MENGGUNAKAN FROG VLE
BAGI MATA PELAJARAN
BAHASA MELAYU DI SEKOLAH
RENDAH
Zurina Hamid & Sanitah Mohd Yusof

ABSTRAK
Dalam memperkasakan profesion perguruan dalam abad ke-21 ini,
warga pendidik perlu lebih kreatif dan kritis serta mampu
memanfaatkan segala teknologi terkini. Antara perkara yang perlu
diambil berat ialah kepelbagaian dalam kaedah penyampaian
maklumat kepada murid. Proses pembelajaran masa kini
memerlukan warga pendidik yang mahir dalam pedagogi dan
teknologi komunikasi dan maklumat (ICT) selaras dengan
perkembangan semasa murid -murid yang rata-ratanya sudah amat
mahir dengan segala peranti berteknologi. Kertas kajian ini
melaporkan tentang pelaksanaan pengajaran dan pembelajaran
menggunakan Frog VLE dalam mata pelajaran Bahasa Melayu di
sekolah rendah. Kajian ini turut memaparkan teori-teori dan
strategi yang diguna pakai dalam penyediaan rancangan
pengajaran. Akhir sekali, kajian ini membincangkan cabaran
pelaksanaan Frog VLE dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran.
Kata kunci: Frog VLE, ICT, Pengajaran, Pembelajaran

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PENGENALAN
Pada zaman digital dan globalisasi ini, perkembangan teknologi
maklumat dan komunikasi menuntut agar perubahan dibuat ke atas
kaedah mengajar dan belajar. Proses pembelajaran kini melampaui
ruang fizikal bilik darjah (Kukulska-Hulme & Traxler, 2005)
bersifat globalisasi dan sepanjang hajat (Sharples,2000). Oleh itu,
banyak penyelidikan yang telah dan sedang dijalankan bagi
memanfaatkan potensi teknologi untuk menyokong pengajaran dan
pembelajaran.
Cetusan idea daripada mantan Perdana Menteri Malaysia
yang keempat, Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad semasa merasmikan
Persidangan Multimedia Asia pada 1 Ogos 1996 memberi inspirasi
baru dalam bidang pendidikan negara. Dalam persidangan tersebut,
beliau telah melancarkan projek Koridor Raya Multimedia (MSC)
yang secara tidak langsung telah menyuntik anjakan besar dalam
bidang pendidikan nasional. Seiring dengan projek ini yang direka
untuk menarik penglibatan syarikat berteknologi bertaraf dunia
disamping memajukan industri ICT tempatan, Tun Dr Mahathir
Mohamad telah menggariskan Sekolah Bestari sebagai salah satu
aplikasi perdana dalam Koridor Raya Multimedia(MSC) yang
perlu dilaksanakan menjelang tahun 2000. Kementerian
Pendidikan Malaysia telah menggubal konsep Sekolah Bestari
yang berpusatkan pengajaran dan pembelajaran secara kritis dan
kreatif. Teknologi Maklumat dan Komunikasi (ICT) pula menjadi
pemangkin untuk membolehkan murid-murid mengamalkan
pembelajaran akses kendiri dan terarah kendiri serta mengikut
kadar pembelajaran kendiri. Penggunaan ICT juga diyakini mampu
meningkatkan kecekapan pengurusan sekolah agar lebih efektif.
Teknologi komputer mempunyai kapasiti kemampuan
untuk memberi kesan ke atas keberkesanan dan produktiviti
pendidikan. Penggunaan teknologi komputer ini juga secara tidak
langsung boleh dijadikan alat untuk mempertingkatkan pemikiran
tahap tinggi. Menurut Criswell (1989) dalam Munir dan Halimah
(2000), pembelajaran berbantukan komputer didefinisikan sebagai

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penggunaan komputer dalam menyampaikan bahan pengajaran

dengan melibatkan murid secara aktif serta membolehkan maklum
balas.
1BestariNet merupakan projek yang diusahakan oleh pihak
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia. Di bawah projek ini, dijangkakan
sepuluh ribu buah sekolah rendah dan menengah di seluruh negara
akan dilengkapi akses Internet 4G dan persekitaran pembelajaran
maya atau turut dikenali sebagai Virtual Learning Environment
(VLE) pada penghujung 2013. Sambungan internet berkelajuan
tinggi dan akses kepada penyelesaian pembelajaran bersepadu
(Integrated Learning Solution) bertaraf dunia akan menjadi
pemangkin kepada penerapan ICT dalam operasi harian
kementerian, dan mampu memacu Malaysia ke barisan hadapan
inovasi ICT dalam pendidikan. Kementerian akan memastikan
semua guru dilatih dan cekap menggunakan VLE menjelang 2015.
Visi 1BestariNet adalah mengubah platform pendidikan di
Malaysia serta merapatkan jurang digital di antara murid kawasan
bandar dan luar bandar dengan menyediakan pendidikan berteras
Internet yang berkualiti kepada semua rakyat Malaysia. Inisiatif
kerajaan ini bakal menjadikan Malaysia negara pertama di dunia
yang dilengkapi akses Internet mudah alih 4G dan VLE sedia ada
di semua sekolah seluruh Malaysia.

PERKONGSIAN PINTAR KEMENTERIAN PELAJARAN

MALAYSIA DAN YTL COMMUNICATIONS
Sejajar dengan matlamat kerajaan untuk membangunkan
modal insan dan penggunaan Internet, kerajaan telah melancarkan
Projek 1BestariNet, yang merupakan inisiatif
Kementerian
Pelajaran Malaysia dalam menerajui transformasi pendidikan
dengan menyediakan teknologi pembelajaran terbaik kepada semua
sekolah di Malaysia. Pihak YTL Communications telah diberi
amanah oleh pihak kerajaan untuk merealisasikan visi 1BestariNet
untuk menjana perubahan dalam platform pendidikan di Malaysia

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serta merapatkan jurang digital di antara kawasan bandar dan luar

bandar.
YTL Communications Sdn. Bhd. adalah subsidiari syarikat
utiliti, YTL Power International Berhad dan beroperasi sebagai
penggerak telekomunikasi dalam YTL Corporation Berhad Group.
YTL Communications bertekad menyediakan perkhidmatan
berpatutan bertaraf dunia untuk meningkatkan taraf kehidupan
rakyat di seluruh Malaysia menerusi rangkaian Internet mudah alih
4G yang sedang dibangunkan.
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia dengan kerjasama YTL
Communication telah memperuntukkan lebih dari 1 juta ringgit
untuk mendapatkan lesen menggunakan VLE Frog sehingga tahun
2015 daripada syarikat yang membangunkan platfrom ini di United
Kingdom. VLE Frog adalah platform berteras cloud yang fleksibel
dan boleh diakses dimana-mana jua dari luar kawasan sekolah. Fail
dan data yang disimpan di cloud boleh diakses dimana-mana sahaja
pada bila-bila masa dengan capaian Internet. Malah, pengguna
diberi akses percuma ke VLE setiap kali log masuk dari rangkaian
Yes dengan menggunakan ID log masuk VLE. Yes merupakan
salah sebuah syarikat yang bertanggungjawab untuk membekalkan
kemudahan internet kepada pengguna di Malaysia. Sama ada
menggunakan rangkaian Yes atau Yes Hotspot tiada caj yang
dikenakan bagi penggunaan VLE.

Frog VLE
Frog VLE adalah satu sistem berasaskan web yang menyerupai
dunia pendidikan sebenar dengan mengintegrasikan pendidikan
konvensional dalam persekitaran maya. Sebagai contoh, guru boleh
berkongsi maklumat, memberi tugasan, membuat ujian dan
menanda tugasan secara maya manakala murid pula boleh
menyiapkan kerja rumah dan melihat keputusan mereka melalui
VLE. Pihak pentadbir sekolah pula boleh menyusuan atur kalendar
aktiviti sekolah untuk dikongsi dengan murid, guru dan ibu bapa

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secara atas talian dan ibu bapa juga boleh melihat perkembangan
terkini tentang sekolah secara atas talian di mana jua pada bila-bila
masa.
Frog VLE merupakan landasan atas cloud yang memberi
ruang untuk para guru melaksanakan pengajaran dan pembelajaran
dengan berbantukan komputer dengan lebih berkesan. Teknologi
Awan (cloud) ialah penggunaan teknologi berasaskan internet di
mana perkhidmatan perkongsian sumber, aplikasi perisian,
penyimpanan data, capaian dan pengurusan data boleh digunakan
secara dalam talian oleh pengguna. Antara teknologi
perkomputeran awan yang sering digunakan adalah seperti
Amazon dan Google.
Frog VLE merupakan satu bahan bantu mengajar yang
sesuai dengan situasi pengajaran dan pembelajaran abad ini. Warga
pendidik boleh mengolah persekitaran mengikut kesesuaian
matlamat pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Pelaksanaannya pula
berlandaskan kurikulum dan falsafah pendidikan negara. Program
Frog VLE membolehkan murid-murid mempunyai daya fikir dan
nilai tambah yang membolehkan mereka ke hadapan dan setaraf
negara-negara maju.

Frog VLE Landasan

Pembelajaran

Bagi

Kaedah

Pengajaran

Dan

Frog VLE menawarkan satu kaedah pembelajaran yang mudah dan

fleksibel. Ia membolehkan proses pembelajaran berlaku pada bilabila masa dan di mana sahaja. Sekiranya diintegrasikan di dalam
bilik darjah yang sebenar, kedudukan atau susur atur murid bukan
lagi menjadi satu kepentingan kerana mereka berinteraksi dengan
bahan pengajaran dan rakan-rakan. Proses pembelajaran tersebut
pula boleh terus berlangsung di luar bilik darjah. Murid boleh
belajar dengan kadar kendiri dalam persekitaran yang mereka
selesa. Ia juga membolehkan semua murid melibatkan diri dalam
persekitaran pembelajaran. Oleh sebab itu, perlu wujud satu

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panduan bagi guru untuk memilih kesesuaian bahan dan masa

(Terry Anderson, 2010).

Teori-Teori Pembelajaran
Pendekatan sistem, teori komunikasi, teori tingkah laku dan
sebagainya dijadikan sebagai asas teori pengajaran dan
pembelajaran menggunakan teknologi. Hal ini disebabkan masih
belum ada teori pengajaran yang boleh memberikan cara alternatif
yang menyokong penggunaan teknologi terkini. Antara teori yang
telah di guna pakai dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran
menggunakan Frog VLE ialah :

Teori Konstruktivisme
Strategi konstruktivisme berdasarkan prinsip pembelajaran yang
berasal daripada cabang sains kognitif. Konstruktivisme juga
diasaskan daripada idea beberapa ahli falsafah seperti John Dewey,
Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, Jean Piaget dan Howard Gardner.
Teori ini adalah berkaitan dengan pengajaran yang berdasarkan
kepada penyelidikan dan pengalaman.
Tokoh-tokoh dalam teori konstruktivisme ini melihat proses
pembelajaran sebagai aktiviti pembinaan mental yang dicantumkan
dengan maklumat baru. Teori ini menekankan kepada penglibatan
murid dalam menyelesaikan masalah. Murid-murid akan membina
pengetahuan sendiri untuk menjana idea dengan berdasarkan
pengetahuan sedia ada. Semua maklumat baru yang ada akan
diolah dan disesuaikan dengan satu kerangka maklumat baru yang
dinamakan konstruktivisme.
Ahli-ahli
teori
konstruktivisme
percaya
bahawa
pembelajaran yang bermakna lahir daripada keinginan belajar
sendiri, bersifat aktif, kesedaran serta memberikan latihan
konstruktif termasuk kemahuan bersaling pusingan aksi-refleksi.

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Situasi dan aktiviti sosial ini akan membentuk pemahaman (Chi,

Feltovich dan Glaser, 1981). Justeru itu, pembelajaran mestilah
berlaku dalam situasi yang kaya dengan konteks, bersifat reflektif,
menimbulkan kerjasama ke arah penyelesaian masalah. Dalam erti
kata lain, teori ini menekankan pengalaman kognitif dalam aktiviti
sebenar.

Teori Kognitif
Teori kognitif adalah berkaitan dengan proses mental yang
melibatkan pengamatan, pengetahuan dan pemahaman. Ahli-ahli
psikologi yang terkenal seperti Kohler, Koffa, Piaget, Brunner,
Ausuble, dan Gagne berpendapat proses pembelajaran adalah satu
proses dalaman yang berlaku dalam akal fikiran yang tidak dapat
diperhatikan secara langsung daripada tingkah laku manusia.
Semua maklumat yang di terima di padankan dengan maklumat
yang sedia ada, diubahsuai dan disusun semula seterusnya
menghasilkan sesuatu maklumat yang baru.
Mengikut kajian-kajian mazhab kognitif, pembelajaran
hanya boleh berlaku berdasarkan murid yang mempunyai cukup
pengalaman yang berkaitan untuk mempelajari pengalaman baru di
samping mempunyai motif serta rela mengambil inisiatif diri
sendiri untuk menjalankan aktiviti pmbelajaran. Ahli-ahli kognitif
mengaitkan aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran dengan proses-proses
mental dalaman ,iaitu fikiran, ingatan, pengetahuan dan
penyelesaian masalah yang berlaku dalam pembentukan skema
manusia.
Ahli-ahli kognitif berpendapat bahawa pembelajaran ialah
suatu proses dalaman yang berlaku dalam minda manusia. Oleh
yang demikian, ahli-ahli penyelidik tidak dapat memerhatikan
secara langsung bagaimana pembelajaran berlaku kecuali dengan
meramal daripada tingkah laku manusia. Proses dalaman yang
dirujuk termasuk pemikiran, celik akal, pemprosesan maklumat,
ingatan dan pengamatan.

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Dengan menggunakan Frog VLE, guru dan murid melalui

satu pengalaman yang baru dan di luar jangkaan. Walaupun begitu,
berdasarkan teori ini guru dan murid akan melaluinya tanpa
sebarang masalah. Malahan ilmu pengetahuan akan berkembang
kerana capaian yang mudah kepada ilmu dan ilmu itu pula saling
berkaitan.

Teori Minimalis
Teori ini diperkenalkan oleh J.M. Carroll pada tahun 1990. Beliau
mengemukakan teori ini supaya informasi atau maklumat yang
diberi boleh diterima lebih efisen. Teori minimalis merupakan
rangka kerja untuk reka bentuk pengajaran, terutamanya untuk
bahan-bahan latihan penggunaan komputer, aplikasi pemprosesan
data serta pengaturcaraan. Teori ini menyokong pembelajaran
kendiri dan menekankan kepentingan murid membina pengalaman
semasa proses pembelajaran secara meminimumkan bahan
pembelajaran yang menghalang pembelajaran.
Semua aktiviti pembelajaran mestilah bermakna dan
mempunyai aktiviti tersendiri dan murid hendaklah diberi projek
yang realistik selepas pengajaran. Arahan yang diberikan mestilah
yang membenarkan pembelajaran arah kendiri dan sentiasa
diubahsuai dengan menambahkan pelbagai aktiviti. Selain itu,
latihan dan aktiviti mesti memberikan ruang untuk murid
mengakui dan memperbetulkan kesalahan.

Strategi Pembelajaran
Isu pendidikan pada masa kini ialah bagaimana untuk
mengintegrasikan teknologi secara berkesan dan berjaya dalam
pengajaran. Ini adalah kerana isu masyarakat dan teknologi telah
mempengaruhi suasana pendidikan pada hari ini. Arah aliran
ekonomi, politik dan sosial mempunyai impak yang besar sehingga

223

menyebabkan berlaku inovasi dalam pendidikan. Seterusnya ialah

ledakan teknologi yang berlaku di seluruh dunia menuntut agar
strategi pembelajaran yang lebih berkesan dan terkini diguna pakai.

Pembelajaran Kendiri
Pembelajaran akses kendiri adalah pendekatan yang memberi akses
kepada sumber pembelajaran dan membolehkan murid
memperoleh pengetahuan dan kemahiran secara berdikari.
Pembelajaran akses kendiri membolehkan murid belajar mengikut
minat, keperluan, tahap kemampuan dan gaya pembelajaran
mereka. Murid juga mendapat maklum balas tentang pencapaian
dan kemajuan mereka melalui pembelajaran akses kendiri.
Pada amnya diakui bahawa murid perlu proaktif dalam
proses pembelajaran. Murid tidak seharusnya pasif dan hanya
memberi respons kepada rangsangan guru. Sebaliknya, murid
sendiri harus menjana idea dan memberi peluang belajar.
Pemikiran baru dalam bidang pengajaran dan pembelajaran
mendapati bahawa murid boleh bertanggungjawab terhadap
pembelajaran mereka sendiri. Hal ini telah mengakibatkan
peranjakan pendekatan pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang
berpusatkan guru kepada pembelajaran kendiri.
Pembelajaran yang menggunakan kaedah teknologi
maklumat akan menjadi sesi pembelajaran boleh dijalankan di
mana-mana sahaja dan tidak tertumpu di dalam kelas yang formal
atau di dalam makmal komputer. Murid boleh mengikuti pelajaran
di rumah, di perpustakaan atau di tempat-tempat yang lain yang
menyediakan perkakasan yang sesuai dan talian internet di dalam
suasana yang kondusif untuk pembelajaran mereka. Waktu
pembelajaran juga tidak terbatas.

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Pembelajaran Koperatif dan Kolaboratif

Di dalam konteks pendidikan, pengajaran dan pembelajaran secara
kolaboratif dan koperatif membawa maksud aktiviti pembelajaran
secara berkumpulan, di bawah bimbingan guru serta bertukar-tukar
idea melalui perbincangan atau menyumbang kemahiran masingmasing dengan tujuan menyelesaikan masalah atau menjalankan
sesuatu projek yang ditugaskan. Di dalam perkataan yang lain,
pembelajaran kolaboratif dan koperatif merujuk kepada suatu
strategi dan kaedah mengajar di mana guru membimbing muridmurid di dalam kumpulan pelbagai kebolehan, bekerjasama dan
tolong-menolong di antara mereka untuk menyelesaikan sesuatu
kerja kursus atau projek yang disediakan.
Di sini dapat dilihat bahawa kedua-dua kaedah iaitu
kolaboratif dan juga kaedah koperatif merupakan suatu kaedah
pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang digunakan oleh guru dengan
membentuk suatu kumpulan di dalam suatu kelas dengan tugas
guru hanya sebagai pembimbing. Selain itu, matlamat di dalam
kedua-dua kaedah ini adalah untuk menyelesaikan sesuatu
masalah. Akan tetapi, sebenarnya, kedua-dua kaedah amat berbeza
dan perkara ini amat penting untuk difahami supaya perbezaan
antara kedua kaedah ini dapat dimengertikan.
Pada tahap definisi ini, mungkin ramai menganggap
bahawa kaedah kolaboratif dan koperatif merupakan kaedah yang
hampir sama. Namun, mengikut John Myers (1991), pembelajaran
koperatif mementingkan proses bekerjasama dalam pembelajaran
manakala pembelajaran koperatif menegaskan hasil atau produk
pembelajaran. Hal ini disokong dengan definisi oleh seorang lagi
tokoh iaitu Panitz (1996), Collaboration is a philosophy of
interaction and personal lifestyle whereas cooperation is a structure
of interaction designed to facilitate the accompolishment of an end
product or goal. Jelas sekali di sini bahawa Panitz dan Myers telah
mengutarakan bahawa pembelajaran kolaboratif mementingkan
hubungan di antara ahli kumpulan atau interaksi mereka manakala
di dalam pembelajaran koperatif pula mementingkan hasil akhir

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sesuatu tugasan itu. Selain itu, antara perbezaan dua kaedah ini
ialah kaedah pembelajaran kolaboratif mengorganisasi usahasama
dan berunding sesama ahli kumpulan tentang peranan masingmasing untuk mengkritik dan membincangkan tugasan manakala di
dalam kaedah koperatif pula peranan antara ahli adalah spesifik.

Cabaran Pelaksanaan Pengajaran

Menggunakan Frog VLE

Dan

Pembelajaran

Guru pada masa kini menghadapi masalah dalam mengintegrasikan

teknologi ke dalam kurikulum dan pengajaran di samping
memerlukan masa untuk pengintegrasian. Guru memerlukan lebih
masa bagi mempelajari dan mengaplikasikan FROG VLE di dalam
kelas. Menurut Anderson dan Ronald E (1987) dalam Chin Sak
Fatt (1993), kebanyakan guru tidak menggunakan komputer di
sekolah mereka. Tajul Ariffin (1997), mendapati dalam banyak hal
kerap kali diperhatikan masih ramai pendidik yang mempunyai
sikap fobia atau takut komputer serta negatif untuk
menggunakannya dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Golongan
guru dituntut untuk menyahut cabaran negara untuk melaksanakan
dan menjayakan segala rancangan pendidikan negara bagi
melahirkan murid yang berkemahiran dalam teknologi agar impian
negara untuk mencapai Wawasan 2020 menjadi kenyataan.
Pembinaan dan pemacu aplikasi Frog VLE ini bertujuan
untuk memudahkan murid dalam merasai suatu pembelajaran yang
baru. Akan tetapi sebilangan besar murid tidak mahu mengambil
kesempatan kemudahan ini untuk meningkatkan daya intelektual
mereka. Sikap malas dan tidak mahu mencuba untuk memajukan
diri dalam bidang ilmu adalah antara faktor portal ini tidak dilawati
dan di manfaatkan. Walaupun guru telah mewarwarkan kewujudan
aplikasi ini, hanya sebahagian sahaja yang berminat untuk
memanfaatkannya dan sebahagian yang lain memandangnya sepi.
Pada peringkat awal pemasangan talian 1Bestari Net, iaitu
semasa pengujian pada bulan Mac 2012 kelajuan sungguh luar

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biasa. Melalui speed test yang dijalankan, download speed ialah 15

mbps dan upload speed hampir 8 mbps. Kini kelajuan capaian
internet mula merudum dan kerap terputus. Walaupun paparan
(signal) wifi bagi YES Moe A, B atau C ditunjukkan namun
pengguna tidak dapat membuat sambungan ke internet. Masalah
lain ialah zoom ini hanya memancarkan gelombang wifi dalam
jarak 20 meter sahaja. Bayangkan jarak bangunan sekolah dari blok
ke blok, tentulah mengalami masalah capaian.
Memandangkan program Frog VLE menggunakan
komputer dan talian internet, maka peratus murid yang tidak
mempunyai kemudahan komputer di rumah adalah tinggi. Ini
sudah tentu menyebabkan peluang murid untuk menggunakan
kemudahan ICT hanya di sekolah dan dengan kekangan nisbah
komputer-murid yang tinggi, maka peluang setiap murid adalah
terbatas.

Kesimpulan
Malaysia tidak boleh ketinggalan daripada negara-negara maju
yang lain dalam menyediakan sistem pendidikan yang terkini.
Dalam era mobiliti pada masa kini, peluang terbuka luas untuk
mereka bentuk pembelajaran yang berbeza, mencipta komuniti
pembelajaran yang luas, menghubungkan manusia dalam dunia
nyata dan maya, menyediakan kepakaran atas permintaan dan
menyokong pembelajaran sepanjang hayat. Frog VLE dilihat
sebagai alat perantaraan dalam proses pembelajaran tersebut.
Secara amnya, untuk menjayakan penggunaan Frog VLE
dalam bidang pendidikan di Malaysia, semua pihak yang terlibat
secara langsung seperti Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia (KPM),
Jabatan Pendidikan, Bahagian Teknologi Pendidikan, pentadbir
sekolah dan guru serta ibu bapa haruslah bekerjasama dan berusaha
dengan gigih untuk mengatasi halangan-halangan yang timbul.

227

RUJUKAN
Chi, M., Feltovich, P., & Glaser, R. 1981. Categorization and
representation of physicsproblems by experts and novices.
Cognitive Science, 5 , 121-152.
Chin Sah Fatt (1993). Tahap literasi komputer oleh guru-guru
ketukangan di Sekolah Menengah Teknik Tanah Merah.
Tesis UTM.
Criswell, J.R., 1989, ''Rethinking microcomputer instruction as
part of teacher education reform'', Educational
Technology, 23(11): 4043.
FrogAsia (2012). Gambaran Keseluruhan Frog VLE, Manual
Pengguna (Guru, Frog VLE Overview (User : Staff),
Malaysia: Frog Asia Training.
1Bestari Net, YTL Communications Sdn. Bhd. (2012). Frog VLE.
Dicapai pada 4 Nov 2012, dari http://www.frogasia.com/v2/
Kukukska-Hulme, A., & Traxler, J. (2005). Mobile learning: a
handbook for educators and trainers. London, UK:
Routledge.
Munir dan Halimah Badioze Zaman (2000). Aplikasi Multimedia
Dalam Pendidikan. Pemikir. Bil. 19.
Panitz, Ted. (1996). A Definition of Collaborative vs Cooperative
Learning. [Online].
Tersedia:http://www.city.londonmet.ac.uk/deliberations/col
lab.learning/panitz2.html.[20 Agustus 2007]
Sharples, M. (2000). The design of personal mobile technologies
for lifelong learning. Computer & Education, 34, 177-193.
Dimuat turun pada Jan 15, 2006, daripada
http://www.eee.bham.ac.uk/sharplem/Papers/handler%20co
mped.pdf.

228

KE ARAH PENGURUSAN
KURIKULUM BERKESAN:
PERANAN ELEMEN
PERANCANGAN,
PENGELOLAAN, KEPIMPINAN
DAN PENGAWALAN
Rosidah Abdullah Sani & Abdul Rahim Hamdan

ABSTRAK
Kurikulum dan sekolah adalah dua elemen penting yang saling
melengkapi antara satu sama lain dan ia dilihat sebagai proses
pencapaian pendidikan yang bukan berbentuk akademik sematamata bahkan melibatkan unsur-unsur tidak formal seperti proses
sosialisasi dan interaksi. Elemen asas pengurusan kurikulum terdiri
daripada proses perancangan, pengelolaan, kepimpinan dan
pengawalan yang mana ianya memainkan peranan yang sangat
penting dalam membentuk pengurusan kurikulum sekolah
sebagaimana yang dinyatakan oleh model pengurusan kurikulum
UNESCO (1980). Manakala guru atau pendidik merupakan tunjang
dan pelaksana yang utama bagi menjayakan pelaksanaan elemen
tersebut dalam membentuk reformasi pendidikan pembangunan
sumber manusia dan Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan. Manakala
pembinaan kurikulum yang berkesan merujuk kepada proses
membuat keputusan tentang program kurikulum dan mengkaji
semula hasil keputusan itu dalam penilaian yang berterusan.
Adalah digalakkan untuk mengkaji beberapa rasional yang

229

melibatkan beberapa unsur dan perkaitan. Ini adalah bertujuan

untuk membina konsep yang menggambarkan rupa bentuk sebenar
kurikulum yang ingin dibina Hala tuju kurikulum pula dilihat
menjurus kepada pembentukan potensi individu secara menyeluruh
untuk diadaptasi dalam proses sosialisasi dan interaksi pada masa
hadapan. Selari dengan itu kertas kerja konsep ini khusus
membincangkan berkaitan keempat-empat elemen pengurusan
kurikulum tersebut yang terdiri daripada proses perancangan,
pengelolaan, kepimpinan dan pengawalan di samping mengenal
pasti proses keempat-empat elemen tersebut dari aspek demografi
serta menentukan pengaruh demografi terhadap keempat-empatnya
dan bagaimana ia dapat membawa kepada pengurusan kurikulum
yang berkesan.
Kata Kunci:
Pengawalan

1.0

Perancangan,

Pengawalan,

Kepimpinan

dan

PENGENALAN

Kurikulum dan sekolah adalah dua elemen yang saling melengkapi

antara satu sama lain yang merupakan teras dalam pendidikan.
Setiap sekolah di Malaysia mengikuti satu corak kurikulum yang
sama daripada Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia yang dirancang
oleh Pusat Perkembangan kurikulum (PPK) dan seterusnya
diimplementasikan oleh pihak sekolah khususnya guru dalam
usaha membekalkan ilmu dan pengalaman kepada pelajar. Tanpa
kurikulum sistem pendidikan sukar dilaksanakan (IshakRamly,
2005).Sistem Pendidikan Malaysia berpaksikan kepada Falsafah
Pendidikan Negara (FPN) yang telah memberi pengaruh besar
terhadap kemajuan pendidikan di Malaysia sejak ia diungkapkan
pada 1988 sehingga kini. Objektif kurikulum pula dilihat menjurus
kepada pembentukan potensi individu secara menyeluruh untuk
diadaptasi dalam proses sosialisasi dan interaksi pada masa
hadapan.

230

1.1

SENARIO SEMASA

Dewasa ini sistem pendidikan berhadapan dengan cabaran

membentuk seseoran individu sama ada untuk memenui keperluan
sendiri , negara atau masyarakat bagi mnghadapi era globalisasi
yang kian membangun. Isu pendidikan masa kini bukan sahaja
berkait dengan mutu pengajaran tetapi juga menyentuh sikap guru
dan kesediaan murid untuk belajar. Senario yng berlaku pada hari
ini kebanyakan para pendidik masih kabur untuk mendalami knsep
sebenar kurikulum. Oleh yang demikian kaian ini cuba untuk
membawa pembaca meninjau isu-isu semasa dan sejauh mana
aspek elemen pengurusan kurikulum inidapat memperkasa sistem
pendidikan hai ini.

2.0

ELEMEN PENGURUSAN KURIKULUM

Elemen pengurusan kurikulum terdiri daripada proses perancangan,

pengelolaan, kepimpinan dan pengawalan yang mana ianya
memainkan peranan yang sangat penting dalam membentuk
pengurusan kurikulum sekolah sebagaimana yang dinyatakan oleh
model pengurusan kurikulum UNESCO (1980).Keempat-empat
elemen asas ini memainkan peranan yang sangat penting dalam
melaksanakan pengurusan kurikulum sekolah.(Rosnah Selamat,
2009). Menurut Mintzberg, (1994), menjelaskan perancangan
bermaksud suatu tatacara atau aturan bekerja untuk mendapat hasil
yang dinyatakan dengan jelas dan tersusun dalam satu sistem
membuat keputusan yang bersepadu. Berfikir tentang masa
hadapan dan berusaha untuk mengawal masa depan merupakan
satu komponen penting dalam perancangan. Manakala menurut
Ghazali (1985), perancangan merupakan jambatan yang
menghubungkan di antara keadaan yang ada sekarang dengan
keadaan yang hendak kita capai satu masa akan datang. Dalam
kajian ini proses perancangan merangkumi penilaian yang dibuat
secara teliti tentang masa depan dan merangka beberapa tindakan

231

alternatif dalam pengurusan kurikulum bagi mencapai matlamat

yang diharapkan.
Zaidatul Akmaliah Lope Pihie (1990), secara am dalam
kajiannya menyebut pengelolaan merupakan satu cara pentadbir
menyelaraskan sumber-sumber manusa dan bahan-bahan.
Kecekapan organisasi bergantung kepada kebolehan ahli-ahlinya
dalm mencapai matlamat. Jika kerja-kerja sesuatu organisasi
dijalankan secara teratur dan aktiviti-aktiviti diselaraskan, maka
organisasi tersebut akan lebih berkesan. Pengelolaan berkaiat rapat
dengan pengurusan yang mana ia merupakan satu usaha untuk
menghubugkaitkan kakitangan pekerja, sumber dan masa dalam
satu keadaan supaya saling lengkap melengkapi (Gorton,1976).
Dalam kajian ini merujuk kepada bagaimana sesuatu kurikulum itu
dikelola dari peringkat permulaan hinggalah membawa ke arah
sebuah kurikulum yang berkesan.
Dari aspek kepimpinan pula menurut ahli pemikir
baratKepimpinan adalah pengaruh antara perseorangan, yang
dilaksanakan dalam sesuatu situasi, dan diarahkan, melalui proses
komunikasi, ke arah pencapaian matlamat atau matlamatmatlamat
khusus.(Tannenbaum,
Weshler&Massarik,
1999).Kepimpinanjuga
merupakan
proses
mempengaruhi
tingkahlaku orang lain untuk menggalakkan mereka bekerja ke
arah pencapaian sesuatu matlamat yang ditetapkan. Kepimpinan
dapat menentukan misi, arah dan inspirasi. Matlamat itu terletak di
tangan pemimpin. Kepimpinan yang baik oleh ketua dapat
melahirkan staf yang komited pada tugas. Urusan berkaitan dengan
panitia juga dapat ditadbir dengan baik. Peranan pemimpin juga
dapat membimbing staf supaya patuh kepada peraturan kurikulum
di samping menggalakkan mereka menggunakan segala sumber
yang ada untuk mencapai matlamat organisasi (RazaliArof, 1991).
Kepimpinan dalam kajian ini merujuk kepada sikap dan nilai
kepimpinan yang ditunjukkan oleh guru-guru dan pentadbir bagi
memastikan pencapaian kurikulum yang berkesan.
Elemen kawalan pula ialah satu tatakerja atau piawaian
yang dibentuk melalui persepakatan atau perjanjian oleh

232

sekumpulan anggota. Tujuannya adalah untuk memastikan setiap

matlamat dan objektif dicapai mengikut kualiti kerja yang telah
dipersetujui bersama melalui garis panduan yang telah ditetapkan.
Ia juga merupakan satu usaha bersistematik yang harus diterapkan
dalam setiap amalan pekerjaan demi mencapai hasil kerja yang
berkualiti dan lebih efektif. Pengawalanjuga adalah satu proses
untuk menyelia proses pelaksanaan kurikulum di samping
membuat pemerhatian dan pencerapan dalam proses pengajaran
dan pembelajaran. Pengawalan juga penting dalam membuat
penilaian prestasi sesuatu pencapaian dan dalam membuat laporan
mengenai kemajuan sesuatu kurikulum yang dilaksanakan. Ia juga
dapat membetulkan kesalahan dan penyelewengan yang berlaku
dalam pelaksanaan kurikulum di samping itu, dengan adanya
pengawalan
penilaian-penilaian dapat dibuat di peringkat
pelaksanaan dalam perancangan kurikulum yang digubal (Rosnah
Selamat, 2009).Pengawalan dalam kajian ini merujuk kepada
semua aspek yang dipantau atau dikawal sama ada dari aspek
akademik atau pun kebajikan warga organisasinya.

2.1

KURIKULUM BERKESAN

Abdul Rahim Hamdan, (2007) mendifinisikan kurikulum sebagai

satu pengetahuan seseorang dan bagaimana ianya diterjemahkan
untuk penggunaannya. Ia merangkumi pelan perancangan dalam
pendidikan yang melihat dua perkara utama iaitu visi dalam
pendidikan dan struktur atau organisasi asas dalam pendidikan.
Proses pembinaan kurikulum yang berkesan merujuk kepada
proses untuk membuat keputusan tentang program kurikulum dan
mengkaji semula hasil keputusan itu dalam penilaian yang
berterusan (Oliva, 1997). Untuk membina kurikulum berkesan, kita
digalakkan mengkaji beberapa rasional yang melibatkan beberapa
unsur dan perkaitan. Ini adalah bertujuan untuk membina konsep
yang menggambarkan rupa bentuk kurikulum yang hendak dibina
oleh penggubal kurikulum itu.
Rasional yang hendak dilihat

233

untuk membina kurikulum haruslah bermula dengan mengenal

pasti empat soalan dasar, yang perlu dijawab dalam usaha
membina mana-mana kurikulum. Antaranya ialah seperti berikut:
1. Apakah tujuan pendidikan yang hendak dicapai ketika
kurikulum dibina?
2. Apakah pengalaman pendidikan yang boleh disediakan
untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut?
3. Bagaimanakah pengalaman pendidikan
dikendalikan dengan berkesan?

ini

boleh

4. Bagaimanakah kita dapat menentukan sama ada tujuantujuan ini tercapai?

Selain daripada rasional ada dua perkara dikaitkan dalam
membina kurikulum iaitu falsafah dan teori pembelajaran. Ia perlu
mempunyai kerangka yang menekankan apa dan bagaimana
sesuatu pelajaran hendak dipelajari cara-cara pengajaran dan
pembelajaran yang dijalankan.
Pertimbangan tentang rasional, falsafah dan teori perlu
dilakukan secara menyeluruh, supaya elemen-elemen yang
diperkenalkan dengan program pembelajaran (kurikulum) akan
dilaksanakan memenuhi objektif dan tujuan kurikulum tersebut.
Menurut Tyler (1949), jika kita hendak mengkaji program
(kurikulum) pendidikan secara sistematik dan bijaksana, kita perlu
memastikan objektif pendidikan dicapai.

2.1.1 Faktor-Faktor
Berkesan

Yang

Mmempengaruhi

1. Falsafah pendidikan
2. Kehendak masyarakat

234

Kurikulum

3. Faktor politik
4. Faktor pembangunan negara dan perkembangan dunia
5. Faktor perubahan sosial
6. Faktor perancang dan pelaksana kurikulum
7. Faktor murid , kehendak , dan keperluan masyarakat
8. Faktor perkembangan ilmu dan kepentingannya
9. Pengaruh psikologi pendidikan

Proses perkembangan kurikulum sebagai sifatnya yang

sentiasa berubah turut dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor persekitaran
yang merangsang reaksi manusia yang terlibat dalam
kepentingannya. Hasrat terhadap perubahan kurikulum berkesan
itu menggambarkan keperluan pendidikan yang menjadi wadah
penerusan kepada kemajuan tamadun bangsa dan negara itu
sendiri.
Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi pembentukan dan
perkembangan kurikulum berkesan adalah elemen yang saling
berkait antara satu sama lain. Antara elemen tersebut ialah proses
merancang, mengelola, memimpin dan mengawal (Rosnah
Selamat, 2009 ). Kesimpulannya bahawa faktor-faktor yang
mempengaruhi perkembangan kurikulum berkesan itu dapat
melahirkan satu idealisme dan perubahan keperluan masyarakat
dannegara. Proses berlaku bermula dari institusi persekolahan
hingga ke pusat pengajian tinggi, bagi mencipta satu budaya atau
tamadun baru melalui kurikulum yang berkesan.
Masukkan teks/Insert text

235

3.0

HALATUJU KAJIAN

Pendidikan masa kini berhadapan dengan cabran dalam

membentuk seseorang individu sama ada untuk memenuhi
keperluan sendiri, negara atau masyarakat bagi menghadapi era
globalisasi yang kian membangun. Kurikulum yang sesuai harus
dibina dengan penuh kefahaman dan engetahuan oelh para pereka
kurikulum supaya individu yang dihasilkan dapta memenuhi
keperluan semasa dan sejajar dengan hasrat negara untuk
menyediakan sistem pendidikan yang cemerlang dalam usaha
untuk mebangunkan sistem pendidikan yang lebih berkualiti. Isu
pendidikan masa kini bukan sahaja berkait dengan mutu
pengajaran termasuk sikap guru dan kesediaan murid untuk belajar,
tetapi juga dipengaruhi oleh faktor bagaimana pendidikan yang
bermutu boleh diwujudkan dan diamalkan di sekolah-sekolah.
Senario yang berlaku pada hari ini kebanyakan para pendidik
masih tidak dapat memahami konsep sebenar kurikulum itu
sendiri.
Kurikulum baru yang diwujudkan di negara kita
memerlukan
penelitian
yang
mendalam
agar
p e r l a k s a n a a n n ya d a p a t m e m e n u h i m a t l a m a t ya n g
d i g a r i s k a n o l e h Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia
seterusnya dapat melahirkan modal insan cemerlang.
Walau bagaimanapun terdapat pelbagai kekangan yang
dihadapi baik di pihak penggubal mahupun pelaksana. Ianya
sangat memberi impak terhadap pengajaran dan pembelajaran
(SuhaizaZainudin, 2012).Antara masalah yang sering dihadapi
apabila sesuatu kurikulum baru dilaksanakan adalah kurangnya
alat bantu mengajar yang ingin digunakan dalam
proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Selain itu masalah
kekurangan kepakaran guru dalam isi k a n d u n g a n
kurikulum,
kekurangan
bahan
rujukan,
p e r u n t u k a n m a s a y a n g t i d a k mencukupi dan tiada
contoh soalan peperiksaan sebenar. Justeru diharapkan
penggubal kurikulum dapat menyediakan alat bantu mengajar

236

dengan mencukupi, mempelbagaikan bahan rujukan yang

pelbagai untuk rujukan para pelajar dan menyediakan satu
modul bentuk soalan peperiksaan sebenar dihantar bersama
kurikulum baru dan buku teks.
Dalam isu pendidikan di Malaysia hari ini terdapat pelbagai
isu yang ditimbulkan berkaitan dengan pencapaian Dasar
Pendidikan Kebangsaan, antaranya pengupayaan kepada sekolah
adalah terhad. Semua sekolah masih perlu mengikuti satu sistem,
prosedur dan pendekatan yang seragam dan tidak mengambil kira
kemampuan, keupayaan khusus dan potensi untuk sekolah
melaksanakan suatu dasar dan program pendidikan tersebut. Hal
ini telah pun berentetan dari dahulu lagi yang mana ianya telah pun
diakui oleh Brown&McIntyre (1993), yang mengatakan banyak
berlaku dalam inovasi kurikulum pada masa yang lepas, salah
satunya kerana inovasi tidak mengambil kira bagaimana guru
mentaksir apa yang sebenarnya berlaku di dalam bilik darjah dan
kegagalan untuk menentukan di manakah guru seharusnya
bermula.

3.1

SOROTAN KAJIAN LALU

Oleh yang demikian bagi memperkasa sistem pendidikan

nilai tambah perlu dipertingkat bagi memperbaiki mutu pendidikan
negara dengan menambahbaik elemen pengurusan kurikulum.
Dalam kajian lalu terdapat kajian yang memperihalkan tentang
elemen asas pengurusan
kurikulum. Antara kajian yang
dijalankanberkaitan Tahap Amalan Pengurusan Kurikulum Serta
Pengurusan Keselamatan Sekolah oleh YusnizaAzizan (2008).
Kajian ini membincangkan bagaimana kurikulum di salah sebuah
sekolah dilaksanakan dengan memfokuskan aspek keselamatan. Ia
juga menekankan aspek pengawalan dalam pemantauan seluruh
kawasan sekolah yang sangat memainkan peranan penting untuk
menjamin kemaslahatan sesebuah organisasi.
Sementara kajian oleh Sivanathan (2011), berkenaan

237

Pengurusan
Kurikulum
Sekolah
Kurang Murid pula
membincangkan berkaitan tahap perancangan dan pelaksanaan
kurikulum di sekolah. Kajian tersebut juga menyentuh berkaitan
hal kepimpinan yang berkaitan dengan pihak atasan di mana
terdapat segelintir pihak pentadbir yang tidak dapat menunjukkan
sikap kepimpinan sebagaimana yang diharapkan. Walau bagaimana
kajian tersebut menyatakan tidak terdapat masalah yang kronik
berkaitan isu kepimpinan tersebut.
Manakala Rosnah Selamat (2009) pula, membincangkan
tajuk berkenaan Pengurusan Kurikulum Sekolah Menengah Dan
Hubungan Pencapaiannya Dengan Akademik yang juga
menekankan kepentingan kurikulum. Kajiannya membincangkan
tentang sejauh manakah budaya pengurusan kurikulum yang
sistematik berkesan dan cemerlang telah diamalkan di sekolahsekolah menengah pada hari ini.Kajian tersebut melihat
pencapaian kurikulum dari aspek sekolah yang cemerlang dan
sederhana dan kajian tersebut juga ingin melihat adakah
pengurusan kurikulum mempengaruhi prestasi pencapaian pelajar.
Dalam penulisan tersebut juga membincangkan dengan terperinci
berkenaan elemen asas kurikulum iaitu perancangan,
pengelolaan,kepimpinan dan pengawalan sebagaimana yang
terdapat dalam penulisan dalam kajian ini.
Walaupun
dalam
sorotan
kajian-kajian
tersebut
membincangkan berkaitan elemen asas kurikulum namun kajian
tersebut tidak membincangkan secara terperinci tentang keempatempat elemen tersebut dan kaitannya dengan pengurusan
kurikulum berkesan. Oleh yang demikian kajian ini berobjektifkan
untuk menentukan pelaksanaan proses merancang, mengelola,
memimpin dan mengawal di samping mengenal pasti perbezaan
proses merancang, ,mengelola, memimpin dan mengawal dari
aspek demografi serta menentukan pengaruh demografi terhadap
keempat-empat elemen tersebut dan bagaimana ianya membawa
kepada ke arah pengurusan kurikulum berkesan. Justeru kertas
kerja konsep ini menjadi asas kepada kajian sebenar yang akan
dijalankan.

238

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RosnahSelamat.(1995). Pengurusan Sekolah Menengah dan
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pengurus sekolah menengah teknik di Negeri Perak./Thesis
( Masters ) Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 2002.
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New York: HarcourtBraceJovanovich.
Tyler R. W. 1990. Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction .
Chicago: University of ChicagoPress.
YusnizawatiAzizan (2008) .Tahap Amalan PengurusanKurikulum
Serta Pengurusan Keselamatan di SekolahMenengah Islam
Hidayah Johor .TesisSarjana: UniversitiTeknologiMalaysia
Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie (2001). Pentadbiran Pendidikan,
Petaling Jaya, Penerbit Fajar bakti. Sdn. Bhd.

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COACHING DAN MENTORING

KEPIMPINAN PENGETUA
CEMERLANG TERHADAP
PRESTASI PENGURUS
PERTENGAHAN DALAM
MENINGKATKAN PRESTASI
CEMERLANG SEKOLAH
Nuinda Binti Alias & Khadijah Daud

ABSTRAK
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk melihatamalan coaching dan mentoring
kepimpinan pengetua cemerlang terhadap prestasi pengurus
pertengahan dalam meningkatkan prestasi cemerlang sekolah di
Malaysia. Dengan menggunakan Model GROW yang dibangunkan
oleh Sir John Whitmore dan ditambahbaik oleh IAB, pengkaji
membuat kajian kes eksploratori terhadap kepimpinan pengetua
cemerlang yang menjadi coach dan mentor kepada pengurus
pertengahan yang terdiri daripada penolong-penolong kanan.
Seramai 6 orang pengetua cemerlang dan 6 orang penolong kanan
terlibat dalam kajian ini. Pelbagai sumber eviden digunakan untuk
pengumpulan data iaitu temuramah, dokumentasi, pemerhatian dan
artifak fizikal.Soal selidik digunakan untuk melihat prestasi
penolong kanan sebagai coachee dan mentee dalam meningkatkan
prestasi sekolah. Penganalisisan dibuat secara deskriptif min dan
peratus.
Kata kunci: coaching dan mentoring pengetua cemerlang, prestasi
pengurus pertengahan dan prestasi cemerlang sekolah

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PENGENALAN
Pengetua merupakan pemimpin utama dalam memastikan
kecemerlangan sekolah.Melalui hubungannya dengan pengurusan
pertengahan, pengetua akan dapat mengurus sumber manusia,
pengurusan dan pentadbiran sekolah sehingga memperoleh
kejayaan dan kecemerlangan. Sonia (2009) bersetuju kepentingan
pengurus pertengahan ini dalam pengurusan sekolah dan
mengatakan bahawa faktor yang menyebabkan pengurusan itu
berkesan adalah kemampuan pengurus pertengahan mengenai
peranannya dalam suatu masa pada hari-hari persekolahannya.
Husin (2007) menjelaskan peranan pengetua dalam sekolah masa
hadapan akan berubah dari hanya enlightened model of
leadership kepada paradigm super leadership. Dalam Anjakan
ke 9, PPPM menegaskan kepentingan peranan pengetua
bekerjasama dengan komuniti dan swasta membangunkan sekolah.
Paradigma baru in menekankan peranan pengetua bukan sahaja
berkeupayaan untuk guru dan staf tetapi juga berkeupayaan
memimpin mereka supaya mereka boleh memimpin diri sendiri.
Anjakan ke 5,
menekankan kepimpinan berpretasi tinggi
ditempatkan
setiap
sekolah
yang
berasaskan
kompetensi.Keupayaan pengetua membantu membangunkan
pemimpin pertengahan menjadi pengerak kepada pencapaian
kecemerlangan sekolah.

LATAR BELAKANG MASALAH

Isu penguasaan kompetensi pengetua dalam tahap sedarhana.

Dapatan kumpulan pengkaji Institut Amnuddin Baki (IAB), (2008)
menunjukkan penguasaan kompentensi pengetua dalam tahap
sedarhana.
Kompentensi berfokuskan kualiti, menyelesaikan
masalah, membuat keputusan, mengurus perubahan dan

242

pengurusan ICTmerupakan kompentensi yang dikategorikan

sebagai kompentensi berimpak tinggi yang sangat diperlukan oleh
pemimpin.

Isu peranan pengetua cemerlang menjadi coach dan mentor

kepada sekolah lain kurang dikaji dan diterbitkan.
Terdapat sepuluh peranan pengetua yang menjadi teras penilaian
seorang pengetua: sebagai ketua, penghubung, pemimpin,
pemantau, penyebar, jurucakap, usahawan, penyelesai masalah,
pengagih sumber dan perunding. (Model peranan pengurusan
Mintzberg dalam Azlin Norhaini & roselan, 2007).Pertambahan
tugas pengetua sebagai pengetua cemerlang diberikan
tanggungjawab membantu sekolah-sekolah lain dalam kepimpinan
pengetua melalui proses pelaksanaan coaching dan mentoring.
Kecemerlangan mereka terbukti apabila dinaikkan pangkat menjadi
pengetua cemerlang dan kecemerlangan ini menunjukkan
keupayaan mereka membangunkan kapasiti sumber manusia
terutama pengurus pertengahan yang menjadi jambatan antara
pengetua dan guru-guru lain dalam mencapai prestasi cemerlang
sekolah. Oleh kerana itu, satu kajian kes eksploratori terhadap
pengetua yang telah berjaya mencemerlangkan sekolah perlu
dilakukan untuk menjadi panduan kepada pemimpin pengetua
novis dan penolong-penolong kanan yang bakal menjadi pengetua.
Isu Keputusan peperiksaan PMR, SPM, STPM di Sabah masih
rendah.
Antara faktor yang boleh dilihat sebagai penyumbang keputusan
peperiksaan yang rendah adalah kepimpinan pengetua dan
pengurus pertengahannya. Sekiranya pengetua mengamalkan
coaching dan mentoring dalam proses kerja yang lebih tersusun
melalui pengurusan pertengahan, sudah pasti akan menghasilkan

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kolaborasi yang positif seterusnya mencapai prestasi cemerlang.

Hazel (2010), mendapati kajian yang dibuat menangani amalan
pengajaran guru melalui coaching, kedua-dua guru dan coaches
memperolehi nilai kebaikan yang sama iaitu hubungan guru dan
coach. Kesan positif telah diterokai dan memberi impak positif
kepada guru terutama dalam pengalaman bilik darjah,
latarbelakang ilmu pengetahuan, semangat tinggi, empati ,
ekspektasi tinggi, kemanusiaan, unsur kecindan, jujur dan
professional. Maxwell (2010) mengatakan apabila pemimpin
atasan memainkan peranan sebagai pendorong bagi pemimpin
pertengahan, para pemimpin itu menjadi pembantu bagi pemimpin
atasan. Di sinilah kepentingan pengurusan petengahan yang boleh
menjadi orang tengah bagi melaksanakan dasar bersama-sama
orang bawahannya.

Isu keperluan kualiti pengetua dalam PPPM.

Dalam Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia (2013-2025),
Anjakan ke 5 disebut memastikan kepimpinan berpretasi tinggi
ditempatkan setiap sekolah.Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia
memperkenalkan kriteria pemilihan berasaskan kompetensi dan
memperkukuhkan proses perancangan penggantian bagi
pengetua/guru besar mulai 2013. Disamping melaksanakan pakej
kerjaya baharu bagi pengetua guru besar mulai 2013 dengan
sokongan lebih fleksibiliti pengoperasian bagi menambah baik
sekolah, kurikulum dan kokurikulum, serta lebih akauntabiliti
terhadap meningkatkan keberhasilan murid. Kualiti pengetua/guru
besar merupakan faktor berasaskan sekolah yang kedua terpenting
dalam menentukan keberhasilan murid. Maka calon pengetua yang
terdiri dari pengurus pertengahan perlu dilatih untuk menghasilkan
pemimpin yang berkualiti. Setiap sekolah akan mempunyai
pengetua/guru besar berprestasi tinggi yang sentiasa gigih dalam
matlamatnya untuk meningkatkan keberhasilan murid, dari segi
akademik dan bukan akademik.Setiap pengetua/guru besar juga

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dikehendaki mendapatkan sijil Kelayakan Profesional Kebangsaan

bagi Kepimpinan Pendidikan (NPQEL) daripada Institut
Aminuddin Baki (IAB) sebelum boleh dilantik sebagai
pengetua/guru besar. Mereka juga wajib mengikuti pementoran
dari pengetua akan berpindah/ bersara. Satu kajian eksploratori
akan dapat melihat kepimpinan pengetua cemerlang yang akan
dijadikan panduan kepada bakal pemimpin sekolah.

Isu amalan kriteria pemilihan pengetua yang kurang relevan

dalam pendidikan abad ke 21.
Kajian antarabangsa tentang kepimpinan sekolah menunjukkan
bahawa pengetua/guru besar yang cemerlang, iaitu yang memberi
tumpuan kepada kepimpinan instruksional dan bukannya
kepimpinan pentadbiran, dapat meningkatkan keberhasilan murid
sebanyak 20%. Walau bagaimanapun, kriteria pemilihan yang
diamalkan pada hari ini sebahagian besarnya ditentukan
berdasarkan tempoh perkhidmatan dan bukannya kecekapan
kepimpinan. Tambahan lagi, 55% daripada semua pengetua/guru
besar yang ada pada hari ini tidak pernah mengikuti latihan
persediaan atau induksi sebelum atau semasa mereka berada dalam
tempoh tiga tahun pertama sebagai pengetua/guru besar. Hal ini
bermakna mereka mungkin menjalankan tugas sebagai
pengetua/guru besar dalam keadaan yang kurang bersedia. Dengan
bilangan 40% pengetua/guru besar yang akan bersara dalam
tempoh lima tahun akan datang, maka wujud peluang untuk
meningkatkan kualiti pemimipin pelapis. Pengetua cemerlang yang
menjadi coach dan mentor kepada pemimpin pertengahan dapat
mengerakkan prestasi sekolah. Judith (2005), Rich (2003), Simon
Veennam dan Eddie Dessen (2001)mempersetujui peranan
coaching dan mentoring yang diamalkan oleh pengetua/ pemimpin
membantu peningkatan prestasi kecemerlangan sesebuah
organisasi.

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PERNYATAAN MASALAH
Pencapaian akademik merupakan kriteria utama yang digunakan
sebagai kayu ukur prestasi sekolah melalui peperiksaan awam:
PMR, SPM dan STPM. Namun mengikut Laporan Nazir dan
Lembaga Peperiksaan Sabah menunjukkan pencapaian prestasi
akademik Sabah masih rendah dan berada di tahap terendah
berbanding dengan prestasi negeri lain di Malaysia. Prestasi
keputusan peperiksaan di Sabah berada di ranking ke 14 dalam
peperiksaan awam sehingga peperiksaan 2012 dan meningkat ke
rangking ke 13 bagi peperiksaan tahun 2013 (Laporan Mesyuarat
Peperiksaan Negeri, 2012- 2014). Sebagai tugas utama pemimpin
instruktional, pengetua memainkan peranan membimbing
pemimpin pertengahan agar membantu prestasi cemerlang sekolah
dapat dicapai. Pengurusan akademik dijaga oleh ketua-ketua
bidang sebagai pengurus instruktional bersama penolong kanan
pentadbiran. Sekolah yang pengetuanya dipimpin oleh pengetua
cemerlang pastinya telahpun melakarkan bimbingan kepada
pemimpin pengurus akademik kumpulan pertengahan yang telah
berjaya mempamerkan kejayaan dalam prestasi akademiknya.
Kompleksiti memimpin dan membimbing pengurus pertengahan
perlu dikaji agar dapat melihat keupayaan pengetua cemerlang
mencapai kecemerlangan sekolah.
Tiada panduan khas
bagaimana pengetua boleh
membimbing pemimpin pertengahan terutama bagi pengetua baru
dilantik. Masih kekurangan rujukan berdasarkan pengalaman
sebenar yang boleh digunakan untuk panduan bagi bakal pemimpin
di sekolah. Di samping itu, kurang kajian yang dijalankan
bagaimana pengetua cemerlang telah memimpin pengurus
pertengahan untuk mencemerlangkan sekolah yang dipimpinnya.
Oleh itu pengkaji ingin meninjau sejauhmana pengetua cemerlang
dapat melaksanakan amalan C & M untuk membangunkan
pengurus pertengahan ini dalam kapasiti kepemimpinan sekolah.
Kebaikan amalan C & M ini dipersetujui oleh JPA ( 2011) dengan
mengatakan
pembudayaan coaching dan mentoring akan

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membuahkan budaya kerja cemerlang hasil daripada kepuasan

kerja dan hubungan yang baik di antara semua ahli di dalam
sesebuah organisasi. Budaya kerja positif ini mewujudkan
kakitangan yang matang dan bersedia untuk menerima
tanggungjawab yang lebih besar seterusnya memudahkan pihak
pengurusan atasan membuat pemilihan kakitangan yang kompeten
di dalam urusan kenaikan pangkat.
Tugas pengetua sebagai pemimpin instruksional sangat
ditagih untuk mencapai prestasi cemerlang pelajar. Untuk
mengerak kearah pencapaian prestasi cemerlang, pengurus
pertengahan merupakan katalis utama yang boleh menggerak guruguru menghebatkan pedagogi pengajaran dan pembelajaran.
Kepimpinan pertengahan merupakan pengerak yang perlu
dibimbing melalui proses coaching dan mentoring demi
peningkatan amalan pengajaran yang cemerlang yang boleh
memberi produktiviti yang tinggi. Richard Koch (2007) mengupas
kepentingan cara
80/20 dalam pencapaian kualiti dan
kecemerlangan. Dia menyebut 80 % pengalaman berguna dalam
sesebuah industri atau profesion itu datangnya daripada bekerja
dengan 20% atau pengamal yang sedikit dan bekerja dalam 20 %
atau organisasi yang sedikit. Jika 20 % itu dari pengurus
pertengahan yang cekap dan dilatih melalui bimbingan oleh ketua
jabatan , ini akan memberi impak yang tinggi dalam pencapaian
hasilnya sama ada output atau outcome.John C Maxwell (2009)
menyebut pemimpin yang baik di mana-mana bahagian dalam
organisasi menjadikan mereka pemimpin atasan yang lebih baik
dan lebih bagus bagi organisasi secara keseluruhannya. Pemimpin
yang baik di peringkat pertengahan menjadi pemimpin yang hebat
di peringkat atasan.Pengetua cemerlang yang dapat membimbing
pengurus pertengahan dengan efisien dijangka mempamerkan
prestasi kerja dan organisasi yang cemerlang.
Pemilikan
kelayakan
pengetua
cemerlang dapat
membimbing pengurus pertengahannya. Namun kajian tentang
coaching dan mentoring kepimpinan pengetua cemerlang terhadap
pengurus pertengahan amat kurang dijalankan sedangkan menurut

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Maxwell (2010) menyebutkan dalam tulisannya bahawa apabila

pemimpin atasan memainkan peranan sebagai pendorong bagi
pemimpin pertengahan, para pemimpin itu menjadi pembantu bagi
pemimpin atasan. Kepentingan pengurus pertengahan boleh
menjadi orang tengah bagi melaksanakan dasar bersama-sama
orang bawahannya. Oleh itu, sekiranya kepimpinan sekolah hari
ini mengamalkan coaching dan mentoring dan membimbing
pengurus pertengahan, sudah pasti mereka akan menyediakan
pemimpin pelapis yang efisen yang akan mengambil tugas sebagai
pengetua yang kompeten di masa hadapan. Selaras dengan hasrat
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia dalam Pelan Pembangunan
Pendidikan Malaysia (2012) untuk meletakan pengetua yang layak
dan cekap di semua sekolah.

OBJEKTIF
Kajian ini menggariskan objektif berikut:
1 Untuk membuat tinjauan kajian terhadap amalan C & M
kepimpinan
pengetua
cemerlang
dalam
usaha
mencemerlangkan sekolah.
2 Untuk mengetahui kesediaan pengetua cemerlang dalam
membimbing pengurus pertengahan yang memerlukan
coaching dan mentoring dalam usaha mencapai prestasi
sekolah cemerlang
3 Untuk mengenalpasti mengapa coaching dan mentoring
penting digunakan untuk meningkatkan pencapaian prestasi
sekolah dan pembangunan kapasiti pemimpin pelapis
4 Untuk mendapatkan pendapat pengetua dan pengurus
pertengahan terhadap peranan coach/coachee dan mentor/
mentee dalam meningkatkan profesional kepengetuaan dan
prestasi sekolah
5 Untuk mengkaji kesan aplikasi coaching dan mentoring
kepimpinan pengetua cemerlang melahirkan pemimpin
pelapis yang cekap mengurus kecemerlangan akademik,

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kokurikulum dan sahsiah pelajar dalam membangunkan

kecemerlangan sekolah
Untuk menghasilkan panduan coaching dan mentoring
yang sesuai digunakan dalam pembangunan kapasiti
pemimpin ke arah pengwujudan sekolah cemerlang

KEPENTINGAN KAJIAN
Aplikasi C & M ini penting dan berguna dalam memastikan
peningkatan prestasi sekolah .Oleh itu, kajian ini dijangka dapat: 1)
Membantu pengetua novis dalam kepimpinan sekolah. 2)
Membantu pengurus pertengahan dalam pengurusan akademik,
kokurikulum dan hal ehwal murid. 3) rujukan pengurus
pertengahan sebagai pemimpin pelapis di sekolah. 4) guru-guru
yang menjadi coach kepada pelajar. 5) Memantapkan kepimpinan
sekolah menuju sekolah berprestasi tinggi. 6) Penggubal dan
Pelaksana dasar Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia. 7)Jabatan
Pelajaran Negeri dan Pejabat Pelajaran Daerah

DEFINISI OPERATIONAL KAJIAN

Beberapa definisi operational kajian menjadi landasan kajian ini:
Pengetua cemerlang
Pengetua Cemerlang menjadi fokus dalam kajian ini. Mengikut
kajian ini yang dimaksudkan dengan pengetua cemerlang
merupakan pengetua yang mendapat pengiktirafan dari
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia di kalangan pengetua di seluruh
Malaysia dari jawatan DG52, DG54 dan Jusa C yang telah
menunjukkan prestasi cemerlang dalam kepimpinan mereka dalam
pengurusan sekolah. Pelbagai stail kepimpinan telah digunakan
oleh pengetua cemerlang sehingga sekolah mempamerkan prestasi
cemerlang sama ada dalam bidang akademik, kokurikulum

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mahupun sahsiah dan keunikan sekolah tersebut.

Coaching
Kajian ini menggunakan Model GROW yang bermaksud, G=
Goals, R=Reality, O=options dan W=Will/wrap up . Coaching
merupakan salah satu amalan yang boleh membantu pengetua
melahirkan pemimpin pelapis agar fungsi tugas pengurus
pertengahan berjalan dengan efektif. Menurut Harkavy (2007),
your purpose as coaching leader is to add the most value to the
people you lead and to help them improve.Coaching dapat
memberi impak kepimpinan yang tinggi dan sebagai pengetua
diharapkan dapat membangunkan kapasiti kepimpinan pengurus
pertengahan yang bergerak membangunkan sekolah.

Mentoring
Mentoring merujuk kepada cara pengetua cemerlang membimbing
mentee meneroka ilmu atau idea baru bagi menyelesaikan isu dan
membangunkan idea seterusnya dapat memaksimakan hasil.
Mentoring berkait rapat dengan coaching yang juga berperanan
memberi khidmat nasihat, maklumat dan bimbingan oleh senior
yang dipanggil mentor kepada individu lain iaitu pengurus
pertengahan dalam kajian ini.
1.
Mentor
Mentor merujuk kepada pengetua cemerlang yang memainkan
peranan membantu membimbing kumpulan pengurusan
pertengahan dalam tugas harian khususnya menterjemah dasar dan
prosedur untuk mengerakkan sekolah ke arah pencapaian
cemerlang.
2.
Mentee
Mentee yang dimaksudkan pengurus pertengahan seperti semua
penolong kanan, semua ketua bidang dan guru cemerlang yang

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menerima bimbingan dari pengetua cemerlang dalam mengerak

sekolah pencapaian prestasi tinggi.
3.
Coach
Coach merupakan perkataan yang digunakan merujuk kepada
pengetua cemerlang yang berpengalaman dalam membimbing
pengurus pertengahan dalam konteks kajian ini . Pengetua
mengamalkan kemahiran coaching untuk mengerak program,
pemimpin yang berpotensi dan menterjemah visi dan misi sekolah
ke arah pembangunan sekolah yang cemerlang
4.
Coachee
Coachee dirujuk sebagai pengurus pertengahan yang terlibat dalam
kajian ini, penolong kanan /ketua bidang yang membantu pengetua
dalam menterjemahkan polisi, prosedur , visi dan misi sekolah
demi mencapai sekolah cemerlang.
5. Pengurus pertengahan
Pengurus pertengahan dalam kajian ini merujuk kepada penolongpenolong kananyang menjadi tunggak pengerak kepada pengurusan
sekolah. Mereka adalah pengurus operasi harian yang memastikan
semua arahan, perancangan dan idea untuk membangunan
organisasi itu mencapai kecemerlangan. Abdullah Sani (2005) dan
Sonia (2009) bersetuju dengan peranan yang dimainkan oleh
pengurus pertengahan membangunkan sekolah ke tahap yang
tinggi.
6. Prestasi cemerlang
Dalam Kajian ini, prestasi cemerlang merujuk kepada pencapaian
sekolah yang dapat digambarkan melalui pencapaian akademiknya,
kokurikulum, sahsiah pelajarnya, pengurusan kewangan ,
pengurusan pembangunan dan infrastruktur serta persekitaran
sekolah. Prestasi cemerlang ini dibuktikan dengan pencapaian
peperiksaan, pemerolehan hadiah, surat penghargaan dan suasana
pembelajaran yang kondusif.

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KAJIAN LITERATUR
Peranan pengetua telah berubah mengikut perubahan masa dan
trend keperluan masyarakat dan negara. Ini jelas apabila Leithwood
dan Duke (1999) , Heck dan Hallinger (1999) melihat perubahan
dalam tinjauan literatur kajian dalam kepimpinan pendidikan.
Trend lebih tertumpu kepada pertumbuhan ilmu berkaitan
kepimpinan sekolah dan kesannya. Mengurus dan memimpin
sekolah berkesan bagi memenuhi kehendak masyarakat
memerlukan kemahiran teknikal, ilmu dan pemimpin yang
kompeten.
Peranan pengetua sebagai pengurus atau pentadbir berubah
menjadi pemimpin instruksional, jadi pemimpin transformasional,
mentor dan coach. Skop tugas pengetua senantiasa berubah
mengikut kehendak trend semasa dan pasaran kerja.Coaching dan
mentoring adalah cara menjana professionalism dan kepakaran
bagi pekerja yang baru dilantik dan pekerja
senior yang
berpengalaman akan menyokong mereka. Dalam apa sahaja
domain pekerjaan / profesin, individu yang mengetahui keluasan
dan kedalaman ilmu bagi sesuatu jawatan sesuatu pekerjaan dan
amalan yang tulen serta luas yang boleh mereka kongsikan dengan
pekerja yang kurang berpengalaman.
Dalam kajian perhubungan mentoring di kalangan chief
executive officers (CEOs), Rosser (2004) mendapati setiap CEO
memperolehi faedah dari lebih seorang mentor; mentor yang
berbeza muncul sebagai key personal dianggap oleh CEO dalam
setiap peringkat tangga karier mereka. Rosser mencatatkan
sumbangan pengalaman mentoring kepada pembangunan karier
dan psikososial tugas-tugas CEO. Kombinasi coaching dan
mentoring mempastikan CEO mendapat faedah dari budaya
sokongan yang dipimpin melalui mentoring dan kemahiran
individu dan pengetahuan dipelajari melalui coaching. Rosser
menekankan dalam kajiannya bahawa kedua-dua pihak mentor dan
mentee mendapat pengalaman dan mempelajari sesamanya.
Collin(2001)mengariskan kualiti pemimpin dalam setiap

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organisasi bermula dari kurang cekap Aras 1 pemimpin hingga

Aras 5 yang mana Aras 5 menjadi jenis pemimpin yang dibentuk
transisi dari good to great.Collin menjelaskan bahawa Aras 5
sebagai paradoxical mix of personal humility and profesional will,
with ambitions for the company and not themselves (ms 39)
Pemimpin Aras 5 adalah kumpulan yang mendapat bimbingan
signifikan dari Projek coaching dan mentoring di Ontario (Collin,
2001). Collin menyebut bahawa pemimpin Aras 5 telah
menyediakan pemimpin pelapis yang akan lebih cekap dan sukses
dalam generasi akan datang. Projek coaching dan mentoring di
Ontario telah memberi nilai maklum balas yang berharga ke atas
potensi perkembangan dan pembangunan pemimpin Aras 5 dalam
sistem pendidikan Ontario.
Dalam kajian
Collins (2001) dengan pasukan
penyelidiknya terhadap 11 buah syarikat terbaik yang telah
membangun menjadi syarikat menemui Kepimpinan Aras 5.
Pemimpin yang mengamalkan keperibadian mesra dengan orang
sekeliling, tegas terhadap subordinat untuk mendapatkan kejayaan
organisasi serta memiliki semangat yang kuat dan komited untuk
kecemerlangan organisasi. Zachary (2005) telah menunjukkan
peserta yang mengikuti program mentoring di America dilaporkan
memberi kesan kepada kedua pihak mentor dan mentee . Mentee
menyatakan mereka memperolehi hubungan yang selamat, peluang
untuk menguji idea baru, maklumbalas segera, kurang tekanan,
pembelajaran cepat, sokongan yang diperlukan, membantu
mengepalai organisasi, lebih banyak strategi untuk lebih produktif
dan mempunyai budaya ilmu.
Dalam kajian pandangan pemimpin berpengalaman
terhadap generasi pemimpin /pentadbir sekolah akan datang,
Micheal dan Young (2006) melaporkan 80 peserta dengan
pengalaman 20 tahun bersetuju networking dan mentoring adalah
asas kepada kecetekan transisi kepada peranan pemimpin
sekolah.Louis Baron dan Lucie Morin (2009) dalam kajiannya
tentang kesan coaching eksekutif ke atas keyakinan diri berkaitan
dengan kemahiran asas (soft skill) pengurusan. Dapatan kajiannya,

253

beberapa kali dijalankan coaching memberikan kesan positif dan

signifikan perhubungan dengan post latihan keyakinan diri.
Penilaian utiliti, komitmen organisasi yang afektif dan sokongan
persekitaran kerja mempunyai kesan positif dan signifikan terhadap
keyakinan diri dalam post latihan.
Christopher rhodes & Sandra Beneicke (2002) mengatakan
kepentingan coaching, mentoring dan peer-networking sebagai
satu mekanisma dan cara menangani pembangunan profesional dan
penting dalam membantu mencapai standard dan pencapaian.
Kepentingan coaching dipersetujui (whitmore, 1995; Parsloe &
Wray,2000; Clutterbcm, 1991; downey, 2001; Landsberg, 1996)
sebagai peningkatan pencapaian. Kedua coaching dan mentoring
dikatakan kompleks aktiviti yang dikaitkan dengan sokongan
kepada pembelajaran individu. Ini menunjukkan pengetua yang
mengamalkan kepimpinan coaching dan mentoring kepada guru
akan dapat meningkatkan prestasi sekolah.
IAB dalam program SIPartner yang melibatkan pengetua
cemerlang, pensyarah IAB dan pegawai KPM dan JPN telah
menunjukkan hasil positif yang membanggakan KPM. Program
Leadership coaching dan mentoring telah membantu meningkatkan
prestasi sekolah-sekolah yang berada dalam band 6 & 7. Penetapan
sekolah masuk atau keluar band enam (6) dan tujuh (7) ditentukan
selepas keputusan UPSR, PMR , SPM dan STPM. Setelah dua
tahun pelaksanaan program SIPartner, 50 % SR telah keluar band
6 dan 7 pada tahun 2010 dan 2011. Begitu juga SM, laporan IAB
(2012) mencatatkan hampir 50 % telah keluar band 6 & 7 pada
tahun 2010 dan 2011. Ini membuktikan peranan coaching dan
mentoring dalam membantu pemimpin sekolah berada di band
rendah melonjakkan prestasi kecemerlangan masing-masing.

METODOLOGI KAJIAN
Kajian ini menggunakan pendekatan mixed metod dengan
memberi fokus kepada kualitatif. Soal selidik kuantitatif hanya

254

digunakan sebagai sumbertriangulating data. Creswell(2009),

kajian boleh dimulakan dengan kualitatif diikuti oleh kuantitatif
atau sebaliknya serta pengumpulan duacara ini akan menghasilkan
data yang lebih lengkap dan tepat.Fokus kajian ini bertujuan untuk
mengenal pasti amalan coaching dan mentoring oleh pengetua
cemerlang dalam usaha mencapai prestasi sekolah ke peringkat
tinggi. Seramai 6 orang pengetua cemerlang akan dijadikan sampel
kajian ini. Disamping itu, 6 orang pengurus pertengahan akan
ditemubual/ menjawab soal selidik setiap sekolah untuk melihat
perspektif kepimpinan coaching dan mentoring yang diamalkan
oleh pengetua cemerlang.

SAMPEL DAN BATASAN KAJIAN

Seramai 6 orang pengetua cemerlang Jusa C/DG54 akan menjadi
responden kajian ini yang bertindak sebagai coach dan mentor
dalam kepimpinan di sekolah. Mereka yang dipilih berdasarkan
pengalaman dan anugerah yang diterima oleh sekolah sama ada
dalam akademik, kokurikulum atau pencapaian lain. Temubual,
pemerhatian dan kajian dokumen akan dilakukan pada sekolah
yang dipilih. Di samping itu, seorang pemimpin pengurus
pertengahan terlibat bagi melihat persepi mereka dalam menerima
idea, dasar dan prosedur yang akan diinterpretasi pelaksanaan tugas
seharian yang akan membawa kecemerlangan sekolah. Kajian ini
terbatas kepada kumpulan pengetua cemerlang Jusa C/ DG54
sekolah kerajaan dan bantuan kerajaan sahaja.

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Akbar Ibrahim (2004). Penyelidikan Kualitatif. Sarawak: The
Sarawak Press
Abdullah M. Abu-Tineh (Dr) , Dr. Samer A. Khasawneh, Dr.
Aieman
A.
Omary(2009),Kouzes
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Posner's
Transformational Leadership Model in Practice: The Case

255

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Volume 7, Issue 3 Winter 2009, 265-283
Barry Bozeman & Mary K. Feeney (2007). Toward a Useful
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Buku Panduan Pengurusan Program SIPartner (2012). Pelaksanaan
Program SIPartner Program Pembangunan Prestasi
Sekolah 2010-2012. Pahang: IAB
Creswell J W (2009).Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative
and Mixed Methods Approaches. London: SAGE
Daniel Harkavy (2010). Becoming A Coaching Leader. Selangor:
Avantage Quest Publication.
Elaine K McEwan (1998).Seven Steps to Effective Instructional
Leadership. CA: Crown Press, Inc.
Elaine K McEwan (2003).10 Traits of Highly Effective
Principals.California: Corwin Press, Inc.
Jackie Arnold (2009). Coaching skills for Leaders in Workplace.
United Kingdom: How /to Books Ltd.
James B. Miller (1993) The Corporate Coach. Kuala Lumpur:
Golden Boods Centre Sdn Bhd.
Jones, G dan Gorell R (2010). 50 Top tools for Coaching.Great
Britain: Kogan Page Limited.
Ho Law, Sara Ireland and Zulfi Hussain (2007). The psychology of
Coaching, Mentoring and Learning. England: John Wiley
& Sons Ltd.
Hussein Hj Ahmad (2007) Towards World Class Leadership
Model of Principals for Schools in the Future dalam
Prosiding Seminar Nasional pengurusan dan Kepimpinan
pendidikan ke 14 2007. Pahang: Institut Aminuddin Baki.
James Ang Jit Eng, dan Balasandran Ramiah (2009). Kepimpinan
Instruksional. Kuala Lumpur: PTS Professional.
Kaye Thorne (2001). Personal Coaching. USA: Stylus Publishing
Inc.
Keddy, J dan Johnson, C (2011), Managing Coaching At Work.

256

Great Britain: Kogan Page Limited

Kevin Stacy (2010). New Studies Highlight benefits of teacher
coaching. University of Chicago Press Journal.
K huzaimah Sulaiman (2010). Guru Pemimpin 360. Selangor:
PTS Professional Publishing Sdn Bhd.
Lindsay Clare Matsumura, et al (2010). Investigating the
Effectiveness of a Comprehensive Literacy Coaching
Program in School with High Teacher Mobility. University
of Chicago Press Journal.
Majlis Pengetua Cemerlang Kebangsaan (2011) Legasi
Kepemimpinan Pengetua Cemerlang Malaysia. Selangor:
Percetakan Selaseh Sdn Bhd
Micki Holliday (2005). Coaching, Mentoring & Managing.
Petaling Jaya. Advantage Quest Publication
Nicola Stevens (2008) Learning to Coaching. United Kingdom:
How To Books Ltd.
PrOD. (2011). Buku Panduan Program Melonjakkan
Kecemerlangan sekolah Melalui Pembangunan Organisasi
. Genting Highlands, IAB
Prosiding. (2008) Seminar Nasional Pengurusan dan Kepimpinan
Pendidikan ke 15 2008 .Genting Highlands, IAB.
Rusli Ahmad dan Hasbee Usop. (2011) Conducting Research in
social Sciences, Humanities, Economics and Management
Studies.Sarawak: RH Group Publishing House
Shahril@Charil Marzuki, Rahimah Ahmad, Hussein Ahmad
(2010) Kepimpinan Pengetua, Menjada Modal Insan Di
Sekolah Berkesan.Selangor: PTS Professional Publishing
Sdn Bhd.
Smith, Wilma F.; Andrews, Richard L. (1989) Instructional
Leadership: How Principals Make a Difference.
Publications, Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development, 125 N. West Street,Alexandria, VA 22314
Olivier Serrat (2009). Coaching and Mentoring. Manila: Asian
Development Bank.
Osman Lebar (2007) Penyelidikan Kualitatif: Pengenalan kepada

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teori dan metod. Malaysia : UPSI

Wai K Leong (2008). Empowering Asian Mindsets through
Coaching. Selangor : Pelanduk Publication.
Whitmore, J. (1992): Coaching for Performance, Nicholas
Brealey Publishing Limited, London.
Webster, D. (2002): The Manager Coach, Nice Idea or
organisational necessity, School of Coaching, Work
Foundation, London
Yin R K (2003). Case Study Research: Design and Methods, Third
Edition. London: SAGE Publications

258

ORAL COMMUICATION
APPREHENSION AMONG
LIBYAN EFL LEARNERS
Abdalnaser.Alamaria, Abdul Rahim Salam &Tina Binti Abdullah

ABSTRACT
There are many languages spoken worldwide and out of them
English which is the dominant language of science, business,
diplomacy, trade, entertainment and Internet, which makes it the
current. The aim of this study is to investigate the OCA of
Alzytuona University students in the English Department at the
Faculty of Education. Mix method will be used to collect the
research data. The data will be collected through qualitative and
quantitative methods developed to measure oral communication
apprehension among Libyan EFL learners. All the items in the
questionnaire will be analyzed using the SPSS Version 13.
Interviews, observations and focused group will also be
implemented in this research. Generalizations from the study
should be limited to only the population described and cannot be
applied to any other group. Future studies are needed to provide
deeper insight.
Keywords: Oral communication apprehension, English language,
EFL learners, Mix method

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1.0

INTRODUCTION

The world is increasingly becoming global with people speaking

different languages interacting on a daily basis. English is considered as
a global language and thus, more people who do not speak the language
are learning it in order to communicate. However, these learners are
faced with a problem of communication apprehension. Communication
apprehension is the fear or anxiety an individual or a group of people
experiences when anticipating to communicate with an individual or a
group of individuals.Communication anxiety by students of the English
language was first reported in the early 1940s (Gilkinson, 1942).
McCroskey (1970) identified this communication bound anxiety as CA
and defined it as fear or anxiety with either real or anticipated
communication with another person. Everyone has a unique level of
fear, which results in a number of individual differences such as the
effectiveness of, amount of, and desire for communication(McCroskey
et al., 1989).At present, not all aspects of the CA phenomenon have been
fully addressed even though there is a considerable body of research on
it(Cole and McCroskey, 2003).

2.0
UNDERLYING
STUDY

THEORIES

SUPPORTING

2.1
MCCROKEYSTHEORY
OF
COMMUNICATION APPRHENSION (1985)

THE
ORAL

Considering McCrokeys work on communication apprehension,

this research aims to find the causes of this problem in modern day
EFL students in Libya. James McCrokey is one of the scholars who
critically analyzed the issue of oral communication apprehension
among people.In his research, he defined oral communication
apprehension as an individuals fear or anxiety resulting from
anticipation to communicate. Communication apprehension does
not only focus on first stage freight but encompasses other aspects

260

such as self-esteem and social skills (McCroskey, 1977).

In order to understand the causes of Oral communication
apprehension, McCrokey (1977) suggested the use of PRCA-40
model. This model is essential in giving a personal insight on the
level of communication apprehension. Though various models
such as PRCA, PRCA10 and PRCA-24B exist to customize the
results; they have been essential in elaborating the theory of
communication apprehension (McCroskey, 1977).
In James McCrokeys research (2001), the inability to
master several speech skills was identified as a contributing factor
in communication apprehension. Speech skills involve
understanding speech presentation techniques such as: proper
interaction with the audience, proper posture, audibility and proper
correction of mistakes (Howard et.al 2011).

2.1.1

AlexanderstinsTheoryof Involvement (1985).

Alexander Astin also came up with a theory of involvement

in language acquisition. This theory proposed that the acquisition
of language depends on three factors namely input, environment
and output.
1. Input: In this case, Astin describes input as a persons
capabilities. This includes his innate ability to understand
and comprehend language at a faster rate (Astin, 1984). In
addition, the input incorporates the background culture and
academic level of the individual.
2. Environment: According to Astins theory, the involvement
of the environment plays an important role in oral
communication apprehension. The societys perception of
people with communication apprehension determines the
progress and learning ability of an individual (Astin, 1984).
3. Output: In this theory, the ability to understand a language
depends on the activities an individual takes after
graduation. Alexander Astin referred to the activities taken

261

after graduation as the output of language acquisition. The

output of an individual would determine his/her mastery of
the given language (Astin, 1984).
Through the analysis of Alexander Astins theory of
acquisition, this research aims to find the causes of oral
communication apprehension among Libyan EFL students.
Even though Astin focused his research on input,
environment and output; this factors are not broad enough
in examining the issue of oral communication
apprehension.

2.2

ENGLISH AS GLOBAL LANGUAGE AND THE

CONCERN ON COMMUNICATION APPRHENSION

Englishis widelyspoken all over the world and parallel to that the
fear of accepting it still uniquely exist among EFL learners
(Graddol, 2008). This concerns on communication apprehension
could well be looked at among the Arab regions although it is
prominently acknowledged as an acceptable language worldwide.
Currently, English is spoken by more than one billion people
around the world either as a first language or as a second language
used for communication purposes (Stevens et al., 2001).According
to Graddol (2006), the prominence of English languageis
irrefutable since there is a rise in the number of people who want
to learn the language.More people have taken up the English
language as either a primary or a secondary language. English as
primary language refers to the first language a person learns in
childhood. Even when people go on to speak other languages; their
mother tongue influences their speaking skills and habits. When it
is used as a second language, this implies that a person may switch
to using English when it is convenient or when the parties do not
have the same native language.
David (2003) affirms this by stating that the international
spread of English language over 60 years is remarkable especially

262

when the number of people who use English as second (ESL) and
foreign language (FL) exceeds the native English speakers. He
predicts that English will serve as the world language for about 100
years before a new language takes over the mantle(David, 2003). In
addition, the purposes of teaching English has moved from the
ideas of knowing specific rules into the ability to talk,
communicate and use English for specific purposes. People
nowadays want to learn English not to write a poem, a novel or any
literary work but they need to be able to communicate reasonably
with other people speaking the same language.
Al-Khatib (2000) mentioned that the concern of English in
the Arab countries could be traced back to 1920s where many
countries in the region were under the British mandate. As a result,
English language has been introduced by most Arab countries in
schools(Al-Khatib, 2000).At present, learners who finish
secondary school must have had at least eight years of learning
English as a school subject. Moreover, most governments expect
those people who seek better living conditions in their countries to
be able to communicate fluently in English. Arabians who are
eager to go abroad for higher education must have in depth
knowledge of English in order to score well in the Test of English
as a foreign language (TOEFL) and qualify for admission to those
institutions (Zreagat 2012).
Therefore, many students prefer studying abroad in
countries whose education system is prominent for instance the
United States of America (Hackney et al., 2012). In 2010/2011
academic year alone, there was an increase in the number of
Arabian students by sixteen percent in the US (Hackney et al.,
2012). However, these students faced ethnocentrism and
intercultural CA during their interaction (Hackney et al., 2012).
Cultural differences affect communication since a person who has
a different culture from the locals faces ethnocentrism and thus,
this
can
lead
to
communication
apprehension
by
individuals.Zambardo (1977) examined the comparability of other
cultures to the US norms. The results were that in most of the cases

263

observed, there were significant differences attributed to culture.

Communication apprehension affects both genders in the
same manner regardless on their age. This fact is backed by a
study conducted by Ezzi (2012) on the impact of gender on the
anxiety of FL Yemeni undergraduate students since it is identified
as a major course of communication apprehension. The results
indicated that foreign language communication apprehension
levels among undergraduate learners of English are high for both
genders(Ezzi, 2012). This is worth considering and needs
continuous study on the phenomenon given that a considerable
number of participants are reluctant to respond to the teacher and
remained silent in oral English language classrooms due to many
reasons such, fear of speaking in front of others, negative
evaluation, shyness, lack of confidence and preparation, and fear
of making mistakes(Hamouda, 2012).

3.0
COMMUNICATION
STUDENTS

PROBLEM

AMONG

The problem in communication for EFL learners stems from a

combination of several factors. Thaher (2005) investigated these
factors in a Palestinian English foreign language (EFL) classroom.
She discovered that communication apprehension in English as a
FL classroom is a result of the combinations of psychological,
instructional andsocio-culture factors that affect the learners
attitudes towards speaking English in the classroom.Further proof
was demonstrated by Fatimahs (2011) whereby she discovered
that the majority of students experience some sort of CA when
communicating in English in the classroom due to low confidence
levels and the fear that they would make mistakes when they try to
use English (Fatimah, 2011).
For many years now, English as a language has been
introduced in the system of education around the globe. Students
are being taught from a very early age. For instance, the FL of

264

EFL

Libya is English and it is taught as a compulsory language from the

seventh grade of the primary school. English is used not only in the
classroom but some speak English even outside their classrooms
for specific reasons (Najeeb, 2013). Students in the English
department need to use English more often compared to those in
the other departments in order for them to both understand and be
understood by the non-Arabic speaking teachers in addition to
sharpening their oratory skills in the language(Geer and Gm,
2010).One problem that students usually face when leaning
English, as FL is the problem of understanding the messages
conveyed through the language (Cole and McCroskey, 2003). All
such issues can be overcome and the different reasons for OCA be
solved when the teachers clearly explain the rules that govern the
language and the learners have the desire to learn (Walsh 2006).
However there are many effects that are involved in the
high level of OCA (Walsh 2006). There are students who show
symptoms of apprehension, tension and physical expressions when
they face communication activities especially those with high OCA
(Byrne et al., 2012). In fact, Horwitz (2002) described the
apprehension as the hidden communication disorder because it is
frequently not observed, acknowledge or discussed (Gregersen
and Horwitz, 2002). Most university learners lack competency in
speaking since they have problems with communicating in
English(Yahya, 2013).
One of the problem is communication apprehension. As a
result, they are unwilling to communicate in English. According to
Yahya (2013), the problem stems from teaching; more emphasis
placed by teaching methods on national exams and English is
considered as just knowledge subject, which is not a
priority(Yahya, 2013). Yahya examined the factors that lead to oral
apprehension among students of EFL. He noted that the fear of
negative evaluation is a strong source of foreign language anxiety.
The oral skills, which are required by students to work in the real
situation,are ignored in Libyan education where the focus is still on
teaching vocabulary and the language structure(Najeeb, 2013). The

265

goal of teaching English in Libya is to enable learners to

communicate with English speakers who use oral and written
skills. However, such learners are not able to communicate with
others or to express themselves properly orally, despite the fact that
students have good repertoire of vocabulary.This problem
demonstrates that communication apprehension exists among EFL
students and it needs further attention.

4.0

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The current research attempts to answer the following

research questions:
1.
How does OCA affect the interaction between
students and teachers in the English language?
2.
How does OCA affect the manner in which
University students of the English language relate to
each other in the classroom?
3.
How does the formal classroom setting affect the
OCA of the university students learning English?
4.
What effect does OCA have on the ability to learn
English?

5.0

METHODOLOGY

The aim of this study is to investigate the OCA of

Alzytuona University students in the English Department at the
Faculty of Education. This research will be based on a case study
among Alzytouna University EFL students. As a mixed methods
research, a sample that includes EFL students will be used. This
will be specifically EFL students in the universitys English
department.

266

5.1

RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS

Sampling for this study will be 40 EFL students who are

non-native English speakers. The sample will focus on first year
EFL students at Alzytouna University. It is presumed that the
university environment, being different from high school (Endo
and Harpel, 1982), has greatly contributed to first year EFL
students to develop OCA. More so, these students have OCA due
to the presumption that the English department teacher does not
speak Arabic, which is the students first language. Despite the
students passing in reading and writing tests, they still show signs
of OCA. As such, a sample affecting this specific population is
important.Five teachers will be selected from all English teachers
at the universitys English Department. They will be selected from
the universitys English Department. The importance of including
teachers in the study is to investigate the experienced EFL
teachers thoughts on their opinions about causes of OCA among
their students. Selection of these teachers will be based on English
teachers who teach first year EFL students.

5.2

DATA COLLECTION

Instruments that will be used to collect data in this study

are classified into two types, which are, instruments for students
and for teachers. As a mixed methods study, instruments to be used
on studentswill include the classroom observations, questionnaires,
interviews and focus group.Instruments to be used on teachers will
beinterviews and classroom observations.

5.2.1

Observations

The observation method is the most commonly used

method especially in studies relating to behavioral science. In order

267

to gather the necessary information, the participants will be

observed with respect to how they respond to oral questions and
interact in English classes. As such, the researcher conducting
observation to collect data will be part of an English class. This
will enable the researcher to personally observe how EFL students
react to oral questions and collect data for analysis. For data
collected using observation instrument to be reliable, the research
will ensure that observation is done naturally.This means that the
researcher will not at any one point control or change the
environment. The researcher will ensure that he is not noticed by
acting naturally to ensure the population being studied behaves
normally (Mulhall, 2003). This is because students will not know
that they are being observed and thereby they will behave
normally. The aim of observing the EFL students will be to get
first-hand information on how they behave whenever they are in
English classes.

5.2.2

Interviews

Interviews will also be another instrument for data

collection in this study. The semi-structured interview will involve
a series of open-ended questions based on OCA (Byrne et al.,
2012) .The questions will be used to inquire about students
opinions and experiences related to their participation in class. The
participants will be requested to answer interview questions
involving why they fail to take part in EFL classes. The answers
will be written down to ensure data analysis is done easily and to
make students comfortable in responding. Teachers also will be
interviewed. This will involve five English teachers having direct
interviews with the researcher. As the teachers undergo interviews,
there will be audio recording of the interviews by using a digital
voice recorder. The interviews will offer the researcher an
opportunity to probe the teachers about OCA.The teacher
interviews will be reliable in exploring experiences of the teachers

268

with EFL students. Interviews have the advantage of offering

firsthand information. Such information can be reliable in a mixed
methods study as they give first hand views on a wider population
when most responses share common opinions (Klug et al., 2014).

5.2.3

Focus Group

This mixed methods research will use a focus group as the

key instrument for collecting research data in the qualitative part.
As such, a focus group will be of uttermost importance in this
study because they assist in investigating complex behaviors. The
focus group will involve EFL students discussing their opinions
towards OCA.The focus group will offer students a platform to
discuss their feeling pertaining to OCA. For instance, they can
discuss what they think that makes them have OCA. The
researcher will lead discussions in the focus group because the
researchers key function will be to ascertain that discussions go on
smoothly. The researcher will also ensure that all queries regarding
OCA among EFL students are discussed. More so, a focus group
will ensure that the sample students have a good setting to share
their experiences regarding OCA. As such, the sample students
will feel free to put forward their worries regarding OCA.

5.2.4

Questionnaire

As a mixed methods study, this research will also include a

quantitative study approach. In the quantitative study approach, the
data collection tool to be used will be questionnaires.
Questionnaires have the benefit of offering a chance to collect
large amounts of data from many people in a time and cost
effective way. It is also easy to analyze results of questionnaires,
whereby results can be analyzed scientifically. These benefits make
questionnaires practical in the quantitative part of this mixed

269

methodsstudy.Referring to Appendix A, in total, the questionnaire

will include 30 items that will be grouped as follows:
1. Items 1 to 9: Physiological factors that cause CA among
EFL students.
2. Items 10 to 19: Socio-cultural factors that cause CA among
EFL students.
3. Items 20 to 30: Instructional factors that cause CA among
EFL students.

6.0

DATA ANALYSIS

According to this type of a mixed methods case study, data

analysis is an inductive and on-going process. This approach offers
a move towards systematically documenting teaching-learning
interactions in rich context (Ernst-Slavit, 1997). Data analysis is
important as to gives more in-depth understanding of the problem
to give proper results and thereby recommendations. In a research,
data is usually analyzed using systematic procedures(Gay, 2003).
For instance, data from the instruments used in the study will be
assessed to identify various elements and then categorize them.
Data collected through recorded interviews will be analyzed by
transcribing the tapes. This will enable the recorded interviews can
be interpreted through thorough analysis (Lederman, 1990).
Recordings of focus group discussions and observations will be
transcribed with assistance of the software package Transana 2.3.
The survey data will be coded and entered into SPSS software for
analysis.
Data collected from observation, questionnaires,
interviews, and focus group will also be interpreted and
categorized. Like stated earlier on, this categorization will be based
on instructional, socio-cultural and psychological variables in order
to assess the factor that mainly leads to OCA among the students.
This will ensure that causes of OCA are grouped in different
variables to make it easier to know variables that contribute most

270

to development of OCA among EFL students.

7.0

CONCLUSION

This paper presented a mixed methods study approach to

investigate OCA among Alzytuona University students at the
Faculty of Education in the English Department. This research will
rely on primary data collection instruments such as interviews,
focus group, questionnaire, and observation. For instance, teacher
interviews will be reliable in investigating the experienced EFL
teachers thoughts on their views about causes of oral
communication apprehension among their students, while student
interviews, focus group, questionnaire and observation will offer
first hand data on oral communication apprehension among the
participants. Purposive sampling will be relied on during sample
collection. Sampling will only be limited to EFL students, who are
in first year level at Alzytuona University. These will be students
who are non-native English speakers. As a mixed methods study,
findings of the research will be crucial in assessing reasons that
induce OCA among these students.

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274

THE IMPROVING OF COGNITIVE

VISUAL SPATIAL USING
GOOGLE SKETCHUP IN
OVERCOMING LEARNING
DIFFICULTIES IN GEOMETRY
Rohani Abd Wahab, Mohd Salleh Bin Abu, Abdul Halim Bin
Abdullah, Noor Azean Bt Atan & Mahani Bt Mokhtar

ABSTRACT
Plan and elevation is one of the topics in mathematics that involves
3D object, picture in the mind and the process of deciphering in
geometry drawing. Subsequently, students need to prepare
themselves with basic concepts of geometric drawing as it will
encourage students learning more visual imaginative mathematics,
particularly geometry included. Yet, to master the fundamental
concepts of geometric drawings, students must excellent in their
cognitive visual spatial skill. Previous studies have shown that the
difficulty of understanding the concepts of geometry and solving
problems in geometry among students is mainly because they have
not mastered the main skill in geometry, which is cognitive visual
spatial skills. However, the present scenario which is happening in
Malaysia, teachers carry out teaching and learning in the classroom
assuming that students have the same cognitive visual spatial
ability and level of comprehension. Geometry teaching and
learning process should not be passive and simply responding to
the teachers stimuli. Teaching approaches in kickbacks notes
should be erased from the minds of educators and altered providing

275

knowledge and skills in order to acquire information more

efficiently. To overcome this problem, researchers believe that it is
necessary to design and develop meaningful learning methodology
using GSU dynamic software for geometry involving 3D to 2D
transformation.
Keyword: Cognitive visual spatial

INTRODUCTION
Geometry concepts are difficult to master and most students have
difficulties in understanding the concept of geometry, geometric
reasoning and problem solving skills involving geometry (Battista,
1999; Noraini, 2005). Previous studies have shown that the main
difficulty of understanding the concepts of geometry and solving
problems in geometry among students is because they have not
mastered cognitive visual spatial skills (Gutierrez,1992; Konyaliog
& Aksu, 2012). Thus, based on the experience of researchers as
mathematics educators, the difficulty in mastering the learning of
geometry is likely due to the weakness in cognitive visual spatial
the especially for the topic Plan and Elevation. It is believed that in
this topic, problem solving involves illustration in mind, accurately
based on the size and angle of a solid 3D to 2D. Therefore, the
expected difficulty of learning for this topic, can be overcome by
increasing the cognitive visual spatial skill (Van de Walle et al.,
2010).
Cognitive visual spatial skill is a division of visualization
which involves the ability to mentally manipulate, rotate, or present
an object in pictorial (Strong & Smith, 2002; McGee, 1979).
However, the scenario happening in Malaysia currently, teachers
carry out the teaching and learning (T&L) in the classroom
assuming that students have the same cognitive visual spatial
ability. This is because teachers rely solely on the content of
available textbooks (Abdul Halim & Mohini, 2007), although the

276

progress of the students ability to achieve cognitive visual spatial

skill not only depending on the age and maturity.
Technological advances have been actively studied by prior
researchers to reduce the difficulties in learning mathematics,
including geometry. Along with the goal of learning towards the
21st century to maximize the use of technology in education, the
use of computer-based learning, mostly geometry dynamic
software used in numerous presently. This is because it usually
involves students actively interact with it, which should lead to a
better mathematical acquisition (Erko, 2013) and will create
meaningful learning (Monica et al., 2011; Polly, 2011; Tsai & Yen,
2013), formerly will enhance the development of thinking to a
higher level (Polly, 2011).

GEOMETRY LEARNING DIFFICULTIES

Geometry learning difficulties are not only faced by Malaysian
students but throughout the world. This phenomenon is illustrated
in the report TIMSS 2011 (Mullis et al., 2012) which reported that
of 63 countries taking part for students in grade eight (form two),
25 countries have higher achievement in algebra and only 10
countries have higher achievements in geometry. Furthermore, a
report from the TIMSS 2011 also depicted that only 33% in 2011
from a number of Malaysian students involved in TIMSS
successfully solved geometry problems correctly. The difficulty for
students learning geometry in Malaysia is probably because of
weaknesses in cognitive visual spatial skill that cause them being
not assure and students just memorize the way teachers work given
as reported in TIMSS 2011. Only 3% of Malaysian students are
confident when answering mathematical problems, 55% of the
students memorized formulas, procedures and facts, while the
remaining 49% applying only the facts, concepts and procedures
in the mathematics class (Mullis et al., 2012).
Previous mathematical researchers found that the main

277

difficulty in learning geometry among students is because they

have not mastered cognitive visual spatial skills (Baartmansn &
Sorby, 2003; Konyaliog & Aksu , 2012). Bushro and Halimah
(2008) in their study found that the accomplishment of Malaysian
students were moderate and still cannot answer correctly because
they have yet to acquire the knowledge of basic geometry and solid
geometry concepts. Moreover, most candidates cannot precisely
and accurately draw the hidden lines of elevation-x and elevation-y
and the students failed to distinguish the line construction and line
objects. In addition, students disorderly in drawing, for example
there is an inavailability of a fine line, wrong scale and incomplete
line. This clearly demonstrates the importance of cognitive visual
spatial skills are fundamentals to reflect this phenomenon in the
minds of students and the development of geometric critical
thinking to enable students to translate into a drawing with
precision. The same problem also exists in the Engineering
Drawing for the question of which orthographic drawings, the
candidate is not able to complete some lines of objects in a timely
and accurate forecasts. The students only build one or two points
between the exact point of the curve (Mohamad Safarin, 2010;
Mohd Safarin & Muhammad Sukri, 2007).

GEOMETRY
LEARNING
DIFFICULTIES
COGNITIVE VISUAL SPATIAL SKILLS

AND

Problem solving in geometry are based on real situations and often

involve visual spatial (Jonassen, 2003) in constructing a mental
representation (Kyttl & Lehto, 2008). Geometry drawing is
principally the way of illustration in a persons mind (visual
spatial) which is translated by drawing as a medium of
communication (Ferguson, 1992). While according to Marr (1982),
the highest ability in visualization system is the transformation of
the retina 2-dimensional (2D) to three-dimensional (3D) with
accuracy, fast and easily recognizable. Cognitive visual spatial skill

278

is a branch of visualization which involves the ability to mentally

manipulate, rotate, tighten or in pictorial to present their objects
(McGee, 1979;Strong & Smith, 2002).
Numerous students have difficulties in learning geometry
when studying topics that require high visualization ability.
Incapacity of students to ensure that every detail in the object that
is rotated as the edges or corners protected is the main difficulty
faced by students. Additionally, Wilder & Mason (2005) stated that
a common problem among students is the transformation of an
object implies 3 D embodied in orthographic form. Furthermore,
Koch (2006) found that most students are difficult to differentiate
3D objects from 2D demonstration. Hence it can be determined that
improving cognitive visual spatial skills will help the students to
define an object and figure out geometry problems successfully.
Piaget and Inhelder (1958) stated that students cognitive
visual spatial ability is extended into three stages, starting with the
age of topological, projective spatial and spatial Euclidean
projective transition. According to Piaget, cognitive visual spatial
skill among students in secondary schools are said to have the
capability of projective spatial able to visualize 3D objects viewed
from a different angle, rotated or transformed in the space. While
from the viewpoint of educational psychology, cognitive visual
spatial skills are believed to be natural ability, one needs to explain
certain things, even without formal training associated with spatial
ability.

MEANINGFUL LEARNING BASED ON OPEN DYNAMIC

SOFTWARE (GOOGLE SKETCHUP)
Geometry teaching and learning should be active and simply
responds to the teachers stimuli. Teaching approaches in
kickbacks notes should be erased from the minds of educators and
altered in providing knowledge and skills in order to acquire
information (Van De Walle et al., 2010). Thus, the pattern of open

279

education in all schools and the boost to encourage the use of the
module are suitable for enhancing students skills and having the
quality and higher level of leadership, responsibility and so on to
meet the needs of the country in accordance with the requirements
of Philosophy education.
Educators often use teaching aids as solid blocks, visuals
static or simply drawing on the chalkboard / whiteboard in teaching
geometry (Abdul Rashid, 2008; Durmus & Karakrk, 2006).
Therefore, students are encountering many troubles and difficulties
in acquiring what is taught, and more essentially, this causes them
to find a way out to memorize mathematical concepts without
understanding (Schwartz, 2008). Students who learn by
memorizing easily tend to forget the information that has been
memorized, confused, or not able to apply the information to
different situations. These approaches are not relevant to students
now as it is not providing students the opportunity to engage in the
process of thinking geometry (Polly, 2011) and retard the mentally
reflection skills (cognitive visual spatial skill) a combination of the
block in learning the basic concepts of drawing geometry (Contero
et al., 2005).
According to Schuman (1991), when students learn to
manipulate the images produced by the students own experience is
said to be able to learn more effectively and meaningfully.
Therefore, meaningful learning can overcome this problem. The
concept of meaningful learning that has been introduced by
Ausubel (1963) contains a description of how individuals learn, as
the features found in the activity and how the instruction being
organized (Ausubel, 1968). There are four main features on
meaningful learning which are active, authentic, constructive and
cooperative (Grabe & Grabe, 2007). Students should be given the
opportunity to carry out mathematical experiments through
exploration and investigation of geometrical shapes on their own.
Parallel with theory processing multimedia software aided
integrating Information Processing Theory Gagne (1985), Dual
Coding Theory Paivio (1986) and Mayer's Cognitive Theory

280

(2001), explain that students will construct knowledge and process

of encoding information happens to long-term memory. The
information in the form of verbal and visual stored and organized
on the model of verbal and visual related tasks.
Computer-based learning environment typically consists of
symbolic and pictorial representation of static and dynamic, often
combined with the possibility to modify them interactively.
Computer softwares for the teaching of 3D geometry allow
students to see the solid is represented in several possible ways to
screen and to change it, help them to acquire and develop
visualization abilities in the context of 3D geometry (Erko ,2013).
Gutirrez (1996) pointed out that when a person operates a 3D and
it rotates, the rotation is made by hand so quickly, causing the
students fail to think of any action. The 3D software can help
students improving their visual spatial skill to develop a mobility
strategy in mind and expect results translate into a drawing.

Figure 1 Screen shot of 3-dimensional block model in GSU modeling

workspace

GSU will create meaningful learning in which they invite

students to actively engage in basic geometry. GSU is able to
create, modify, represent, and analyze a variety of 3D objects as
shown in figure 1, figure 2 and figure 3. GSU has an advantage to
strive with the most transformational geometry software which is
widely available. According to the Uygan and Kurtulus (2010)
findings in their study of training mathematics teachers in year
two, it is shown that GSU can be used effectively in education as
an alternative geometry dynamic geometry software to improve

281

spatial visualization ability. This is supported by Erko (2013a)

studies for eigth grade students (form two), which has positive
effects on spatial skills using software-based dynamic learning
GSU than solid blocks.

Figure 2 View from the top

Figure 3 View from the side

CONCLUSION
Based on the information and evidence mentioned earlier, there are
indications that the learning difficulties experienced by Malaysian
students in learning of Plan and Elevation is associated with
cognitive visual spatial specifically related to 3D objects.
Therefore, one of the main efforts to overcome the difficulties in
learning geometry is to overcome students weaknesses in
cognitive visual spatial skill. Researchers feel that it is necessary to
design and develop meaningful learning using dynamic software
GSU for geometry involving 3D to 2D transformation. Researchers
who are interested to study the effectiveness of this module is to
improve and enhance students cognitive visual spatial skills in
overcoming learning difficulties in geometry particularly involving
Plan and Elevation
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285

ASSESSING LECTURERS
BELIEFS ON TEACHING
Samah Ali Mohsen Mofreh, M. Najib Abdul Ghafar & Abdul
Hafiz Hj Omar

ABSTRACT
This paper aims to assess the lecturers beliefs on teaching based
on assumption that demographic factors influence lecturers
beliefs. The assumption is lecturers beliefs on teaching depend on
demographic factors. This paper was guided by reviewing the
theoretical and historical perspectives of lecturers beliefs on
teaching. Altogether 103 lecturers of Community Colleges
completed the survey. Data analysis of survey revealed that the
demographic factors have weak influence on lecturers beliefs on
teaching and there is not statistically significant difference among
lecturers beliefs on teaching based on demographic factors.
Keywords: influence, demographic factors, lecturers beliefs on
teaching

INTRODUCTION
Lecturers are expected to play a crucial role in changing
educational institutions and classrooms (Prawat, 1992; Pajares,
1992; Bybee, 1993; Haney, Czerniak, & Lumpe, 1996; Levitt,
2002; Alsayed, 2004; Mukred, 2010; Esmail, 2010; Mazab 2012,
Latshaw, 1995; Baker, 2001, Aziz, 2012, Mofreh et. al., 2013).
Thus, it is essential to understand how lecturer beliefs influence

286

and how they conceptualize teaching (Pagares, 1992 & Wang et al.,
2010). However, lecturers are seen as the main obstacles to change,
due to their traditional beliefs.
Several studies have examined the relationship between
lecturer beliefs and their practice (Mansour, 2009; Thompson,
1992; Pajares, 1992; Lacorte & Canabal, 2005; Aguirre & Speer,
2000) (Zembylas, 2005). Some researchers doing research in
science and mathematics education reported a high degree of
agreement between lecturer beliefs and the practice of teaching
(Aguirre & Speer, 2000; Ernest, 1989; Standen, 2002; Thompson,
1992) whereas others have identified some inconsistencies
(Kynigos & Argyris, 2004; Lefebvre, Deaudelin & Loiselle, 2006;
Zembylas, 2005). Some Studies support the claim that lecturers'
beliefs influence classroom practices through interpreting
meanings in the classroom (Thompson, 1992, Yero, 2002;
Mansour, 2008).
On other hand, some researchers argued that the
relationship between lecturers beliefs and practices is a complex
one, and that the researcher must question common assumptions
made about it (Kynigos and Argyris, 2004). The relationship
between lecturer beliefs and practice is controversial and has a
complex nature (Savasci-Acikalin, 2009). The complexity comes
from the fact that it is important for researchers and educators to
think in terms of connections among beliefs not only in terms of
beliefs as independent subsystems (Pajares, 1992). The argument
about complexity of the relationship between beliefs and classroom
practices is based on two assumptions (Kynigos & Argyris, 2004),
first, that lecturers are professionals who make reasonable
judgments and decisions within a complex and uncertain
community, school and classroom environment; and second, that
lecturers thoughts, judgments and decisions influence their
classroom behaviour. However, lecturers need significant
assistance in identifying the disparity between their espoused
beliefs and practices and to think through those inherent in new
initiatives (Standen, 2002).

287

However, seeking to account for the beliefs of lecturers

hold in terms of discrete demographic variables is unlikely to be
productive (Borg & Burns, 2008). Andrews (2008) found that
lecturer beliefs about grammar were not significantly correlated to
aspects of background such as place/subject of first degree and
years of teaching experience but that there did seem to be a link
between beliefs and the particular school context in which the
lecturers worked. The influence of classroom contexts and factors
such as educational experience has been widely cited in the broader
literature relating lecturer belief to practice (Lam and Kember,
2006). Therefore, it will be more important to investigate the
contextual influences and constraints on lecturers practice and to
explore how their experiences of being taught may have shaped
their beliefs than to attempt to identify trends related to
demographic characteristics across the limited sample. Thus, This
study aims to assess the lecturers beliefs on teaching function
based on demographic characteristics in order to figure out if that
will impact this study in more or less complex ways, and will raise
issues relate to the contexts of this study.

THEORTICAL STRUCTURE
The beliefs about the nature of teaching and learning which include
direct transmission beliefs about learning and teaching and
constructivist beliefs about learning and
teaching. These
dimensions of these beliefs are well established in educational
research at least in Western countries and have also received
support elsewhere (Kim, 2005). The direct transmission view of
student learning implies that the role of lecturers is to transfer
knowledge in a clear and structured way, to explain the correct
solutions to give students clear and resolve problems, and to ensure
calm and concentration in the classroom. By contrast, a
constructivist view focuses on students not as passive participants,
but as active participants in the process of acquiring knowledge.

288

Lecturers who holding this view emphasize facilitate student

research, prefer to give students the opportunity to develop
solutions to problems on their own, and allow students to play an
active role in teaching activities. In this sense, the development of
thinking and reasoning processes stands out more than the
acquisition of specific knowledge (Staub and Stern, 2002).

Lecturer Beliefs and Teaching Beliefs

Understanding the beliefs of lecturers is important in any lecturer
education program as we cannot effect change in lecturers
behaviours without also effecting change in their personal beliefs
(Kagan, 1992). Lecturer beliefs are the ideas that influence how
they conceptualize teaching. These ideas encompass what it takes
to be an effective lecturer and how students ought to behave
(Pajares, 1992). Pajares (1992) states that beliefs function as a filter
through which new phenomena are interpreted. Schommer (1990,
1994) argued that beliefs are multidimensional. She suggests that
epistemological beliefs evolve with experience, reflecting
experiences of both education and home-life and that there is scope
for change.
Cartoonist and Tabachnick (1981) advanced an
explanation, namely that the thousands of hours that future
lecturers and students spend in the classroom shape their beliefs.
These conservative beliefs remain latent for formal training in
pedagogy in college and become a major force once the candidate
is in its own class. Later, Kennedy (1997) attributes this situation
in part to the belief that candidates and lecturers bring to lecturer
education. It is unclear what the source of those beliefs might be, a
product of their education, a reflection of their life experiences, or
because of the socialization process.
However, lecturers and future lecturers have strong beliefs
about the role that education can play on the explanation of
individual variations in academic performance, good and poor in a

289

classroom, and many other areas. Kennedy says that these beliefs
are used to evaluate new ideas about teaching that lecturers and
future lecturers face in their methods classes. Those teachings that
their beliefs are recognized and characterized as "what's new?"
Lessons to question their beliefs are dismissed as theoretical,
impractical, or even simply wrong. Kennedy went on to say that, a
belief that future lecturers bring to their professional education is
"they already have what it takes to be a good lecturers, and
therefore have little to learn from the formal research of teaching.
Bruner (1996) noted a similar and related. View, he said that most
people have acquired what he calls a "folk pedagogy" that reflects
certain "cable-in human tendencies and some deeply held beliefs".
This view leads to the Bruner called for a new and even
revolutionary idea. Lecturers educators", in theorizing about the
practice of teaching in the classroom, lecturers may better consider
the popular theories that those engaged in teaching and learning. If
Cartoonist, Tabachnick, Kennedy and Bruner are right, perhaps
lecturers educators must assume the task of changing some of the
beliefs of lecturers and future lecturers at the beginning of a
program to optimize the impact of the program may have in
learning new teaching practices. There may be an even more
pressing reason to address the problem of belief change (Raths,
2001).
Aguirre and Speer (2000) gave details on how those beliefs
inform practice particularly in the formulation of objectives in the
classroom. They argue that the way lecturers' beliefs play a central
role in their practice. In their research, a collection of specific
beliefs that are connected to each other and influence the
formulation of a goal can be called a "bundle of belief. A bundle
includes a number of beliefs (beliefs about learning, beliefs about
teaching, beliefs about science, .that go along). The belief bundles
played a central role in the formulation of objectives that influence
lecturers sharing during activities.
Ernest explained that the two key factors for a mismatch
between beliefs and teaching practices were full power influence of

290

the social context and the level of awareness of their own beliefs of
the lecturer. He thought that this gap could be overcome. However,
he noted that "the thought of higher level allows the lecturer to
reflect on the gap between beliefs and practices and reduce it.
According Yero (2002), "Beliefs not only affect the way people
behave, but what they see (or pay attention to) in their
environment". Mansour (2009) found that some lecturers 'beliefs
are taken directly from their origin and their culture and science
lecturers beliefs and practices cannot be considered out of their
socio-cultural context. The research also indicates that most
lecturers' religious beliefs were often informal sources (family,
society, previous lecturers, the media, etc.) can lead to positive
attitudes among lecturers to science and science education. For
example, he argued that Islam encouraged science and learning.
However, Aguirre and Speer (2000) noted that viewing "a
lecturers belief" usually means that the lecturers behave in a
manner consistent with such a belief.

METHOD
This study being a survey study aims to investigate the level of the
lecturers beliefs on teaching based on demographic factors.
Questionnaire was used as a survey design. The sample of this
study was 103 respondents who were lecturers at CC. The
questionnaire includes 68 questions divided into 8 constructs.
LBTF constructs were related to Class Management (CM),
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), Planning and Presentation
(PP), Teaching Strategies (TS), Communication and Relation with
Students (CRS), Assessing Students Learning (ASL), Prior
Knowledge Experience (PKE), and Professional Practice (PP). In
addition, the questionnaire included demographic items about the
respondents gender, age, qualification, tenure status and
employment status.

291

RESULTS
The questionnaire results of this study were analyzed based on the
descriptive results to identify the LBTF among the CC lecturers
based on mean destructions of LBT, and the results of demographic
factors to assess the level of LBTF among the CC lecturers based
on demographic factors.
Table 1 shows the means of LBTF constructs among the
lecturers at CC. The LBTF constructs named Class Management
(CM), Curriculum Knowledge (CK), Lesson Plan Presentation
(PP), Teaching Strategies (TS), Communication and Relation with
Students (CRS), Assessing Students Learning (ASL), Prior
Knowledge & Experience (PKE), Professional Practice (PP) mean
distributions are 4.23, 4.25, 4.06, 4.03, 4.17, 4.15, 4.2 and 4.29
respectively. As shown in Table 1, most respondents have strong
beliefs on PCK with mean value 4.25, and the lowest beliefs they
have on PKE with mean value 4.2. These results may imply that
the respondents know well the teaching function of curriculum
Knowledge, and have lack beliefs on professional practice of
teaching.
Table 1 LBTF constructs means distributions
CM
4.23

CK
4.25

PP
4.06

TS
4.03

CRS
4.17

ASL
4.15

PKE
4.2

PP
4.29

As Table 2 shows there is difference between level of LBTF

among male and female. However, according to Table 3 MannWhitney test value is 964.000 and Asymp. Sig value is .642; this
result implies that difference is not statistically significant. On
other words, this difference is due to fluctuation in sampling.

292

Table 2 Ranks of gender by Mann- Whitney test

LBTF

Gender
Male
Female
Total

N
76
27
10
3

Mean Rank
52.82
49.70

Sum of Ranks
4014.00
1342.00

Table 3 Ranks of gender Kruskal Wallis Test

Mann-Whitney U
Wilcoxon W
Z
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)

LBTF
964.000
1342.00
0
-.465
.642

As Table 4 shows there is difference between levels of

LBTF among different categories of age respondents. According to
Table 5 Kurskal- Wallis test value is 4.986, df value is 4 and
Asymp. Sig. Value is .289. This result with p-value which is more
than 0.05 indicates that difference is not statistically significant. On
other words, this difference is due to fluctuation in sampling.
Table 4 Ranks of age by Mann- Whitney test
LBTF

Age
25-30
31-36
37-42
43-48
49-54
Total

N
13
58
26
3
3
10
3

Mean Rank
44.81
50.10
61.40
58.00
32.33

Table 5 Ranks of age Kruskal Wallis test

Chi-Square
df
Asymp. Sig.

LBTF
4.986
4
.289

As Table 6 shows there is difference between levels of

LBTF among different categories qualification respondents.
293

According to Table 7 Kurskal- Wallis test value is 2.002, df value

is 3 and Asymp. Sig. Value is .572. This result with p-value which
is more than 0.05 indicates that difference is not statistically
significant. On other words, this difference is due to fluctuation in
sampling.
Table 6 Ranks of qualification by Mann- Whitney test
LBTF

Qualification
Bachelor
Master
PhD
Total

N
25
56
22
10
3

Mean Rank
50.62
55.32
45.52

Table 7 Ranks of qualification by Kruskal Wallis test

LBTF
2.002
3
.572

Chi-Square
df
Asymp. Sig.

As Table 8 shows there is difference between levels of

LBTF among different categories tenure status respondents.
According to Table 9 Kurskal- Wallis test value is 17.242, df value
is 4 and Asymp. Sig. Value is .002. This result with p-value which
is less than 0.05; this difference is not statistically. On other
words, there is difference of LBTF among respondents in term of
tenure status.
Table 8 Ranks of tenure status by Mann- Whitney test
LBTF

Tenure
1-5
6-10
11-15
16-21
22-26
Total

N
32
47
19
2
3
103

294

Mean Rank
42.31
52.60
72.92
49.25
15.33

Table 9 Ranks of tenure status by Kruskal Wallis test

LBTF
17.242
4
.002

Chi-Square
df
Asymp. Sig.

As Table 10 shows there is difference between level of

LBTF among full time respondents and part time respondents.
However, according to Table 11 Mann-Whitney test value is
501.000 and Asymp. Sig value is .404. The p-value is more than
0.05 which indicates difference is not statistically significant.
Table 10 Ranks of employment status by Mann-Whitney test
LBTF

Employment Status
Full time
Part time
Total

N
90
13
10
3

Mean Rank
52.93
45.54

Sum of Ranks
4764.00
592.00

Table 11 Ranks of employment satus by Kruskal Wallis test

Mann-Whitney U
Wilcoxon W
Z
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)

LBTF
501.000
592.000
-.834
.404

CONCLUSION
This paper presents a survey study results on assessing the level of
lecturer beliefs on teaching based on demographic factors at CC in
Yemen. Descriptive results show that the respondents have strong
beliefs on curriculum Knowledge, and have lack beliefs on
professional practice of teaching. The inferential data analysis of
survey revealed that the level of LBTF based on demographic
factors is not statistically significant difference. On other words,
this difference is due to fluctuation in sampling and the
demographic factors have weak influence on lecturers beliefs on
teaching.

295

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300

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING
(PBL) IN MATHEMATICS: A
META ANALYSIS
Najihah binti Mustaffa, Zaleha binti Ismail, Zaidatun binti Tasir, &
Mohd Nihra Haruzuan bin Mohamad Said

ABSTRACT
Nowadays, mathematics has become a fundamental application in
other fields and towards science, technology and innovation.
Mathematics is taught using conventional methods and as a result,
more focus is given on achievement and grade. As a result,
students cannot apply mathematics in real life and they will feel
meaningless. An instructional teaching approach, in which real
problems are used in learning process, is known as problem-based
learning that was originally implemented in medical and applied in
nurse and various fields. Our previous work show that the positive
impact of implementation in problem-based learning in schools.
Hence, this leads to the question, does problem-based learning give
an impact in mathematics? This meta-analysis investigates the
impact of the implementation of problem-based learning in
mathematics. The finding shows positive impacts in the
implementation of problem-based learning in mathematics at
various levels. However, retention only for the certain topics and
decrease creative thinking in the aspect of fluency.
Keywords: Problem-based learning, PBL, Mathematics, Primary,
Secondary, Tertiary

301

INTRODUCTION
Mathematics is an interesting subject and can nurture creativity in
life. However, students think that mathematics is an uninteresting
and meaningless subject. Students feel afraid, worried and anxious
to learn mathematics.
Furthermore, students perceived that
mathematics is a difficult subject due to lack of mathematics
laboratory and unattractive teaching method that is not related to
real life and real world problem (Ali et al., 2010; Cazzola, 2008).
Moreover, many schools are more focused on their performance to
achieve excellent examination results, especially in the public
examination. As a result, students focus on the examination
without understanding the concept of real mathematics. Previous
research in mathematics shows that conventional strategy cannot
enhance mathematical thinking skills (Ahmad et al., 2008) as
nowadays, students like challenges in learning mathematics that
emphasizes self-learning with available resources and help them to
develop skills in various fields. However, they still need a teacher
to facilitate them to identify what they need to know and learn in
order to solve problems. Moreover, peers and computer-paper
based cognitive tools (Schmidt et al., 2011) also play a significant
role as a scaffold to facilitate meaningful and lifelong learning.
Mathematics teacher should create a learning environment that
makes mathematics as an enjoyable subject that enhances students
thinking skills, brainstorming, as well as initiates more discussion
and gives motivation. Students perceptions towards mathematics
as a subject that is not integrated and has no connection with real
life can be changed by providing them with an authentic
mathematical problem scenario, where this relationship between
mathematical concepts and everyday life is often overlooked. PBL
is a learning approach that uses latest issues in order to expose
students with real world problems and their application in the
workplace later on. PBL is also a group learning strategy where
students with different levels (high and low) will help one another

302

towards the construction of knowledge, in-depth understanding and

generic skills such as teamwork, leadership, communication skills
and motivation (Othman et al., 2010).
PBL started at the McMaster University in the late 1960s and
spread widely to the North America and other countries (Abdullah
et al., 2010; Albanese & Mitchell, 1993; Savery, 2006) in various
fields including education (Sulaiman & Baco, 2012). PBL is an
experiential learning that helps students to become active and
meaningful learners. PBL provides students with real world
problems to solve problems (Hmelo-Silver, 2004), promotes
student-centered learning and enhances the development of
students higher-order thinking and fostering students social skills
(Azer, 2009). PBL has been implemented in various fields such as
stated in the Table 1:Table 1 Implementation of PBL in various fields
Discipline
Science
Geography
Nursing
Physics
Biology
Business
communication
Architecture
Chemistry
Leadership education

Author
(nel & Balm, 2013; Liu et al., 2014; Drake & Long, 2009; Shahbodin et al.,
2009; Wong & Day, 2009)
(Ratinen & Keinonen, 2011; Yeung, 2010)
(Chan, 2013)
(Saka & Kuma, 2009)
(Chin & Chia, 2004)
(Pennell & Miles, 2009)
(Javier & Cepeda, 2005)
(Peen & Arshad, 2014; Tarhan & Acar, 2007; Tarhan & Acar-sesen, 2013)
(Bridges & Hallinger, 1996)

This shows that PBL has been applied in medical as well as

implemented in various fields which are science, geography,
nursing, physics, biology, business communication, architecture,
chemistry and leadership education. PBL uses ill-structured
problem in the process of learning where there are multiple
solutions and no one has the correct way to solve the problem (Chin
& Chia, 2005). However, what about the application and impact of

303

its implementation in mathematics?

Moreover, learning in
mathematics considers only one solution for the solving problems.
Research should be conducted to study the potential use of PBL in
learning Mathematics.

RESEARCH QUESTION
This paper aims to answer the following research question:
What is the impact of learning mathematics through PBL in
primary, secondary and tertiary levels?

METHODOLOGY
Papers and abstracts that mentioned PBL as the title and keywords
were retrieved. Papers that were retrieved were original and
empirical published papers, as well as papers with the
implementation of PBL in mathematics for students only. Review
papers that had been published since 2008 until early 2014 were
selected in this study. There may be exist limitation due to limited
years, and relevant meta-analyses may have been missed. The
procedure of this meta-analysis is based on the previous reviewed
by (Dochy et al., (2003).
The terms [problem-based learning],
[Problem-based learning AND mathematics], [Problem-based
learning Primary mathematics], [Problem-based learning Secondary
mathematics] and [PBL AND Mathematics] were used via
databases such as EBSCOHost, IEEEXplore Digital Library,
JSTOR, SAGE Journal, ScienceDirect, Taylor & Francis Online,
Web of Science, ProQuest, Google Scholar and Interdisciplinary
Journal of Problem-based learning.
However, the electronic search was not narrowed down and
subsequent iterations were done manually to reduce the likelihood
of introducing further bias at this stage. This was mainly because
the participants age group was often not or insufficiently reflected

304

in the titles, keywords or abstracts. Following the initial selection

on the basis of titles, the output of the electronic search included a
total of 75 papers. We had found the implementation of PBL in
mathematics for teachers and students. Majority of the papers were
related to the implementation of PBL in medical education. The
focus of these studies was only on the implementation of PBL in
mathematics. 21 papers reported on the use of PBL concerning
knowledge domain, result and level, which formed the final sample
of papers. In this meta-analysis, the authors reviewed the literature
based on the narrative review. A narrative view synthesized nonnumeric data in the systematic way to know what we want to metaanalyze (Jerzembek & Murphy, 2013). The purpose of this metaanalysis is to review the implementation of PBL in mathematics.
Table 2 shows a review of the implementation of PBL in
mathematics.

Table 2 A review of the implementation of PBL in mathematics

Author
(Li, 2011)

Knowledge domain
Number

Results
Most of the students got
together and enjoyed the
discussion
Students performance in the
post implementation test was
better than the post unit test

(Hatsaru &
Kkturan, 2009b)

Statistics

90% students thought the

problem had an educational
issue
90% students thought working
in group increased their work
and research abilities
80% students thought that
mathematics is connected to
real life
90% students believed that
problem scenario was suitable
for their grade

Secondary

Algebra

Cycle I - no improvement in
critical and creative thinking.
Cycle II - both showed

Secondary

(Happy et al., 2011)

305

Level
Primary

(Padmavathy &
Mareesh, 2013)
(Kalaivani &
Tarmizi, 2014)

improvement except for creative

thinking in the aspect of fluency
Girls and boys attained better
achievement
Enhanced
conceptual
knowledge of algebra. Ability
to resolve high order thinking
questions
Improved students overall
performance,
conceptual
knowledge in learning statistics.
Reduced number of errors and
mental load in problem solving
in statistics

Not Mentioned
Algebra

Statistics
(Tarmizi et al.,
2012)

Increased level of confidence

Retention of certain topics

Calculus

Secondary
Secondary

Tertiary

Tertiary

(Ahmad et al., 2008)

Obviously, most of the studies report positive impact towards

learning mathematics through PBL.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The Impact of PBL in Primary Schools
From the meta-analysis, only 2 out of 21 papers that
implemented PBL in primary level gave a positive impact in
mathematics. Students can solve the problem in groups
(Tillman, 2013). However, at the primary level, guidance from
teachers is needed to lead students to work in groups (Li, 2011).
Moreover, there are challenges and difficulties in implementing
PBL at the primary level during the middle part of the
intervention such as students attitude and teachers emotion (Li,
2011). PBL is a student-centered learning where students work
collaboratively and are guided by teachers or lecturers as
facilitators (Letchumanan, 2008).
In PBL, students are
encouraged to solve mathematical problems collaboratively
rather than individually.

306

The Impact of PBL in Secondary Schools

From the meta-analysis, thirteen papers reviewed the PBL and how it
was implemented within four weeks to one year to complete the task.
From the review, PBL gave a positive impact to learning process at
secondary levels. From the meta-analysis, PBL plays a significant
role in creating cognitive and affective domain as stated in Table 3 :-

Table 3 Impact on cognitive and affective domain in learning mathematics

through PBL
Cognitive and affective domain
Motivation
Belief
Achievement
Mathematical communication
skills
Group interactivity
Permanent learning
Self-confidence
Active participation

Teamwork

Author
(Ali et al., 2011; Kohlhaas, 2011)
(Alfred et al., 2014)
(Alfred et al., 2013; Kohlhaas, 2011; Padmavathy &
Mareesh, 2013; Yahya, 2011)
(Abdullah et al., 2010; Tarmizi et al.,2010)
(Hatsaru & Kkturan, 2009a)
(Hatsaru & Kkturan, 2009a, 2009b)
(Hatsaru & Kkturan, 2009a, 2009b)
(Hatsaru & Kkturan, 2009a)
(Abdullah et al., 2010; Tarmizi et al., 2010)
(Hatsaru & Kkturan, 2009b)
(Hatsaru & Kkturan, 2009b; Yahya, 2011)
(Abdullah et al., 2010; Yahya & Zaman, 2008)
(Kalaivani & Tarmizi, 2014)

Analytical thinking
Cooperative
Problem solving
High-order thinking questions

Students enhance their knowledge (Kalaivani & Tarmizi, 2014)

and mathematical concepts (Yahya & Zaman, 2008), and try to
adopt new knowledge and experience by discovering through
problems (Ali et al., 2011). From the meta-analysis, the
307

researcher found a small number of research on creative thinking

in mathematics through PBL. Moreover, there result shows that
PBL is still lacking in creative thinking in the aspect of fluency
(Happy et al.,2011). PBL allows students to gain experience and
in-depth learning in mathematics, improves their problem
solving skills and enhances metacognition and reasoning that
provides students to be active in groups and motivation
(Padmavathy & Mareesh, 2013).
However, students at
secondary level prefer the conventional method because they
have learnt the basis from kindergarten. Moreover, there are
challenges and difficulties in implementing PBL in secondary
schools. Learning objective can be achieved through correct
problem scenario (Abdullah et al., 2010; Kalaivani & Tarmizi,
2014). Teachers should choose the correct problem scenario and
trigger to be implemented in the class and guide students in
the correct path. In addition, peers should play a significant role
to encourage their peers to involve in the discussion.
From the meta-analysis, the algebra is still being studied.
Students need interaction and questioning environment to
improve students performance in algebra such as collaborative
learning, PBL and others (engl & Erdoan, 2014). Students
found it difficult to work with the abstract concepts. Students
cannot understand because they cannot visualize the abstract
(Strand & Mills, 2014). Moreover, form two students are still
lack the conceptual understanding of algebraic expressions
(Seng, 2010).

The Impact of PBL in Tertiary Level

From the meta-analysis, the knowledge domain only focused on
statistics and calculus at the tertiary level, in which the students
were able to revise what they had learnt in previous knowledge.
At tertiary level, PBL gives a positive impact on problem
solving, effective verbal and communication skills, collaborative

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(Tarmizi & Bayat, 2012; Tarmizi et al., 2010), performance

(Grsul & Keser, 2009; Tarmizi et al., 2012), conceptual
knowledge (Leppink et al., 2013), perceived value (Leppink et
al., 2013), useful learning (Leppink et al., 2013), cooperation
(Grsul & Keser, 2009), retention (Ahmad et al., 2008) and
confidence (Ahmad et al., 2008). However, more generic skills
should be emphasized for future employment. PBL can offer an
excellent platform for the development of generic skills
(Baharom & Palaniandy, 2013). Moreover, students should be
equipped with technical skills for the workplace. PBL can be
integrated with the technology to be implemented as an
innovation in learning (Tarmizi et al., 2012). Therefore, students
will be ready with generic skills and technical skills in the
working environment.

CONCLUSION
This study strived to ascertain the impact of PBL on mathematics
knowledge domain, result and level. Research in PBL has been
implemented widely. PBL gives a positive impact in research,
especially in the medical field, as well as mathematics. Many
researchers and teachers stated that PBL is a solution in learning by
understanding the concepts and application in real life. Students
are involved in in-depth learning to construct the conceptual of
knowledge and not just memorize knowledge (Yahya, 2011). The
finding of this meta-analysis is consistent with other findings.
However, the impact in other fields is higher rather than the impact
in mathematics. In summary, the significant role of PBL learning
in mathematics should be harnessed in multiple generic skills such
as critical and creative thinking skills in order to enhance students
with technology and facilities to understand the meaning of life, to
survive and to carry out innovation in the 21st century.

309

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316

CO-CURRICULAR MARKING
SYSTEM ON MEASURING
LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT
AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL
STUDENTS
Muhazian Binti Md Noor

ABSTRACT
The Co-curricular Marking System (CMS) or the instrument to
measure co-curricular performance was implemented in 2007 by
the Ministry of Education Malaysia. The marks are used as a pre
requisite entrance marks for higher institutions since 2007/2008
session. The inclusion of 10 percent co-curricular marks is to
create a systematic approach and to emphasize the importance of
co-curricular activities as the government realized that students
gained better experience and develop better characters or values in
themselves. Nevertheless, the CMS has several issues that will be
explored in this research. The Bonus Element in the CMS is
created to measure leadership qualities in students involved.
However, the elements being measured in the Bonus element are
leadership posts that do not measure the level of leadership
qualities it supposed to measure. This research will first explore
into the background of the CMS and then will focus on the
development of the Bonus Element. Thus, this research will try to
identify what are the qualities of a student leader that needs to be
measured and to build a comprehensive descriptors to be able to

317

measure or describe the leadership qualities that students able to

develop during their duration in school.
Keyword: Co-Curricular marking system

1.1

INTRODUCTION

The Co-curricular Marking System (CMS) was implemented in

2007 by the Ministry of Education (MOE) and Ministry of Higher
Education (MOHE) and the marks were used as a prerequisite
entrance marks for higher institutions for 2007/2008 session.
Cabinet Meeting held on 4th May 2005 had agreed to include the 10
percent co-curricular marks as a pre-requisite condition for
entering public universities. However, it was only in 2007/2008
session that the CMS was fully implemented (Utusan Malaysia, 5
May 2007). Many international studies mentioned that
extracurricular activities have been associated with an improved
educational level, more interpersonal competencies, higher
aspirations, better attention level, increased critical thinking,
personal and social maturity, higher motivation and generally
create greater benefits when performed outside the academic
setting (Moriana, Alos, Alcala, Pino, Herruza, Ruiz, 2006;
Mahoney, Cairns & Farmer, 2003; Holloway, 2002). The
Malaysian school curriculum is committed to developing the child
holistically along intellectual, spiritual, emotional and physical
dimension as reflected in the National Education Philosophy. The
Ministry also requires that every student participate in at least 1
sport, 1 club and 1 uniformed body activity as a means of fostering
individual talents and interests, along with building leadership
skills (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2012).

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1.2

PROBLEM STATEMENT

The CMS is a part of the element taken into account when applying
the
higher
education
placement
(https://www.facebook.com/groups/halatuju). This grade carries
100 percent from the two highest elements among the three;
Uniformed Unit, Clubs & Societies and Games and Sports.
Another 10 percent, which is categorized as Bonus Marks or
element, is added for those who hold leadership posts in the school
service-based clubs or school administrative system. The system
itself was developed in order to evaluate students on their active or
non-active participation in co-curricular activities in school.
According to various researches, co-curricular or extracurricular
activities are indeed able to provide another way of students
development besides academically. In addition to that, Bonus
Marks, which is aimed to recognizing student leaders, is seen to
deprive some students from obtaining it. This is due that not every
student will be chosen for the special posts written in the criteria,
for example; Prefects, Librarians, and other leader posts that
contribute to the school management system. According to Sitley
(2001), activities that exhibit leadership and communication skills
inform admissions counselors about which applicants may be more
qualified for admission. However, in the Bonus element of the
CMS, rubrics that show performance based on predetermined
criteria are not used. Instead, the criteria used are traditionally used
leaders posts in school such as; Head Prefect, which carries the
highest marks, Prefects, Librarians etc. According to Dodge and
Pickett, (2001), student performance should be evaluated or
assessed using authentic assessments (such as rubrics). Rubrics
can be used to evaluate or assess (Lockett, 2001) a variety of skills
such as collaboration skills, behavior expectations, writing,
speaking, problem solving, and psychomotor skills. Andrade
(1997) added that rubrics could consist of a scoring scale that
scores performance based on a set of predetermined criteria.

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1.3

LITERATURE REVIEW

Various literatures have mentioned the role of extracurricular or

co-curricular activities to develop students in a holistic manner
(Eccles, Barber, Stone and Hunt, 2003; Shulruf, 2011; Mahoney
2000). According to Mahoney (2000), students who are at risk
(drugs, alcoholism) are able to be sober or better under the
influence of better engagement in extracurricular activities. For
higher achievers academically, George (2012) mentioned that
extracurricular enhanced the students abilities in not only
physically but also mentally. She added that there are many
advantages for students who are actively engaged in schoolsponsored activities outside the classroom.

1.3.1

Co-Curricular Concept in Malaysia

Co-curricular activities are also known as extracurricular activities,

or education for leisure or extra class activities. Gerak Kerja
Kokurikulum (GERKO) is part of the formal curriculum that
includes activities for societies, clubs, games and sports and
uniformed bodies conducted outside the classroom time. However,
co-curricular activities are not included in the formal timetable in
schools and not part of the academic subjects. Co-curricular
activities are educational activities outside the syllabus and are
carried out according to students interest. Thus, this defeats the
main purpose of co-curricular role in the secondary education
system which includes both formal and non-formal education to
foster interest, know-how abilities, in order to accommodate and
develop students intellectual and creative talent, to expand
knowledge, to improve physical health and teach thinking skills,
fostering moral values, aesthetic, spiritual and social values, based
on the National Education Philosophy (NEP) (Kementerian
Pelajaran Malaysia, 2008). Co-curricular activities should be
carried out both during the formal academic periods such as class

320

presentation, which is deemed suitable in class and after school

periods that can involve sports or other recreational activities or
uniformed unit activities, which are not suitable to carry out in
class.
1.3.2

Positive Outcomes of Co-curricular Activities

1.3.2.1 Academic Achievement

Previous researches have shown that there are many advantages
when students involve themselves in extracurricular activities.
Everson & Millsap (2005); Stearns & Glennie (2009); Moriana,
et.al. (2006); Covay and Carbonaro (2010) have agreed that
extracurricular involvement affects significantly on students
academic achievement. According to Eccles and Barber (1999),
they have identified the effects of participation in extracurricular
activities and the academic outcomes of adolescents, in which, they
found positive connections between participation and academic
outcomes of adolescents. Stearns and Glennie (2009), who
investigated regular high school students in North Carolina, found
that schools with more choices of extracurricular activities have
better academic outcomes, including higher level of achievement
and lower dropout rates.

1.3.2.2 Positive Behaviour Development

Extracurricular activities are a resource for students and an
opportunity for them to experience both academic and nonacademic skills for them to establish relationships with teachers
and fellow students (Everson and Millsap, 2005). In addition,
extracurricular activities are able to prevent students from
developing antisocial behavior as discovered by Mahoney & Cairns
(1997). In College Board Research Report, Everson and Millsap
(2005) discovered that college-bound students who sat for SAT, a

321

national high stakes test, during their junior or senior year of high
school, who participated in extracurricular activities, provides all
students including students from disadvantaged backgrounds and
minorities gain a measurable and meaningful result in the test.
Participation in extracurricular activities in high schools appears to
be one of the few interventions that benefit low-status,
disadvantaged students.

1.3.2.3 Leadership and Character Development

Several researches, done internationally and locally show positive
results when students engage themselves in extracurricular
activities that are being held in schools. The positive effects can
exist in many ways such as in student behavior, academic grades,
school completion and positive aspects to becoming successful.
According to Massoni (2011), when student participate in
extracurricular activities such as sports, the students learn to
discipline themselves by practices and trainings. When they
perform correctly and are rewarded, they gain self-respect, better
self esteem and high self confidence. By participating in these
activities, they learn leadership, teamwork, organization, analytical
thinking, problem solving, time-management, learning to juggle
many tasks at once and discover their talents. Co-curriculum and
curriculum are two systems that had been found able to develop
human beings in a balanced manner physically, emotionally,
spiritually and intellectually (Ahmad Esa, Jailani Md.Yunos and
Noraini Kaprawi, 2004). They mentioned that through the
curriculum alone is quite difficult for an educational institution to
produce a perfectly balanced individual. Co-curricular is able to
influence directly and indirectly in the development of individuals.
McGregor (2007) in her research among youths in the UK found
that school and network of schools provide excellent site for youths
to improve in leadership development in students. She found that
the traditional roles as leaders through prefect systems, pupils

322

librarians and conventional school councils were shown to involve

a very small number of students. Similarly, this research will be
looking at the same issue whereby with the current Bonus element,
only a minute number of students will be eligible to obtain marks
for it while the majority of students will not be eligible.
1.3.2.

Theory on Students Overall Development

Adolescent development as a whole is a product of the

environment influences, which include school as a factor.
According to Bronfenbrenner (1976) in his theory of Ecology of
Education, he describes whether and how people learn in
educational settings which involves sets of forces, or systems at
two levels: a) the first comprises the relations between the
characteristics of learners and the surrounding in which they live
out their lives (e.g. home, school, peer group, work place,
neighbourhood, community) and b) the second encompasses the
relations and interconnections that exist between these
environments. For Bronfenbrenner, these both sets of relations
affect learning and this he explains by using the Experimental
Ecology of Education where environments is conceived
topologically as a nested arrangement of structures, each contained
within the next (Bronfenbrenner, 1976).

1.4

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This research will try to determine whether the Co-curricular

Marking System in general, have been successfully explored
through the Elements and the Grades given according to the Cocurricular Administration Guidance Book. A mixed methods
research methodology and techniques will be utilized for this
research. the research will be done in several phases. The findings
of the research will be integrated and an inference will be drawn

323

from the findings. This chapter will start by discussing the

chronology of the research towards a building of a revised Cocurricular Marking System that will be included in the Research
Design. Mixed method is employed as the procedures that include
collecting, analyzing and mixing both qualitative and quantitative
data at certain stage of the research process. The reason behind
using mixed methods procedures as the researcher deemed using
only one of the methods will not be sufficient enough to capture
the details of the research such as an abstract description of
leadership qualities in a school environment.

1.4.1 Target Population and Samples

The target population in this research will be different depending
on the research phases. In the first phase the samples are chosen
based on their knowledge background of the CMS. According to
Glesne (2011), participant selection is best based upon theory,
ones methodological perspective, personal hunches, and pilot
study. Then in the middle phase of the research, students
perceptions through the instrument administered will be based on
the students leaders posts in school whether through co-curricular
activities or the services to the school administration.
1.4.2 Qualitative Data Collection
Data will be collected as mentioned above in 2 distinct phases. In
this qualitative phase, two data collection procedures will be used,
a) Document Analysis and b) Semi-structured interviews with
experts. In a qualitative research, it is known that some informants
are richer than others and these individuals may offer ingenious
insights and understandings to the research (Sarifah Norazah,
2013).

324

1.4.3 Qualitative Data Analysis

Data from qualitative research need to be systematic, disciplined
and able to be transparent and described the research. The data
collected can derive conclusions to answer the research questions
put forward in the preceding chapters. Thus, the analysis chosen
would determine the type of conclusions that the researcher is
trying to find. During the first phase of the research, data collected
from document analysis will be analyzed according three main
components or activities (Miles and Huberman, 1994) which are :a) Data reduction to reduce data without significant loss of
information
b) Data display organize and compress and assemble information
as qualitative data can be voluminous and bulky
c) Drawing and verifying conclusions reducing and displaying
data are to assist in drawing conclusions.
These steps are used in analyzing the data so that only data that are
meaningful will be used to grasp conclusions. However, because of
the bulk of data display, it will involve a number of different
analytical processes, which can be simultaneously rather than
sequentially. Thus, preparing the data means organizing the
document or visual data for reviewing or transcribing text from
interviews and document analysis into word processing files for
analysis. Then, such data enters into a qualitative data analysis
software program such as NVivo.

1.4.4 Quantitative Data Collection

All the questionnaire items will be designed according to the
results analyzed from both the documents analysis and interviews.
The questionnaire items will be segmented according to the themes
that have been decided in the first phase. Once the questionnaires

325

are ready, a pilot test will be conducted to a group of secondary

school students. The questionnaire will be administered to
students who hold leaders position in the listed posts in the Bonus
element of the CMS but will also include students who hold
leaders position in clubs, societies, uniformed bodies, sports and
games, which are not included in the Bonus element listed posts.

1.4.5

Quantitative Data Analysis

The raw data collected will be converted into a form useful for data
analysis, by using numerical values to each response, cleaning data
entry errors and creating special variables such as recoding items.
After these activities are conducted, the data will go through
Statistical Program for the Social Science (SPSS). The primary
goal of the analysis is to find whether students perceived that they
receive and been educated to become students leaders during
school hours or during co-curricular activities. The result of this
analysis will be presented in the form of a discussion and then to
determine the rubrics for the Bonus Element in the CMS. The ChiSquare value will show the statistical significance of the items in
the instrument. Factor Analysis will also be used to see the related
items that are factorized together. This will help to determine
rubrics statement to be used in the revised Bonus Element.
Therefore, the ultimate goal of the research is the building of
rubrics to measure leadership skills that students develop
throughout their time in school whether through schools activities
or co-curricular activities.

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1.5

Summary

The National Education Philosophy, the National Education Policy

and the Malaysian Education Blueprint 2013-2025 have
established the importance of character building in students
development. In co-curricular, leadership and character building
should be emphasized in activities that are conducted according to
the hours given. The emphasized on character building in cocurricular activities should be revised. Currently, the character that
is being measured in the Bonus element is Leadership Skills. The
Bonus element is created to measure the posts or position students
held according to the list rather than the leadership skills that the
students develop. The least number of students to be able to obtain
Bonus Marks is the argument in this research as most researches
locally and internationally agree that schools is the site that should
give all students and not some students the opportunity to develop
leadership skills and the development of becoming holistic
students. Extracurricular or co-curricular activities are seen to be
able to develop such skills in students in a more positive setting.
Therefore, at the end of this research, it is hoped that the building
of a revised or an enhanced Bonus Element is achieved to be able
to measure leadership qualities in students.

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334

RASCH MODEL ANALYSIS OF

ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING IN
HIGHER EDUCATION
Erwin Akib & Mohamad Najib Abdul Ghafar

ABSTRACT
Assessment is a systematic procedure that involves the collection,
analysis and translation of evidence that the student has reached as
far as teaching purposes occurs. Assessment for learning (AfL) is
increasing student achievement and the students learn than
teaching. Hence, this paper highlights the Rasch model analysis of
assessment for learning in higher education. Data were collected
from 100 respondents of the study population, with 50 items of
AfL constructs. This study showed that the person reliability was
categorized as fair, but the item reliability was as Excellent, and
the respondents found difficulty to distinguish the scale 2
(Disagree) and scale 5 (Strongly Agree). This study shows the
importance of considering symmetry measures due to the gap
between person reliability, item reliability, and difficulty level of
scales.
Keywords: Rasch Model, AfL, Higher Education

INTRODUCTION
In the process of teaching and learning, lecturers not only focus on
the teaching process, but also on how they measure their students

335

or apprentices outcomes. Reynolds, et.al (2010) stated that the

assessment is a systematic process to gather information that can
be used to draw conclusions about objects or processes. Mohd.
Najib (2011) explained that the assessment is a systematic
procedure that involves the collection, analysis and translation of
evidence that the student has reached as far as teaching purposes
occurs. A number of authors have reported a negative impact of
assessment on learning and teaching (Frederiksen, 1984; Ridgway
and Schoenfeld, 1994; Dochy and McDowell, 1997). This case has
been demonstrates that assessment has significant impact on
teaching and learning.
Najib (1999, 2011) explain that the reliability refers to the
consistency of test results. If a person has a certain skill level, she
or he is able to demonstrate the same level when retested, the skill
level is reliable. Reliability can be determined by the test-retest,
split half, equivalent for parallel, Kuder Richardson, interexaminer, and inter-observer methods (Najib, 1999; Najib, 2011;
Creswell, 2012; Fraenkel and Wallen, 2009). Reliability is an
important issue in the use of any instrument if the instrument had
been used in other research or if the instrument is built for the
purpose of research. Validity is most important when preparing or
selecting an instrument. Researchers intend to obtain information
using an instrument. Validity include types of measures and
procedures of measurement, including formal tests, observation
techniques, interview protocols, questionnaires, self-report
affective measures, projective devices, and so on (Najib, 1999;
Najib, 2011; Goodwin, 2002). The term validity includes two
aspects, what is to be measured and how consistently it is measured
(Ebel and Frisbie, 1991).
Historically, the term assessment for learning begins with
the term formative assessment that includes an assessment for
learning has been observed by Black &Wiliam (2006) and Newton
(2007) from writing Scriven (1967) first distinguishes the
difference between formative and summative assessment purposes,
the work of Bloom, Hasting and Madaus (1971) and the work of

336

Sadler (1989), which highlights the importance of formative set

criteria to inform students about learning.
Important assessment for learning research works for
teachers and students has begun in the U.K (Black, Swann,
&Wiliam, 2006; Ecclestone, 2002; Gardner et al., 2008); Gipps,
2002; Hayward, 2007; Marshall & Drummond, 2006; Stobart,
2009) the U.S.A (Brokhart, 2001; Popham, 2008; Stiggins, 2002;
Tierney &Charland, 2007) Hong Kong (Carless, 2007), New
Zealand (Cowie, 2005b; Hattie &Tumpeley, 2007) and in other
places around the world.
The focus of assessment for learning is increasing students
achievement (Reeves, 2001) and the students learn rather than
teaching (Harris, 2007). Assessment for learning also includes the
feedback designed to provide immediate, relevant and useful
information to students and the formative feedback aims to provide
information communicated to the students to support the
modification of thought or behaviour to improving learning (Shute,
2008).
Assessment for learning relate to practices, such as sharing
criteria with students, developing classroom talk and asking
questions, providing appropriate feedback, and allowing peer and
self-assessment (Black and Wiliam 1998a) all requiring the active
involvement of students. Learning is seen as a process rather than a
product (Sadler, 2007).

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
This research was carried out with the objective to investigate the
status assessment for learning in higher education.

METHODOLOGY
The research design utilized was the descriptive survey design,

337

involving only a one-time response to the questionnaire. Fraenkel

and Wallen (2009) explained that survey research is intended to
obtain data to determine specific characteristics of a group. The
Rasch model analysis is used as a tool to know the reliability of the
instruments. The items used are theLikert scale type totaling 50
items.The questions were formulated based on six constructs for
Assessment for Learning.

Design of Instrument
The constructs and construct indicators or items of the
questionnaire were divided into six constructs which areSharing
Learning Objectives (SLO), Helping Pupils (HP), Peer and Self
Assessment (PSA), Providing Feedback (PF), Promoting
Confidence (PC), and Involving in Reviewing and Reflecting
(IRR).
Population
The populations of this research are 100 lecturers of Faculty of
Education, Makassar Muhammadiyah University, Indonesia.
Validation of Instrument
The instrument validation involved four steps: (i) metadata
analysis, (ii) expert validation, (iii) pilot test, and (iv) data analysis
using Rasch Measurement Model with winstep software. After
completing the metadata analysis, the instrument was validated for
construct and content validity by expert in Measurement and
Evaluation, Faculty of Education UTM and for face validity for by
expert in Language education of Makassar Muhammadiyah
University for face validity. After correcting the instrument as
suggested, the pilot studywas conducted. Finally, the data were
analyzed measure the validity and reliability using the Rasch

338

Measurement Model.

Data Analysis
A total of50 items from six construct were analyzed and used to
determine the reliability and validity of the questionnaire.
Statements were coded as numerical responses with Likert Scale
rather than as words or phrases. All data was verified by hand
checking, coded numerically, and entered onto the SPSS version
20. The analysis using RASCH Model with winstep software for
validation process was then carried out.

FINDINGS
The first step is to analyze the questionnaire whether some items
needed to be deleted or modified. The reliability and validity of the
questionnaire was measured using person reliability, item
reliability, item dimensionality, and difficulty level of scales. In the
person misfit table, the columns that needed to be observe were PtMeasure Corr., outfit MNSQ and Z-STD, and infit MNSQ) and
ZSTD (Azrilah, 1996). If the outfit MNSQ and Z-Std value is
large, but the infit MNSQ and ZSTD value is within the range, the
misfit is still acceptable because of sloppy respond (Azrilah, 1996).

PERSON RELIABILITY
The person reliability of the instrument of100 person was 0.91. It
showed that the person reliability is excellent (Fisher, 2007). After
deleting 26 responds, the Rasch analysis has conducted for the
other74 responds. Person reliability increased from 0.91 to 0.94. It
indicated that the reliability of the instrument was still within the
excellent category (Fisher, 2007), as shown by the Table 1.

339

Table 1: Person Reliability for 100 Respondents

------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
TOTAL
MODEL
INFIT
OUTFIT
|
|
SCORE
COUNT
MEASURE
ERROR
MNSQ
ZSTD
MNSQ
ZSTD |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| MEAN
206.3
50.0
2.46
.25
1.01
.0
.99
-.1 |
| S.D.
13.9
.0
.87
.02
.31
1.5
.30
1.5 |
| MAX.
231.0
50.0
4.16
.30
2.08
4.1
1.97
3.8 |
| MIN.
173.0
50.0
.65
.21
.47
-3.1
.44
-3.5 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| REAL RMSE
.27 TRUE SD
.83 SEPARATION 3.14 PERSON RELIABILITY .91 |
|MODEL RMSE
.25 TRUE SD
.84 SEPARATION 3.33 PERSON RELIABILITY .92 |
| S.E. OF PERSON MEAN = .09
|
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PERSON RAW SCORE-TO-MEASURE CORRELATION = .99

CRONBACH ALPHA (KR-20) PERSON RAW SCORE "TEST" RELIABILITY = .91

Table 2: The person reliability after deleting 26 respondents

------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
TOTAL
MODEL
INFIT
OUTFIT
|
|
SCORE
COUNT
MEASURE
ERROR
MNSQ
ZSTD
MNSQ
ZSTD |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| MEAN
205.9
50.0
3.03
.27
1.01
.0
.99
-.1 |
| S.D.
14.9
.0
1.09
.02
.26
1.3
.25
1.3 |
| MAX.
231.0
50.0
5.00
.32
1.48
2.1
1.40
1.7 |
| MIN.
173.0
50.0
.85
.24
.45
-3.3
.41
-3.6 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| REAL RMSE
.29 TRUE SD
1.05 SEPARATION 3.67 PERSON RELIABILITY .93 |
|MODEL RMSE
.27 TRUE SD
1.05 SEPARATION 3.87 PERSON RELIABILITY .94 |
| S.E. OF PERSON MEAN = .13
|
------------------------------------------------------------------------------DELETED:
26 PERSON
PERSON RAW SCORE-TO-MEASURE CORRELATION = 1.00
CRONBACH ALPHA (KR-20) PERSON RAW SCORE "TEST" RELIABILITY = .94

ITEM RELIABILITY
Item reliability showed a valued 0.96, which can be categorized
excellent (Fisher, 2007). The misfits pattern to be considered were
focus on the three (3) columns, that are 0.4 <Point Measure
Correlation (PtMeaCorr) value <0.85, 0.5 <outfit Mean Square
(MNSQ) value <1.5, and -2 <outfit Z-Standard (ZSTD) value <+2
(Azrilah, 1996).

340

Table 3: Item Reliability for 74 Respondents

------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
TOTAL
MODEL
INFIT
OUTFIT
|
|
SCORE
COUNT
MEASURE
ERROR
MNSQ
ZSTD
MNSQ
ZSTD |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| MEAN
304.7
74.0
.00
.22
.99
-.3
.99
-.4 |
| S.D.
25.5
.0
1.21
.02
.40
2.3
.41
2.3 |
| MAX.
342.0
74.0
2.45
.25
1.90
4.2
1.95
4.3 |
| MIN.
249.0
74.0
-1.98
.19
.35
-5.3
.34
-5.4 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| REAL RMSE
.24 TRUE SD
1.19 SEPARATION 4.95 ITEM
RELIABILITY .96 |
|MODEL RMSE
.22 TRUE SD
1.19 SEPARATION 5.31 ITEM
RELIABILITY .97 |
| S.E. OF ITEM MEAN = .17
|
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ITEM VALIDITY
Table 4 indicates the scale of 40 persons. There are five (5) scales.
They are Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Uncertain (U), Disagree
(D), and Strongly Disagree (SD). In Rasch measurement model, the
differences between each ranking are taken into account. The
difference must be in the range of 1.5<s<5.0 (Azrilah, 1996).
Table 4: Scale Calibration of 74 Persons
SUMMARY OF CATEGORY STRUCTURE.

Model="R"

------------------------------------------------------------------|CATEGORY
OBSERVED|OBSVD SAMPLE|INFIT OUTFIT||STRUCTURE|CATEGORY|
|LABEL SCORE COUNT %|AVRGE EXPECT| MNSQ MNSQ||CALIBRATN| MEASURE|
|-------------------+------------+------------++---------+--------|
| 1
1
3
0|
.88 -.74| 1.87 2.25|| NONE
|( -4.68)|
| 2
2
67
2|
.24* .01| 1.16 1.29||
-3.49 | -2.49 |
| 3
3
486 13| 1.17 1.24|
.94
.93||
-1.40 |
-.37 |
| 4
4
2080 56| 2.86 2.86|
.96
.91||
.59 |
2.47 |
| 5
5
1064 29| 4.39 4.37| 1.04 1.00||
4.30 |( 5.42)|
------------------------------------------------------------------OBSERVED AVERAGE is mean of measures in category. It is not
parameter estimate.

1
2
3
4
5
a

In Rasch Measurement Model, the probability of responses,

whether the scales are equally distributed can be measured or using
the scale calibration. Calibration scale is designed to identify the
level of difficulty of the questionnaire on the grading scale. It is
mandatory to have respondents information in terms of their
ability in distinguishing the scales rating. It was found that the
scale differences scales were more than 1.5 and less than 5 except

341

in scale 2 (Disagree) and 5 (Strongly Agree). This indicated that

the respondents found difficulty to distinguish the scale 2
(Disagree) and scale 5 (Strongly Agree).

CONCLUSION
This study showed that the person reliability was categorized as
fair, but the item reliability was as Excellent, and the respondents
found difficulty to distinguish the scale 2 (Disagree) and scale 5
(Strongly Agree). This study shows the importance of considering
symmetry measures due to the gap between person reliability, item
reliability, and difficulty level of scales.

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MODEL PEMBELAJARAN
SINEKTIK DALAM
MENINGKATKAN KREATIVITI
SISWA PADA MATA KULIAH
KEWIRAUSAHAAN DI JURUSAN
KURIKULUM DAN TEKNOLOGI
PENDIDIKAN
Zelhendri Zen & Ahmad Johari Bin Sihes

ABSTRAK
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk membangun model pembelajaran
sinektik dalam meningkatkan kreativiti siswa pada mata kuliah
Kewirausahaan (Enterpreneurship) di Jurusan Kurikulum dan
Teknologi Pendidikan, Fakulti Ilmu Pendidikan Uneversiti Negeri
Padang, karena belakangan ini kreativiti siswa itu sangat rendah.
Rendahnya kreativiti siswa bisa jadi disebabkan karena pensyarah:
(1) kurang memahami konsep kreativiti, sehingga tidak tahu
bagaimana proses kreatif dilakukan pada siswa, (2) adanya
keraguan apakah kreativiti dapat diterapkan dalam proses
pembelajaran melalui metode atau model pembelajaran di kelas,
dan, (3) dalam pembelajaran lebih pada pencapaian nilai akademik
dari hasil proses hafalan (konvergen) ketimbang berpikir kreatif
(divergen). Kreativiti siswa dapat ditingkatkan melalui
pembangunan model pembelajaran sinektik pada mata kuliah
Kewirausahaan (Enterpreneurship). Pembelajaran Sinektik
bertujuan untuk mengembangkan kreativiti siswa melalui aktivitas
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metaporik (Analogi langsung dan Analogi personal) diharapkan

mampu mendorong siswa terlibat aktiv dalam tindakan kreativ
dalam pelaksanaan pembelajaran di kelas. Subjek kajian terdiri dari
pada siswa jurusan Kurikulum dan Teknologi Pendidikan. Hasil
kajian mendapati bahwa Pengembangan model ini menghasilkan
sebuah model pembelajaran sinektik dalam mata kuliah
Kewirausahaan di jurusan Kurikulum dan Teknologi Pendidikan,
Fakulti Ilmu pendidikan, Universiti Negeri Padang. Dari hasil
pengujian, model sinektik lebih efektif dari pada model
konvensional yang selama ini digunakan dalam mata kuliah
Kewirausahaan.
Kata kunci: Model pembelajaran sinektik

PENDAHULUAN
Peraturan Pemerintah nomor 32 tahun 2013, tentang Standar
Nasional Pendidikan menyatakan bahwa proses pembelajaran pada
satuan pendidikan diselenggarakan secara interaktif, inspiratif,
menyenangkan, menantang, memotivasi siswa untuk berpartisipasi
aktif, serta memberikan ruang yang cukup bagi prakarsa, kreativiti,
dan kemandirian sesuai dengan bakat, minat, dan perkembangan
fisik serta psikologis siswa. Selain itu, dalam proses pembelajaran
pendidik memberikan keteladanan. Salah satu yang menjadi
sorotan dalam PP tersebut adalah kreativiti.
Memahami konsep kreativiti ini, dalam kehidupan siswa
baik di kampus maupun di lingkungan masyarakat, sebenarnya
sangat dibutuhkan, karena;
1. Memaparkan
sikap
dan
menghargai
terhadap
kewirausahaan yang sedang didengung-dengunkan sekarang
2. Memaparkan kreativiti melalui kegiatan nyata dalam
rangka meningkatkan daya dukung lingkungan dan usaha
pemeliharaan keseimbangan lingkungan hidup dan
menciptakan lapangan pekerjaan

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3. Memaparkan peranan serta secara nyata dalam setiap usaha

pemanfaatan daya dukung lingkungan dan usaha
pemeliharaan alam sekitar.
Gagasan munculnya kewirausahaan, tidak terlepas dari
permasalahan banyaknya jumlah pengangguran kini yang semakin
meningkat. Menurunnya kualitas dan meningkatnya jumlah
pengangguran turut pula dialami di Indonesia, ditunjukkan
banyaknya jumlah pencari kerja yang tidak seimbang dengan
jumlah lapangan pekerjaan yang tersedia, sehingga kurang
memberikan manfaatnya bagi kehidupan manusia. Oleh karenanya
untuk menangani hal tersebut, diperlukan pemecahan secara arif
dan kreatif yang ditunjukkan melalui pelbagai idea dan produk
kreatif oleh siswa, sehingga diharapkan dapat menjawab pelbagai
permasalahan alam sekitar termasuk mempunyai kemampuan
mengendalikan keseimbangan lingkungan hidup. Selama ini
pensyarah tidak dapat memancing kreativiti, memupuk kreativiti
dan merangsang pertumbuhan kreativiti itu sendiri (Williams,
1980, Munandar, 1999).
Kurang berkembangnya kreativiti
siswa dan kurang
kesungguhan peranan jurusan dan kampus dalam mendorong
kreativiti pelajar, hal tersebut boleh difahami, memandangkan
banyak pensyarah yang mengekspresikan pandangan bahawa
kreativiti adalah sebuah aspek yang dinilai rendah dan diremehkan
dalam pendidikan di sekolah. Termasuk aspek kunci dalam
pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang seringkali kurang diperhatikan
kerana kerumitan (Beetlestone, 2011: xiv). Proses berfikir dan
sifat kreatif sebaiknya dikembangkan sedini mungkin untuk
mencetak individu-individu yang mampu memberikan alternatif
penyelesaian masalah dan mencipta karya yang kreatif dimasa yang
akan datang. Melalui mata kuliah merupakan salah satu cara
pendidikan formal yang boleh menjadi wadah untuk
mengembangkan kreativiti individu.
Hakikat pembelajaran yang diberikan untuk setiap mata
kuliah termasuk kewirausahaan, sepatutnya bertujuan untuk
mengembangkan pemikiran kreatif siswa. Kaedah pembelajaran

346

yang diberikan antara lain merangkum kegiatan: menjelajah,

menghasilkan, mencari, mencipta, membayangkan, mengandaiandai, serta membuat hipotesis (Sternberg, 2003). Salah satu faktor
penyebab pendidikan tidak kreatif adalah karena suasana
pembelajaran kurang hidup atau menjenuhkan kerana bahan
pembelajaran yang disampaikan membosankan. Untuk mengaatasi
masalah ini perlu dicari kaedah pembelajaran yang dapat
meningkatkan kemampuan berfikir kreatif pelajar, salah satunya
adalah kaedah sinektik.
Pada dasarnya, pembelajaran sinektik direka untuk
mengukuhkan struktur kognitif siswa. Teori kognitif sebagai acuan
untuk mempelajari kaedah rawatan yang berkesan dalam rangka
pembangunan kreativiti pelajar di sekolah. Secara umum teori-teori
kognitif melandaskan pandangannya mengenai kreativiti sebagai
fungsi dinamik dan interaktif dari perkembangan kognitif individu
(Hersch, 1973). Pandangan ini menunjukkan bahwa kreativiti
bukan hanya semata-mata akibat, tetapi juga dapat
mengembangkan fungsi-fungsi kognitif yang lain. Teori kognitif
sebahagian besar memusatkan perhatiannya kepada kemampuan
berfikir dan menyelesaikan masalah secara kreatif (Guilford, 1968;
Torrance, 1974).
Pembelajaran sinektik bertujuan untuk mengembangkan
kreativiti pelajar melalui aktivititas metaporik (analogi langsung
dan analogi personal) diharapkan mampu mendorong pelajar
terlibat aktif dalam tindakan kreatif saat pelaksanaan kurikulum di
kelas. Demikian juga pembelajaran pendidikan lingkungan hidup
mempunyai tujuan untuk mengembangkan kreativiti, dalam hal ini
kemampuan berfikir kreatif siswa. Rendahnya kreativiti siswa bisa
jadi dimungkinkan karena guru: (1) kurang memahami konsep
kreativiti, sehingga tidak tahu bagaimana proses kreatif dilakukan
pada siswa, (2) adanya keraguan apakah kreativiti dapat diterapkan
pada PBM melalui metode atau model pembelajaran di kelas, dan
(3) dalam pembelajarannya lebih pada pencapaian nilai akademik
dari hasil proses hafalan (konvergen) ketimbang berpikir kreatif
(divergen).
Oleh sebab itu, penelitian bermaksud untuk

347

mengembangkan
model
pembelajaran
sinektik
dalam
meningkatkan kreativiti siswa pada mata kuliah kewirausahaan.
Model pembelajaran sinektik dalam meningkatkan
kreativiti siswa pada mata kuliah kewirausahaan di jurusan
Kurikulum dan Teknologi Pendidikan FIP UNP. sangat penting
untuk saat ini dikembangkan, karena belakangan ini kreativiti
siswa itu sangat menurun. Kreativiti siswa tersebut dapat
ditingkatkan melalui pengembangan model sinektik pada mata
kuliah kewirausahaan. Selain itu, model pembelajaran ini juga
bermanfaat bagi pensyarah lain sebagai salah satu alternatif model
pembelajaran. Sedangkan bagi peneliti lain bermanfaat sebagai
bahan masukan untuk menginspirasi dan memotivasi agar muncul
ide-ide baru yang inovatif dalam rangka pengembangan model
pembelajaran.
Sedangkan hakikat pembelajaran sinektik dibangunkan
pertama kali oleh Gordon sebagai kaedah penyelesaian masalah
dalam bidang sains dan teknologi dan kemudian diterapkan di
dunia pendidikan sebagai kaedah pembelajaran untuk
meningkatkan kemampuan berfikir kreatif siswa. Gordon (Starko,
1995:221) mengatakan "synectics is an original word coined to
mean the joining together of different and apparently irrelevant
elements". Sinektik bermakna sebagai teknik mempertemukan
secara bersama unsur-unsur yang berbeda dan yang seolah-olah
(secara fisik) tidak relevan untuk memperoleh satu pandangan
baru.
Synectics adalah sebuah teknik penyelesaian masalah yang
sering dipakai dalam berbagai diskus. Teknik ini diperkenalkan
pertama kali oleh William Gordon pada tahun 1961 melalui buku
karangannya, Synectics. Banyak orang yang pernah memakai
teknik ini mengakui jika teknik ini lebih ampuh dibanding
sumbang saran, karena teknik ini menggabungkan antara teknikteknik kreativiti (terutama analogi dan metafora) dengan beberapa
peraturan yang lebih baku sehingga proses penuangannya
berlangsung lebih berstruktur dan berkesan. Sama seperti teknikteknik berfikir kreatif lain, synectics mengajar kita untuk

348

"mempercayai hal-hal asing, dan mengasingkan hal-hal yang

dipercayai." Dengan kata lain, kita diajak untuk memanfaatkan
analogi-analogi yang kelihatannya tidak berkaitan dengan masalah
yang hendak diselesaikan, dan pada masa yang sama melupakan
idea-idea konvensional yang biasa dipakai (www.itpin.com).
Banyak juga yang menganggap synectics sebagai variasi
lain dari brainstorming. Memang ada persamaannya, terutama bila
synectics dilakukan dalam diskusi. Namun, berbeda dengan
sumbang saran yang membiarkan para peserta mengeluarkan ide
tanpa batasan yang jelas, synectics memberikan beberapa batasan
sehingga terkesan lebih berstruktur.
Struktur synectics boleh dilihat dari penentuan empat jenis
analogi yang akan dipakai selama sesi pemecahan masalah.
Keempat jenis analogi tersebut adalah: personal analogy, direct
analogy, symbolic analogy, dan fantasi analogy. Personal analogy
meminta peserta sesi mengenal pasti dirinya dengan sebagai atau
keseluruhan masalah atau penyelesaian. Direct analogy mencoba
menyelesaikan masalah dengan mencari analogi langsung dari
tempat lain, aplikasi lain, teknologi lain, pengetahuan lain, dll.
Symbolic analogy hampir sama dengan personal analogy, tetapi
pengenalan dilakukan bukan dengan peserta, melainkan dengan
objek lain. Fantasy analogy peserta-peserta berkhayal sejauhjauhnya untuk menyelesaikan masalah.
Hakikat sinektik Gordon boleh merangsang berfikir kreatif
dengan jalan breaking mental set (mengaktifkan proses mental).
Umumnya manusia terhadap pemikirannya sehingga menjadi
terbiasa menggunakan kerangka-kerangka acuan (berfikir) tertentu.
Misalnya, pena merupakan alat untuk menulis. Sementara itu, kita
terus berfikir sesuai dengan kerangka acuan tersebut, tidak ada
idea-idea baru yang muncul. Namun, jika kita menganggap bahwa
suatu pena analog dengan suatu kapal udara, maka imaginasi kita
mulai "terbakar" dan idea-idea baru mula "mengalir".
Metode Penelitian

349

Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah metode pengembangan,

yaitu dengan melakukan analisis kebutuhan sebelum
mengembangkan model sinektik. Hasil analisis kebutuhan dan
sintaks model pembelajaran sinekntik menjadi panduan dalam
mengembangkan model sinektik untuk meningkatkan kreativiti
siswa pada mata kuliah Kewirausahaan. Setelah itu, dilakukan
pengujian efektivitas implementasi model sinektik pada mata
kuliah Kewirausahaan dengan instrumen yang sudah
dikembangkan.
Hasil dan Pembahasan
Model Pembelajaran Sinektik yang Dikembangkan
Desain:
Tujuan pembelajaran:
Karakteristik tujuan mengacu kepada pengembangan pola berpikir kreatif
dan sesuai dengan SAP dan silabus
Materi Pembelajaran:
Dikembangkan materi pembelajaran berdasarkan teknik brainstorming
Prosedur pembelajaran:
Input substantif: - penjelasan tujuan pembelajaran
- klarifikasi topik baru
analogi langsung:
- mengajukan analogi langsung dengan
dibantu
media audio visual dan media bagan
- penjelasan kaitan dan perbedaan
Analogi personal:
mengajukan
analogi
personal
mendiskusikan hasil
pekerjaannya dengan teman
Eksplorasi:
- menjelaskan kembali dengan bahasanya
sendiri
Memunculkan analogi baru: - mengajukan analogi untuk menjelaskan
persamaan dan perbedaan
Evaluasi
Dikembangkan evaluasi dalam bentuk tes kreativiti berdasarkan materi
yang telah disampaikan pensyarah
Implementasi:
Input substantif:

350

Pensyarah sudah menginformasikan tujuan pembelajaran

Klarifikasi topik baru dan memberikan pertanyaan pada siswa untuk
menguatkan pemahamannya terhadap materi yang sedang dibahas
Tanya jawab
Analogi langsung, membandingkan dan menjelaskan perbedaan-perbedaan:
Pensyarah mengajukan analogi langsung
Menjelaskan aspek-aspek yang terdapat dalam materi dalam bentuk
bagan
Pensyarah meminta siswa mendeskripsikan analogi tersebut, kemudian
mendiskusikannya
Media pembelajaran berup bagan digunakan selama proses
pembelajaran
Pensyarah memberikan kesempatan kepada siswa untuk bertanya atau
memberikan tanggapan
Analogi personal:
Pensyarah meminta siswa menggajukan analogi personal
Hasil analogi personal didiskusikan oleh siswa dengan memunculkan
gagasan-gagasan yang beragam dengan menggunakan teknik curah
pendapat (brainstorming)
Hasil analogi personal didiskusikan oleh siswa dengan memunculkan
gagasan-gagasan yang beragam
Eksplorasi:
Pensyarah meminta siswa menjelaskan kembali materi yang dibahas
Pensyarah meminta siswa menjelajahi kembali topik semula dengan
bahasanya sendiri
Siswa diberi kesempaatan untuk membuat catatan
Memunculkan analogi baru:
Pensyarah meminta siswa mengajukan analogi baru untuk memahami
persamaan dan perbedaan
Siswa menemukan gagasan di depan kelas
Evaluasi:
Evaluasi digunakan untuk mengukur kemampuan berpikir kreatif siswa.
Pengukuran dilakukan terhadap hasil pekerjaan siswa dalam menyelesaikan
tugas membuat uraian tentang materi pembelajaran yang sedang dibahas
oleh pensyarah, dan siswa mengerjakannya di kelas.

Kreativiti diartikan sebagai kemampuan untuk melihat

hubungan baru atau menghasilkan idea-idea baru yang
menyimpang dari pola berfikir tradisional. Salah satu program
untuk membangunkan kaedah pembelajaran di sekolah selama
beberapa tahun terakhir ini, telah menekankan pada penglibatan

351

siswa dalam proses pembelajaran yang aktif melalui kegiatankegiatan yang berorientasikan pada pembangunan kreativiti.
Sinektik merupakan suatu kaedah pembelajaran untuk
mengembangkan kreativiti siswa. Gordon (Starko, 1995:221)
menyatakan "kaedah pembelajaran sinektik adalah suatu pola
pembelajaran yang dirancang pensyarah secara khusus untuk
mengembangkan kreativiti siswa melalui aktiviti-aktiviti metaporik
(analogi) dalam rangka memperoleh suatu gagasan baru".
Aktivitas-aktivitas metaporik ini boleh berupa mengaitkan unsurunsur yang berbeda atau mengaitkan unsur-unsur yang seolah-olah
tidak relevan dengan materi yang sedang dibahas.
Kaedah pembelajaran sinektik yang dibangunkan oleh
Gordon dapat digunakan pensyarah untuk mengembangkan
kreativiti siswa, baik secara perseorangan maupun kelompok
melalui aktivitas metaporik. Kaedah pembelajaran sinektik sangat
menekankan terhadap pembentukan kreativiti sebagai suatu proses
yang sedar, dalam arti bagaimana mahasuswa terbiasa berkelakuan
kreatif setiap hari di lingkungan kampus. Kaedah Gordon yang
menjadi prinsip aktivitas adalah aktivitas metaforik, melalui
kegiatan metaforik ini, kreativiti menjelma menjadi proses sedar.
Metafora-metafora membentuk hubungan persamaan, membedakan
objek atau idea yang satu dengan yang lain melalui objek
pengganti. Dalam kegiatan ini, pensyarah dapat menggugah siswa
melalui soalan-soalan evokatif, yakni sejenis soalan terbuka yang
membolehkan siswa terlibat dalam proses kreatif.
Strategi kaedah Gordon menggunakan aktivitas metaforik
yang terancang memberikan struktur langsung untuk
mengembangkan imaginasi dan pemahaman siswa atau individu
secara bebas dalam kehidupan sehari-hari (Joyce dan Weil,
1986:168). Dengan demikian, aktiviti metaforik bermanfaat dalam
membantu siswa untuk menyambung masalah yang dikenalinya
menuju ke masalah baru atau sebaliknya, kerana itu sebagai asas
aktiviti kaedah Gordon adalah metaforik. Gordon (dalam Evans,
1991:83) awalnya meneliti beberapa penemuan sejarah dan

352

mendapatkan bahwa analogi merupakan wawasan kunci untuk

merumuskan proses synectics.
Synectics sebagai sebuah kaedah pembelajaran yang
mengembangkan kreativiti, dibahas oleh Joyce dan Weil
(1980:165-186) dalam bukunya "Kaedah of Teaching", yaitu
synectics is a kaedah to develop creativity, synectics merupakan
cara yang tepat untuk melibatkan siswa dalam perbincangan yang
imaginatif dan menghasilkan strategi pemecahan masalah yang
tidak lazim tetapi boleh dilaksanakan. Melalui synectics pelajar
boleh belajar strategi yang bermakna untuk menyelesaikan
masalah. Apabila dikaitkan dengan klasifikasi besar tentang
kaedah-kaedah mengajar yang dikemukakan Joyce dan Weil
(1992), kaedah pembelajaran sinektik termasuk rumpun kaedah
pembelajaran "information processing", yang menekankan pada
peningkatan berfikir kreatif (enhancing creative thought). Ini
bermakna bahwa kaedah pembelajaran ini direka secara khusus
untuk meningkatkan kemampuan berfikir kreatif melalui latihanlatihan menggunakan analogi atau metaporik baru (Gordon, dalam
Joyce dan Weil, 1996:233).
Selanjutnya, jika dikaitkan dengan perspektif Miller dan
Seller (1985:6-8), kaedah pembelajaran sinektik ini termasuk
dalam kedudukan transaksi (transaction position). Alasannya,
kaedah pembelajaran sinektik mempunyai tujuan ingin
meningkatkan kemampuan berfikir kreatif pelajar dan hal ini
merupakan komponen utama dari kedudukan transaksi. Ada dua
jenis dari kaedah pembelajaran sinektik, yaitu kaedah pembelajaran
untuk mencipta sesuatu yang baru (creating something new) dan
kaedah pembelajaran untuk melazimkan terhadap sesuatu yang
masih asing (making the strange familiar). Kedua jenis kaedah
pembelajaran tersebut dapat dilihat pada bagan 1 dan bagan 2.
Berdasarkan pada dua strategi tersebut, dalam kajian ini
menggunakan strategi kedua. Alasannya, strategi ini mempunyai
tujuan membantu siswa menyelesaikan masalah-masalah sosial
secara menyeluruh dan mendalam, yang sesungguhnya, merupakan
aspek penting dari kemampuan berfikir kreatif. Strategi kedua ini,

353

dijangka akan lebih sesuai dipakai untuk mencapai tujuan

pembelajaran persekitaran hidup yang menekankan kemampuan
pemecahan masalah-masalah sosial secara menyeluruh dan
mendalam.
Selanjutnya, jika menganalisis hasil uji coba model synectic
yang dikembangkan untuk meningkatkan kreativiti siswa pada
mata kuliah Kewirausahaan, hasil uji coba yang terdiri dari aspek:
a) implementasi model pembelajaran, b) kemampuan kinerja
pensyarah, c) kemampuan siswa, d) penggunaan fasilitas, dan e)
faktor-faktor hambatan dirinci dan diberi skor 0-100. Adapun
rincian dari masing-masing aspek adalah sebagai berikut:
1. implementasi model pembelajaran:
a. Kesesuaian dengan rencana pembelajaran (50)
b. Penerapan langkah-langkah pembelajaran yang sesuai
dengan rencana pembelajaran (50)
2. kemampuan kinerja pensyarah:
a. Menjelaskan tujuan (10)
b. Menyajikan materi baru (10)
c. Memberi kesempatan siswa untuk bertanya (10)
d. Meminta siswa mengajukan analogi langsung terhadap
materi yang sedang dibahas (10)
e. Mendeskripsikan aspek-aspek yang sama dan berbeda
antara yang ada dalam materi yang dibahas dengan objek
atau kegiatan yang dianalogikan (10)
f. Meminta siswa mengajukan analogi personal (10)
g. Meminta siswa menjelaskan kembali terhadap materi yang
baru saja dibahas (10)
h. Meminta siswa mengajukan analogi baru terhadap materi
yang sedang dibahas (10)
i. Membimbing atau mengarahkan aktivitas siswa supaya
terlibat aktif dalam perkuliahan
j. Melakukan pengukuran terhadap kemampuan berpikir
kreatif siswa selama kegiatanpembelajaran berlangsung
(10)

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3. kemampuan siswa:
a. Mengajukan analogi langsung tentang suatu objek atau
kegiatan terhadap materi yang dibahas (20)
b. Mendeskripsikan aspek-aspek yang sama atau berbeda
antara yang ada dalam objek atau kegiatan yang
dianalogikan dengan yang ada dalam materi yang sedang
dibahas (20)
c. Menjelaskan kembali materi yang sedang dibahas dengan
bahasanya sendiri (20)
d. Mengajukan analogi baru atau yang lainnya terhadap materi
yang sedang dibahas (20)
e. Mengikuti petunjuk dan bimbingan guru dalam
menyelesaikan
tugas-tugas
pada
setiap
tahap
pembelajarannya (20)
4. penggunaan fasilitas:
a. Menggunakan alat peraga (20)
b. Menggunakan contoh-contoh (tiruan atau benda
sebenarnya) (20)
c. Membuat catatan kemajuan siswa (20)
5. faktor-faktor hambatan:
a. Setiap hambatan yang terindifikasi diberi skor 10.
Efektivitas model dilihat dari bagaimana model tersebut
dilaksanakan dalam kegiatan belajar mengajar dan diukur
berdasarkan peningkatan kemampuan berpikir kreatif siswa yang
kuliah menggunakan model pembelajaran sinektik jika
dibandingkan dengan model pembelajaran konvensional.
Implementasi model pembelajaran sinektik diawali dengan
pengembangan
rencana
pembelajaran.
Implikasi
dari
pengembangan rencana pembelajaran ini pensyarah harus
memahami apa yang menjadi tuntutan kurikulum agar perencanaan
dapat dikembangkan dengan baik. Dalam hal ini posisi pensyarah
sebagai pengembang kurikulum di kelas berfungsi sebagaimana
yang diharapkan. Tuntutan terhadap kinerja pensyarah adalah
peningkatan kreativiti dan memperluas serta memperdalam

355

wawasannya mengenai substansi materi, sehingga dapat

meningkatkan kemampuan berfikir para siswanya.
Dampak lebih lanjut dapat dilihat dari proses pembelajaran
yang lebih terfokus, pengkajian terhadap substansi materi lebih
bermakna (menjelaskan materi pelajaran dengan menggunakan
perumpamaan atau kiasan dan contoh-contoh yang berkaitan
dengan materi pelajaran yang diajarkan), menggunakan analogi
langsung dan personal untuk berperan sebagai sesuatu objek
kejadian atau kegiatan yang berkaitan dengan materi yang sedang
dibahas, mengajak siswa membandingkan atau mengklarifikasi
kebenaran tentang objek kejadian atau kegiatan yang dianalogikan
dengan materi yang sedang diajarkan, dan menanyakan kepada
siswa persamaan atau perbedaan aspek- aspek yang terdapat dalam
topik materi yang sedang dibahas.
Kegiatan pembelajaran dengan menggunakan model
pembelajaran sinektik ini di sisi lain lebih terkontrol, karena
langkah-langkah pembelajaran sudah terpolakan. Dengan demikian
pensyarah dapat meningkatkan kemampuan berpikir kreatif siswa
dan dapat mengelola kegiatan belajar mengajar dengan lebih
efisien. Hal ini dapat dibuktikan dengan materi pembelajaran dapat
diselesaikan tepat waktu, pensyarah lebih mudah mengontrol
pemahaman siswa karena dilakukannya pemenggalan materi dan
pengulangan, serta proses pembelajaran yang lebih kondusif dan
relatif tidak terganggu karena konsentrasi siswa yang tetap terjaga
selama proses pembelajaran berlangsung.
Kelebihan model pembelajaran sinektik dibandingkan
model pembelajaran yang digunakan pensyarah sebelumnya adalah
mampu mengembangkan kemampuan berpikir kreatif siswa
melalui aktivitas metaforik dalam bentuk analogi-analogi. Untuk
itu, agar siswa mampu mengemukakan dan melakukan analogi
maka diperlukan kreativiti dari pensyarah untuk mendorong dan
merangsang siswa dalam mengajukan analogi. Dengan kreativiti
yang dimiliki pensyarah, diharapkan siswa melihat secara aktif
dalam setiap langkah pembelajarannya sehingga dapat
meningkatkan kemampuan berpikir kreatif siswa. Model

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pembelajaran sinektik mudah diadopsi oleh pensyarah karena pada

waktu mengkomunikasikan materi atau topik baru menggunakan
metode ekspositori dan menggunakan media bagan yang dapat
mempermudah siswa dalam memahami materi yang disampaikan
pensyarah.
Dalam model pembelajaran sinektik ini, teknik yang dapat
digunakan oleh pensyarah adalah teknik curah pendapat
(brainstorming). Teknik ini digunakan untuk mendorong dan
merangsang siswa supaya dapat mengemukakan dan mengeluarkan
gagasan-gagasannya
ketika diminta mengemukakan analogianalogi. Dalam konteks implementasi model pembelajaran
sinektik, teknik curah pendapat ini digunakan setelah guru
menginformasikan topik atau materi baru. Dari kelebihan model
pembelajaran sinektik ini dapat memperlihatkan bentuk akhir dari
model, adapun bentuk akhir model dapat diuraikan sebagai berikut:
1. Tahap pengembangan rencana pembelajaran
Format rencana pembelajaran digunakan sesuai dengan
yang telah dikembangkan. Dalam menggunakan format tersebut,
pensyarah harus mengembangkan analisis materi perkuliahan
dimana dalam proses pengembangan tersebut diupayakan untuk
menginformasikan topik atau materi baru yang berkaitan dengan
materi yang akan disampaikan yang tertuang dalam rencana
pembelajaran. Setelah Analisis Materi Pelajaran dan rencana
pembelajaran dikembangkan, pensyarah mempersiapkan media
pembelajaran berupa media bagan. Langkah terakhir dalam
proses perencanaan adalah mengembangkan alat evaluasi. Alat
evaluasi ini dikembangkan dalam bentuk tes kreativiti
berdasarkan materi yang telah disampaikan guru dengan tujuan
untuk mengembangkan kemampuan berpikir kreatif siswa.
2. Tahap kegiatan belajar mengajar
Tahap kegiatan belajar mengajar ini adalah tahap
implementasi,
tahapan-tahapan
prosedur
pembelajaran
mengikuti model pembelajaran sinektik, yakni: 1) input
substantif, 2) analogi langsung, membandingkan analogi, dan
menjelaskan berbagai perbedaan, 3) analogi personal, 4)

357

eksplorasi, dan 5) memunculkan analogi baru. Adapun bentuk

akhir dari model pembelajaran sinektik yang dikembangkan

SIMPULAN
Berdasarkan hasil penelitian dan pembasan dapat disimpulkan
bahwa untuk mengembangkan model pembelajaran sinektik dalam
mata kuliah Kewirausahaan sebagai upaya meningkatkan kreativiti
siswa dapat dilakukan dengan mengadobsi langkah-langkah model
pembelajaran sinektik yang sudah ada. Selanjutnya, setelah
ditemukan langkah yang sesuai dengan analisis kebutuhan untuk
mata kuliah Kewirausahaan, dilakukan pengujian efektivitas model
tersebut. Efektifitas dilihat dari bagaimana model tersebut
dilaksanakan dalam kegiatan belajar mengajar dan diukur
berdasarkan peningkatan kemampuan berpikir kreatif siswa yang
kuliah menggunakan model pembelajaran sinektik. Jika
dibandingkan dengan model pembelajaran konvensional, model
sinektik lebih efektif.

UCAPAN TERIMA KASIH

Upaya untuk mewujudkan model sinektik dalam mata kuliah
Pengembangan Budaya Kewirausahawan sebagai upaya
meningkatkan kreativiti siswa merupakan pekerjaan yang cukup
menantang. Dalam proses perancangan model sinektik ini, Penulis
selalu melibatkan berbagai kalangan untuk berdiskusi, diantara lain
siswa dan staf pengajar jurusan Kurikulum dan Teknologi
Pendidikan. Atas kontribusi yang mereka berikan tanpa
menyebutkan nama satu persatu, Penulis mengucapkan terima
kasih.

358

RUJUKAN
Akker, Jan Van Den. 1999. Design Approaches and Tools in
Education and Training. Dordrecht:Kluwer Academic
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Gordon, J.J. William. (1980). Synectics Model. New York:
Longman Publishers.
Itpin. (2007). Menggandakan Kekuatan Analogi dengan Sinektik.
[Online].
Tersedia:
http://www.itpin.com/blog/2007/01/19/menggandakankekuatan analogi-dengan-synectics/ [15 April 2014].
Joyce, B. dan Weil, M. (2000). Models of Teaching. Englewod
Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.
La Costa, A. (1985). Developing Mind: A Resource Book for
Teaching Thinking. Virginia: ASCD.
Munandar, Utami, S.C. (1985). Mengembangkan bakat dan
Kreativiti Anak Sekolah. Jakarta: Gramedia Widiasarana
Indonesia.
__________,(1988). Kreativiti Sepanjang Masa. Jakarta: Pustaka
Sinar Harapan.
__________,(1992). Mengembangkan Bakat dan Kreativiti Anak
Sekolah; Petunjuk bagi para Guru dan Orang Tua. Jakarta:
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__________,(1999). Kreativiti dan Keberbakatan (Strategi
Mewujudkan Potensi dan Bakat). Jakarta: Gramedia
Pustaka Utama.
__________,(2009). Pengembangan Kreativiti Anak Berbakat.
Jakarta: PT Rineka Cipta.
Rhodes, M. (1961). An Analysis of Creativity. Phi Delta Kappan.
Sukmadinata, N. S. (2002) Pengendalian Mutu Pendidikan Sekolah
Menengah: Konsep, Prinsip dan Instrumen. Bandung:
Kesuma Karya.
__________,(2004). Kurikulum dan Pembelajaran Kompetensi.
Bandung : Kesuma Karya.

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__________,(2007). Pengembangan Kurikulum Teori dan Praktek.

Bandung: PT. Remaja Rosdakarya.
__________,(2012a). Metode Penelitian Pendidikan. Bandung: PT.
Remaja Rosdakarya.
__________,(2012b). Kurikulum dan Pembelajaran Kompetensi.
Bandung: PT Refika Aditama.
Supardi, I. (1989). Lingkungan Hidup dan Kelestariannya.
Bandung: Alumni. Suparno, Paul. (1996). Konstruktivisme
dan Dampaknya terhadap Pendidikan. Kompas.
Supriadi, Dedi. (2001). Kreativiti, Kebudayaan, dan Perkembangan
Iptek. Bandung:Alfabeta.

360

IMPACT OF CREATIVE
PROBLEM SOLVING ON
MATHEMATICS
Lim Keng Keh, Zaleha binti Ismail, Hamidreza Kashefi

ABSTRACT
This paper aims to find out impact of Creative Problem Solving
CPS on mathematics. This paper also provides an insight about the
impact of Creative Problem Solving CPS towards attitudes and
behaviours. By using meta-analysis, the impacts of using Creative
Problem Solving CPS in various fields of study can be analyzed to
find out their outcomes. Open-ended mathematical problem is
suggested to be used to carry out for further research in creative
problem solving in mathematics. At last, it also shows that
Creative Problem Solving CPS can be applied in mathematics to
help students to learn mathematics.
Keywords: Impact of creative problem solving, Attitudes and
behaviours

INTRODUCTION
Creative Problem Solving CPS is a learning strategy to promote
problem solving ability that was pioneered by Osborn (1953), who
was a creative theorist. He proposed seven stages of creativity
such as problem orientation, preparation, analysis, hypothesis,
incubation, synthesis and verification. His work was expanded and

361

organized into a five-step process model by Parnes (1967). The

five-step process model was developed into fact-finding, problemfinding, idea-finding, and acceptance-finding. In 1985, Isaken and
Parnes further altered the process model by adding a new stage
which is known as mess-finding. They also changed the factfinding to data-finding as they realized that effective problemsolving did not only depend on fact. They also highlighted
divergent thinking and convergent thinking.
Treffinger, Isaken and Dorval (2003) later introduced three
components and six stages of Creative Problem Solving CPS
Process. These three components are known as understanding the
problem, generating ideas and planning for action and the six
stages are objective-finding, data-finding, problem-finding and
idea-finding, solution-finding and acceptance-finding. Messfinding, data-finding and problem-finding are the three stages that
included in the component of understanding the problem. In this
component, a person or a group is required to discover the
objective, collect the data and find out all possible problems. For
the component of generating ideas, a person or a group conducts
idea-finding to gather all the possible ideas to solve the problems.
Furthermore, component of planning for action comprises the
stages of solution-finding and acceptance-finding.
In this
component, a person or a group has to select, strengthen solutions
and find out all the possible steps for action.

METHODOLOGY
A meta-analysis is used to find out the impacts of using Creative
Problem Solving CPS.
IEEE Xplore Digital Library, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia UTM database library, Web of Science,
Science Direct and ProQuest were used as search enginees.
Keywords such as Creative Problem Solving, creative thinking,
creativity and problem solving were used to find out the relevant
materials. The results showed that there is very little literature

362

regarding Creative Problem Solving CPS in mathematics.

However, the impacts of using Creative Problem Solving CPS in
other fields of study can be used as reference to support the
findings.

IMPACT OF CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING TRAINING

TOWARDS ATTITUDES
Over the years, Basadur had been investigating the impact of
Creative Problem Solving CPS on the attitudes (Basadur Graen &
Green, 1982; Basadur, Graen & Scandura, 1986; Basadur &
Hausdorf, 1996). There are five major attitudes such as preference
for active divergence and preference for avoiding premature
convergence (Basadur, Runco & Vega, 2000), valuing new ideas,
creative individual stereotypes and too busy for new ideas (Basadur
& Hausdorf, 1996). Basadur also showed that Creative Problem
Solving CPS training can change the attitudes towards divergent
thinking and also affect behaviours towards creative thinking
(Basadur, Runco & Vega, 2000).
In the year of 2000, Basadur, Runco and Vega carried out
an investigation of attitudes and behaviours. One hundred and
twelve managers from an international consumer goods
manufacturer participated in the experiment to apply creative
thinking to solve management problems. Six attitudinal and
behaviours skills were studied to understand their relationship.
They found out that after Creative Problem Solving CPS training,
attitudes towards preference for avoiding premature evaluation and
preference for active divergence can encourage the behaviours
towards developing in ideational fluency and evaluation skills
(Basadur, Runco & Vega, 2000).
Basadur expanded his research in different cultures such as
in Japan (Basadur, Wakabayashi & Takai, 1992) and in South
America (Basadur, Pringle & Kirkland, 2002). The results showed
that managers in these countries after Creative Problem Solving

363

CPS training changed their attitudes towards divergent thinking.

Basadur, Pringle, Speranzini and Bacot in the year of 2000, carried
out and investigation of the impact of Creative Problem Solving
CPS training on union-management bargaining (Basadur, Pringle,
Speranzini & Bacot, 2000). Fourteen negotiating members joined
in the twelve days training with seven of them in the management
team and seven in the union team. The result showed that the
application of Creative Problem Solving CPS training can increase
positive attitude towards divergent thinking and enhanced trusts
and collaboration among the members (Basadur, Pringle,
Speranzini & Bacot, 2000).
In Kandemir and Grs paper (2009) stated that the study of
Creative Problem Solving CPS had been carried out in
mathematics education.
It was based on the views from the
prospective mathematics teachers by investigating what they had
learned during and after their participation in the Creative Problem
Solving CPS training. Fifty-one prospective teachers from the fifth
year secondary school mathematics education department in
Balkesir University in Turkey took part in the investigation
(Kandemir & Gr, 2009). A purpose sampling was used to study
the opinion of them. Semi-structured interviews and diaries were
used as the tools for data collection. The data collected was then
analyzed by using content analysis. Ten sub-themes were formed
such as the perception of Creative Problem Solving CPS and its
development in the process, perception of creativity, attitude
towards Creative Problem Solving CPS training, contribution to
problem solving, contribution to learning, attitude towards
mathematics, closed-ended questions versus Creative Problem
Solving CPS, creative classroom environment, divergent thinking
and the quality of the scenarios (Kandemir & Gr, 2009). The
training achieved the goals of the developing pedagogical content
knowledge of the prospective mathematics teachers in order to
develop their students Creative Problem Solving CPS skills. The
prospective mathematics teachers explored the questions used in
the Creative Problem Solving CPS scenario and thus helped them

364

to develop their students Creative Problem Solving CPS thinking

skills.
The characteristics of the questions are open-ended,
challenging and also related to daily life. As a result, the training
helped the prospective mathematics teachers understood creativity
and how to applied it in their teaching in mathematics (Kandemir
& Gr, 2009).

IMPACT OF CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING TRAINING

TOWARDS BEHAVIORS
Basadur carried numerous studies regarding the impact of Creative
Problem Solving CPS training on skills. He showed that Creative
Problem Solving CPS training can improve Creative Problem
Solving CPS skills in generating many original solutions to solve
problems (Basadur, Runco & Vega, 2000), evaluating original
ideas (Basadur, Runco & Vega, 2000), generating many ideas
(Runco & Basadur, 1993), enhancing ideation and improving
performance in problem finding (Basadur, Graen & Green, 1982)
Kabanoff and Bottger (1991) found out that Creative
Problem Solving CPS training can enhance skills to generate many
new ideas, to come out with original ideas and many different types
of ideas (fluency, originality and flexibility) (Kabanoff & Bottger,
1991). MBA students were divided into experimental group with
thirty-two students and control group with forty-four students. The
result showed that students in experimental group can generate
many original ideas compared to the students in the control group
(Kabanoff & Bottger, 1991).
Wang and Horng in the year of 2002 examined the impact
of Creative Problem Solving CPS training.
Research and
Development Scientists and technicians were developed into
experimental group with one hundred and six of them and control
group with thirty-five of them. The result showed that after
Creative Problem Solving CPS training, the experimental group
improved significantly in fluency and flexibility in generating ideas
365

(Wang & Horng, 2002). Firestien and Lunken (1993) carried out
an investigation on the impact of Creative Problem Solving CPS
training on graduate program. Thirty-eight graduate students took
part in this study. After one hundred and sixty hours of Creative
Problem Solving CPS training showed the result that they have
greater flexibility to accept challenges and willingness to take risks
and ability to use creative thinking in their personal and
professional lives (Firestien & Lunken, 1993)
Fontenot (1993) carried out a study of the impact of
Creative Problem Solving CPS training on divergent thinking
skills. Business people took part in this study with thirty-four of
them in the experimental group and twenty in the control group.
After the Creative Problem Solving CPS training, the business
people in the experimental group increased fluency in data finding,
fluency and flexibility in problem finding, The result showed that
the trained group can outperformed the untrained group in creative
problem solving skills (Fontenot, 1993).
Firestien and McCowan (1988) conducted a study on the
impact of Creative Problem Solving CPS training on
undergraduate students. After a semester of training, the trained
group can generate more ideas than the untrained groups (Firestien
& McCowan, 1988). They also showed behaviours towards
supporting other peoples ideas. Thompson (2001) conducted the
study on the application of Creative Problem Solving CPS to
resolve machine problems in Alcan Limited and syrup blockages in
Quaker Oats (Thompson, 2001). The results showed that the teams
from different manufacturing organizations can resolve the
maintenance problems by applying Creative Problem Solving CPS.
The teams can generate ideas to come out with solutions to the
problems.
Keller-Mathers (1990) examined the impact of Creative
Problem Solving CPS training on participants personal and
professional lives. The results showed that the students were able
to use various Creative Problem Solving CPS techniques to solve
problems in their personal and professional lives after they had

366

taken the training courses in Creative Problem Solving CPS. Even

after one year of the training, the students were also able to use
eight out of thirteen of the Creative Problem Solving CPS
techniques taught to apply in their lives (Keller-Mathers, 1990).
Firestein (1996) also reported that the application of Creative
Problem Solving CPS can help to solve the maintenance problems
in a United States automotive forge plant (Firestien, 1996).
Through the group discussion, they came out with ideas in
reducing costs. Puccio and Lehrberger (1999) studied the impact
of Creative Problem Solving CPS on leadership development
program. Ninety-two managers from a large newspaper and
magazine publisher participated in this study. The results showed
that they can apply Creative Problem Solving CPS to generate new
ideas (Puccio & Lehrberger, 1999).
In the year of 1988, Baer researched the long term effects of
Creative Problem Solving CPS training in mathematics. He
divided the students into two groups. The experimental group
which was given a training on how to solve problems based on
Osborn Parnes Creative Problem Solving CPS model and the
control group was given the pre-tests just like the experimental
group before the training. However, the control group wasnt
given any training at all. The post-tests were made up of divergent
and convergent ideas. The results showed that the experimental
group outscored the control group even after six months later. This
significantly showed that Creative Problem Solving CPS skills in
mathematics were not forgotten easily. Baer (1988) said that
future studies can help to clarify the effect of Creative Problem
Solving CPS skills by applying it in the classroom. Creative
Problem Solving CPS skills are actually different than classical
problem solving skills because it can increase the problem solvers
perspectives by looking at the mathematical problems from many
different angles and also using their divergent thinking skills to
solve mathematical problems (Kandemir & Gr, 2009).
Kandemir and Gur also carried out an exploratory study in
the year of 2007. Forty-three prospective secondary school

367

teachers participated in this study. They were observed and

interviewed after eleven weeks of creativity training. The result
showed that the teachers improved their creative thinking and
Creative Problem Solving CPS. They can overcome barriers to
Creative Problem Solving CPS and enhanced their divergent
thinking. The school teachers can also use the Creative Problem
Solving CPS techniques in their future teachings and learnings
(Kandemir & Gur, 2007).
Kashefi, Ismail, Yusof and Rahman (2011) also investigated
the effects of using Creative Problem Solving CPS skills to learn
engineering mathematics in a blended learning environment. First
year undergraduates students participated in this study with fiftynine of them in the treatment group and fifty-seven in the control
group. The result showed that the students in treatment group
abled to use Creative Problem Solving CPS skills to help them to
learn engineering mathematics (Kashefi, Ismail, Yusof & Rahman,
2011).

RESULT
The results show that Creative Problem Solving CPS can be
applied in many fields of study. The results also show that
Creative Problem Solving CPS can be effectively applied in
different fields.
From the meta-analysis, two major impacts after Creative
Problem Solving CPS training were found. They are the impacts
towards attitudes and the impacts towards behaviors. The
development of creative attitudes can also foster creative
behaviors. Therefore, two types of researches are carried out to
understand the impact of Creative Problem Solving CPS training.
In one hand, some researchers investigated attitudes towards
openness to divergent thinking, preference for ideation; in the
other hand, other researchers examined behaviors towards
production of creative ideas, ideational fluency and evaluation

368

skills. However, there were very little literature regarding the

impacts of Creative Problem Solving CPS on mathematics.

FUTURE SUGGESTION
Creative Problem Solving CPS requires students to use their
convergent and divergent thinking skills in the learning of
mathematics and this is not commonly used in mathematical
problem solving. Most students can solve mathematical problems
based on their convergent thinking skills but when come across
open-ended, ill-defined, non-routine and non-structural problem,
they do not know how to use divergent thing skills in their
mathematical problem solving.
Creative Problem Solving CPS seems to stimulate students
interest to solve open-ended mathematical problems.
The
introduction of small group environment can help the students to
improve the quantity and quality of social interaction among them.
The use of group work can actually increase the frequency of social
interaction among the students and thus provide a good opportunity
for them to have mutual understandings of their works and to have
good coordination in their activities towards their joint tasks. With
the help of Creative Problem Solving CPS skills, students can
construct their own mathematical knowledge and strategies based
on models or theories, so that they can find out a best solution for
their problems. Students can also improve their higher order
cognitive skills or social communication and information
collecting skills by involving themselves in the process of Creative
Problem Solving CPS in mathematics
However, due to the
constraints of our school culture and therefore the implementation
of Creative Problem Solving CPS in mathematics is still in an
immature stage to be applied in the school curriculum. Although
Creative Problem Solving CPS had been applied in many different
fields of studies, there is little work done on mathematics. The
review of the impact of Creative Problem Solving CPS in other
369

fields of studies hopes to be used as a catalyst in future research of

Creative Problem Solving CPS in mathematics.

CONCLUSION
The impacts of Creative Problem Solving CPS on mathematics are
similar to the impacts of Creative Problem Solving CPS in other
fields of studies. They are two types of impacts such as attitudes
towards divergent thinking and behaviors towards creative
thinking. The only differences are that impacts of Creative
Problem Solving CPS on mathematics can develop attitudes
openness to open-ended mathematical problems and behaviors
towards developing skills in Creative Problem Solving CPS.

370

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
(UTM) and Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) Malaysia for
their financial support in making this project possible. This work
was supported by the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme
[4F187-FRGS] initiated by MOHE.

REFERENCES
Baer, J. M. (1988). Long-term effects of creativity training with
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TAHAP KOMPETENSI GURU

SEKOLAH MENENGAH
KEJURUAN NEGERI BIDANG
PERNIAGAAN DAN
PENGURUSAN DI KOTA PADANG
Nellitawati & Yusof Bin Boon

ABSTRAK
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti tahap kompetensi guruguru Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan (SMK) Negeri Bidang Bisnis
dan Manajemen di Kota Padang. Jenis kajian ini ialah kajian
deskriptif dengan populasi kajian seluruh guru SMK Negeri
Bidang Bisnis dan Manajemen di Kota Padang. Penentuan sampel
dalam kajian ini dilakukan dengan menggunaan teknik rawak
mudah (simple random smapling). Instrumen kajian ini berupa soal
selidik yang telah dilakukan uji validiti dan reliabiliti
menggunakan uji alpha Cronbach. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan
bahawa tahap kompetensi guru SMK Negeri Bidang Bisnis dan
Manajemen di Kota Padang berada pada kategori cukup dengan
tahap capaian responden 73.45 peratus, dengan rincian kompetensi
pedagogik guru berada pada kategori cukup dengan tahap capaian
responden 76.67 peratus, kompetensi profesional berada pada
kategori cukup dengan tahap capaian 63.33 peratus, kompetensi
kepribadian berada pada kategori cukup dengan tahap capaian
responden 68.33 peratu, dan kompetensi sosial berada pada
kategori baik dengan tahap capaian responden 86.65 peratus.
Implikasi dapatan kajian ialah perlu dilakukan usaha-usaha yang
sungguh-sungguh untuk penambahbaikan tahap kompetensi guru,

375

sekaligus penambahbaikan tahap pencapaian mutu lulusan SMK

Bidang Bisnis dan Manajemen di Kota Padang.
Kata kunci: Tahap Kompetensi Guru

PENGENALAN
Kerajaan Indonesia telah mengekalkan Rencana Pembangunan
Pendidikan Nasional Jangka Panjang (RPPNJP) sehingga tahun
2025 yang sekaligus merupakan rancangan strategik daripada
pelaksanaan pembangunan. Tujuan rancangan strategik ini adalah
untuk
mempertingkatkan
keperluan
sumber
manusia,
mengukuhkan perkhidmatan dan memperting-katkan daya saing
sesama negara Asean pada peringkat antara bangsa. Selain itu
pelaksanaan rancangan strategik ini adalah untuk mempertingkatkan kesejahteraan rakyat dan mencerdaskan seluruh rakyat
Indonesia. Oleh itu tahap pendidikan di Indonesia diharap
setanding dengan tahap pendidikan di negara lain, terutamanya
dengan negara-negara Asean.
Bagi memudahkan kerajaan Indonesia mencapai tujuan
pembangunan pendidikan dalam rancangan strategik tersebut,
maka pada tahun 2014 kerajaan Indonesia secara khusus telah
memberi fokus kepada peningkatan kualiti sumber daya manusia
dan keupayaan teknologi. Perkara utama yang mesti dilakukan bagi
mempertingkatkan kualiti sumber daya manusia di Indonesia ialah
mempertingkatkan kualiti pendidikan. Namun kualiti pendidikan di
Indonesia secara amnya masih tergolong rendah, dan perkara ini
dapat dilihat daripada indeks pembangunan manusia Indonesia
yang rendah jika dibandingkan dengan negara-negara lain di dunia
(Muhson A., 2004).
Salah satu aspek penting daripada usaha untuk
mempertingkatkan kualiti pendidikan tersebut ialah mempertingkatkan kualiti guru. Guru memainkan peranan yang amat penting
bagi kelancaran proses pendidikan yang berlangsung dalam bilik

376

darjah, sekaligus menentukan tahap pencapaian proses

pembelajaran yang dilakukan. Oleh itu pembinaan kualiti guru
perlu dilakukan dengan baik (UU RI No. 20, 2003; PP No. 19,
2005; dan Zulfikar,2009), kerana guru adalah faktor penentu yang
terpenting dalam mencapai kecemerlangan pendidikan. Walaupun
tersedia kurikulum yang baik dan kemudahan yang lengkap, tetapi
jika tiada guru yang berkemahiran, maka kecemerlangan
pendidikan sukar untuk dicapai (Wannasir, 2002). Guru
mempunyai peranan yang penting dalam merancang suasana
pembelajaran dalam bilik darjah (Blankmeyer, Flannery &
Vazsonyi, 2002). Oleh itu, guru haruslah mempunyai kemahiran
yang memungkinkan ianya dapat melaksanakan pekerjaan dengan
baik. Seorang guru mestilah belajar secara berterusan untuk
mempertingkatkan
kemahiran
yang
diperlukan
untuk
melaksanakan tugasnya (UU RI No. 14 Tahun 2005, PP No.19
Tahun 2005 BSNP 2006).
Walaupun begitu, rendahnya kompetensi guru di Indonesia
merupakan masalah nasional yang harus diselesaikan dengan
menemukan satu kaedah penyelesaian untuk mengatasinya.
Berdasarkan kajian Musfah J, (2011), terdapat beberapa faktor
yang menyebabkan kompetensi guru rendah, iaitu: (i) kurangnya
keupayaan guru mengenai pengurusan bilik darjah, (ii) masih
terdapat personaliti guru belum boleh dijadikan contoh oleh
pelajar, (iii) keupayaan guru untuk melakukan kajian masih kurang
(iv) masih banyak guru belum menguasai sepenuhnya isi pelajaran
yang akan disampaikan sehingga guru tidak mampu memindahkan
ilmu yang dimiliki secara baik kepada pelajarnya.
Undang-Undang Kerajaan Indonesia Nomor 20 Tahun 2003
tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional, menggariskan bahwa
pendidikan nasional bertujuan untuk mengembangkan potensi
pelajar agar menjadi manusia yang beriman dan bertakwa kepada
TuhanYang Maha Esa, berakhlak mulia, sehat, berilmu, cakap,
kreatif, kendiri, dan menjadi warga negara yang demokratis serta
bertanggung jawab. Bagi merealisasikan harapan kerajaan dan
masarakat tentang hal tersebut maka sangat diperlukan guru yang

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berkualiti iaitu guru yang mempunyai kompetensi yang baik

sehingga boleh menjalankan tugas dan tanggung jawabnya bagi
mencergaskan bangsa Indonesia (Zulfikar, 2009).
Rumusan tujuan tersebut mencerminkan semakin besarnya
harapan terhadap pendidikan sebagai instrumen utama
pengembangan sumber daya manusia. Harapan tersebut
mengandung pesan agar pendidikan bukan hanya melebar
kesamping atau kuantitatif, melainkan kualitatif atau kedalaman
dan intensitas proses serta produknya. Tuntutan mengenai
pendidikan yang bermutu tinggi, saat ini telah menjadi bagian
penting dari keperluan masyarakat pemakai jasa pendidikan.
Dipihak lain, isu kebermutuan pendidikan terkait dengan
keprihatinan akan kondisi pendidikan di Indonesia yang belum
sepenuhnya mampu melahirkan generasi yang berkualitas. Oleh
itu peningkatan kualiti pendidikan sangat bergantung kepada
kualiti guru, dan juga profesionalisme yang tinggi diwujudkan
dalam kompetensi guru yang merupakan faktor utama dalam
mempertingkatkan kualiti pendidikan.
(Halimah, 2006,
Nurhizrah,G et all 2009).
Di Indonesia, khasnya di Kota Padang, kompetensi guru
masih berada pada peringkat yang rendah. Perkara itu berdasarkan
dapatan daripada peperiksaan kompetensi guru yang dijalankan di
seluruh wilayah Indonesia oleh Badan Pengembangan Sumber
Manusia Dalam Pendidikan Kebudayaan dan Penjaminan Mutu
Pendidikan (BPSDMPK-PMP, 2012). Pelaksanaan peperiksaan
kompetensi guru dilakukan di setiap daerah. Sebanyak 604.752
guru di seluruh wilayah Indonesia yang mengikuti peperiksaan
kompetensi guru dengan hasilan nilai purata nasionalnya 42.25
peratus. Hasilan ini masih jauh di bawah nilai purata standard iaitu
nilai 70.00 peratus seperti yang ditetapkan oleh Badan
Pengembangan Sumder Daya Manusia Pendidikan, Kebudayaan
dan Penjaminan Mutu Pendidikan (BPSDMPK-PMP, 2012).
Melihat hasil yang diperolehi bahawa kompetensi guru di
Indonesia perlu dijalankan satu kajian untuk memperolehi model
yang sesuai dalam mempertingkatkan kompetensi guru.

378

Selanjutnya, dapatan peperiksaan kompeten-si guru yang di

laksanakan di wilayah Sumatera Barat, khususnya Kota Padang
yang diikuti oleh 48.639 guru telah memperolehi nilai purata 47.69
peratus. Dapatan ini berada di bawah nilai purata yang ditetapkan
oleh Badan Pengembangan Sumber Daya Manusia Departemen
Pendidikan Kebudayaan dan Penjaminan Mutu Pendidikan
(BPSDMPK-PMP, 2012). Berasaskan data tersebut menunjukkan
bahawa kompetensi guru di wilayah Sumatera Barat Kota Padang
berada pada tingkatan yang rendah. Oleh itu perlu dilakukan
penyelidikan untuk mencari upaya atau strategi-stragi dan model
yang boleh mempertingkatkan kompetensi guru.
Berdasarkan latar belakang dan pernyataan masalah, kajian
ini dijalankan untuk mencapai beberapa objektif, iaitu; mengenal
pasti tahap kompetensi guru SMK Negeri Bidang Perniagaan dan
Pengurusan di Kota Padang. Pemboleh ubah dalam kajian ini ialah
kompetensi guru menurut UU Guru dan Dosen yang dikenal
dengan UU No. 14, (2005), PP 19 (2005)dan BSNP, (2006) salah
satunya ialah kompetensi pedagogik. Model kompetensi guru ini
merupakan salah satu kompetensi yang dipersyaratkan oleh pejabat
pendidikan di Indonesia bagi mempertingkatkan kualiti
pendidikan. Model kompetensi guru yang dikembangkan
berasaskan pada undang-undang guru dan dosen ( UU pemerintah
Indonesia No. 14, 2005, Peraturan pemerintah Indonesia Nombor
19 tahun 2005, serta BSNP, 2006).
Kompetensi Guru menurut UU Guru dan Dosen No.14,
2005 dan BSNP,2006 merupakan gabungan antara kecekapan
(skills), keupayaan (abilities), dan pengetahuan (knowledge) yang
diperlukan untuk mengerjakan suatu tugas secara spesifik.
(National Academy of Education, 2009). Sementara kompetensi
guru yang dikehendaki sesuai dengan Undang-Undang nombor 14
tahun 2005 dan diperkuatkan oleh peraturan Menteri Pendidikan
Kerajaan Indonesia nombor 16 tahun 2007 kompetensi guru yang
berkenaan dengan pelaksanaan tugas mengajar terdiri dari;
kompetensi pedagogik, kompetensi kepribadian, kompetensi
profesional, dan kompetensi sosial. Huraian terperinci dari masing-

379

masing kompetensi adalah sebagai berikut.

Kompetensi Pedagogik
Kompetensi
pedagogik merupakan keupayaan guru bagi
menguruskan pelajar. Kompetensi ini mengharuskan guru
mempunyai keupayaan dalam hal pemahaman mengenai asas
pendidikan, pemahaman mengenai pelajar dan pembangunan
potensi pelajar, pemahaman membangunkan kurikulum daripada
aspek-aspek merancang, melaksanakan dan menilai hasil belajar
(UU RI. No. 14, 2005, BSNP.2006 dan PP RI. No.74, 2008).
Selanjutnya, pada pengajaran di dalam kelas kompetensi
pedagogik merupakan aspek-aspek yang amat pentingkerana
mengandungi pemahaman mengenai strategi pengajaran,
pemahaman mengenai apa dan bagaimana memotivasi pelajar,
sikap pelajar kaitannya dengan mata pelajaran, pembelajaran dan
persekolahan, juga mengenai pembangunan pengetahuan dan
penalaran daripada pelajar dan sebagainya (Rifma, 2011).

Kompetensi Profesional
Kompetensi profesional merupakan kompetensi yang perlu dimiliki
oleh guru dalam melaksanakan proses pengajaran dan
pembelajaran di dalam bilik darjah. Guru diharuskan memahami
bahan pembelajarannya dengan baik. Disamping guru diminta
untuk menguasai bahan pengajaran, guru juga mesti memahami
secara luas dan mendalam bidang keahlian yang diajarkannya yang
meliputi (a) konsep, struktur, metode keilnuan. (b) bahan
pembelajaran yang sesuai dengan kurikulum sekolah, (c) hubungan
antara mata pelajaran terkait, (d) Penerapan konsep dalam
kehidupan sehari-hari, (e) berkompetisi secara profesional dalam
konteks global tanpa meninggalkan nilai budaya kebangsaan (UU
RI. No. 14, 2005, BSNP.2006 dan PP RI. No.74,2008). Menjadi

380

guru profesional tidak dapat dilakukan secara cepat dan bukan

sesuatu yang mudah. Sebelum menjadi ahli, guru mesti melalui
beberapa tahap iaitu sebagai pendatang baru (novice) ke pemula
lanjut, kompeten, pandai (provident), dan pada akhiraya menjadi
ahli (Darling Hammond dan Bransford, 2005).

Kompetensi keperibadian
Kompetensi keperibadian iaitu keupayaan personal seorang guru
yang mempunyai elemen-elemen berakhlak mulia, mantap, stabil,
dan dewasa, arif dan bijaksana, menjadi tauladan, menuai prestasi
sendiri serta membangunkan diri dan religious. Pada dasarnya
pembelajaran merupakan perubahan perilaku. Selain daripada itu,
guru mesti mempunyai kualiti peribadi tertentu yang merangkumi
tanggung jawab, wibawa, berdikari, dan disiplin (Mulyasa, 2009).
Kompetensi Sosial
Kompetensi sosial adalah keupayaan guru untuk menjalin
hubungan dengan masyarakat sekitarnya. Keupayaan yang
dimaksud adalah keupayaan dalam berkomunikasi sama ada lisan
mahupun tulisan, menggunakan teknologi komunikasi secara
fungsional, bergaul secara berkesan dengan pelajar, rakan sekerja,
ibu bapa atau wali pelajar, dan bergaul secara santun dengan
masyarakat sekitamya (UU RI. No. 14, 2005, BSNP,2006 dan PP
RI. No.74,2008).

KAEDAH PENYELIDIKAN
Kajian ini merupakan kajian deskripsi yang menggambarkan
keadaan sepenuhnya dari sampel yang dikaji. Populasi kajian ialah
guru-guru SMK Negeri Bidang Perniagaan dan Pengurusan di
Kota Padang, Teknik pengambilan sampel yang digunakan dalam

381

kajian ini adalah teknik rawak mudah (simple random smapling),

Instrumen yang digunakan untuk mengutip data kajian ialah senarai
pertanyaan/ pernyataan dalam bentuk skala Likert.
Terhadap data kajian dipergunakan untuk menjawab
pertanyaan kajian, dilakukan analisis permulaan statistik, iaitu; (1)
uji normaliti untuk memastikan bahwa distribusi data kompetensi
pedagogik guru SMK Negeri Bidang Perniagaan dan Pengurusan
di Kota Padang. Uji normaliti dilakukan dengan menggunakan uji
chi-kuadrat (Riduwan, 2010), (2) uji homogeniti dilakukan untuk
mengetahui apakah data kajian homogen (Sudjana, 2005).

DAPATAN KAJIAN DAN PERBINCANGAN

Berdasarkan butir-butir pertanyaan yang termuat dalam instrumen
kajian tentang kompetensi guru yang berjumlah 27 butir, maka
skor terendah yang diperoleh adalah 52 dan skor tertinggi adalah
92, dengan rata-rata (M) = 78.45 dan standart deviasi (SD) = 10,2.
Untuk lebih jelasnya deskripsi data variabel kompetensi pedagogik
guru diperlihatkan pada jadual 1 berikut.
Jadual 1. Distribusi Skor Kompetensi Pedagogik Guru
N Interval frekuen Frekuensi
o
Skor
si
absolut
1
52-58
2
5
2
59-65
4
10
3
66-72
7
17.5
4
73-79
9
22.5
5
80-86
11
27.5
6
87-92
7
17.5
Rerata
78.45
Histogram dari data kompetensi pedagogik guru seperti
jadual di atas diperoleh seperti rajah 1 berikut.

382

Rajah 1. Histogram Distribusi Data

Kompetensi Pedagogik Guru
Mengikut sebaran data kajian pada tabel di atas, diperoleh
bahawa 18 peratus reponden kajian mempunyai kompetensi di atas
rerata, sedangkan 13 peratus responden kajian mempunyai
kompetensi di bawah rerata (mean). Secara keseluruhan diperoleh
tingkat pencapaian responden terhadap kompetensi pedagogik
termasuk kategori rendah iaitu 76.67 %.
Selanjutnya mengikut hasil olahan data tentang kompetensi
profesional diperoleh data sebagai berikut.
Jadual 2. Distribusi Skor Kompetensi Profesional
N Interva Frekuens Frekuen
o l Skor
i
si
absolut
1 32 - 38
3
5
2 39 - 45
5
10
3 46 - 52
7
12.5
4 53 - 60
11
22.5
5 61 - 68
9
30
6 69 - 76
5
20
Rerata
56.65
Histogram dari data kompetensi profesional seperti di atas
diperoleh seperti rajah 2.

383

Rajah 2. Histogram Distribusi Data Kompetensi

Profesional Guru
Sebaran data kajian pada tabel di atas, menunjukkan
bahawa 14 peratus responden kajian mempunyai kompetensi di
atas rerata, sedangkan 13 peratus responden kajian mempunyai
kompetensi di bawah rerata (mean). Secara keseluruhan tingkat
pencapaian responden terhadap kompetensi profesional termasuk
kategori rendah yaitu 63.33 %.
Sebaran data tentang kompetensi kepribadian guru SMK
Negeri Bidang perniagaan dan pengurusan di Kota Padang
diperlihatkan pada jadual berikut.
Jadual 3. Distribusi Skor Kompetensi Kepribadian
N Interval Frekuen Frekuensi
o
Skor
si
absolut
1
42-48
2
5.41
2
3
4
5
6

49-55
56-62
63-69
70-76
77-82

4
6
10
9
6
Rerata

10.81
16.22
27.03
24.32
16.22
66.65

Histogram dari data kompetensi kepribadian seperti di atas

diperoleh seperti rajah 3 berikut.
384

Rajah 3. Histogram Distribusi Data Kompetensi Kepribadian Guru

Sebaran data kajian pada tabel di atas, diperoleh bahawa
15 peratus responden kajian mempunyai kompetensi di atas rerata,
sedangkan 12 peratus responden kajian mempunyai kompetensi di
bawah rerata (mean). Secara keseluruhan diperoleh tahap
pencapaian responden dalam hal kompetensi kepribadian termasuk
kategori rendah yaitu 68.33.%.
Jadual 4. Distribusi Skor Kompetensi Sosial
No Interv frekuens Frekuensi
al
i
absolut
Skor
1
62-68
2
5.00
2
69-75
4
10.00
3
76-82
7
17.50
4
83-89
13
32.50
5
90-96
9
22.50
6
975
12.50
102
Rerata
86.65
Histogram dari data kompetensi pedagogik seperti di atas
diperoleh seperti rajah 4.

385

Rajah 4. Histogram Distribusi Data Kompetensi Sosial Guru

Sebaran data kajian pada tabel di atas, diperoleh bahawa
15 peratus resopnden kajian mempunyai kompetensi di atas rerata,
sedangkan 12 peratus responden kajian mempunyai kompetensi di
bawah rerata (mean). Secara keseluruhan diperoleh tahap
pencapaian responden terhadap kompetensi sosial termasuk
kategori sedang iaitu 86.65 %.
Rerata capaian skor kompetensi guru dari ke empat sub
kompetensi adalah 72.10 dan rerata tahap capaian responden dalam
kompetensi guru adalah 73.45 peratus. Kedua capaian ini
menunjukkan bahawa kompetensi guru SMK Negeri bidang
perniagaan dan pengurusan di kota Padang berada pada kategori
yang tergolong rendah (kategori rendah). Kondisi ini tentu tidak
boleh dibiarkan, dan tentu akan mempengaruhi tahap
perkembangan dan pencapaian hasil-hasil pembelajaran yang
dilakukan, bahkan akan berpengaruh kepada mutu lulusan pada ke
dua sekolah. Pihak sekolah, ataupun jawatan terkait mesti segera
mengambil peran untuk mengupayakan perbaikan dan peningkatan
kompetensi guru tersebut dalam waktu dekat.

386

KESIMPULAN DAN CADANGAN

Hasilan kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa secara umum kompetensi
guru SMK Negeri khasnya dalam bidang Perniagaan dan
Pengurusan masih tergolong pada kategori rendah, yaitu dengan
tahap pencapaian responden sebesar 73.45 peratus. Dapatan kajian
menghasilkan beberapa cadangan yang perlu dilaksanakan adalah
mengupayakan penambahbaikan kegiatan pengajaran dan
pembelajaan. Kegiatan pelatihan/ training perlu dilakukan, baik
berupa short course, maupun in house training agar upaya
penambahbaikan tahap kompetensi guru dapat terwujud dengan
segera. Sekaligus upaya penambahbaikan mutu lulusan dapat
dicapai secara berangsur-angsur dan berterusan.

RUJUKAN
Blankmeyer, M. Flannery,D. J., & Vazsonyi, A,T. (2002). The role
of aggression and sosial competencein childrends
perceptions of the child-teachar relationship. Psychology in
the school,39 (3),293-304
BSNP (2006). Peraturan Mendiknas No. 41 Tahun 2007 tentang
Standard Proses untuk Satuan Pendidikan Dasar dan
Menengah.
Halimah Harun (2006). Minat, Motivasi dan Kemahiran Mengajar
Guru Pelatih: Jurnal Pendidikan 31, 83 - 96.
Kemendiknas. (2005). Peraturan Pemerintah No.19, Tentang
Standar Nasional Pendidikan.Jakarta: Kemendiknas.
Kemendiknas. (2008). Peraturan Pemerintah No.74, Tentang Guru
Jakarta: Kemdiknas.
Kemendiknas. (2005). Rencana Strategis Kementrian Pendidikan
Nasional 2005-2025.
Kemendiknas. (2011). Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional
No.11 Tentang Sertifikasi Guru.Jakarta: Kemendiknas.

387

Muhson, Ali, Meningkatkan Profesionalisme Guru:Sebuah

Harapan, Jurnal Ekonomi dan Pendidikan, Volume 2 No 1,
Agustus 2004.
Mulyasa. (2004). Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi. Bandung:
Remaja Rosdakarya.
Mulyasa. (2009). Implementasi Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan
Pendidikan Kemandirian Guru dan Kepala Sekolah (1 ed.).
Jakarta: Bumi Aksara.
Musfah, Jejen. 2011. Peningkatan Kompetensi Guru (Melalui
Pelatihan dan Sumber Belajar Teori dan Praktik). Jakarta:
Kencana.
Nurhizrah,G, et all (2009) Kesan Etika Kepemimpinan Pengetua
sekolah dan Self-Efficacy Terhadap Pelaksnaan tugas guru
SD di Kec. Salimpaung Kabupaten Tanah Datar. Laporan
Penelitian Tidak diterbitkan Jurusan Administrasi
Pendidikan FIP UNP Padang.
Renstra. (2005). Rencana dan Strategi Jangka Panjang. Jakarta:
Kemendiknas.
Riduwan. 2006. Belajar Penelitian Mudah Untuk Guru,
Karyawan dan Peneliti Pemula. Bandung : Alfabeta.
Rifma ( 2013) Model Pembinaan Kopetensi Pedagogik Guru
sekolah dasar Disertasi tidak diterbitkan. Padang.
Program Pascasarjana Universitas Negeri Padang.
Sudjana, Nana. 2009. Dasar-dasar Proses Belajar Menganjar.
Bandung: Sinar Baru Algesindo
Undang- Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 14 Tahun 2005
tentang Guru dan Dosen. 2009. Jakarta: Sinar Grafika
Undang- Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 20 Tahun 2003
tentang Guru dan Dosen. 2009. Jakarta: Sinar Grafika
Wannasir (2002) Kontribusi motivasi dan Supervsi terhadap
kinerja guru. Tesis tidak ditrbitkan Padang Program
Pascasarjana Universitas Negeri Padang
Zulfikar, T. (2009). The Making of Indonesia Education: An
Overview on Empowering Indonesia Teachers. Indonesia
Social Sciences and Humanities Vol. 2.

388

A PRELIMINARY STUDY ON
IMPLEMENTATION OF AEROBIC
FITNESS TRAINING IN TENNIS
COACHES TRAINING
PROGRAM
Syahrul Ridhwan Morazuki & Zainal Abidin Zainuddin

ABSTRACT
The main aim of this study was to explore the implementation of
aerobic fitness training among Malaysian tennis coaches in their
training program. Eight qualified with tennis specific and sports
science accreditation tennis coaches were interviewed. Their
average age and total years of coaching experience are 39.3 10.6
years and 14.9 8.6 years respectively. Five themes were emerged
from the qualitative analysis which are the type of training, training
period, training frequency, training duration, and training intensity.
Analysis of the interviews indicated that the coaches usually
allocated about 2 to 4 weeks for aerobic fitness training with
frequency of 3 sessions in a week. The coaches also prefer to
conduct running activities within 20 to 45 minutes. However, none
of the coaches monitor or properly control the aerobic fitness
activities. Thus, this study suggesting a specific aerobic fitness
training program for tennis players to be developed to assist the
coaches conducting a proper aerobic fitness training in the future.
Keywords:

Aerobic Fitness Training, Tennis, Training Program

389

INTRODUCTION
According to Bompa & Haff(2009), a training program is an
organised set of training activities which developed based on the
scientific findings, practical experience, previous training models,
and based on training principles. As for training principles, in
general, it consists of the frequency, intensity, time or duration, and
type of training. Implementation of some of the principles, for
instance, the frequency and intensity of training, does not
necessarily need to be high all the time. It should be specific and
fits the unique needs of the individual and the demands of the
game (Holly & Shaffrath, 2001).
Fitness training in tennis should not be solely focused on
the anaerobic energy systems even though the game is considered
as a predominant anaerobic sport due to its quick and explosive
nature. On the other hand, the aerobic fitness training is also
important for tennis players because the match duration is
unpredictableand the game is physically and physiologically
demanding (Konig et al., 2001). Thus, the players should have a
good aerobic fitness to play throughout the match (Kovacs,
2006).In addition, the game is interspersed with 20 seconds break
between points and 90 seconds break during the changeover of the
court. The repeated breaks during the game allows the aerobic
metabolism to take place to promote recovery (Chandler, 2000).
Collectively,this indicates that the aerobic fitness is essential in
tennis and it should be given afair implementation in the training
program.
To researchers knowledge, available literatures regarding
the implementation of aerobic fitness training in tennis is scarced,
particularly in Malaysia.Therefore, this study has been conducted
to explore the implementation of aerobic fitness trainingamong
Malaysian tennis coaches in their training program.

390

METHODOLOGY
Eight tennis coaches with tennis specific and sports science
accreditations were involved in this study. All of them are male
and their trainees including the state-level, national and
international tennis players.
Respondents were recruited by using purposive sampling
method (snowball). Up on verbal agreement from the respondent
for the interview, the interview sessions were conducted at the predetermined venue. Semi-structured interview was used to obtain
information from the respondents. All interview sessions were
recorded by using a digital voice recorder (SONY ICD-UX543F,
China) for further analysis.

RESULTS
Demographic Information of the Coaches
As aforementioned, all respondents are qualified coaches with ITF
and sports science accreditations. They are coaching players from
the state-level to international players. Their mean age and total
years of coaching are 39.3 10.6 years and 14.9 8.6 years
respectively. Details of the demographic information of the
coaches are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Demographic information of the coaches

Coach

Age
(Years)

Total Years of
Coaching

27

31

10

37

13

Coaching
Accreditation
(Level)
ITF (1)
Sports Science (3)
ITF (2)
Sports Science (3)
ITF (2)
Sports Science (3)

391

Level of
Trainee
National
junior
National
junior
National
junior

52

30

39

18

58

24

38

32

12

ITF (3)
Sports Science (3)
ITF (1)
Sports Science (2)
ITF (2)
Sports Science (2)
ITF (1)
Sports Science (1)
ITF (2)
Sports Science (3)

International
National
university
National
junior
State
State

Qualitative Analysis from the Interviews

The interviews were focusing on the implementation of aerobic
fitness training in the coaches training program. Based on Table 2,
five themes were emerged from the interviews which are the type
of training, training period, training frequency, training duration,
and training intensity. These themes led to produce the sub-theme
(components of aerobic fitness training) and eventually the main
theme (implementation of aerobic fitness training).
Table 2 Themes Emerged from the Interviews
Themes Emerged
from the Interviews
Type of training
Training period
Training frequency
Training duration
Training intensity

Sub-theme

Main Theme

Components of
Aerobic Fitness
Training

Implementation of
Aerobic Fitness
Training

Some quotes by the coaches regarding the implementation of

aerobic fitness in their training program according to the emerged
themes are described in the following topics.
Type of Aerobic Fitness Training Implemented
Besides running, I usually conduct LSD (long slow distance)
training [Coach A]
Normally, Ill ask them [players] to run on the treadmill. Besides,

392

they players will have to run around the hill [Coach B]

We would go to the track and make them run 800m, maybe 4
times, maybe for 6 times [Coach D]
Yes you can do hill running but hill running with intensity
[Coach D]
Fitness training is performed without using the racket. The
training has combination of running, interval training and shuttle
training [Coach E]
For example, running around the court, LSD (long slow
distance), and other cardio activites [Coach F]
I will ask my players to run on variety of surfaces. On the court,
we will combine the running activity with technical activities to
avoid boredom. Rope skipping also will be conducted [Coach G]
I encourage my players to swim [Coach G]
For aerobic training, we usually ask the players to run, non-stop.
We conduct long slow distance (LSD) too [Coach H]
Aerobic Fitness Training Period
I may get about 8 weeks for aerobic fitness training. It may
extended up to 12 weeks [Coach A]
I usually spend about 2 to 3 weeks for aerobic training but it
depends on the fitness of the players [Coach B]
The aerobic fitness training usually conducted in 3 or 4 weeks
[Coach C]
We conduct the aerobic training for about a month [Coach H]
Aerobic Fitness Training Frequency
Aerobic training is included in my weekly training plan. Ill pick
one day, usually on Thursday morning, it will be fully aerobic
training [Coach A]
Three sessions of aerobic training in a week, its on Monday,
Wednesday, and Friday [Coach B]
Three sessions in a week and normally during the pre-season
[Coach C]
We (refers to him & fellow coaches) conducts aerobic fitness

393

training to maintain the players fitness at least once in three

weeks [Coach E]
Averagely 3 times a week [Coach F]
Usually, its three times in a week [Coach H]
Aerobic Fitness Training Duration
Before the training begin, we will perform about 20 minutes or
more for aerobic training [Coach A]
Okay, I mean...if you jog for 5km but somebody will do that in
one hour. I think its useless. I would keep it to 45 minutes
[Coach D]
I usually conducted aerobic training for about 30 minutes
[Coach F]
20 to 30 minutes is adequate [Coach G]
In every training session, at least 20 minutes allocated for
aerobic fitness training [Coach H]
Basically, the athlete need to complete the exercise in 20 minutes.
Thats it. [Coach H]
Aerobic Fitness Training Intensity
We do everything with measurement and we want them to do at
higher intensity [Coach D]
... hill running with intensity [Coach D]
In terms of intensity, it is done by controlling the exercise
duration. The heart rate is not monitored, just based on exercise
duration [Coach H]

DISCUSSION
The general purpose of aerobic fitness training is to improve
athletes performance in endurance events (Reuter & Hagerman,
2008). Aerobic fitness training also intend to elicit aerobic
metabolism at higher ratio than anaerobic metabolism (Billat,
2001) and improve the cardiovascular system to supply more

394

oxygen to the working muscles (Collingwood, 1997). Thus,

aerobic fitness training could be very important in preparing the
players to play in a match that could last about 1.5 hours (Kovacs,
2006) to 5 hours (Fernandez, Mendez-Villanueva, & Pluim, 2006).
Based on the analysis of the interviews, running and LSD were
among the preferred type of aerobic fitness training.Both training
are considered as the typical types of aerobic exercises (Reuter &
Hagerman, 2008). Other aerobic fitness that conducted by the
respondents like the rope skipping and swimming also fit the
characteristics of aerobic fitness because those activities involve
the whole body movement particularly the big muscle groups
(Roetert & Ellenbecker, 2007).
Referring to LSD training, Reuter & Hagerman(2008)
stated that the trainingcan improve cardiovascular fitness,
oxidative capacity mitochondrial energy production, and increase
utilisation of fat to supply energy. However, the training distance
should be greater than the race distance, or performed between 30
and 120 minutes (Reuter & Hagerman, 2008). However,analysis of
the interviews in this study indicated that most of respondents
conducted aerobic training less than 30 minutes. Thus, there is a
possibility that the duration of LSD training could be insufficient to
produce the best outcomes.
In terms of aerobic fitness training period, the coaches
conducted the training for about 2 to 4 weeks only. Only Coach A
stated that he might get about 8 to 12 weeks to conduct aerobic
fitness training. Number of weeks that aerobic fitness training
could be conducted may varies due to training periodisation and/or
depending on the frequency of the athletes participating in
competitions.
For the duration of one month aerobic fitness training, most
of the coaches conducted 3 sessions in a week for aerobic training.
The training duration varies from 20 to 45 minutes. The training
duration applied by the coaches is within the range of duration (2060 minutes) as suggested by Roetert & Ellenbecker(2007).
However, only one coach (Coach A) who set one specific day in a

395

week for aerobic training and the training usually performed at

least for 20 minutes. Besides, Coach E conducted aerobic fitness
training once in 3 weeks but the training duration was not
mentioned.
With regard to the training intensity, the imposed load
should resemble the demands of the game(Fernandez et al., 2006).
It can be monitored based on the heart rate responses during the
training (Fernandez-Fernandez et al., 2011) or by using the scale of
perceived exertion (Robertson, 2004). However, findings of this
study found that despite many activities of aerobic exercise were
conducted by the coaches, none of them mentionedthe training
intensity specifically. As an example, Coach H stated that:
In terms of intensity, it is done by controlling the exercise
duration. The heart rate is not monitored, just based on exercise
duration

CONCLUSION
Fernandez et al.(2006) suggested that tennis is an intermittent sport
with an aerobic recovery phase. There are short bouts of play of
less than 10 seconds, short recovery bouts about 10-20 seconds,
and longer period of play which may last up to 120 seconds
(Martin & Prioux, 2011). Furthermore, the match duration is
unpredictable (Konig et al., 2001). These statements describe that
tennis play is not relying solely on anaerobic metabolism for
energy supply to execute explosive actions. The aerobic
metabolism also plays an important role during the game to help
the players perform well throughout the match (Lees, 2003).
Further, aerobic fitness helps in recovery during the short breaks by
facilitating the regeneration of the high-energy phosphates through
oxidation (Smekal et al., 2001), and assists in clearance of lactate
and reduce the reliance on anaerobic glycolysis for energy
production(Bergeron et al., 1991). Therefore, implementation
aerobic fitness training should be given priority. Excessive training

396

on technique and tactics may improve the athletes on those aspects.

However, to assure the players to be able to perform consistently
well throughout the match as well as throughout the competition,
there is a necessity for the tennis playersto have a specific aerobic
fitness training program alongside the anaerobic-based training
program. Thus, this study suggesting a specific aerobic fitness
training program for tennis players to be developed to assist the
coaches conducting a proper aerobic fitness training in the future.

REFERENCES
Bergeron, M. F., Maresh, C. M., Kraemer, W. J., Abraham, A.,
Conroy, B., & Gabaree, C. (1991). Tennis: A Physiological
Profile During Match Play. International Journal of Sports
Medicine, 12(5), 474479.
Billat, L. V. (2001). Interval Training for Performance: A
Scientific and Empirical Practice. Special Recommendations
for Middle- and Long-Distance Running. Part I: Aerobic
Interval Training. Sports Medicine, 31(1), 1331.
Bompa, T. O., & Haff, G. G. (2009). Periodization: Theory and
Methodology of Training. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Chandler, T. J. (2000). Physiology of Racket Sports. In W. E.
Garrett & D. T. Kirkendall (Eds.), Exercise and Sport Science
(pp. 905917). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Collingwood, T. R. (1997). Helping at-risk youth through physical
fitness programming. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Fernandez, J., Mendez-Villanueva, A., & Pluim, B. M. (2006).
Intensity of tennis match play. British Journal of Sports
Medicine, 40, 387391.
Fernandez-Fernandez, J., Sanz-Rivas, D., Sanchez-Muoz, C., de
la Aleja Tellez, J. G., Buchheit, M., & Mendez-Villanueva, A.
(2011). Physiological Responses to On-Court vs Running
Interval Training in Competitive Tennis Players. Journal of
Sports Science & Medicine, 10, 540545.

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Holly, R. G., & Shaffrath, J. D. (2001). Cardiorespiratory

Endurance. In American College of Sports Medicine (Ed.),
ACSMs Resource Manual for Guidelines for Exercise Testing
and Prescription (4th ed., pp. 449459). United States of
America: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Konig, D., Huonker, M., Schmid, A., Halle, M., Berg, A., & Keul,
J. (2001). Cardiovascular, metabolic, and hormonal
parameters in professional tennis players. Medicine & Science
in Sports & Exercise, 33(4), 654658.
Kovacs, M. S. (2006). Applied physiology of tennis performance.
British Journal of Sports Medicine, 40, 381386.
Lees, A. (2003). Science and the Major Racket Sports: A Review.
Journal of Sports Sciences, 21, 707732.
Martin, C., & Prioux, J. (2011). Physiological Aspects of
Competitive Tennis: A Review of the Recent Literature.
Journal of Medicine and Science in Tennis, 16(3), 619.
Reuter, B. H., & Hagerman, P. S. (2008). Aerobic Endurance
ExerciseTraining. In T. R. Baechle & R. W. Earle (Eds.),
Essential of Strength Training and Conditining (3rd ed., pp.
489522). China: Human Kinetics.
Robertson, R. J. (2004). Perceived Exertion for Practitioners.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Roetert, E. P., & Ellenbecker, T. S. (2007). Complete Conditioning
for Tennis. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Smekal, G., von Duvillard, S. P., Rihacek, C., Pokan, R.,
Hofmann, P., Baron, R., Bachl, N. (2001). A physiological
profile of tennis match play. Medicine and Science in Sports
and Exercise, 33(6), 9991005.

398

BEBAN TUGAS GURU SEKOLAH

DAN PERANAN PENTADBIR
SEKOLAH
Hamdan Hamami & Dr. M. Al-Muz-zammil Yasin

ABSTRAK
Kajian ini dijalankan dengan melibatkan 265 orang guru dan tiga
orang Guru Besar sekolah kebangsaan di daerah Kota Tinggi
Sekolah Gred A di Johor. Penambahbaikan yang dilakukan dalam
kajian ini yang berbeza daripada kajian beban tugas lepas ialah
penggunaan pendekatan gabungan kualitatif dan kuantitatif. Data
kuantitatif dianalisis menggunakan perisian Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS) versi 15.0 bagi mendapatkan nilai pekali
Alpha Cronbach, min, sisihan piawai, frekuensi dan peratusan.
Data temu bual pula dianalisis dengan kaedah analisis secara
tematik. Hasil analisis menunjukkan satu instrumen yang sah dan
tekal dapat dibangunkan melalui kajian ini dan beban tugas guru
yang diukur adalah pada tahap sederhana tinggi bagi empat bidang
utama di sekolah yang dikaji. Hasil temu bual menunjukkan
beberapa langkah juga telah diambil oleh pentadbir dalam
meringankan beban tugas ini, namun masih tidak memadai
disebabkan wujud beberapa halangan dalam organisasi. Kajian
lanjutan sedang dilakukan bagi usaha pembinaan Indeks Beban
Tugas guru yang mampu memberikan nilai tepat beban tugas bagi
setiap guru, panitia, dan beberapa tugas lain. Diharapkan dengan
adanya Indeks Beban Tugas guru ini ianya akan memudahkan
analisis, perancangan dan pengurusan beban tugas guru di sekolah.
Kata kunci: Beban Tugas
399

PENGENALAN
Profesion guru sungguh mencabar disebabkan tugasnya yang
begitu banyak dan tanggungjawabnya yang begitu berat
(Kamaruzaman, 2007). Dengan cakupan tugas yang banyak dan
luas, guru harus dilihat sebagai aset dalam memastikan agenda
pembangunan pendidikan negara tercapai. Sebagai aset, mereka
perlu dapat berfungsi dengan seoptimum mungkin. Justeru, isu-isu
yang menjejaskan keupayaan mereka untuk menjalankan tugas
seperti yang diharapkan perlu diberi perhatian dengan serius.
Pekeliling Perkhidmatan Bilangan 11 (2007) telah membahagikan
tugas guru kepada tujuh aspek yang utama iaitu (1) Pengajaran dan
Pembelajaran (2) Ko-kurikulum (3) Pengurusan Hal Ehwal Murid
(4) Pengurusan Pejabat dan Pentadbiran serta Kewangan (5)
Pembangunan Fizikal (6) Pembangunan Staf dan (7) Hubungan
Komuniti (Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia, 2007). Laporan Awal
Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia 20132025 juga turut
menggariskan bahawa tanggungjawab mengadakan permuafakatan
dengan ibu bapa dan komuniti, melaksanakan tugas-tugas
pentadbiran seperti mengisi kad laporan murid dan memantau
kehadiran murid di bilik darjah juga merupakan antara tugas
seorang guru (Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia, 2012).

LATAR BELAKANG MASALAH

Terdapat pelbagai isu lain yang menjadikan tugas sebagai guru
pada hari ini lebih rencam. Antaranya, guru terpaksa menangani
masalah disiplin pelajar yang sepatutnya menjadi tanggungjawab
ibu bapa (Sapora, 2008). Sebagaimana menurut Menteri Pelajaran
lepas, Datuk Seri Hishammuddin Tun Hussein menegaskan
bahawa guru di negara ini menghadapi beban tugas guru yang berat
kerana terlibat dengan pelbagai tugas termasuk menangani masalah
disiplin, penyelengaraan sekolah serta beberapa tugas remeh temeh
yang lain. (Beban Kerja Guru Kini Terlalu Berat", 2008). Dalam

400

menajalankan PdP pula, mereka juga berdepan masalah seperti saiz

kelas yang terlalu besar (Shuhada Choo, 2010) yang memerlukan
mereka memperuntukan masa yang lebih panjang untuk memeriksa
kerja murid serta berdepan dengan masalah tingkah laku murid
(Abdul Rahim, Ahmad Johari, Jamaluddin dan Rosliza, 2006),
masalah penempatan, kekerapan guru keluar, tugas yang tidak
jelas, ujian dan peperiksaan yang terlampau banyak, bertugas pada
hujung minggu (Parlimen Malaysia, 2010) dan arahan yang
bertindih oleh pihak atasan (Shuhada Choo, Zanariah & Masfiza,
2010). Selain itu, mereka juga perlu menjalankan tugas perkeranian
seperti surat menyurat, pemfailan, membuat kertas kerja,
memungut derma dan lain-lain (Syed Kamaruzaman, 2005).
Menteri Pelajaran sekarang, Tan Sri Muhyiddin Yassin turut
mengakui bahawa tugas perkeranian merupakan antara punca
bertambahnya beban tugas guru (Tubuh jawatankuasa khas kaji
beban tugas, 2010). Tan (2012) dalam kajiannya melaporkan
bahawa guru juga terbeban dengan tuntutan mengadakan kelaskelas dalam usaha mempertingkat pencapaian sekolah.
Perubahan yang terlalu kerap dan drastik dalam sistem
pendidikan juga seringkali memberi beban terhadap guru.
Walaupun guru perlu bersedia untuk menerima perubahan tersebut
(Sanitah & Norsiwati, 2012), perubahan polisi dalam pendidikan
juga menjadi penyebab utama tekanan di kalangan guru (Kyriacou
& Chien, 2004). Selain itu, agihan tugas yang tidak seragam di
kalangan guru juga menyebabkan beban tugas yang digalas oleh
guru tertentu lebih tinggi. Abdull Shukor, Abd. Rahim &
Mohamad Yazi, (2006) pernah melaporkan bahawa terdapat guru
di sekolah rendah yang diberikan tugas sampingan sehingga 12
jawatan meliputi tugas tugas kurikulum seperti ketua panitia, hal
ehwal murid dan Ko-kurikulum.
Beban kerja yang ditanggung oleh guru telah menyebabkan
tumpuan guru terhadap tugas utama mereka terganggu serta
menyebabkan kualiti pengajaran mereka terjejas dan tidak
mencapai standard yang ditetapkan oleh kementerian (Abdull
Shukor et al., 2006). Ini kerana mereka tidak mempunyai masa

401

yang mencukupi untuk membuat persediaan mengajar (Noran

Fauziah, Zaidatol Akmaliah & Rahil, 2002). Bebanan tugas yang
berlebihan juga menyebabkan wujudnya tekanan yang serius dalam
kalangan guru (Kyriacou & Chien, 2004 ; Abdull Shukor et al.,
2006). Tekanan sedemikian menyebabkan mereka kerap
melakukan kesilapan dalam pekerjaan (Syed Kamaruzaman, 2005).
Menurut Siti Nor Afzan (2009) pula, guru yang tertekan juga
berisiko empat kali ganda lebih tinggi untuk mendapat penyakit
kritikal seperti darah tinggi, sakit jantung, kencing manis dan buah
pinggang serta mendedahkan mereka kepada penyakit mental yang
serius seperti bipolar, kebimbangan melampau dan kemurungan.
Bagi guru wanita pula, mereka yang mengalami beban tugas yang
tinggi dikatakan mempunyai status mental yang lemah (Nurul
Izzah, Zailina, Saidi dan Haslinda, 2010) dan menyebabkan mereka
menerima kesan terhadap kesuburan mereka dan mengakibatkan
mereka cenderung untuk memiliki jumlah anak yang lebih sedikit
(Mohd Zamree, Noraziah & Usman, 2012). Tekanan dalam tempoh
yang panjang yang disebabkan beban tugas yang melampau juga
mengakibatkan burnout di kalangan guru (Pillay, Goddard dan
Wilss, 2005) dan boleh menyebabkan guru memohon untuk
meletak jawatan lebih awal (Sapora, 2008).
Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia 2013-2015 yang
dilancarkan pula menuntut tugas yang lebih mencabar dari
golongan ini dengan skop kerja yang lebih luas dan standard
pencapaian yang lebih tinggi. Ini menimbulkan kebimbangan
dialam kalangan pendidik samada guru mampu menggalas cabaran
tersebut sekiranya permasalahan mereka berkaitan beban tugas ini
tidak ditangani dengan baik.
Menurut Muhyiddin (2012), Kerajaan sentiasa menyedari
permasalahan guru berkaitan beban tugas yang tinggi dalam
kalangan guru. Pada 2010, KPM telah menubuhkan Jawatankuasa
Khas Bagi Menangani lsu Beban Tugas Guru (JKMIBTG). Hasil
daripada kajian selama 2 bulan yang dijalankan oleh jawatankuasa
ini, sebanyak 14 faktor telah dikenalpasti menjadi penyumbang
terhadap peningkatan beban tugas guru dan mencadangkan 28

402

perakuan bagi menangani isu tersebut antaranya ialah ; (1)

Mengeluarkan surat surat pekeliling berhubung pelaksanaan
bekerja 5 hari seminggu (2) Menyediakan Garis Panduan
Penggabungan Jawatankuasa bagi mengurangkan tugas rencam
guru (3) Memohon peruntukan kewangan bagi menampung
keperluan khidmat Kumpulan Guru Simpanan Kebangsaan
(KGSK) dan Guru Sandaran Tidak terlatih (GSTT) bagi menangani
masalah kekuarangan guru (4) Memohon pertambahan jawatan
pembantu tadbir sebagai kajian rintis di 50 buah sekolah gred A
bagi mengurangkan tugas perkeranian oleh guru (5)
Membangunkan Pelan Operasi Latihan, memperkenalkan Kursus
Dalam Parkhidmatan sacara atas talian (online) serta
memansuhkan Panilaian Tahap Kecekapan (PTK) bagi
mengurangkan kekerapan guru keluar berkursus dan (6)
Menubuhkan One Stop Centre bagi tujuan pengumpulan data.
Sungguhpun pelbagai perakuan telah diutarakan, guru-guru hingga
kini masih dibelenggu dengan beban tugas yang masih tinggi.
Usaha dalam meringankan beban tugas guru juga tidak
hanya boleh disandarkan kepada pihak Kementerian semata-mata.
Menurut Syed Ismail & Ahmad Subki (2013), setiap pihak juga
harus memberi sokongan dan membantu mengurangkan beban
yang dihadapi oleh guru. Menurut Abdull Shukor et al. (2006)
pula, Guru Besar dan Penolong Kanan perlu mendampingi guru
bagi meyakinkan guru terhadap keprihatinan yang diberikan oleh
pentadbir. Kebanyakan kajian yang dijalankan sebelum ini juga
hanya mengambilkira pandangan daripada guru dalam
mengenalpasti cadangan dan penambahbaikan dalam meringankan
beban tugas guru tanpa merujuk pandangan Guru Besar atau
pentadbir selaku pemimpin peringkat atasan dan pertengahan di
sekolah. Pandangan dari golongan ini penting bagi mengetahui
sejauhmana peranan yang telah dimainkan dan cabaran yang
dihadapi dalam menangani isu beban tugas berlebihan ini. Kajiankajian tersebut juga menggunakan soalselidik yang berbeza dan
mengkaji bebanan tersebut dalam dimensi yang pelbagai.

403

Kepelbagaian dalam kandungan instrumen sedia ada juga telah

cuba diperbaiki dalam kajian ini.

OBJEKTIF KAJIAN
Melalui pernyataan masalah yang dibincangkan ini, maka kajian ini
memperincikan empat objektifnya iaitu ;
a) Mengetahui samada satu instrumen soal selidik yang sah
dan tekal bagi mengukur beban tugas guru di sekolah boleh
dibina dengan menggabungkan instrumen yang disediakan
oleh pengkaji lepas.
b) Mengetahui tahap beban tugas guru menggunakan
instrumen yang dibina.
c) Mengetahui bagaimana pentadbir boleh berperanan
mengurangkan beban tugas guru di sekolah.
d) Mengenalpasti halangan yang dihadapi oleh pentadbir
sekolah dalam meringankan beban tugas guru.

METODOLOGI KAJIAN
Kajian ini dijalankan dengan gabungan dua pendekatan (mixed
method) iaitu secara kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Pendekatan secara
kuantitatif digunakan bagi mengetahui adakah satu instrumen soal
selidik yang sah dan tekal bagi mengukur beban tugas guru di
sekolah boleh dibina dengan menggabungkan instrumen yang
disediakan oleh pengkaji lepas dan apakah tahap beban tugas guru
setelah diukur menggunakan instrumen yang dibina. Rekabentuk
yang digunakan ialah tinjauan menggunakan kaedah soalselidik.
Untuk kajian rintis, seramai 19 orang guru penolong dari sekolah
kebangsaan gred A telah dilibatkan sebagai responden. Dalam
kajian sebenar, kaedah pensampelan kelompok (Cluster sampling)
digunakan di mana seramai 269 guru telah terlibat sebagai
responden dari 10 buah sekolah kebangsaan dari gred A yang

404

mewakili sejumlah 856 orang guru dari 31 buah sekolah rendah

dari gred yang sama yang terdapat dalam daerah Kota Tinggi
sebagai populasi kajian secara tinjauan ini. Dari jumlah tersebut,
sebanyak 265 soalselidik yang dikembalikan. Data dianalisis secara
deskriptif menggunakan perisian The Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) Versi 15.0 digunakan bagi mengetahui nilai
frekuensi, min, sisihan piawai dan peratusan bagi mengetahui tahap
beban tugas yang dihadapi. Pendekatan secara kualitatif secara
temubual pula digunakan bagi mengetahui bagaimanakah pentadbir
sekolah berperanan mengurangkan beban tugas guru serta
mengetahui cabaran yang dihadapi oleh pentadbir dalam usaha
tersebut. Seramai tiga orang Guru Besar yang dipilih sebagai
subjek kajian adalah dari sekolah yang diedarkan instrumen soal
selidik. Data semua temu bual dianalisis secara tematik bagi
penentuan tema dan dapatan.

DAPATAN KAJIAN
Ketekalan Instrumen Soal Selidik Bagi Mengukur Beban
Tugas
Soal selidik yang dibangunkan diadaptasi daripada kajian Tan
(2012) dan Azita (2012) bertujuan menambah baik instrumen sedia
ada. Penambahbaikan kepada item dan adaptasi kepada instrumen
tersebut menghasilkan empat dimensi utama yang diukur (1)
kurikulum (2) Hal Ehwal Murid (3) Kokurikulum dan (4) Tugastugas Sampingan. Jadual 1 di bawah menunjukkan nilai Alpha
Cronbach yang diperolehi bagi setiap dimensi berdasarkan respon
yang diberikan terhadap item-item dari kajian rintis dan kajian
sebenar

405

Jadual 1 : Nilai Apha Cronbach bagi setiap dimensi bidang

tugas tugas guru di sekolah
Bil

Item

Nilai Alpha Cronbach

Kajian Rintis
0.804

Kajian Sebenar
0.837

Hal Ehwal Murid

0.859

0.852

Kokurikulum

0.699

0.849

Tugas-tugas sampingan

0.942

0.949

Kurikulum

Didapati, daripada analisis data kajian sebenar, nilai Aplha

Cronbach bagi dimensi Beban Tugas Dalam Bidang Kurikulum
adalah pada 0.837 dan lebih tinggi jika dibandingkan dengan nilai
Aplha Cronbach pada kajian rintis iaitu pada 0.804. Nilai Aplha
Cronbach bagi dimensi Beban Tugas Dalam Bidang Hal Ehwal
Murid adalah pada 0.852 dan hampir sama jika dibandingkan
dengan nilai Aplha Cronbach pada kajian rintis iaitu pada 0.859.
Nilai Aplha Cronbach bagi dimensi Beban Tugas Dalam Bidang
Ko-Kurikulum ini adalah pada 0.849 dan lebih baik dibandingkan
dengan nilai Aplha Cronbach pada kajian rintis iaitu pada 0.686.
Nilai Aplha Cronbach bagi dimensi Beban Tugas Dalam TugasTugas Sampingan adalah pada 0.949 dan hampir sama jika
dibandingkan dengan nilai Aplha Cronbach pada kajian rintis iaitu
pada 0.942. Merujuk kepada aras kebolehpercayaan dalam Jadual 2
di bawah, dapat disimpulkan bahawa satu instrumen soal selidik
yang sah dan tekal bagi mengukur beban tugas guru di sekolah
telah dapat dibangunkan dalam kajian ini.
Jadual 2 : Nilai Alpha Cronbach dan aras kebolehpercayaan
instrumen (Mohd Najib, 2003)
Nilai Alpha Cronbach,
0.0 ~ 0.2

Aras Kebolehpercayaan
Sangat lemah

0.21 ~ 0.4
0.41 ~ 0.7
0.71 ~ 0.9
0.91 ~ 1.00

Lemah, rendah
sederhana
Tinggi, kuat
Sangat tinggi, sangat kuat

406

Tahap Beban Tugas Guru Yang Diukur Menggunakan

Instrumen Yang Dibina.
Berdasarkan instrument yang telah berjaya dibagunkan, tahap
beban tugas guru dalam keempat-empat bidang di sekolah telah
diukur menggunakan nilai min keseluruhan bagi setiap dimensi
seperti dalam jadual 1.
Jadual 3 : Tahap Beban Tugas Guru mengikut bidang
berdasarkan min
Bidang Tugas

Kurikulum
Hal Ehwal Murid
Kokurikulum
Tugas-tugas sampingan
Keseluruhan

Min
(M)
3.94
3.91
3.97
3.80
3.88

Sisihan
Piawai
(SP)
0.51
0.66
0.69
0.75
0.58

Tahap

Sederhana Tinggi
Sederhana Tinggi
Sederhana Tinggi
Sederhana Tinggi
Sederhana Tinggi

Dapatan kajian menunjukkan tahap beban tugas dalam semua

bidang di sekolah adalah pada tahap sederhana tinggi dengan min
dalam bidang Kurikulum, Hal Ehwal Murid, Ko-kurikulum dan
tugas-tugas sampingan masing-masing pada 3.94, 3.91, 3.70 dan
3.80. Dengan membandingkan nilai min dengan interpretasi skor
min Nunally dan Bernstein (1994) dalam Mohd Najib (2003),
guru-guru didapati menghadapi tahap beban tugas yang sederhana
tinggi dalam keempat-empat bidang utama di sekolah. Min
keseluruhan bagi beban tugas yang dihadapi oleh guru ialah 3.88
seperti ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 3.
Peranan pentadbir dalam mengurangkan beban tugas guru di
sekolah.
Hasil analisis tematik temubual yang dijalankan ke atas guru besar
mendapati 16 langkah telah dilakukan oleh pihak pentadbir sekolah
dalam berperanan mengurangkan beban tugas guru. Ketiga-tiga
orang Guru Besar didapati mengambil 10 langkah yang sama yang

407

dianggap sebagai langkah utama pentadbir bagi meringankan

beban tugas guru iaitu (1) Memberi guru waktu mengajar yang
sepatutnya, (2) Menyediakan modul guru ganti, (3) Mengehadkan
waktu mengadakan kelas tambahan, (4) Mewujudkan pasukan guru
untuk mengajar subjek UPSR, (5) Menyediakan sokongan teknikal
bahan bantu mengajar, (6), Mengagihkan tugas secara adil, (7)
Memberikan tugas mengikut minat guru, (8) Membuat penggiliran
tugas, (9) Membimbing guru jalankan tugas sampingan dan (10)
Mengehadkan tempoh guru bertugas pada hujung minggu di
samping enam langkah lain seperti ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 4.
Jadual 4 : Peranan pentadbir dalam mengurangkan
beban tugas guru
Bil

Langkah mengurangkan
beban tugas guru

1
2
3
4

Guru diberi waktu mengajar yang sepatutnya

Sediakan modul guru ganti
Hadkan waktu mengadakan kelas tambahan
Wujudkan pasukan guru untuk mengajar
subjek UPSR
Sokongan teknikal bahan bantu mengajar
Berikan tugas mengikut minat guru
Agihkan tugas secara adil
Bimbing guru jalankan tugas sampingan
Hadkan tempoh guru bertugas pada hujung
minggu
Dapatkan bantuan pihak luar untuk
ringankan beban tugas guru
Imbangkan pemberatan tugas yang
ditanggung oleh guru
Guru digerakkan dalam blok yang sama
Sesuaikan jadual waktu Guru
Wujudkan persekitaran pembelajaran
Beri subjek mengikut opsyen dan
kemampuan guru

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Subjek kajian
Guru
Guru Guru
Besar Besar Besar
1
2
3
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/

/
/
/
/
/

/
/
/
/
/

/
/
/

/
/
/

Catatan : tanda / menunjukkan guru besar yang menyatakan

sesuatu langkah

408

Halangan Yang Dihadapi Oleh Pentadbir Sekolah Dalam

Meringankan Beban Tugas Guru.
Hasil analisis secara temubual yang dijalankan mendapati lima
halangan dihadapi oleh pihak pentadbir dalam meringankan beban
tugas guru. Daripada jumlah tersebut, didapati ketiga-tiga orang
Guru Besar bersetuju bahawa (1) Sikap guru yang suka bertangguh
kerja dan (2) Arahan dari pihak atasan merupakan penghalang
utama terhadap usaha tersebut di samping tiga faktor lain iaitu (1)
Ketiadaan guru opsyen, (2) Masalah peribadi guru dan (3) Nisbah
guru masih belum memadai seperti ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 5
berikut;
Jadual 5 : Halangan usaha mengurangkan beban tugas guru
Bil

Halangan usaha mengurangkan

beban tugas guru

Sikap guru yang suka bertangguh kerja

2
3
4
5

Arahan dari pihak atasan

Ketiadaan guru opsyen
Masalah peribadi guru
Nisbah guru masih belum memadai

Subjek kajian
Guru
Guru
Guru
Besar Besar Besar
1
2
3
/
/
/
/
/

/
/
/

/
/

Catatan : tanda / menunjukkan guru besar yang menyatakan

sesuatu halangan
Berdasarkan kajian ini, diadapati bahawa guru-guru di
daerah ini menghadapi bebanan tugas pada tahap sederhana tinggi
setelah diukur menggunakan instrumen soal selidik yang sah dan
tekal. Pentadbir didapati telah cuba untuk memainkan peranan
mereka dalam mengurangkan beban tugas guru. Namun mereka
juga berdepan dengan beberapa cabaran yang berada di luar
kawalan mereka. Sebagai alternatif lain, kajian lebih lanjut perlu
dijalankan bagi mengenal pasti ruang yang boleh ditambah baik
supaya beban tugas guru-guru ini dapat diringankan sekurangkurangnya berada pada tahap sederhana.

409

KESIMPULAN
Kajian ini telah dapat membangunkan instrumen soal selidik yang
sah dan tekal untuk mengukur tahap beban tugas guru. Instrumen
ini diharapkan dapat digunakan oleh pengkaji lain dalam mengkaji
isu berkaitan beban tugas guru terutamanya di negara ini. Melalui
instrumen yang telah berjaya dibangunkan juga, tahap beban tugas
guru dalam empat bidang utama di sekolah telah dapat
dikenalpasti. Secara keseluruhanya, guru-guru mengalami beban
tugas pada tahap sederhana tinggi. Melalui kajian ini juga, dapat
diketahui bahawa pihak pentadbir sekolah sebenarnya berusaha
untuk meringankan beban tugas guru dan sebahagiannya didapati
mempunyai perkaitan dengan perakuan yang dikemukakan oleh
KPM. Namun usaha tersebut dilihat belum memberikan kesan
yang efektif dalam meringankan beban tugas guru mereka seperti
yang dilaporkan oleh Azita (2012) dalam kajianya yang mendapati
usaha pentadbir dalam menangani rungutan pihak guru berkaitan
beban tugas mereka hanya pada tahap sederhana. Pengagihan
beban tugas dengan lebih adil seperti yang didakwa diamalkan oleh
pentadbir perlu diberikan justifikasi dan panduan yang lebih
terperinci. Bagi tujuan menambahbaik kajian ini ke peringkat
seterusnya, pengkaji sedang mengenalpasti bagamana suatu indeks
beban tugas guru boleh dibangunkan bagi mengukur beban tugas
guru di sekolah. Dengan adanya indeks ini diharapkan pihak
pengurusan sekolah mampu mengendalikan pembahagian beban
tugas dan menguruskan masalah yang berkaitan dengan cara yang
terbaik dan saksama.

410

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413

PENDIDIKAN KARAKTER
DALAM MATA PELAJARAN
BUDAYA ALAM MINANGKABAU
DI SD KOTA PADANG
SUMATERA BARAT
Zuwirna & Johari Sihes

ABSTRAK
Kajian ini dijalankan bertujuan untuk menentukan pelaksanaan
penerapan nilai-nilai karakter melalui sikap keagamaan, sikap
sosial, pengetahuan, dan penerapan pengetahuan oleh guru dalam
mata pelajaran Budaya Alam Minangkabau di SD Kota Padang.
Berdasarkan rekod, pendidikan lebih mengutamakan pengetahuan
sahaja tetapi mengabaikan pendidikan karakter. Kajian ini meneliti
mengenai penerapan pendidikan karakter dalam mata pelajaran
Budaya Alam Minangkabau di Kota Padang. Hasilan akhir dari
kajan ini adalah membangun model pelaksanaan pendidikan
karakter pada mata pelajaran Budaya Alam Minangkabau. Kajian
menggunakan pendekatan gabungan (mix method).Sebagai sampel
telah dipilih sekolah rendah yang memiliki peringkat A (sangat
baik), peringkat B, dan C di Kota Padang. Penyelidikan dilakukan
dengan pendekatan kualitatif dan kuantitatif menggunakan soal
selidik, observasi, dan temu bual. Data dianalisis dengan deskriptif.
Kajian ini masih dalam perlaksanaan dan keputusan kajian belum
dikenal pasti.

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Kata kunci: kurikulum; kurikulum muatan lokal; pendidikan

karakter

PENGENALAN
Kurikulum yang dibangunkan untuk setiap peringkat pendidikan
perlu merujuk kepada Undang-Undang Nomor 20 Tahun 2003
tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional, yang menyatakan bahwa
"Pendidikan adalah usaha sadar dan terencana untuk
mewujudkan suasana belajar dan proses pembelajaran agar
peserta didik secara aktif mengembangkan potensi dirinya untuk
memiliki kekuatan spiritual keagamaan, pengendalian diri,
kepribadian, kecerdasan, akhlak mulia, serta keterampilan yang
diperlukan dirinya, masyarakat, bangsa, dan negara ".
Petikan di atas menegaskan bahawa pendidikan yang
dilaksanakan perlu membentuk karakter yang positif dari pelajar.
Karakter positif dimaksud diperluas menjadi visi dan misi dari
lembaga pendidikan yang ada. Karakter tersebut selayaknya
harus dimiliki oleh peserta didik yang telah menempuh jalur
pendidikan, yakni mempunyai kekuatan spiritual keagamaan,
mempunyai kemampuan pengendalian diri, mempunyai
personaliti serta kepintaran dan akhlak mulia. Jadi, pembentukan
watak merupakan tujuan yang penting dari penyelenggaraan
pendidikan.
Watak pertama yang diharapkan ialah mempunyai
kekuatan spiritual keagamaan. Depdiknas ( 2009 ) menjelaskan
bahawa ini bererti pelajar mempunyai pengetahuan dan sikap
serta perilaku yang patuh dalam melaksanakan ajaran agama
yang dianutnya, hidup rukun dengan pemeluk agama lain.
Selanjutnya pengendalian diri bermakna mampu mengawal
dirinya dalam keadaan apapun sehingga boleh dilihat dari
perbuatan yang tidak merugikan dirinya sendiri dan orang lain.
Pelajar mempunyai personaliti berarti mampu menunjukkan jati
dirinya secara positif dan boleh dinilai sebagai manusia yang

415

berpendidikan. Berakhlak mulia berarti memiliki sikap positif

yang merupakan aktualisasi dari pemahaman terhadap nilai-nilai
positif sesuai dengan keyakinan , nilai-nilai sosial dan budaya
yang dianutnya. Berdasarkan uraian di atas, sekurang-kurangnya
ada beberapa watak yang diinginkan dari terselenggaranya
sebuah proses pendidikan, iaitu, kekuatan spiritual keagamaan,
pengendalian diri, kepribadian, kecerdasan dan akhlak mulia.
Kurikulum yang digunakan dalam mana-mana institusi
pendidikan mulai dari SD, SMP dan SMA / SMK direka dan
dibangunkan di peringkat kebangsaan, sehingga kurikulum bagi
setiap institusi sama bagi seluruh Indonesia. Di samping itu,
setiap daerah di Indonesia mempunyai sumber potensi fizik
(alam / persekitaran) dan sumber-sumber non fizik (adat,
kesenian, bahasa, dan lain-lain) adalah berbeza-beza. Oleh itu,
kurikulum kebangsaan yang sedia ada dilengkapi dengan
kurikulum yang dibangunkan sesuai dengan keperluan daerah
yang dikenal kurikulum muatan lokal (Kurikulum Kandungan
Tempatan).
Kurikulum kebangsaan termasuk mata pelajaran yang
harus diikuti dan diselesaikan semua pelajar di seluruh wilayah
Indonesia. Mata pelajaran ini sangat sarat dengan kandungan
pembelajaran yang lebih berorientasikan kepada penguasaan
ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi (kognitif). Sebaliknya, bahan
yang berkaitan dengan pembentukan sikap dan perilaku yang
sesuai dengan latar belakang sosio-budaya yang lebih maju
melalui Pendidikan Agama, pelajaran Kewarganegaraan dan
kurikulum tempatan (Depdikbud, 1994).
Kurikulum tempatan adalah satu langkah dalam bidang
strategik pendidikan formal dalam pengembangan sumber daya
manusia, untuk membangunkan kemahiran mengikut keperluan
pengendalian potensi sebenar. Depdikbud (Mulyasa, 1999: 5)
menjelaskan bahawa "kurikulum tempatan adalah satu set
prosedur yang berkaitan dengan bahan-bahan kandungan dan
pembelajaran ditentukan oleh daerah sesuai dengan keadaan dan
kebutuhan masing-masing daerah dan juga kaedah yang

416

digunakan untuk memandu pelaksanaan pengajaran dan

pembelajaran ". Pertuduhan itu adalah berbagai daerah
pendidikan dan penyampaian media yang berkaitan dengan
persekitaran semula jadi, persekitaran sosial dan budaya
persekitaran dan keperluan tempatan dan hendaklah diikuti oleh
kawasan pelajar (Abdullah, 2007). Sementara Dakir (2004)
menyatakan tuduhan bahawa tuan rumah kandungan program
pendidikan dan penyampaian media yang berkaitan dengan
kawasan semula jadi dan budaya persekitaran serta keperluan
dan harus dipelajari oleh para pelajar di daerah itu.
Hampir semua wilayah di Indonesia mempunyai ciri khas
yang merupakan kekayaan budaya. Kekayaan tersebut
merupakan aset bangsa yang perlu dipelihara dan dibina.
Kepelbagaian tersebut tetap terjaga kerana masyarakat tetap
memeliharanya dan mempertahankannya. Agar kepelbagaian dan
kekayaan budaya itu tidak terhakis oleh kemajuan teknologi dan
globalisasi, perlu dipertahankan secara sistematik dan terancang
melalui kurikulum yang dibina di institusi pendidikan dasar.
Setiap satu daripada kawasan-kawasan ini perlu
merancang program / kurikulum tempatan dan cara dia memilih
untuk beroperasi sesuai dengan ciri-ciri dan keunikan masingmasing daerah. Oleh itu, budaya dan kemahiran yang
membentuk karakter anak didik di setiap daerah dan berkembang
bersama perkembangan budaya global. Oleh itu kajian ini
bertujuan untuk mengkaji pelaksanaan penerapan kurikulum
lokal dan bagaimana pelaksanaan pendidikan karakter dalam
kurikulum muatan lokal di Sumatera Barat. Hasil kajian ini
adalah sangat penting dan diharapkan dapat memberikan
masukan dalam pengembangan kurikulum tempatan dalam
konteks pendidikan karakter.

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PEMBAHASAN
Konsep Dasar Kurikulum
Kurikulum diertikan berbeza-beza oleh para penulis tentang
pendidikan. Secara harfiah kurikulum diertikan sebagai
"lapangan pertandingan", sebagai "arena", dimana pelajar
'bertanding' untuk menguasai suatu pelajaran untuk mencapai
'garis finish' berupa diploma, ijazah, atau gelar kesarjanaan (Zais,
1976:6).
Konsep kurikulum menurut pendekatan humanistik,
ditakrifkan sebagai pengalaman pelajar. Pandangan ini
menganggap bahawa semua yang ada di sekolah, bahkan yang di
luar sekolah (asal dirancang) merupakan sebahagian daripada
kurikulum. Konsep ini berakar dari definisi Dewey tentang
pendidikan dan pengalaman dan pendapat Caswel dan Campbell
dalam Zais (1976) bahawa kurikulum adalah semua pengalaman
yang dimiliki anak di bawah bimbingan guru. Hal senada juga
diungkapkan Print (1993: 5) yang menjelaskan bahawa
kurikulum adalah pengalaman yang diperoleh pelajar dalam
konteks pendidikannya termasuk di dalamnya kurikulum yang
tidak dirancang atau disebut dengan hidden curriculum.
Selanjutnya Robert Gagne (1967) menjelaskan: Curriculum is a
sequence of content units arranged in such a way that the
learning of each unit may be accomplished as a single act,
provided the capabilities described by specified prior units (in
the sequence) have already been mastered by the learner.
Dalam hal ini boleh diertikan bahawa kurikulum adalah
semua perkara yang dirancang oleh sekolah yang harus diikuti
oleh anak selama ianya menempuh jalur pendidikan tertentu
dalam bentuk pelbagai pengalaman belajar bagi pelajar.
Seterusnya konsep yang dianut dalam definisi kurikulum adalah
sebagai satu set mata pelajaran dan bahan pelajaran yang harus
diajarkan guru kepada pelajar atau yang perlu dipelajari oleh
seorang pelajar. Mata ajar tersebut adalah yang tertera dalam

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buku- buku teks berupa data, maklumat, fakta atau bahan

pelajaran lain (Orstein: 1988).
Memahami kurikulum yang cukup lama hidup dan
diterima pakar seperti yang dicadangkan oleh Zais (1976), iaitu
kurikulum sebagai pengalaman belajar. Krug (1956) menyatakan
bahawa kurikulum adalah semua cara sekolah supaya pelajar
mendapat pengalaman pembelajaran yang dikehendaki.
Kurikulum Ertinya semua pengalaman yang diperoleh pelajar di
bawah bimbingan seorang guru.
James Popham & Eva Baker (1970) JL McBrien & R.
Brandt (1997) merumuskan bahawa kurikulum merujuk rencana
tertulis dan terurai mengenai hasil belajar dan apa yang perlu
dipelajari. Kurikulum juga merujuk kepada apa yang perlu
dipelajari, melalui apa yang diberikan di sekolah atau di luar
kawasan sekolah.
Arti yang lebih operasional ialah yang dirumuskan
Indiana Department of Education (2010), kurikulum ialah
interaksi yang dirancang antara pelajar dengan kandungan
pembelajaran, bahan-bahan, sumber, dan proses untuk menilai
pencapaian matlamat pendidikan. Konsep ini juga menerangkan
komponen kurikulum, iaitu tujuan, isi dan bahan, dan proses;
yang akan menilai sama ada matlamat tersebut tercapai.
Bertolak dari konsep kurikulum sebagai pengalaman
belajar yang didapatkan oleh pelajar dipandang sebagai konsep
yang lebih maju. Menurut konsep ini kurikulum harus mampu
membuat pelajar memperoleh pengalaman, bukan hanya
maklumat, data atau fakta yang harus dihafalkan, atau meniru
tingkah laku yang dipaparkan. Pengertian kurikulum di atas
memberikan implikasi perlunya direka satu set rancangan
pembelajaran bagi pelajar agar dia memperoleh pengalaman
belajar. Satu set rancangan tersebut dapat berupa unit-unit
pelajaran, atau kegiatan belajar, atau program sekolah. Semua
rancangan tersebut dapat dilaksanakan di sekolah atau di luar
sekolah atas arahan guru, tentu saja asalkan membuahkan
pengalaman belajar bagi peserta didik.

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Kurikulum paling kurang terdiri daripada empat

komponen iaitu: (1) tujuan yang ingin dicapai, (2) kandungan
dan pengalaman belajar, (3) organisasi pengalaman belajar, (4)
penilaian (Tyler, 1949, Zais, 1976). Keempat komponen tersebut
saling berkaitan dan merupakan satu kesatuan yang harus
disusun sedemikian rupa untuk membelajarkan peserta didik.
Maksudnya adalah agar mereka mempunyai pengetahuan,
kemahiran, dan sikap yang dikehendaki.
Kurikulum muatan lokal ialah kurikulum yang
dibangunkan berdasarkan keperluan daerah. Jadi, kurikulum
muatan lokal, isi dan media penyampaiannya dikaitkan dengan
persekitaran alam, persekitaran sosial, budaya dan pola
kehidupan serta keperluan pembangunan di kawasan (Ansyar,
1991). Lebih lanjut dijelaskan bahawa program muatan lokal
bertujuan untuk meningkatkan terjadinya hal-hal berikut: (a)
agar materi pelajaran lebih mudah diserap oleh pelajar, (b)
Untuk memanfaatkan sumber belajar yang ada di daerah, (c)
Pengenalan pelajar terhadap budaya di daerah, (d) Peningkatan
pengetahuan pelajar terhadap budaya di daerahnya, (e)
Membantu murid-murid menyelesaikan permasalahan yang
terjadi di sekitarnya, dan (f) Membina keakraban murid dengan
persekitarannya.
Berdasarkan Surat Keputusan Kepala Kantor Wilayah
Depdikbud Sumatera Barat Nombor 011.08.C.1994 tentang
Kurikulum muatan lokal di wilayah Sumatera Barat, ditetapkan
lima mata pelajaran muatan lokal iaitu Budaya Alam
Minangkabau, Bacatulis Alqur'an (wajib); Bacatulis Arab
Melayu, Kemahiran Tradisional, dan Kemahiran Pertanian
(dipilih salah satu).

Budaya Alam Minangkabau

Sebelum dibahas mengenai Budaya Alam Minangkabau terlebih
dahulu dikemukakan konsep budaya yang dikemukakan oleh

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para ahli. Nostrand (1989: 51) mendefinisikan budaya sebagai

sikap dan kepercayaan, cara berpikir, berperilaku, dan mengingat
bersama oleh anggota komunitas tersebut. Koentjoroningrat
(1985: 180) merumuskan Kebudayaan adalah keseluruhan
sistem gagasan, tindakan dan hasil karya manusia dalam rangka
kehidupan masyarakat yang dijadikan milik dari manusia dengan
belajar. Sidi Gazalba menyatakan bahwa kebudayaan adalah
cara berfikir dan merasa yang menyatakan diri dalam seluruh
segi kehidupan dari segolongan manusia yang membentuk
kesatuan sosial dengan suatu ruang dan suatu waktu.
Subjek pelajaran Budaya Alam Minangkabau
Pelajaran Budaya Alam Minangkabau (BAM) ialah salah satu
mata pelajaran kurikulum tempatan yang harus diikuti oleh siswa
kelas 3, 4, 5, dan 6 serta pelajar SMP. Mata pelajaran ini
diajarkan untuk mencapai kompetensi budaya lokal dan
membentuk identiti dan pengetahuan tempatan bagi pelajarpelajar yang berada di daerah Sumatera Barat, terutama suku
Minangkabau.
Menurut Pedoman Pelaksanaan Kurikulum Muatan
Lokal di Sumatera Barat, Pendidikan Budaya Alam Minangkabau
bertujuan agar murid mengenal, menghayati, mengapresiasi, dan
menerapkan nilai-nilai budaya alam Minangkabau dalam
kehidupan sehari-hari. Tujuan tersebut mempertegas bahwa setiap
generasi yang dilahirkan dalam satu rumpun bangsa (daerah)
wajib tumbuh menjadi:
a) Kekuatan yang peduli dan pro-aktif dalam menopang
pembangunan bangsanya.
b) Mempunyai tujuan yang jelas, menciptakan kesejahteraan
yang adil merata melalui program-program pembangunan.
c) Sadar manfaat pembangunan merata dengan: 1) prinsipprinsip jelas, b) equiti yang berkesinambungan, 3)
partisipasi tumbuh dari bawah dan datang dari atas, 4)
setiap individu didorong untuk maju, 5) rasa aman yang

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menjamin kesejahteraan (Abidin, 2012).

Nilai-nilai budaya Minangkabau terangkum dalam
falsafah hidup Adat basandi Syara, syara basandi Kitabullah
dan
Alam Takambang Jadi guru (Adat bersendikan
syara/Agama, agama berdasarkan kepada Kitab suci Alquran;
Alam terkembang jadikan guru).

Ruang lingkup Pendidikan Budaya Alam Minangkabau

(BAM)
Pendidikan Budaya Alam Minangkabau meliputi materi yang
berkaitan dengan
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

Sistem kekerabatan
Kepemimpinan
Pusaka dan warisan
Adat yang berdasarkan ajaran agama Islam.
Keterampilan tradisional
Dan lain-lain (Idrus Hakimi, 1986).

Pendidikan Karakter
Istilah karakter berkaitan erat dengan personality (keperibadian)
seseorang. Gordon Allport mendefinisikan karakter manusia
sebagai kumpulan atau kristalisasi dari kebiasaan-kebiasaan
individu. sehingga ia boleh disebut orang yang berkarakter (a
person of character) jika prilakunya sesuai dengan etika atau
kaidah moral. Oleh kerana itu, dalam Pendidikan Watak
diperlukan juga aspek perasaan (emosi), yang oleh Lickona
(1992) disebut "desiring the good" atau keinginan melakukan
kebajikan. Lebih jauh ia menjelaskan bahawa karakter berkaitan
dengan konsep moral (moral knonwing), sikap moral (moral

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felling), dan perilaku moral (moral behavior). Berdasarkan

ketiga komponen ini boleh dinyatakan bahawa karakter yang
baik disokong oleh pengetahuan tentang kebaikan, keinginan
untuk berbuat baik, dan melakukan perbuatan kebaikan. Rajah
berikut ini merupakan gambaran keterkaitan ketiga kerangka
pikir ini.

Rajah 2.3. Kerangka Pembentukan Karakter

Dijelaskan bahawa kehidupan yang penuh kebajikan (the
virtuous life) dibahagikan dalam dua kategori, yakni kebajikan
terhadap diri sendiri (self oriented virtuous), seperti kawalan diri
dan kesabaran, dan kebajikan terhadap orang lain (other-oriented
virtuous), seperti kesediaan berkongsi dan merasakan kebaikan.
Sementara Najib (2010) menjelaskan bahawa pendidikan
karakter mempunyai intipati dan makna yang sama dengan
pendidikan moral dan pendidikan akhlak. Tujuannya adalah
membentuk peribadi anak, supaya menjadi manusia yang baik,
warga masyarakat, dan warga negara yang baik. Adapun kriteria
manusia yang baik, warga masyarakat yang baik, dan warga
negara yang baik bagi suatu masyarakat atau bangsa, secara
umum adalah nilai-nilai sosial tertentu, yang banyak dipengaruhi
oleh budaya masyarakat dan bangsanya. Jadi, hakikat dari
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pendidikan karakter dalam konteks pendidikan di Indonesia

adalah pedidikan nilai, yakni pendidikan nilai-nilai luhur yang
berpunca dari budaya bangsa Indonesia sendiri, dalam rangka
membina keperibadian generasi muda.
Merujuk pada Panduan Penerapan Pendidikan Karakter
(Kemendiknas, 2010), pendidikan budaya dan karakter dapat
ditinjau dari tiga pengertian, iaitu pengertian secara umum,
pengertian secara perancangan, dan pengertian secara teknikal.
Pengertian secara umum merupakan pendidikan yang
mengembangkan nilai-nili budaya dan karakter bangsa pada diri
pelajar sebagai anggota masyarakat dan warga negara yang
beragama, produktif dan kreatif. Secara perancangan diartikan
sebagai usaha bersama semua guru dan pimpinan sekolah,
melalui mata pelajaran dan budaya sekolah dalam membina dan
mengembangkan nilai-nilai budaya dan karakter bangsa pada
pelajar melalui proses aktif pelajar dalam proses pembelajaran.
Secara teknikal mempunyai makna sebagai proses internalisasi
serta penghayatan nilai-nilai budaya dan karakter bangsa yang
dilakukan pelajar secara aktif di bawah bimbingan guru, kepala
sekolah, dan tenaga kependidikan dalam kehidupannya di kelas,
sekolah dan masyarakat.
Pembangunan karakter dan budaya hanya boleh
dilakukan dalam suatu proses pendidikan yang tidak melepaskan
pelajar dari lingkungan sosial, budaya, dan masyarakat
persekitarannya. Dengan demikian, pendidikan karakter bukan
sekedar mengajar mana yang benar dan mana yang salah. Lebih
dari itu, pendidikan karakter menanamkan kebiasaan
(habituation) tentang mana yang baik, sehingga pelajar menjadi
mengerti (kognitif) tentang mana yng benar dan salah, mampu
merasakan (afektif) nilai yang baik dan boleh melakukannya
(psikomotor). Pendidikan karakter yang baik perlu melibatkan
aspek pengetahuan yang baik (moral knowing), merasakan
dengan baik (moral feeling) dan prilaku yang baik (moral
action). Pendidikan karakter menekankan pada kebiasaan (habit)
yang
terus
menerus
dilakukan
dan
diamalkan

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(Sulistyowati,2012).
Dalam rangka lebih mengukuhkan pelaksanaan
pendidikan karakter pada satuan pendidikan telah dikenalpasti
18 nilai yang berpunca dari agama, Pancasila, budaya, dan tujuan
pendidikan nasional, iaitu: (1) Religius, (2) Jujur, (3) Toleransi,
(4) Disiplin, (5) Kerja keras, (6) Kreatif, (7) Mandiri, (8)
demokratik, (9) Rasa Ingin Tahu, (10) Semangat Kebangsaan,
(11) Cinta Tanah Air, (12) Menghargai Prestasi, (13) bersahabat
/ Komunikatif, (14) Cinta Damai, (15) Gemar Membaca, (16)
Peduli Alam Sekitar, (17) Peduli Sosial, (18) Tanggungjawab
(Depdiknas: 2009). Nilai-nilai karakter tersebut diusahakan
untuk dapat dikuasai dan ditanamkan kepada pelajar sehingga
mereka menjadi manusia yang berkarakter.
Pembentukan Karakter Melalui BAM
Penetapan pendidikan Budaya Alam Minangkabau sebagai salah
satu subjek muatan lokal untuk kawasan Sumatera Barat
merupakan langkah strategik dalam rangka pembentukan
karakter bangsa, khususnya karakter Minangkabau. Proses
pembelajaran yang bersifat kontekstual sesuai dengan
pengalaman dan pola prilaku masyarakat akan lebih mudah
dipahami dan dihayati oleh pelajar.
Pengembangan
kurikulum
pendidikan
karakter
mempertimbangkan kurikulum kebangsaan yang dilaksanakan
pada setiap jenjang pendidikan. Berdasarkan model
pengembangan
kurikulum
pendidikan
karakter
yang
dikemukakan oleh Mulyasa (2011), ada tiga model iaitu (1)
Model Subjek Matter dalam bentuk mata pelajaran sendiri, (2)
Model Terintegrasi dalam seluruh mata pelajaran, dan (3) Model
Gabungan.
Model yang dipilih untuk kurikulum pendidikan karakter
adalah model gabungan. Pendidikan karakter merupakan
tanggungjawab dari komponen sekolah. Seluruh kegiatan selama
anak berada di sekolah diatur sedemikian rupa sehingga semua

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aktiviti pelajar di sekolah bernuansa pendidikan karakter.

Keadaan ini membolehkan pembentukan karakter lebih
optimum. Pembelajaran yang bersifat tematik di Sekolah Dasar
membolehkan dilaksanakan model gabungan ini.
Model subjek matter melalui mata pelajaran Budaya
Alam Minangkabau dilakukan kerana muatan lokal tetap
diajarkan dalam bentuk mata pelajaran. Langkah-langkah
pengembangan disesuaikan dengan komponen-komponen
kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan yaitu: (1) Penetapan tujuan,
(2) Kompetensi Inti 1, (3) Kompetensi Inti 2, Kompetensi Dasar,
(4) Pendekatan dan Metode Pembelajaran, (6) Penilaian.
Untuk pendidikan karakter di luar kelas dirancang dalam
bentuk
kegiatan
ekstra
kurikuler
yang
dapat
mengimplementasikan nilai-nilai karakter yang terdapat dalam
pelajaran Budaya Alam Minangkabau.
Penetapan model subjek matter masih dalam konteks
konseptual, belum dikembangkan secara empiris. Model yang
sedang dikembangkan akan dicubakan pada sekolah-sekolah
untuk mengetahui efektivitasnya.

KESIMPULAN
Pengembangan
kurikulum
pendidikan
karakter
mempertimbangkan kurikulum kebangsaan yang dilaksanakan
pada setiap jenjang pendidikan. Proses pembelajaran bersifat
kontekstual sesuai dengan nilai-nilai agama, social, serta
pengalaman dan pola prilaku masyarakat. Pendidikan karakter
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diajarkan dalam bentuk mata pelajaran yang langkah-langkah
pengembangannya disesuaikan dengan komponen-komponen
kurikulum. Sementara

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430

KOMPETENSI MATA
PELAJARAN APRESIASI
SASTERA KANAK-KANAK
Elfia Sukma & Ahmad Johari Sihes

ABSTRAK
Kertas kerja ini bertujuan untuk menerangkan kompetensi kognitif,
afektif, dan psikomotor yang perlu dikuasai oleh pelajar-pelajar
Jabatan Pendidikan Guru Sekolah Rendah, Universiti Negeri
Padang, Indonesia, dalam mata pelajaran apresiasi sastera kanakkanak. Kompetensi kognitif adalah persembahan yang boleh
dianggap sebagai hasil daripada aktiviti atau proses memperoleh
pengetahuan melalui pengalaman mereka sendiri. Kompetensi ini
berkaitan dengan pengetahuan tentang kesusasteraan, seperti jenisjenis karya sastera (puisi, prosa, dan drama), judul karya sastera,
bentuk dan isi karya sastera, kesusasteraan dan kehidupan, dan
hubungan dengan karya-karya sastera penulis dan kehidupan sosial.
Kompetensi afektif berkaitan dengan sikap dan nilai. Kompetensi
afektif berkaitan dengan kompetensi emosi. Kompetensi emosi
adalah kompetensi untuk memahami diri sendiri dan orang lain.
Kompetensi ini dapat diasah melalui karya sastera. Kompetensi
psikomotor adalah aspek kemahiran dari corak kelakuan tingkah
laku yang kompleks dan teratur rapi dan sesuai dengan keadaan
untuk mencapai hasil tertentu. Kompetensi ini berkaitan dengan
kompetensi kerja yang melibatkan pergerakan otot psikomotor.
Bagi menghargai aktiviti sastera, kompetensi psikomotor
terkandung dalam empat kemahiran bahasa, iaitu mendengar,
bertutur, membaca, dan menulis.

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Kata kunci: Kompetensi, Sastera, Kognitif, Afektif, Psikomotor

PENGENALAN
Undang-undang Dasar Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 1945
mengamanatkan
agar
kerajaan
mengusahakan
dan
menyelenggarakan satu sistem pedidikan nasional yang membawa
kepada peningkatan keimanan dan ketaqwaan terhadap Tuhan
Yang Maha Esa serta akhlak mulia dalam rangka mencerdaskan
kehidupan bangsa. Untuk mencapai amanat undang-undang
tersebut perlu peningkatan kecerdasan intelektual, emosional, dan
spiritual.
Kecerdasan intelektual, emosional, dan spiritual dapat
diperhatikan melalui tiga ranah, iaitu ranah kognitif, psikomotor,
dan afektif. Pembangunan ranah kognitif dapat meningkatkan
kemampuan berfikir. Secara empiris, kemampuan berfikir pelajar
belum dibangunkan secara optimum. Pembangunan keupayaan
kognitif baru dikembangkan sampai pada tahap analisis, sedangkan
kemampuan menilai belum dibangunkan sama sekali. Hal ini dapat
dilihat dari nilai rata-rata hasil Uji Kemampuan Guru (UKG)
secara nasional iaitu 42.7 (Kementerian Pendidikan Nasional,
2012).
Pembangunan ranah psikomotor dapat mengembangkan
kecakapan hidup manusia, kecakapan hidup manusia harus
dibangunkan agar dapat hidup secara mandiri. Pelajar tidak hanya
didedahkan kepada teori-teori sastera, tetapi bagaimana agar
pelajar mampu mengapresiasi sastera secara reseptif dan produktif
melalui kemahiran mendengar, bertutur, membaca dan menulis.
Kenyataan selama ini aspek psikomotor kurang dibangunkan
secara optimum. Hal ini dapat dilihat dari kemampuan pelajar
dalam membaca bila dibandingkan dengan negara lain. Taufik
Ismail (bimba-aiueo.com, 01/05/13) menyatakan bahawa Indonesia
masih berada dalam kedudukan yang paling rendah jika dikaitkan
dengan masalah minat baca. Jika pelajar SMA di Amerika Syarikat
menghabiskan 32 judul buku selama tiga tahun, sementara Jepun

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dan Switzerland 15 buku dan pelajar SMA di negara jiran seperti

Singapura, Malaysia, Thailand, serta Brunai Darussalam
menamatkan membaca 5-7 judul buku sastera. Pelajar SMA di
Indonesia selepas era AMS Hindia Belanda adalah sifar buku.
Padahal pada era AMS Hindia Belanda, selama belajar di sana
pelajar diwajibkan membaca 15-25 judul buku. Angka sifar yang
diperolehi, merupakan hasil dari proses yang tidak adanya
kewajipan membaca buku sastera selama bersekolah. Pejabat
Berita Antara tarikh 11 Mei 2010 mendedahkan bahawa
kemampuan membaca pelajar kelas VI SD di Indonesia masih
membimbangkan iaitu menduduki peringkat terakhir dari 30
negara. Indonesia masih berada di bawah Filipina.
Pembangunan ranah afektif boleh menjadikan sikap
manusia menjadi mulia. Hal ini sesuai dengan tujuan pendidikan
Indonesia iaitu untuk mencerdaskan bangsa yang beriman dan
bertaqwa serta berakhlak mulia. Namun sebenarnya kemampuan
membaca pelajar sebagai asas awal bagi pembentukan sikap masih
rendah. Maman Suryaman (2010) mendedahkan kemampuan
membaca merupakan salah satu persoalan yang muncul dalam
dunia pendidikan yang akan melemahkan keperibadian bangsa.
Nilai budaya bangsa mulai pudar, gelaran bangsa yang ramah dan
santun telah mulai pudar. Pergaduhan antarpelajar, begitu juga
dengan para pegawai yang saling berebut kuasa dengan melakukan
tindakan yang tidak terpuji. Nilai-nilai kehidupan telah beralih.
Budaya malu berbuat jelek hampir pudar. Adanya pejabat yang
berbuat yang tidak baik seperti rasuah. Rasuah di Indonesia
menduduki rangking teratas. Salah satu kes yang paling hangat
dibicarakan adalah kes rasuah yang dilakukan oleh anggota DPR
dari Parti Demokrat iaitu Nazaruddin yang melakukan rasuah
dalam pembinaan bangunan olah raga di Palembang yang banyak
melibatkan pejabat negara. Dadah yang telah menghancurkan masa
depan anak bangsa, bahkan Indonesia juga merupakan tempat
menghasilkan benda yang berbahaya tersebut.
Untuk mengatasi keadaan di atas, kerajaan telah
memasukkan bahan pendidikan karakter ke dalam rancangan

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pembangunan jangka panjang tahun 2005 hingga 2015. Pada tahun

2012, 25% sekolah di Indonesia telah melaksanakan pendidikan
karakter dan tahun 2015 semua sekolah telah dapat melaksanakan
pendidikan karakter. Untuk mewujudkan kesedaran pentingnya
pendidikan karakter perlu dibangunkan pelbagai strategi.
Pembelajaran apresiasi sastera anak boleh dijadikan sebagai media
untuk membangunkan pendidikan karakter pelajar. Yanti (2013)
melalui hasil kajiannya menunjukkan pelajaran sastera lebih
optimum digunakan dalam membentuk karakter pelajar berbanding
dengan pelajaran kewarganegaraan. Peserta didik dituntut
menyerap dan menghayati setiap nilai yang terkandung dalam
karya sastera. Hal ini berbeza dengan pelajaran kewarganegaraan
yang hanya menetapkan dan men-judge, katanya. Senada dengan
itu, Herfanda (2008) mengatakan bahawa sastera mempunyai
potensi yang besar untuk membawa masyarakat ke arah perubahan,
termasuk perubahan karakter.
Permasalahan utama dalam pembelajaran sastera di sekolah
terletak pada guru. Hal ini tergambar dengan jelas berdasarkan
beberapa penemuan dan pendapat, seperti Chaedar Alwasilah
(1994; 1999), Wei (1999), serta Mansour (1999). Menurut
Alwasilah (1994), pengetahuan guru tentang sastera sangat terhad;
sastera diajarkan oleh guru-guru yang tidak profesional, guru tidak
tahu mengajar sastera dengan baik (Wei, 1999); guru dan strategi
mengajar mereka penyebab rendahnya kualiti pengajaran sastera
(Mansour, 1999).
Kualiti pengajaran apresiasi sastera sejauh ini masih sering
dipersoalkan dan diragui. Keadaan itu dijangka oleh adanya
kurikulum yang sering berganti-ganti dan peruntukan masa yang
dituduh sebagai penyebab rendahnya kualiti pengajaran sastera.
Bertentangan dengan tafsiran tersebut, berdasarkan fakta empirik
yang ditemui Taufik Ismail (2000: 115), penyebab dari hal itu
adalah metodologi pengajaran sastera yang tidak berkesan.
Keadaan demikian ditegaskan lagi oleh Ajip Rosidi (1983: 130)
bahawa
kualiti
pembelajaran
sastera
masih
sangat
membimbangkan dinyatakan pengajaran sastera yang seadanya.

434

Penyebabnya adalah kurikulum yang tak jelas arahnya, jumlah

pengajar dan kemampuannya tidak mencukupi, dan peranti
pengajaran yang jauh dari lengkap dan kurang sesuai dengan
tujuan. Kedua-dua sasterawan tersebut merupakan stereotaip yang
wakil mengeluhkan buruknya pengajaran bahasa dan sastera di
seluruh jenjang pendidikan, baik di sekolah rendah mahupun
sekolah menengah.
Berdasarkan paparan di atas, yang menimbulkan masalah
dalam pembelajaran apresiasi sastera kanak-kanak selama ini
adalah tentang rendahnya kemampuan siwa, kemampuan guru,
metodologi, ketersediaan buku dan kurikulum yang selalu berganti.
Tetapi belum ada yang membahas tentang kompetensi apa yang
sebenarya perlu ada dalam kurikulum yang harus dimiliki oleh
mahasiwa. Oleh sebab itu, masalah yang akan dikaji dalam
makalah ini adalah "Apakah kompetensi aspek kognitif, afektif,
dan psikomotor yang perlu dikuasai oleh pelajar dalam mata
pelajaran apresiasi sastera kanak-kanak?"

PEMBAHASAN
KOMPETENSI KOGNITIF PEMBELAJARAN APRESIASI
SASTERA KANAK-KANAK
Kompetensi kognitif adalah penampilan-penampilan yang dapat
diperhatikan sebagai hasil kegiatan atau proses memperoleh
pengetahuan melalui pengalaman sendiri. Kompetensi kognitif
adalah salah satu ranah dalam taksonomi pendidikan. Kompetensi
kognitif biasa dikenal dengan ranah kognitif. Menurut Sudijono
(1996) ranah kognitif adalah ranah yang merangkumi aktivitiaktiviti mental (otak). Gagne (dalam WS Winkel, 1996: 102) juga
mengatakan bahawa "ruang gerak tatacara aktiviti kognitif adalah
aktiviti mental sendiri." Lebih lanjut Gagne menjelaskan bahawa
"pengaturan kegiatan kognitif merangkumi penggunaan konsep dan

435

kaedah yang telah dimiliki, terutama bila sedang menghadapi suatu

problem".
Menurut taksonomi Bloom (Krathwohl et al, 1973;
Krathwohl, 2002), ranah kognitif adalah kemampuan berfikir
secara hirarki yang terdiri dari pengetahuan, pemahaman, aplikasi,
analisis, sintesis dan penilaian. Selanjutnya Burhan Nurgiyantoro
(2010: 56) mengemukakan bahawa ranah kognitif berkaitan dengan
kemampuan intelektual dan kompetensi berfikir seseorang, yang
membawa seseorang ke dalam proses berfikir seperti mengingat,
memahami, menganalisis, menyambung, mengonseptualisasikan,
menyelesaikan masalah, dan sebagainya.
Wahyudi Siswanto (2008: 167) mengemukakan bahawa
pendidikan sastera adalah pendidikan yang membincangkan hal
ehwal tentang sastera. Hal ini bertujuan untuk mengembangkan
kompetensi teori sastera. Aspek yang dibangunkan lebih pada
aspek kognitif. Pengapresiasi sastera lebih banyak dituntut untuk
mengafalkan pengertian, definisi, atau klasifikasi tentang karya
sastera dan sejarah sastera kerana pengapresiasikan sastera tidak
dibelajarkan untuk secara langsung mengapresiasi dan mengkritik
karya sastera. Hal ini selaras dengan pendapat Teeuw (1983) yang
menyatakan pengapresiasi sastera harus mengetahui dan
memahami sosial budaya, sistem bahasa, dan sistem sastera,
terutama yang berkaitan dengan karya sastera.
Senada dengan itu, Djoko Saryono (2009) menjelaskan
bahawa kompetensi pengetahuan yang perlu dimiliki oleh
pengapresiasi sastera adalah sebagai berikut: (1) pengetahuan
ehwal tentang lambang-lambang, terutama lambang bahasa,
lambang-lambang budaya, dan lambang-lambang sastera; (2)
pengetahuan tentang manusia dan kemanusiaan dengan segala
seginya. Pengetahuan ini boleh diperoleh melalui agama, flsafat,
etika, psikologi, antropologi, dan sejarah; (3) pengetahuan tentang
masyarakat dan budaya dengan segala pelik-peliknya. Pengetahuan
ini antara lain bersangkutan dengan pandangan dunia, pandangan
hidup, cara berfikir, sikap hidup, adat-istiadat, tradisi-tradisi,
upacara-upacara, perilaku sosial, stratifikasi sosial, etika sosial,

436

undang-undang atau norma sosial dan perubahan sosial; dan (4)

pengetahuan tentang sastera yang merangkumi karya sastera, teori
sastera, sejarah sastera, dan kritik sastera.
Pengetahuan tentang sastera boleh berupa jenis-jenis karya
sastera (puisi, prosa, dan drama), judul-judul karya sastera, bentuk
dan isi karya sastera, sasterawan dan kehidupannya, dan hubungan
karya sastera dengan pengarang dan hubungan sosial (Wellek dan
Warren, 1970 : 89). Pengetahuan tentang teori sastera boleh berupa
aliran-aliran sastera (romantisme, realisme, naturalisme, dan
sebagainya). Pengetahuan tentang sejarah sastera boleh berupa
pengetahuan tentang aliran dan karya sastera seperti apa yang
menonjol dalam pelbagai kurun waktu, bagaimana latar belakang
sasterawan, bagaimana kaitan peristiwa-peristiwa sosial, politik,
dan budaya dengan sastera seperti zaman tahun 1965-an dan
bagaimana hubungan antara satu karya sastera dengan karya sastera
lain. Pengetahuan tentang kritik sastera dapat berupa karya-karya
sastera apa saja yang telah dikritik oleh pengkritik, bagaimana
kecenderungan kritikan para pengkritik. (5) pengetahuan linguistik
dan stilistik. Kedua pengetahuan ini berkaitan dengan bunyi-bunyi
bahasa, kata-kata, kalimat, dan wacana. Pengetahuan tentang hal
ini bermanfaat sekali dengan apresiasi satra kerana bagaimanapun
karya sastera terpapar dalan bahasa yang terkandung aspek
linguistik dan stilistik. Jika seorang pengapresiasi sastera
mempunyai pengetahuan ini, maka nescaya dia lebih mampu
melakukan penjiwaan, penghayatan, dan penikmatan karya sastera
ketika melakukan apresiasi karya sastera.
Semua kompetensi apresiasi sastera di atas sebetulnya telah
dimiliki oleh pelajar dan mahasiswa. Kompetensi tersebut secara
tersirat terdapat dalam pelbagai mata pelajaran yang telah bermula
dari SD sampai SMA. Misalnya, antropologi dipelajari dalam mata
pelajaran sejarah, linguistik dalam mata pelajaran bahasa
Indonesia, pengetahuan tentang manusia dan kemanusiaan
dipelajari dalam mata pelajaran agama, sedangkan pengetahuan
tentang sastera tidak dipelajari secara teori, tetapi dipelajari melalui
kegiatan menyimak, berbicara, membaca, dan menulis karya

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sastera . Melalui kegiatan menyimak dan membaca karya sastera,

pelajar diajak untuk menganalisis karya sastera berdasarkan unsurunsur intrinsik dan ekstrinsik. Dengan kegiatan ini pelajar secara
beransur-ansur mampu mengkonstruk teori tentang struktur sastera.
Secara umum, teori sastera tidak terdapat dalam kurikulum,
baik dalam kurikulum SD, SMP, dan kurikulum SMA. Oleh sebab
itu, mahasiswa sebagai calon guru di SD perlu mempunyai
kompetensi kognitif yang berubungan dengan pembelajaran
apresiasi sastera. Kompetensi tersebut meliputi: teori sastera,
sejarah sastera, dan kritik sastera. Pengetahuan tentang sastera
boleh berupa jenis-jenis karya sastera (puisi, prosa, dan drama).
Pengetahuan tentang teori sastera boleh berupa aliran-aliran sastera
(romantisme, realisme, naturalisme, dan sebagainya). Pengetahuan
tentang sejarah sastera boleh berupa pengetahuan tentang aliran
dan karya sastera dan kritikan sastera.
Apabila dikaitkan dengan pembelajaran sastera, menurut
Waluyo (2002) kita berhadapan dengan pelbagai perkara, di
antaranya: (1) sastera, (2) ilmu jiwa, (3) kaedah pembelajaran
sastera, (4) tujuan dan penilaian, (5) aspek kurikulum . Selain itu
sebagai seorang calon guru, mahasiswa juga perlu menguasai halhal tersebut yang relevan dengan masalah pembelajaran sastera.
Misalnya mengetahui ilmu psikologi yang berkaitan dengan ciriciri perkembangan usia anak dan teori belajar. Tujuannya agar
dalam merumuskan dan memilih bahan sesuai dengan keperluan
perkembangan anak.

KOMPETENSI AFEKTIF PEMBELAJARAN APRESIASI

SASTERA KANAK-KANAK
Ranah afektif adalah ranah yang berkaitan dengan sikap dan nilai.
Sikap adalah salah satu istilah bidang psikologi yang berkaitan
dengan persepsi dan tingkah laku. Menurut Ellis (2008), sikap
melibatkan beberapa pengetahuan tentang keadaan, namun aspek
yang paling penting dalam sikap adalah adanya perasaan atau

438

emosi, dan kecenderungan terhadap perbuatan yang berkaitan

dengan pengetahuan. Lebih lanjut menurut Burhan Nurgiyantoro
(2010: 58) ranah afektif termasuk watak perilaku seperti perasaan,
nada, emosi, motivasi, kecenderungan bertingkah laku, tingkatan
penerima dan penolakan terhadap sesuatu.
Sikap merupakan berkualiti psikologi dalam berhadapan
dengan suatu objek. Perlu difahami, berkualiti psikologi ini boleh
dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor sosial dan budaya. Kerana itu, sikap
bukanlah bermatra psikologi semata, melainkan juga bermatra
sosial-budaya. Selaras dengan itu, boleh dikatakan bahawa sikap
pengapresiasi sastera merupakan kecenderungan pengapresiasi
sastera untuk mendekati dan menggauli karya sastera dan kegiatan
apresiasi sastera.
Menurut Brumfit dan Carter (1986), apresiasi sastera dapat
memotivasi bahan sastera, membantu orang untuk memahami
budaya sasaran, menggalakkan penguasaan bahasa, dan
memperluaskan kesedaran bahasa. Oleh kerana itu, untuk
menumbuhkan dan meningkatkan apresiasi sastera maka
diperlukan sikap positif pengapresiasi sastera. Dengan sikap positif
pengapresiasi sastera kegiatan-kegiatan apresiasi sastera dapat
berlangsung, tumbuh, dan berkembang secara baik, dan meningkat
secara bermakna. Dikatakan demikian kerana sikap positif
pengapresiasi sastera dapat membentuk suasana atau atmosfera dan
persekitaran yang kondusif yang menunjang kegiatan-kegiatan
apresiasi sastera.
Sikap positif pengapresiasi sastera disifatkan sebagai
berikut: (1) kesenangan, kegemaran, dan keantusiasan membaca
karya-karya sastera, menyimak pembacaan-pembacaan karya
sastera, mengikuti kegiatan-kegiatan apresiasi sastera, dan
memberikan
semangat
kepada
orang
lain
supaya
menyelenggarakan apresiasi sastera; (2) keacuhan, kepedulian, dan
kesimpatikan terhadap karya sastera, kegiatan-kegiatan apresiasi
sastera, orang-orang yang meminati karya sastera, dan
penyelenggaraan kegiatan apresiasi sastera; (3) keyakinan,
kepercayaan, dan keoptimisan akan bermanfaat dan nilai guna

439

karya sastera dan kegiatan apresiasi sastera; (4) kesungguhan,

keintesifan, dan ketotalan bergumul dan terlibat dengan karya
sastera dan kegiatan-kegiatan apresiasi sastera; dan (5) kemahuan,
kesediaan, kesediaan, kespontanan, dan kesigapan memberikan
penjelasan mengenai manfaat dan nilai guna karya sastera dan
kegiatan apresiasi sastera. Ciri-ciri sikap positif tersebut perlu
dipupuk, dikembangkan, dan dipelihara agar apresiasi sastera boleh
tumbuh, berkembang, dan meningkat kualiti dan kadarnya.
Kompetensi afektif erat kaitannya dengan kompetensi
emosi. Menurut Wahyudi Siswanto (2008: 172), kompetensi emosi
merupakan kompetensi untuk memahami diri sendiri dan orang
lain. Kemampuan ini boleh diasah melalui sastera. Kemampuan
untuk memahami diri sendiri (interpersonal) antara lain dapat
berupa berdikari, ketahanbantingan, keindependenan, kreativiti,
produktiviti, kejujuran, keberanian, keadilan, keterbukaan,
menguruskan diri sendiri, dan meletakkan diri sendiri secara
bermakna serta orientasi pada keunggulan yang sesuai dengan
kehidupan global. Kemampuan untuk memahami orang lain
membolehkan pembaca untuk bekerja sama dengan orang lain
secara pelbagai budaya dengan baik. Kompetensi hidup bersama
secara berbilang budaya, kecakapan bekerja secara berbilang
budaya, kecakapan bertingkah laku secara berbilang budaya, dan
kemahiran bersopan santun lintas budaya serta kemampuan
menyesuaikan diri di tempat berbeza-beza.
Lebih lanjut, menurut Wahyudi Siswanto (2008: 197),
pendidikan sastera adalah pendidikan yang cuba untuk
mengembangkan kompetensi apresiasi sastera, kritikan sastera, dan
proses kreatif sastera. kompetensi yang dibangunkan dalam
pendidikan ini adalah kemampuan menikmati, menghargai,
menilai, dan mencipta karya sastera. Mereka berkenalan dengan
sastera tidak melalui hafalan nama-nama judul karya sasteranya
saja atau sinopsisnya saja, tetapi langsung berhadapan dengan
karya sasteranya. Mereka memahami dan menikmati unsur-unsur
karya sastera bukan hafalan pengertiannya, tetapi langsung dapat
memahami sendiri melalui pengalaman langsung.

440

KOMPETENSI PSIKOMOTOR PEMBELAJARAN

APRESIASI SASTERA KANAK-KANAK
Menurut Davies (dalam Dimyati, 2009: 207), ranah psikomotor
berkaitan dengan kemahiran motor, manipulasi benda, atau aktiviti
yang memerlukan koordinasi saraf dan koordinasi badan. Selaras
dengan pendapat tersebut, menurut Sudjana (1987: 54) hasil belajar
dalam ranah psikomotor tampak dalam bentuk kemahirankemahiran (skill) dan kemampuan bertingkah laku. Ranah
psikomotor adalah aspek dalam kemahiran atau keupayaan
melakukan pola-pola tingkah laku yang kompleks dan tersusun rapi
secara lancar dan sesuai dengan keadaan untuk mencapai hasil
tertentu. Selanjutnya Burhan Nurgiyantoro (2010: 59) menambah
bahawa ranah psikomotor berkaitan dengan kompetensi melakukan
tunjuk kerja yang melibatkan gerakan-gerakan otot psikomotor.
Ranah psikomotor berkaitan dengan siri gerak-geri
jasmaniah dalam urutan dengan mengadakan koordinasi antara
gerak-geri pelbagai anggota badan secara bersepadu. Winkel
(1996: 339) memaparkan "biarpun belajar kemahiran motor
mengutamakan gerakan-gerakan seluruh otot, urat-urat dan sendi
dalam tubuh, namun diperlukan pengamataan melalui alat-alat
deria dan pemprosesan secara kognitif yang melibatkan
pengetahuan dan pemahaman".
Harrow (1972) mengemukakan ranah psikomotor disusun
secara hierarki dalam lima peringkat, iaitu: (1) meniru, artinya
pelajar / mahasiswa boleh meniru atau mengikuti suatu perilaku
yang dilihatnya, (2) manipulasi, artinya pelajar / mahasiswa boleh
melakukan sesuatu tanpa bantuan visual sebagaimana pada tahap
meniru, (3) ketetapan gerak, artinya pelajar / mahasiswa
diharapkan dapat melakukan sesuatu tingkah laku tanpa
menggunakan contoh visual ataupun manual tertulis, (4) artikulasi,
artinya pelajar / mahasiswa diharapkan dapat menunjukkan siri
gerakan dengan tepat, urutan yang benar, dan kelajuan yang tepat,
dan (5) kerakyatan, artinya pelajar / mahasiswa diharapkan
melakukan gerakan tertentu secara spontan atau automatik.

441

Menurut Wahyudi Siswanto (2008: 197), pendidikan

melalui sastera mengembangkan kompetensi pengapresiasi sastera
di luar kompetensi bidang sastera. Misalnya, (1) keseimbangan
antara etika, logik, estetika, dan kinestetika; (2) pengembangan
kecakapan hidup; dan (3) belajar sepanjang hayat. Djoko Saryono
(2009) menyatakan kemampuan menyimak, bertutur, membaca,
dan menulis perlu dimiliki oleh pengapresiasi sastera. Kemampuan
menyimak dan membaca perlu dikuasai untuk memahami dan
menghayati karya sastera. Melalui kemahiran menyimak dan
membaca, pelajar boleh mengembangkan kompetensinya dalam
menikmati, menghayati dan memberikan penilaian terhadap karya
sastera.
Menyimak sastera adalah suatu kegiatan menyimak karyakarya sastera, apakah itu prosa fiksyen, puisi, maupun drama.
Kegiatan menyimak prosa fiksyen, hampir sama dengan kegiatan
membaca prosa fiksyen, kerana ketika seseorang membaca, ia
sebenarnya juga sedang melakukan aktiviti menyimak. Ke dalam
hal ini, menyimak atau membaca prosa fiksyen, terdapat aktiviti
menyimak atau membaca cerita pendek, novel atau roman. Galda
dkk. (1991) merumuskan sejumlah manfaat program membaca
sastera bagi pelajar. Membaca sastera mempunyai manfaat sosial
dan manfaat linguistik. Manfaat sosial meliputi (a) meningkatkan
harga diri, (b) berkembangnya sikap menghargai idea sendiri, (c)
bertambahnya sikap positif dalam membaca, (d) bertambahnya
keberanian mengambil risiko, (e) meningkatkan kemampuan
menyelesaikan masalah, (f) berkembangnya kemampuan bekerja
kumpulan, dan (g) berkembangnya sikap menghargai orang lain.
Manfaat linguistik meliputi (a) meningkatkan kelancaran
membaca, (b) peningkatan kemampuan memahami bacaan, (c)
bertambahnya pengalaman bersastera dengan lebih baik, (d)
bertambahnya pengalaman dengan pelbagai sastera, (e)
peningkatan pengalaman dan keluasan dalam memberi respons, (f)
peningkatan pemahaman terhadap sastera, (g) berkembangnya
konsep tentang sastera, (h) berkembangnya konsep terhadap

442

pengarang, (i) peningkatan kemampuan berbahasa lisan, dan (j)

peningkatan kelancaran dalam menulis dalam sastera.
Sebaliknya, dalam kemahiran menyimak atau membaca
puisi, pelajar dapat mengasah dan mengembangkan rasa keindahan
dalam dirinya. Rasa keindahan itu dapat dihadirkan oleh bunyibunyi indah dan irama yang didengar dari menyimak atau aktiviti
pembacaan puisi. Boleh juga, rasa keindahan itu hadir pada saat
mendengar peribahasa dan ungkapan-ungkapan yang indah yang
ada dalam puisi. Lebih jauh lagi, keindahan itu timbul akibat isi
puisi yang memang benar dan indah. Seterusnya, pelajar dapat
mengembangkan sikap dan bersimpati terhadap orang lain dengan
cuba merasakan apa yang dirasakan penyair. Pelajar juga dapat
memperluaskan pengetahuan dan pengalaman dengan mendengar
pembacaan puisi. Terakhir, pelajar dapat menggambarkan hasil
pembacaan itu dalam pelbagai bentuk, seperti: tanggapan, tulisan,
dan perbincangan. Refleksi itu juga dapat berbentuk penghayatan
dan pengalaman nilai-nilai yang ada di dalam puisi. Kelima,
membelajarkan tentang apa yang dialami dan dirasakan ketika
mendengar pembacaan puisi (Daeng Kombong, 2010).
Kemahiran menulis adalah bentuk komunikasi dua arah
yang berkesan untuk menyampaikan idea atau gagasannya
walaupun tidak bertatapan langsung dengan lawan bicara. Menulis
merupakan salah satu dari empat aspek kemahiran berbahasa.
Valette (dalam Abdurrahman, 2003: 151) menyatakan diantara
keempat kemahiran berbahasa, menulis merupakan keupayaan
berbahasa yang paling kompleks. Menurut Tarigan (1983: 21),
menulis atau mengarang adalah menurunkan atau melukiskan
lambang-lambang grafik yang menggambarkan suatu bahasa yang
difahami seseorang sehingga orang lain dapat memahaminya. Gani
(1999: 7) juga mengatakan bahawa menulis merupakan suatu
proses penyampaian idea (idea), fikiran, dan perasaan. Sementara
Semi (1990: 8) mengatakan menulis pada hakikatnya adalah
pemindahan fikiran atau perasaan ke dalam bentuk lambanglambang bahasa.

443

Kemahiran menulis merupakan suatu kegiatan yang

produktif dan ekspresif. Karya sastera merupakan produk kreatif
manusia. Karya sastera, sebagaimana karya kreatif lain, menuntut
kemampuan penulis dalam menghasilkan komposisi atau gagasan
yang pada dasarnya baru. Karya kreatif berupa kegiatan imaginatif
atau sintesis pemikiran yang membentuk pola baru atau korelasi
baru. Karya kreatif mempunyai maksud dan tujuan, dan diciptakan
dengan struktur yang agak rumit (lihat Hurlock, 1997). Karya
sastera sebagai sebuah produk kreatif tentulah dihasilkan oleh
seorang penulis profesional. Seorang penulis profesional, apakah ia
seorang sasterawan, ilmuwan, atau wartawan, akan puas dan
bangga apabila hasil karyanya banyak dibaca orang dan mendapat
sambutan luas dari awam. Sambutan itu boleh berupa kritik, saran,
atau pujian, akan memberi makna yang dalam bagi penulisnya dan
merasa bahawa hasil karyanya tidak sia-sia.
Kemahiran menulis dan kemahiran bercakap pada
hakikatnya sama, iaitu kemahiran produktif. Perbezaannya adalah
kemahiran menulis termasuk aspek tulisan sedangkan kemahiran
berbicara termasuk pada aspek lisan. Dalam kaitan dengan kegiatan
apresiasi sastera, karya sastera yang ditulis, sama ada prosa fiksyen,
puisi, atau drama, mampu memberikan kenikmatan tersendiri bagi
pembacanya. Cerita pendek yang baik, misalnya, akan memberikan
mesej-mesej
kemanusiaan
kepada
pembacanya.
Mesej
kemanusiaan itu merupakan nilai-nilai kemanusiaan yang digali
dari kehidupan sehari-hari.

PENUTUP
Berdasarkan paparan tersebut, dapat disimpulkan bahawa
kompetensi kognitif, afektif, dan psikomotor perlu dikuasai oleh
pelajar-pelajar Jabatan Pendidikan Guru Sekolah Rendah,
Universiti Negeri Padang, Indonesia, dalam mata pelajaran
apresiasi sastera kanak-kanak. Kompetensi kognitif adalah
persembahan yang boleh dianggap sebagai hasil daripada aktiviti

444

atau proses memperoleh pengetahuan melalui pengalaman mereka

sendiri. Apabila dikaitkan dengan pembelajaran sastera, kita
berhadapan dengan pelbagai perkara berikut, iaitu sastera, ilmu
jiwa, kaedah pembelajaran sastera, tujuan dan penilaian, aspek
kurikulum. Kompetensi afektif berkaitan dengan sikap dan nilai.
Kompetensi psikomotor adalah aspek kemahiran dari corak
kelakuan tingkah laku yang kompleks dan teratur rapi dan sesuai
dengan keadaan untuk mencapai hasil tertentu. Kompetensi ini
berkaitan dengan kompetensi kerja yang melibatkan pergerakan
otot psikomotor.

RUJUKAN
Brumfit, C.J., & Carter, R.A. 1986. Literature and Language
Teaching . Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Burhan Nurgiyantoro. 2010. Penilaian dan Pengajaran Bahasa
dan Sastera. Yogyakarta: BPFEE.
Departemen Pendidikan Nasional. 2012. Panduan Pengembangan
Bahan Ajar. Jakarta: Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Dasar
dan Menengah Direktorat Pembinaan Sekolah Menengah
Atas.
Dimyati Mudjiono. 2009. Belajar dan Pembelajaran. Jakarta:
Rineka Cipta.
Djoko Saryono. 2008. Dasar Apresiasi Sastera. Yogyakarta:
Elmatera.
Ellis, Albert et al. 2008. Theories of Personality: Critical
Perspectives. New York: Sage Press.
Galda, Lee, et.al. 1993. Language Literacy and Child. Florida:
Harcourt Brace.
Harrow, Anita J. 1972. A Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain.
New York: Longman Inc.
Herfanda, A.Y. 2008. Sastra Sebagai Agen Perubahan Budaya
dalam
Bahasa

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dan Budaya dalam Berbagai Perspektif. Yogyakarta: FBS

UNY dan Tiara Wacana.
Krathwohl, David R. 2002. A revision of Bloom's taxonomy: An
overview. Theory Into Practice (Routledge) 41 (4): 212
218.
Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. 1973. Taxonomy
of Educational Objectives, the Classification of
Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective
Domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc.
Maman Suryaman. 2010. Pendidikan karakter melalui
pembelajaran sastera. Cakrawala Pendidikan. Edisi Khusus
Dies Natalis. Tahun XX No.1. Yogyakarta: UNY.
Wahyudi Siswanto. 2008. Pengantar Teori Sastera. Jakarta:
Grasindo.
Taufik Ismail. 2013. Kenapa Minat Baca di Indonesia Rendah
bimba-aiueo.com, 01/05/13.
Teeuw, A. 1984. Membaca dan Menilai Sastera. Jakarta: Penerbit
PT Gramedia.
Waluyo, Herman J. 2002. Drama, Teori, dan Pengajarannya.
Hanindita Graha Widya.
Wahyudi Siswanto. 2008. Pengantar Teori Sastera. Jakarta:
Grasindo.
Wellek, Rene dan Warren, Austin. (1970). Theory of Literature.
3rd edition. New York: Harcout Brace & World, Inc.

446

BASIC CONCEPTS OF POSTNATURAL DISASTER

COUNSELING, ISSUES, AND
CHALLENGES IN INDONESIA
Ifdil & Faizah Abd Ghani

ABSTRACT
The high frequency of natural disasters occurring in Indonesia has
caused certain psychological impacts to the victims like
depression, anxiety, stress, traumaif these are not reducedand
may cause more severe impacts like post-traumatic stress disorders
(PTSD). Counselors need to be involved to overcome these
problems, and post-disaster counseling is new focus in counseling
world. To conduct this counseling, the counselors need to have
special competencies. Thus, this paper will explain to the counselor
basic concepts, knowledge, competences, skills in conducting postnatural disaster counseling services, problems, and challenges
involved during the post-natural disaster services.
Keywords:
Counseling, Natural Disaster, Depression, Anxiety,
Stress, Trauma, PTSD

INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is one of the countries in the world which is prone to
natural disasters (Deny, Haryadi, et al. 2006: Imam AS, 2008).
Some common natural disasters which often occur in Indonesia are

447

earthquake, tsunami, flood, landslide, volcanic eruptions, drought,

whirling wind, typhoon, storms, diseases, and others. Within 20052010, there were 4,408 natural disasters had occurred in Indonesia
(Badan NPB, 2010).
Due to the high frequency of such disasters has led to
anxiety, fear, destructions, and caused loss of material and nonmaterial as well. The natural disaster has resulted in the victim
feeling anxious, loss of position, shock, depression, psychological
stress (stress) and trauma (Ratih, 2007; Mudjiran, 2010; Diaz, J. O.
P., Murthy, S., &Lakshminarayana, R. 2006), and the disaster has
affected the psychosocial situation, especially in children / students
(Mudjiran, 2010).
It requires special attention in order to handle the problems
of psychological / mental health after such natural disaster
(Ifdil&Faizah Abdul Ghani, 2012). Otherwise, this situation would
leave a serious impact on the overall well-being aspects of
community life; members of community might lose their life, loss
of moral, the children will lose the passion, despair, and in the end
they will be the generation of a burden on society (Mudjiran 2010),
this is in line with the opinion by Lauzon (1999) which is stated
that the health and the welfare may increase the joy, satisfaction,
and enhance the spirit of life continuously. This condition is
necessary so that the settlement does not become protracted and
difficult to handle, it is supported by the opinions by
Steinglass&Gerrity (1990) who stated that the psychological
effects of natural disasters can be prolonged, so that the necessary
services to reduce the impression. This is also supported and in line
with a report BPP (2008) mentioning that as the result of the
natural disasters, it needs such activities to restraint mental health
before and after the disaster.
Based on the results of some studies have demonstrated that
the post-disaster psychological problems are very much the case.
Lisa M. Brown. (2009) stated that 6-7% of US population has
experienced disaster or trauma each year. Bordoloi, S., &Khoja, A.
(2006) reported by the earthquake and tsunami in 2004 in

448

CalangAceh, Nangroe Aceh Darussalam (NAD) Province, have

displaced more than 20,000 people, or about 80% died, and they
consisted of teachers and students, this condition causes anxiety
and indecision, stress, and trauma for the victims. Data from World
Mental Health Survey (2000), mentionedthat light and small postdisaster mental health disorders (depression and anxiety disruption,
including PTSD) are about 10% in average across the world. This
number will increase up to 20% post trauma.
The recovery efforts of post-disaster mental health problems
can be done by the counselors. This effort is one of the new
focuses and the responsibility of the counselor in handling the
issues. ACA (American Counseling Association, 2010) suggests
that counseling services which deal with post-disaster issues is one
of the new focuses; counselors are required to have at least basic
skills in counseling specialized in dealing with post-disaster
problems.
Therefore, counselors should have the insight, knowledge,
skills, values and attitudes (WPKNS) in the provision of postdisaster counseling services so that people can be helped to create
and realize better life and social order.

OBJECTIVE
This article describes about the direction of the implementation of
post-disaster counseling services. Services were conducted postdisaster counseling to deal with post-disaster psychological stress,
depression, anxiety, trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD).

449

PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS AFTER NATURAL

DISASTER
After the disaster, many mental health problems that arise. The
extent of the problem varies widely, depending on the form and
type of disasters that happen, here are some mental health issues
based on the results of research conducted by previous researchers
at home and abroad, among others.
Kuoa, H. W., Wua, S. J., Mab, T. C., Chiuc, M.-C., &Choub,
S.-Y. (2004) reported that 16.5% had symptoms post-traumatic and
57% of the victims were once identified by using the Chinese
Health Questionnaire (CHQ) experienced serious psychological
problems. Symptoms related to post-traumatic and psychological
problems more often are found among women (22.2% and 64%),
compared with men (9.2% and 47.9%). Symptoms post-traumatic
and serious psychological problem score the highest are in the age
range of 25-44 years old and the lowest age range more than 60
years.
In addition to the study by Cohen (2005) reported the
prevalence of post-traumatic stress in the United States the preschool children aged 4-5 years is about 1.3%, in children aged 9-17
years about 0.5-4%, and the adults is about 1.3-8%.Women are
also predicted to have a high risk of experiencing post-traumatic
stress. In general, it can be concluded that the groups at high risk
for post-traumatic stress are children, women, and elderly.
In Indonesia, some of the data from the authors stated that the
post-disaster psychological impact is very many common;
Hasanuddin in (2005) reported data on post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD) is specific trauma, which is due to the natural
disasters (3.7% men, 5.4% women), victims of murdered (1.8%
men, 21.8% men), war (38% men, 18% women). In general, 1020% of people exposed to trauma may develop become PTSD.
Trauma Center 2005 reported the amount of clients with
post-traumatic stress in Lhokseumawe, which was reaching 473
people, with the amount client each month as follows: January as

450

many as 63 people, in February 72 people, March 55 people, April

35 people, in May 25 people, in June 26 people, in July 47 people,
in August 28 people, in September 42 people, in October 42
people, in November 18 people, and in December as many as 20
people, in what client which did not visit in 2005 as many as 175
person (37%) (Report of Trauma Center Lhokseumawe, 2005).
In the same year, Dharmono et al (2008) conducted a study in
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and the data were obtained
that about 10-20% of the have interference mental serious such as
interference pressure post - trauma, disruption depression, impaired
panic, and various interference anxiety related.
After that, NandangRusmana (2008) conducted a study using
the diagnostic criteria for PTSD instruments 77.1% of students
obtained a description of MI was still overshadowed by the
traumatic events; 46.7% negative thinking, 33.3% feeling
powerless, 34.8% had problems emotional, and 22.9% aloof
character or attitude, and another 16.7% in despair. 22.4% of
students MTs were still overshadowed by the traumatic events,
18.1% negative thinking, 14.3% feel helpless, 10.5% had
emotional problems, 9% self-withdrew, and another 8.6% were in
despair.
Further Hidayat (2009) reported on the results of
examination of 50 refugees in Padang PariamanDistrict, West
Sumatra, about 15% (30 people) were experiencing acute stress.
Indeed, the results of these tests might not represent the victims
mental state as a whole, but the number could indicate such poor
mental situation due to earthquake striking that area previously.
Based on some researches and reports illustrate that a variety
of psychological post-disaster problems occur. And the most
widely discussed is stress, trauma, post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), as well as depression and anxiety.

451

THE INVOLVMENT OF COUNSELORS INTO POSTNATURAL DISASTERS

With the rise of various natural disasters in the world and the many
psychological effects arising makes counselors and social workers
participated in the handling.
Kennedy (2006) reported that the ACA and the American
Institute in cooperation with the counselor of the Red Cross
America (2006) toinvite almost 4,600 licensed counselorsand
professionals in mental health to participate in an effort to postdisaster counseling service in New Orleans and The Gulf Coast.
And also the ACA has appointed 20% of mental health counselors
whom were deployed to Beach Bay and Hurricane Katrina.
In the same year Bocanegra, H. T. d., Moskalenko, S., &
Kramer, E. J. (2006) in their study on 148 Chinese workers who
were randomly selected, were affected by the WTC attacks on the
Mac 2003. Although almost half of the respondents have an
increased PTSD and / or high depression scores, only slightly
(4.4%) who had done counseling with a counselor. However,
almost all (86%) had treated themselves by seeing any doctors at
least once since September 11, 2001. They also received drug and
prescription, and show an interest in counseling sessions.
Norris, F. H., Hamblen, e. L., & Rosen, CS (2009)
conducted a study on the effects of the worst hurricane season
(2005). The results showed that increased counseling services in
the city began to intensity, familiarity and frequency of service.

ISSUES AND DIRECTIONS OF COUNSELING

SERVICESAFTER NATURAL DISASTER
Post-disaster counseling services can be done in dealing with
mental health issues after such natural disasters. The problems
related to post-disaster mental health refer to the ability to good
think which is rational thought and the ability to alleviate the

452

problems. World Health Organization (WHO) states that mentallyhealthyindividuals include the efforts think and act positively, and
being able to get along healthily to curb the problems and pressures
consciously towards everyday life.
Prayitno (2010) mentions the general stages of post-disaster
counseling services include the following activities: (1) to identify
the variety and intensity of the problems that (can) lead to trauma
and may cause disruption to KES (Effective Daily Living) to
become KES-T (Effective Daily Living -Disrupted) experienced by
students, teachers, staffs, parents, and citizens in general; (2) to
provide counseling services to address trauma and conditions of
KES-T on the number (1), in accordance with the conditions and
issues related to each of the parties; (3) to re-condition the
conducive learning process and life by involving students, teachers,
and staffs with the support from the parents stated on the numbers
(1) and (2), as well as public institutions and related social units.
In particular, the problems that may interfere with the
effectiveness of the daily life of post-disaster mental health
problems among of them are stress, depression, anxiety, trauma,
and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Towards the implementation of post-disaster counseling
services include the alleviation of post-disaster mental health
problems, namely depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD). Counseling is done is the alleviation of postdisaster mental health problems; various approaches can be done.
The selection of counseling approaches should be suitedwith the
type of disasters and the problems.

CHALLENGES FOR COUNSELOR ON POST-DISASTER

COUNSELING SERVICES
Post-disaster counseling services become new trends in counseling.
ACA (American Counseling Association, 2010) suggest that
counseling which deal with post-disaster conditions is one of the

453

new focuses; the counselors are required to have at least basic

skills in counseling to deal with various post-disaster problems.
In Indonesia, besides the fact counseling skills come from the
West, counselors also need to master and integrate cultural values
into the counseling session. This is supported by opinions from the
experts who state that counseling should be run based on the local
culture (Goodman et al, 2008), and also added with religious
values, especially Islamic values which should also be one focus in
counseling treatment (Mustaffa, 1998; Omar, 2005); this is based
on the majority of the Indonesian population are Muslim; this
condition requires that counselors in Indonesia to master those
skills.

CONCLUSION
Natural disasters cannot be controlled, but the problems that arise
due to the natural disasters can be minimized, including mental
health problems after disaster. It requires thorough attention in
handling post-disaster mental health problems. Counselors may
participate in alleviation post-disaster mental health problems.
Therefore, in order to carry out the services, the counselors should
at least have a basic competence in counseling services to deal with
post-disaster mental health problems, including depression,
anxiety, stress, trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
The role and skills of counselors in dealing with post-disaster
mental health problems in Indonesia needs to be improved.

REFERENCES
ACA. (2011). Disaster Mental Health. Retrived November 29,
2011, from http://www.counseling.org/sub/dmh/index.aspx:

454

Badan NasionalPenanggulanganBencana(BNPB 2010).Statistik

Bencana.
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November
30,
2011,
from
www.bnpb.go.id
Bocanegra, H. T. d., Moskalenko, S., & Kramer, E. J. (2006).
PTSD, Depression, Prescription Drug Use, and Health Care
Utilization of Chinese Workers Affected by theWTC
Attacks. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, , Vol. 8,
No. 3, July 2006(Springer Science+Business Media, LLC).
Bordoloi, S., & Khoja, A. (2006). Development Of A Psychosocial
Questionnaire And A Worksheet For Teachers, Parents,
Students And Other School Personnel To Assess Educational
Needs Of Survivors Of The Tsunami In Calang, Indonesia. In
J. O. P. Diaz, R. S. Murthy & R. Lakshminarayana (Eds.),
ADVANCES IN DISASTER MENTAL HEALTH AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL SUPPORT (pp. 153-163). New Delhi:
Voluntary Health Association of India Press.
Cohen JA, (2005). Posttraumatic Stress Disosder in Children and
Adolescent, Philadelphia, Lipicont William and Wilkins.
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Hidayati,
HaryadiPermana,
et
al.
(2006).
KajianKesiapsiagaanMasyarakatdalamMengantisipasiBenca
naGempaBumi&
Tsunami:
LembagaIlmuPengetahuan
Indonesia.
Dharmono S, Agiananda F, Redayani P, danDiatri
H.(2008).GangguanStrespascaTrauma
(panduanPraktisbagiTenagaKesehatan),
PusatKajianBencanadanTindakKekerasan,
DepartemenPsikiatri FKUI- RSCM, Jakarta.
Diaz, J. O. P., Murthy, S., & Lakshminarayana, R. (2006).
Advances in Psychological and Social Support after
Disasters. New Delhi: Voluntary Health Association of India
Press.
Goodman, R. D., & West-Olatunji, C. A. (2008).
Transgenerational trauma and resilience: Improving mental
health counseling for survivors of Hurricane Katrina. Journal
of Mental Health Counseling, 30(2), 121-136.

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HasanuddinAyra.(2005). GangguanJiwasetelahBencana Tsunami,

PPDS Psikiatri, International Society of Sypnosis.
Jakarta.Depkes RI
Ifdil.
(2012,
14
Januari
2012).
PelayananKonselingPascaBencanaPaper presented at the
International Seminar of Guidance and Counseling, Padang
Imam A. Sadisun. (2008). PemahamanKarakteristikBencana,
Aspek
Fundamental
dalamUpayaMitigasidanPenangananTanggapDaruratBenca
na. Paper. Bandung. Institut Teknologi Bandung
Kennedy, A. (2006, July).When disaster strikes. Counseling Today,
pp. 6, 25.
Kuoa, H. W., Wua, S. J., Mab, T. C., Chiuc, M.-C., & Choub, S.Y. (2004). Posttraumatic symptoms were worst among quake
victims with injuries following the Chi-chi quake in Taiwan.
Psychosomatic Research, 62 (2007) 495 500(Elsevier Inc.).
Lauzon, L. (1999). Teacher Wellness. Newsletter For Wellness. 1
(2), 1-5
Lisa M. Brown. (2009). Disasters: Impact on Mental Health in an
Elderly Population and Practical Suggestions for Preparation,
Response, and Recovery. Department of Aging and Mental
Health Disparities Florida Mental Health Institute, MHC
1441 University of South Florida.
Mudjiran, Daharnis, Taufik, et al (2010). Pemulihan Dini Mental
Masyarakat Pasca Gempa di Kota Padang. Padang: Pemko
Padang, BNPB, UNP.
Mustaffa, M. S. (1998). Kaunseling Islam. Jurnal Pendidikan
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 4(1), 19-30.
NandangRusmana. (2008). Konseling Kelompok Bagi Anak
Berpengalaman
Traumatik.
(Pengembangan
Model
Konseling Kelompok melalui Permainan untuk Mengatasi
Kecemasan Pascatrauma pada Anak-Anak Korban Tsunami
di
CikalongTasikmalaya)
Tesis.
Tidak
diterbitkan.UniversitasPendidikan Indonesia

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Norris, F. H., Hamblen, e. L., & Rosen, C. S. (2009). Service

Characteristics and Counseling Outcomes: Lessons from a
Cross-Site Evaluation of Crisis Counseling After Hurricanes
Katrina, Rita and Wilma. Adm Policy Ment Health, 36:176
185(Springer Science+Business Media,).
Omar, M. N. (2005). Akhlakdankaunseling Islam: Utusan
Publications.
Prayitno. (2010). Traumatic counseling For disaster victims.
Paper,Internasional Seminar. Parung: P4TK Penjas dan BK.
RatihPutriPratiwi.
(2007).
SumbanganPsikologiKlinisDalam
Assessment
GangguanPsikologisKorbanBencanaAlam.
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Steinglass, P., & Gerrity, E. (1990). Natural Disasters and
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ShortTerm versus
LongTerm Recovery in Two DisasterAffected
Communities1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology,
20(21), 1746-1765.
Trauma Centre Lhokseumawe.(2005).LaporanPerkembangan
Trauma Centre Kabupaten Aceh Utara, Lhokseumawe.
Kabupaten Aceh Utara.

457

BARRIER BEYOND CONTROL OF

SECONDARY SCHOOL
TEACHERS
Chia Lai Lai & Abdul Rahim Hamdan

ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to identify the barriers which are beyond
teachers control in their effective teaching practice. A total of 322
secondary school teachers from Johor state were involved in this
study. The open response question was used to gain free responses
from the teachers. Data was analyzed by using content analysis for
the open response question. Frequencies were counted for all the
themes. Finding identified that there are five themes of the barriers
which are beyond teachers control in their effective teaching. It is
including aspects of teachers burden, students, parent,
administrators and school facility. Therefore, it is important to
ensure the barriers in teaching practice and enlighten to help in
constructing a conducive atmosphere of effective teaching for
educational sustainability.
Keywords: Barrier beyond control, Effective teaching, Teacher,
Secondary school

INTRODUCTION
Teacher is a vital input in the teaching process where learning takes
place. In Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013-2025 has shown that

458

government put more weight on the importance of recognizing the

teaching profession in order to produce quality human capital for
the country (KPM, 2013). According to Darling Hammond (2000),
the student gain is not from the school which they attend but
depends on the teacher in that particular school. This is well
demonstrated that effective teacher has a high influence on the
learning and teaching. Besides, teacher also has to be able to define
their knowledge and assimilate the knowledge in their routine
teaching practice (Danielson, 2007). In teaching, teachers should
not only know a specific skill, instead they should practise in the
classroom. This is called as knowing in action (Fetherston, 2007).
Hence, a teachers teaching life is very meaningful and
challenging especially when he/she practising effective teaching
throughout career. Nevertheless, it seems to be an easy task but
actually is complex in reality. It is not easy to overcome all the
challenges for realizing this task. This is because there have many
barriers which are beyond teacher control and influence in the
effective teaching practice.

TEACHER AND BARRIER BEYOND CONTROL

A lot of past research has proved that teacher is the main factor
which influences effective teaching and student achievement.
According to Marzano (2003), those teachers can create something
different in the students live through their teaching. The teacher
effectiveness is one of the factors which have the most influential
on student achievement.
Although teacher is the main input who has the major
influence on effective teaching in producing good students
achievement. However, there still have some others barriers which
are beyond teachers control in the effective teaching practice,
which include socio-economy status of family, student attitude
which has been deteriorated, class size which is getting bigger as
well as the current school circumstances which are beyond teacher

459

control. This situation is correspond to Stronge and Hindman

(2003) statement which explained research suggest that class size,
family and community involvement and many other school related
factors all contribute to school improvement and student
achievement
However, effective teaching needs teacher to administer.
Besides, self-realization and commitment from other related party
in education is also needed because what actually happen in the
classroom, how will the teaching process is going on and what
should do in order to upgrade teachers teaching process should be
known. Therefore this study aims to identify the barriers which are
beyond teachers control among secondary school teachers from
Johor state in practicing their effective teaching which are keen to
be investigated in the education world.

METHODOLOGY

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This section will discuss the finding of open response question
regarding the barrier beyond teacher control in their effective
teaching. The finding can be shown in the Table 1 as below:
Table 1 Theme frequency regarding barrier beyond teacher control in effective
teaching practice
Theme
Administrator
aspect
Student aspect
Parent aspect
Teacher
burden aspect
School facility

Frequency
65

Percentage (%)
18.95

Ranking
2

135
55
60

39.35
16.03
17.49

1
4
3

28

8.16

460

FINDING AND DISCUSSION

Barriers Beyond Teacher Control

Although teacher as a vital input in the teaching process, however
there still has others barriers which are out of teachers control in
their practices. Based on the response given, there has five themes
regarding the barrier beyond teachers control, which include
aspects of student, parent or family, administrator, teacher burden
and school facility.

Theme I: Student Aspect

Among the five themes, student aspect is the main barrier beyond
teacher control which affects effective teaching. It represents
almost 2/5 of all the open response (39.35%) which has been
collected. This means that majority of the teachers voice out this
aspect is the main barrier beyond their control which has highly
influence their effective teaching practice. The student aspect
includes student laziness, disrespect to teacher as well as not
interested in learning and absenteeism. Examples of some of the
open response answer being collected are as follow:
Student attitude of laziness and not intend to put on initiative to
improve themselves.
(Respondent 5)
Student behavior which is less polite and disrespect to teacher.
(Respondent 17)
School absenteeism which is quite often.
(Respondent 136)
Student attitude which is not interested in learning and wish to
find the job as early as possible in order to earn money.
(Respondent 250)

461

Theme II: Administrator Aspect

The administrator role accounts for 18.95% and is the second
biggest barrier beyond teacher control. This finding also reflects
that the management administrators lacking of skill to distribute
tasks equally to teacher, furthermore most of the time no action
been taken towards problem students. Theme II being collected is
administrator aspect as below:
School program which is not follow the fit schedule and affected
the original planned teaching and learning process.
(Respondent 8)
The school administrator like to distribute task to those teacher
who are diligent cause them having extra workload compared
to those who are not diligent.
(Respondent 244)
No action being taken by the school administrator towards
students problems even though teachers have raised up their
complain.
(Respondent 295)

Theme III: Teacher Burden Aspect

The third barrier beyond teacher control is teacher burden aspect
which indicates 17.49% of the response given. Teachers feel tense
and sense the pressure from management administrators towards
program being planned either by District Education Office (PPD),
State Education Department (JPN) or Ministry of Education
(KPM). Besides, additional clerical works yet to be completed by
teachers and time constraint have disturbed the effective teaching
practice among teachers. The teacher burden aspect responses are
as below:
The pressure from school management towards the planned
program from PPD, JPN and KPM.
(Respondent 22)
Time constraint making our learning and teaching process cannot

462

be carried on smoothly.
( Respondent 143)
Teacher has been tired of the increasing paperwork.
(Respondent 318)
Theme IV: Parent/Family Aspect
Parents or family aspect also affect the teachers effective teaching.
This theme contributes 16.03%. It is not related to the student
cleverness, but is because of complex family situation or parents
not giving support and leave it all to the teacher. Such
circumstances make teachers efforts become more challenging and
disappointing. The parent/family aspect answers are as shown
below:
Parent attitude not cooperative.
(Respondent 12)
Comes from a complex family (both parents divorced).
(Respondent 37)
Parent always leaves hand to teacher in school.
(Respondent 316)
Theme V: School Facility Aspect
Finally, the last theme is school facility aspect which stands at
8.16%. This situation may be due to insufficient of some material
resources such as teaching aids or ICT. The open response are as
follow:
Lacking of teaching-aids in school.
(Respondent 14)
ICT room is having constraint when intend to use the computer.
(Respondent 181)
The material resources are limited. Teacher will have to create
his / her own teaching material.
(Respondent 291)
The finding well demonstrated that five main themes beyond
teachers control need to be taken account of. The students aspect
which is beyond teacher control is getting influence on the
teachers teaching as well as the school achievement. Lots of
discipline problems and absenteeism issues been happened
frequently in nowadays. According to Vijaindren(2010) issue

463

related to students problem has put off the spirit in upgrading their
teaching on top of those parents who are over protected their
children. The role of administrator is important in the process of
teacher effective teaching too. The weakness of the school
administrator will hinder the progress of a school organization. An
efficient and well directive administrator can build up the school
organization in a proper way. Besides, they can also provide well
support to upgrade teachers with their effective teaching together.
Elmore (2004) stated it is unlikely to result in changes in teachers
practice, skill or knowledge in the absence of a clear organizational
focus. Therefore, the administrator role which is constructive is
important in effective teaching.
Besides, the high burden of teacher responsibility also
serves as a considerable barrier which affects the practicing of
teachers effective teaching. This circumstances is due to teacher
always been burdened by many clerical responsibility and meeting
and even those program that is not their core business. This is
consistent to the Salwa(1996) study which found that besides the
burden of teaching tasks, teachers also have to manage so many
types of non-academic burden which cause them not have enough
of time to plan their teaching well and be effective.
The parent or family aspect such as socio-economic status
also been detected as one of the barrier which influence on
teachers effective teaching. Some families with low socioeconomic status seldom communicate with teacher in order for
them to know their children learning progress and cooperation
from teachers. In addition, they also less capable of providing
reference books or extra exercises material which needed in the
teaching and learning process. This finding is in parallel with
Mattars study (2010) in Lebanon which states low socioeconomic situation and the poor quality of their home educational
culture affected teachers teaching and their motivation.
The lacking of school facility also serves as one of the
barriers which beyond teachers control in effective teaching. The
lacking of establish Information Communication Technology (ICT)

464

and teaching aids cause teacher having difficulty when

administering their teaching. Robiah (2003) pointed out the lacking
of facility and support material in learning science and technology
subjects. For instance, the teaching aids and instrument in the
teaching and learning of science is not enough although the science
laboratory exist. Therefore, this study gains the relevant
information regarding barriers beyond teachers control in
secondary school. Thus, the information regarding this perspective
able to help educators as well as parents in realizing the important
of their commitment and respective role in enhancing teachers
effective teaching. The District Education Office, State Education
Department and even the Ministry of Education also manage to use
the findings to plan and construct relevant strategy to solve this
immerse problem in education.

CONCLUSION
This study intended to identify barriers beyond teachers control in
their effective teaching. Teacher is crucial in managing an effective
teaching. Nevertheless, the realization and cooperation from others
parties which involved in education are also needed in giving
support in the improvement of effective teaching. It is important to
identify barriers which are beyond teachers control and make the
best alternative preparation to solve them subsequently.
These finding have implications to enlighten either teachers
or administrators for mapping out constructive strategy to
contribute in increasing teaching effectiveness. Consequently, an
atmosphere which is conducive for teacher in practicing teaching
effectively also can be formed. Therefore, barrier beyond teacher
control is a perspective which should be emphasized and treated
seriously in order to face the challenges for educational
sustainability of effective teaching.

465

REFERENCES
Danielson, C. 2007. Enhancing Professional Practice: A
Framework for Teaching. Alexandria. VA: ASCD.
Darling-Hammond, L. 2000. Teacher Quality and Student
Achievement: A Review of State Policy Evidence.
Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8(1): 1-44.
Elmore, R.F.2004. School Reform from the Inside Out, Cambridge
: Harvard Education Press.
Feetherston, T. 2007. Becoming an effective teacher.Australia:
Thomson Learning
Ministry Of Education. 2013. Malaysia Education Blueprint 20132025, Putrajaya : Ministry Of Education
Marzano, R. J. 2003. What Work in School: Translating Research
Into Action, Alexandria. VA: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development.
Mattar,D. 2010. Teachers motivation in the Lebanese public
Schools. International Journal of Arts and Sciences, 3(11):
458-502.
Robiah Sidin.2003. Pembudayaan sains dan teknologi: satu
cadangan piawai. Jurnal Pendidikan .28(2): 47-63.
Salwa Abu Bakar 1996. Kajian Mengenai Tugas-Tugas Guru
Sekolah Menengah Di Daerah Johor Bahru, Tesis Sarjana
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Silverman, D. 2001. Interpreting Qualitative Data, Methods for
Analysing Talk, Texts and Interaction. (2nd ed), London :
Sage Publications.
Stronge, J.H., & Hindman, J.L. 2003. Hiring the Best Teacher.
Educational Leadership, 60(8): 48-52
Vijaindren,A.2010. Teachers too soft on students? New Sunday
Times, 1 August 2010

466

CABARAN PENYELIDIKAN
PEMBINAAN ALAT REKACIPTA
TENG TENG BOARD (TTB)
Nurul Rafeeda Saarani., Zainal Abidin Zainuddin., Halijah
Ibrahim. & Asha Hasnimy Hashim

ABSTRAK
Tujuan penyelidikan adalah untuk mendapatkan kepastian di atas
sesuatu perkara atau fenomena yang telah, sedang atau belum
berlaku. Penyelidikan merupakan satu kaedah yang dilakukan
untuk memastikan maklumat yang diperoleh munasabah dan
disokong oleh data-data kuantitatif atau kualitatif. Hasil kajian
ditentukan oleh kaedah dan rekabentuk kajian. Setiap bentuk
penyelidikan mempunyai cabaran yang tersendiri. Dalam konteks
ini kajian yang dijalankan adalah dalam bentuk eksperimental yang
melibatkan pembinaan alat Teng Teng Board (TTB) bagi
pemulihan kemahiran motor kanak-kanak Sindrom Down (SD).
Antara cabaran dalam pengendalian kajian ini adalah
mengenalpasti masalah dalam kalangan kelompok SD, pemilihan
rekacipta, penyelesaian masalah melaui alat rekacipta, manual dan
pembinaan rubrik dalam pegujian kemahiran motor dan pengujian
keberkesanan dan kesesuaian alat rekacipta. TTB merupakan alat
yang dibina berdasarkan elemen permainan tradisional iaitiu Teng
Teng. TTB dihasilkan dengan menggunakan suis elektronik dan
lampu berwarna apabila dipijak. TTB ini menarik dan mudah serta
senang di bawa ke mana-mana. TTB berbentuk segi empat sama
dan berukuran 38 sentimeter dan boleh dibuka dan dipasang
semula mengikut kesesuaian ujian yang hendak dilakukan untuk

467

proses pemulihan kanak-kanak SD melangkah, berjalan dan

melompat. Artikel ini membincangkan cabaran yang dilalui untuk
menjalankan penyelidikan berbentuk eksperimental.
Kata Kunci: Sindrom Down (SD), Teng Teng Board (TTB)

PENGENALAN
Penyelidikan dilakukan untuk mendapatkan jawapan kepada
ketidakpastian.
Pengkaji menjalankan kajiannya untuk
mendapatkan kepastian di atas sesuatu perkara atau fenomena yang
telah, sedang atau belum berlaku. Pengkaji tidak boleh memastikan
ketidakpastian hanya berdasarkan pandangan dirinya dengan
merujuk kepada pengetahuan atau pengalaman yang dilaluinya,
kerana pandangan dan pengetahuannya mungkin berbeza sekiranya
dilihat dari perspektif lain atau mungki membawa kepada jawapan
yang berbeza sekiranya dilalui oleh individu lain. Pada umumnya
pengalaman individu tidak boleh digeneralisasikan kecuali setelah
melaui proses ulang-uji dan penyelidikan yang terperinci.
Penyelidikan merupakan satu kaedah yang dilakukan untuk
memastikan maklumat yang diperoleh munasabah dan disokong
oleh data-data kuantitatif atau kualitatif. Ia dilakukan dengan
mengumpul data (mengenai suatu topik) terus daripada individu,
kumpulan individu, bahan-bahan dokumentasi dan pelbagai
sumber maklumat yang lain. Penyelidikan merupakan satu proses
yang sistematik yang melibatkan proses merancang kaedah
penyelidikan, mengumpul data, menghurai data dan melaporkan
maklumat.
Proses penyelidikan yang terancang biasanya melalui prosesproses tertentu yang telah ditetapkan untuk mendapatkan hasil
kajian. Antara proses kajian yang biasanya digunakan adalah
seperti rajah 1.1 dibawah :

468

Masalah Kajian
Penentuan Objektif kajian
Rujukan Bahan Literatur
Rekabentuk Kajian
Instrumentasi
Pengumpulan Data
Analisis Data
Hasil Kajian
(Jawapan kepada masalah kajian)
Rajah 1.1 Proses penyelidikan yang sistematik

Penyelidikan dapat memberi jawapan kepada ketidakpastian

yang timbul. Ia digunakan sebagai alat untuk memperolehi sumber
pengetahuan yang sah dan boleh dipercayai, iaitu sumber
pengetahuan yang saintifik dan logik. Alat untuk memungut bukti
kepada keraguan, iaitu memberi jawapan kepada keraguan dan
masalah yang timbul. Alat untuk membetulkan stereotaip, tradisi
dan kepercayaan yang tidak benar. Alat ramalan, iaitu untuk
meramalkan kewujudan suatu fenomena. Alat penerangan, iaitu
untuk menerangkan keadaan sebenar dalam suatu fenomena,
seperti perbezaan, perhubungan dan sebagainya. Secara ringkasnya,
penyelidikan adalah satu bentuk disiplin yang sistematik terhadap
masalah dan persoalan.

469

CADANGAN MENJALANKAN PENYELIDIKAN

Dalam dunia penyelidikan, hasil kajian ditentukan oleh kaedah dan
rekabentuk kajian. Tiada satu rekabentuk kajian yang boleh
digunakan dalam semua kajian, tetapi satu kajian boleh dilakukan
dengan menggunakan beberapa rekabentuk kajian yang berbeza.
Oleh itu, perlulah merancang kajian dengan menggunakan
rekabentuk kajian yang sesuai dengan tujuan kajiannya. Jika
rekabentuk kajian yang digunakan tidak sesuai, hasil kajian yang
diperoleh mungkin tidak benar dan dengan ini mendatangkan kesan
yang negatif kepada pengkaji lain yang membuat rujukan hasil
kajian tersebut. Penyelidikan yang dijalankan oleh penyelidik
adalah berdasarkan kepada rekabentuk kajian eksperimental.

Rajah 1.2 Tiga bentuk utama penyelidikan

470

Rajah di atas menunjukkan 3 rekabentuk kajian

penyelidikan. Iannya terdiri daripada eksperimental benar, kuasieksperimental dan bukan eksperimental.Rekabentuk kajian
eksperimental direka khas untuk menilai keberkesanan iaitu kesan
suatu program. Dengan menekankan kepada perbandingan antara
dua atau lebih set data-data, rekabentuk eksperimental memberi
keyakinan kepada pengkaji bahawa hasil pemerhatian dalam kajian
adalah akibat daripada pengaruh kajian tersebut.
Dalam konteks ini kajian yang dijalankan adalah dalam
bentuk eksperimental yang melibatkan pembinaan alat Teng Teng
Board (TTB) bagi pemulihan kemahiran motor kanak-kanak
Sindrom Down (SD). Dalam rekabentuk eksperimental ,
perbandingan dilakukan untuk melihat sama ada terdapat
perbezaan setelah rawatan diberi kepada kumpulan rawatan. Di
dalam kajian ini, kanak-kanak Sindrom Down adalah kumpulan
rawatan yang di uji kepada alat rekacipta ini.

KAJIAN TINJAUAN
Kajian tinjauan merupakan salah satu kaedah penyelidikan bukan
ekserimental yang paling popular, yang digunakan dalam pelbagai
bidang, terutamanya dalam bidang sains sosial. Ia sering digunakan
oleh pelbagai bentuk media seperti majalah, akhbar dan televisyen
untuk mendapat pandangan orang ramai mengenai sesuatu isu
semasa. Ia juga digunkan untuk meninjau keberkesanan sesuatu
produk atau rancangan.
KAJIAN LAPANGAN
Kajian lapangan merupakan kajian yang sering digunakan dalam
kajian sains sosial dan pendidikan. Kajian lapangan termasuk
semua kaedah penyelidikan yang membuat pemerhatian terhadap
perkara-perkara yang wujud dalam keadaan semula jadi. Melalui

471

kajian lapangan untuk mengumpul data ialah pemerhatian.

Pemerhatian membolehkan pengkaji mengumpul data mengenai
keadaan fizikal, keadaan interaksi dan keadaansuatu program
dijalankan. Peristiwa dibawah kajian lapangan adalahperkara yang
benar-benar berlaku dalam keadaan semula jadi secara berterusan.
Perkara-perkara tersebut bukan direka, dibina ataupun perkara yang
diberhentikan semata-matauntuk tujuan penyelidikan (Tunnel,
1977). Disebabkan ciri-ciri ini kajian lapangan juga dikenali
sebagai kajian semula jadi.

KAJIAN KES
Rekabentuk kajian kes melibatkan pengumpulan maklumat secara
sistematik dan mendalam mengenai tingkahlaku individu tertentu,
keadaan sosial, atau peristiwa khusus untuk mengetahui bagaimana
tingkahlaku individuatau perubahan keadaan sosial berlaku.
Kajian kes boleh dilakukan untuk menyelidik suatu peristiwa pada
perspektif yang luas, seperti tingkah laku masyarakat aiatu
kepercayaan, agama, kebudayaan dan sebagainya. Ia juga boleh
menfokus kepada perspektif yang khusus mengenai latar belakang
seseorang individu. Selain itu, kajian kes juga ,fokus kepada
penghuraian yang holistik dan melakukan penjelasan peristiwa
yang berlaku. Menurut Gall, Borg dan Gall (1998), semua
fenomena dalam dunia boleh dikaji melalui kajian kes.

CABARAN
PEYELIDIKAN
REKACIPTA TTB

PEMBINAAN

ALAT

Perkembangan motor kanak-kanak Sindrom Down (SD) agak

perlahan berbanding dengan kanak-kanak normal (Cunningham,
1982; Ulrich, Ulrich & Collier, 1992). Antara aspek perkembangan
motor yang penting dalam aktiviti harian adalah berdiri, melangkah

472

dan berjalan. Ada di antara kanak-kanak SD tidak mampu

mengekalkan keseimbangan ketika bergerak kerana cenderung
untuk berdiri, melangkah mahupun berjalan dengan keadaan kaki
lurus (extend), terbuka luas dan sebagainya.
Akibat kekurangan alatan, ketidakupayaan alatan tersebut
untuk diubah alih dan besar, latihan khusus untuk kemahiran motor
berjalan, melangkah dan melompat adalah terbatas.Ini ditambah
pula dengan tahap kemahiran motor kasar kanak-kanak SD yang
berbeza menyebabkan pembelajaran kemahiran motor yang
spesifik mengambil masa yang lama untuk dikuasai.
Oleh itu, rekacipta mudah alih Teng Teng Board (TTB) ini
telah dipilih untuk membantu pemulihan motor kasar kanak-kanak
SD. Alat yang di rekacipta ini adalah untuk membantu pemulihan
kanak-kanak SD untuk lebih berdikari dalam kehidupan seharian.
TTB adalah alat yang akan direkacipta oleh penyelidik berdasarkan
pengubahsuaian daripada Foot Placement Ladder yang telah
digunakan oleh kanak-kanak SD dalam belajar melangkah, berjalan
dan melompat. Menurut Feirer (1967), ciptaan atau rekaan perlu
selari yang baik adalah dari model yang dibentuk terlebih dahulu.
Daripada model sedia ada, para pereka bentuk akan dapat
mengubahsuai alat dengan kreativiti mereka terhadap penyusunan
bahagian-bahagian, struktur bahan dan reka bentuk barangan yang
hendak diubahsuai. TTB dihasilkan dengan menggunakan suis
elektronik dan lampu berwarna apabila dipijak. TTB ini menarik
dan mudah serta senang di bawa ke mana-mana. TTB berbentuk
segi empat sama dan berukuran 38 sentimeter dan boleh dibuka
dan dipasang semula mengikut kesesuaian ujian yang hendak
dilakukan. TTB mampu dimiliki bagi setiap kelompok masyarakat
dengan nilai kos yang rendah.
Dalam fasa ini rekabentuk TTB yang dibangunkan adalah
untuk memudahkan dan lebih menarik minat kanak-kanak SD
untuk melangkah, berjalan, dan melompat. Antara faktor yang
ditekankan adalah rupa bentuk instrumen, kebolehpercayaan
instrumen, keistimewaan instrumen (kepelbagaian ujian),
keselamatan instrumen dan kebolehupayaan instrumen. Dalam fasa

473

ini, penyelidik bekerjasama dengan seorang jurutera elektrik

daripada Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, pelajar Sindrom Down
Sekolah Kanak-kanak Istimewa, guru-guru Sekolah Kanak-kanak
Istimewa, ibu bapa dan penjaga pelajar Sekolah Kanak-kanak
Istimewa dan pensyarah pembimbing. Penilaian instrumen ini akan
dinilai melalui pemarkahan mengikut rubrik yang telah disediakan.
Dalam penyelidikan ini juga, rubrik turut dihasilkan untuk
penilaian instrumen. Rubrik merupakan salah satu sistem
permarkahan yang digunakan oleh penyelidik. Sistem ini berfungsi
sebagai penunjuk (indicator) yang diperlukan untuk menilai tahap
pencapaian pelajar berdasarkan kepada kriteria yang jelas dan
khusus. Kualiti dan tahap pencapaian subjek ditaksirkan oleh
penyelidik berdasarkan ujian melangkah, berjalan dan melompat
yang diberikan kepada subjek. Penyelidik memberikan markah
berdasarkan kepada pematuhan garis kriteria.
Pengubahsuaian alat yang dihasilkan mengikut rekabentuk
yang bersesuaian bagi memenuhi kehendak pengujian yang
dilakukan. Rekabentuk alat yang dicipta di perbincangkan berulang
kali supaya penghasilan alat yang terhasil akan lebih kompetetif,
menarik, mudah dan sesuai digunakan serta mempunyai daya tahan
yang tinggi.Penciptaan alat mudah alih ini membantu kanak-kanak
SD berjalan, melangkah dan melompat. Dengan adanya alat TTB
ini, kanak-kanak SD akan lebih cepat belajar berjalan, melangkah,
melompat dan berjalan. TTB dicipta dengan rekabentuk yang
menarik dimana saiznya yang sederhana kecil.
Penyelidik melakukan pengujian alat TTB ini ke atas 5 orang
subjek yang terdiri daripada Sekolah kanak-kanak Istimewa, Johor
Bahru. TTB ini dicipta untuk membantu subjek berjalan,
melangkah dan melompat.

RUJUKAN
Cunningham, C.C. (1982). Down's syndrome: An introduction for
parents. London: Souvenir Press.

474

Feirer, J.L (1967). Strength Training for Coaches. Champaign IL :

Human Kinetics.
Gall, M. G., Borg., W.B., & Gall, J. P. (1998). Applying
educational research. New York: Macmillan Lomgman
Publishing Group.
Gallagher, P. 1999. Critical Skills: Hitting a Moving Target.
Background paper for the Expert Panel of Skills. Ottawa:
Industry Canada. At < http://acst-ccst.gc.ca/skills >. Dlm.
Canadian Public Policy-Analyse De Politiques, Vol.
XXVIII,No.2 2002.
Tunnel, G. B. (1997). Three dimension of naturalness : An
expended definition of field research. Psychological
Bulletin, 84, 426-437.

475

TAHAP KECERGASAN ATLET

JUDO SELEPAS MENJALANI
LATIHAN AKROBATIK
GIMNASTIK
Mohd Nazri Azeli & Halijah Ibrahim

ABSTRAK
Akrobatik gimnastik adalah salah satu latihan gimnastik yang
berupaya
meningkatkan
tahap
fleksibiliti,
kekuatan,
koordinasi,ketangkasan dan juga dapat meningkatkan tahap
keyakinan seseorang atlit. Antara elemen pergerakan asas di dalam
akrobatik gimnastik ini adalah seperti gulingan, putaran, dirian dan
juga imbangan. Perkara asas di dalam latihan akrobatik gimnastik
adalah pergerakan yang dilakukan perlulah kemas, licin dan lurus.
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji perubahan tahap kecergasan
atlit judo selepas menjalani satu program latihan gimnastik
akrobatik. Kajian ini berfokus kepada atlet judo berlandaskan
kepada analisis ciri-ciri pergerakan gulingan, putaran, dirian dan
imbangan yang setara antara kemahiran gimnastik dan kemahiran
judo. Dapatan kajian akan digunakan bagi merumuskan
keberkesanan perlaksanaan latihan akrobatik gimnastik.
Kata kunci:

Judo, Acrobatics Gymnastic

PENGENALAN
Pelbagai pendekatan yang telah dijalankan oleh pengkaji untuk

476

menghasilkan latihan yang berkesan untuk menghasilkan seseorang

atlit yang berada di tahap terbaik dari segi fizikal, psikologi,
kemahiran taktikal dan dapat mencapai tahap kecergasan yang
maksimum.
Akrobatik gimnastik adalah salah satu latihan di dalam
sukan gimnastik dimana melalui latihan fizikal senaman lantai atau
akrobatik gimnastik dapat meningkatkan kekuatan, koordinasi,
keseimbangan dan juga fleksibiliti (Nassib et al., 2013)
Kebanyakan pergerakan gimnastik ini dilakukan dengan
keadaan yang lurus serta kemas dan antara pergerakan asas
akrobatik yang diaplikasikan di dalam acara senaman lantai adalah
seperti gulingan ke hadapan dan kebelakang, roda kereta
(cartwheels), hambur hadapan dan belakang (handspring) dan juga
putaran (somersault).(Nancy, 2013).
Berdasarkan kajian yang telah dijalankan oleh (Vuillerme et
al., 2001) latihan akrobatik gimnastik ataupun elemen gimnastik
dapat meningkatkan keseimbangan postur badan yang baik dan ahli
gimnastik memiliki keseimbangan postur yang sangat baik.
Manakala di dalam sukan judo, setiap atlit memerlukan
keseimbangan postur badan yang bagus bagi mengimbangan badan
daripada dijatuhkan pihak lawan dan ketika melakukan bantingan
ke atas pihak lawan (Kyle, 2011).
Sukan judo banyak melibatkan kemahiran pergerakan
melontar, teknik mengelak dari dilontar, teknik menyerang dan
juga teknik mempertahankan diri dengan tujuan bagi memperolehi
kemenangan di dalam pertandingan (Lech & Almansba, 2007).
Setiap atlet perlu berlawan selama 5 minit di dalam gelanggang
dan perlu menjatuhkan pihak lawan bagi memperoleh mata
kemenangan. Situasi permainan ini memerlukan tahap
ketangkasan, fleksibiliti, kekuatan dan imbangan yang tinggi. Oleh
itu penyelidikan ini dicadangkan berikutan kesesuaian keperluan
kemahiran judo yang selari dengan kemahiran akrobatik gimnastik.

477

OBJEKTIF KAJIAN
i.

Menganalisis persamaan komponen yang terlibat di dalam

pergerakan teknik membanting judo dan pergerakan
akrobatik gimnastik.

ii.

Menghasilkan program latihan berasaskan pergerakan

akrobatik gimnastik.

iii.

Menilai keberkesanan latihan akrobatik gimnastik dengan

menggunakan ujian kecergasan spesifik judo (SJFT).

METODOLOGI
Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah eksperimental kerana ia relevan
bagi kajian yang melibatkan 2 kumpulan iaitu satu kumpulan
kawalan dan kumpulan eksperimental. Kedua- dua kumpulan akan
menjalani ujian pra bagi menguji tahap kecergasan dan kemahiran
spesifik dalam judo. Seterusnya, kumpulan eksperimental akan
menjalani program latihan akrobatik selama 4 minggu manakala
kumpulan kawalan akan menjalani program latihan yang
disediakan oleh jurulatih sedia ada. Analisis secara terperinci
dilakukan terhadap program latihan akrobatik gimnastik. Setelah
selesai menjalani program latihan yang telah ditetapkan selama 4
minggu. Setiap kumpulan akan menjalani ujian pos.

SAMPEL
Kajian ini akan dilakukan terhadap 25 atlit Sekolah Sukan Tunku
Ismail (SSTMI) dimana terdapat kumpulan atlit kebangsaan dan
juga atlit pelapis negara.
INSTRUMEN KAJIAN

478

Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah eksperimental kerana ia relevan

bagi kajian yang melibatkan 2 kumpulan iaitu satu kumpulan
kawalan dan kumpulan eksperimental. Kedua- dua kumpulan akan
menjalani ujian pra bagi menguji tahap kecergasan dan kemahiran
spesifik dalam judo. Seterusnya, kumpulan eksperimental akan
menjalani program latihan akrobatik selama 4 minggu manakala
kumpulan kawalan akan menjalani program latihan yang
disediakan oleh jurulatih sedia ada. Analisis secara terperinci
dilakukan terhadap program latihan akrobatik gimnastik. Setelah
selesai menjalani program latihan yang telah ditetapkan selama 4
minggu. Setiap kumpulan akan menjalani ujian pos.
1.

Ujian kecergasan dan ujian kemahiran spesifik judo

Special Judo Fitness Test (SJFT)

Ujian ini terbahagi kepada 3 sesi ( A= 15s; B dan C= 30s) dengan

jarak 10s dari satu sesi ke satu sesi. Di dalam setiap sesi atlit (tori)
akan membanting pasangannya (uke) seberapa banyak yang boleh
dilakukan. Kedua-dua pasangan (uke) mestilah memiliki berat
badan yang sama dengan atlit (tori). Selepas 1 minit kadar nadi
akan diambil dan jumlah bantingan akan dikira.
Index = final HR (bpm) + HR 1-min after the test
Number of throws

479

Program latihan gimnastik

Latihan ini akan dijalankan selepas sesi memanaskan badan dan
akan dijalankan setiap sesi latihan. Setiap pergerakan akan
dilakukan sebanyak 3 kali. Berikut adalah cadangan program
latihan akrobatik gimnastik yang akan dilaksanakan dalam kajian
ini
1. Gulingan hadapan (forward rolls)

2. Gulingan kebelakang (backward rolls)

3. Roda kereta (cartwheel)

480

4. Dirian tangan (Handstand)

5. Hambur arab (Round off)

6. Hambur hadapan (Handsprings)

7. Imbangan skala (Scale)

481

RUJUKAN
Arida, R. M., Vieira, D. E. B., Cavalheiro, E. a, & Scorza, F. a.
(2010). Judo: Ippon scored against epilepsy. Epilepsy &
Behavior: E&B, 17(1), 136. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.11.003
Kyle. (2011). A Post Execise Dynamic Stretching Manual for Judo
Instructors. Science & Sports, (1).
Lech, G., & Almansba, R. (2007). The course of fight and the level
of sports achievements in judo, 3, 7281.
Nancy, B. (2013). Gymstart Levels 1-3 Skills program manual.
Science & Sports. British Columbia.
Nassib, S. H., Mkaouer, B., Nassib, S., Menzli, S., Znazen, H.,
Riahi, S. H., & Njeh, A. (2013). Effective Skills and
Interpretative Perception of Risk Taking of Future Teachers in
Learning Gymnastics Situation. Science of Gmnastic Journal,
6(3), 1322.
Vuillerme, N., Danion, F., Marin, L., Boyadjian, a, Prieur, J. M.,
Weise, I., & Nougier, V. (2001). The effect of expertise in
gymnastics on postural control. Neuroscience Letters, 303(2),
836. Retrieved from
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11311498

482

IMPLEMENTASI TEORI
KECERDASAN PELBAGAI
DALAM PELAKSANAAN
KURIKULUM PROGRAM
MATRIKULASI KPM
Abdul Rahim Hamdan & Jaafar Jamian

ABSTRAK
Kerajaan Malaysia melalui Kementerian Pendidikan
berhasrat untuk menyediakan modal insan bagi pembangunan
negara dan melahirkan negara bangsa. Selaras dengan itu
perkembangan potensi individu pelajar di peringkat Kolej
Matrikulasi melalui pendidikan perlu dilakukan secara harmonis,
seimbang, menyeluruh dan bersepadu. Kajian ini memaparkan
sebahagian daripada dapatan kajian berkaitan aplikasi teori
kecerdasan pelbagai dalam pelaksanaan kurikulum di Kolej
Matrikulasi Malaysia untuk memperkembangkan potensi semua
unsur-unsur kecerdasan pelbagai dalam kalangan pelajar. Tinjauan
melalui pemerhatian telah dilakukan ke atas sesi pengajaran dan
pembelajaran dalam bilik tutorial yang mengintegrasikan unsurunsur kecerdasan pelbagai. Pemerhatian dilakukan menggunakan
Senarai Semak Pemerhatian Sikap Saintifik dan Nilai Murni yang
diubah suai daripada Laboratory Manual Kerja Amali Sains
Program Matrikulasi. Pemerhatian mendapati suasana pengajaran
dan pembelajaran yang mengintegrasikan unsur-unsur kecerdasan
pelbagai
adalah
bersifat
kondusif
serta
berjaya
memperkembangkan sikap saintifik dan nilai murni, di samping

483

pada masa yang sama dapat memperkembangkan unsur-unsur

kecerdasan pelbagai dalam kalangan pelajar.
Kata kunci: Pelaksanaan Kurikulum, Perkembangan Potensi
Pelajar, Kecerdasan Pelbagai, Sikap Saintifik, Nilai Murni

PENGENALAN
Dalam bidang pendidikan, perkembangan kecerdasan minda
pelajar diberi tumpuan sepenuhnya agar pelajar dapat
menyesuaikan diri; mencapai kejayaan dalam kehidupan; serta
bersedia untuk berada dalam masyarakat masa hadapan (Reinhartz
& Beach, 1998; Wiles & Bondi, 1998). Sehubungan dengan itu,
kandungan dan pelaksanaan kurikulum dalam sistem pendidikan
wajar diberi perhatian kepada perkembangan kecerdasan minda
pelajar selain aspek rohani, emosi dan jasmani. Menurut Gardner
(1983) kecerdasan ialah kebolehan untuk menyelesaikan masalah
atau mencipta barangan yang bernilai dalam satu atau lebih latar
budaya. Konsep baru berkaitan kecerdasan berkembang ekoran
teori kecerdasan pelbagai (multiple intelligences) yang diutarakan
oleh Gardner pada tahun 1983.
Berdasarkan teori ini, setiap individu
mempunyai
sekurang-kurangnya lapan kecerdasan iaitu kecerdasan verballinguistik, kecerdasan logik-matematik, kecerdasan visual-ruang,
kecerdasan kinestetik, kecerdasan muzik, kecerdasan interpersonal,
kecerdasan intrapersonal dan kecerdasan naturalis (Armstrong,
1994; Campbell, Campbell & Dickinson; 1996; Jasmine, 1996).
Teori kecerdasan pelbagai telah diaplikasikan secara meluas di
negara-negara seperti Amerika Syarikat, United Kingdom, Kanada
dan Australia.
Dapatan kajian oleh pendidik seperti Berman (1998),
Armstrong (2000), Campbell et al. (1996), Jasmine (1996) dan
Lazear (1991) menunjukkan aplikasi teori kecerdasan pelbagai
dalam pendidikan berkeupayaan menyumbang kepada kejayaan

484

pembelajaran pelajar khususnya di Kolej Matrikulasi.

INTEGRASI UNSUR KECERDASAN PELBAGAI DALAM

PENGAJARAN
Sistem pendidikan di barat meyakini bahawa unsur-unsur
kecerdasan pelbagai boleh diintegrasikan dalam aktiviti pengajaran
dan pembelajaran. Menurut Jasmine (1996), unsur-unsur
kecerdasan pelbagai boleh diintegrasikan dalam aktiviti
pembelajaran bagi sesuatu mata pelajaran untuk mencapai objektif
pembelajaran, di samping dapat memperkembangkan kecerdasan
yang relevan dengan topik pembelajaran. Dalam mengintegrasikan
unsur kecerdasan pelbagai, Jasmine (1996) menyatakan bahawa
adalah perlu untuk memasukkan ke dalam rancangan pengajaran,
jenis-jenis kecerdasan yang hendak diintegrasikan mengikut
kesesuaiannya dengan topik yang diajar. Sebelum itu Armstrong
(1994) menganjurkan agar, dalam merancang sesuatu pengajaran
yang mengintegrasikan unsur kecerdasan pelbagai, pensyarahpensyarah menetapkan objektif pengajaran terlebih dahulu diikuti
dengan memikirkan persoalan-persoalan seperti yang terdapat
dalam Rajah 1.

485

Verbal-linguistik
Bagaimana saya
boleh
menggunakan
perkataanperkataan secara
lisan dan tulisan?

Kinestetik
Bagaimana saya
boleh melibatkan
keseluruhan
anggota badan
pelajar atau
pengalaman
hands-on?

Interpersonal
Bagaimana saya
boleh mewujudkan
perkongsian antara
pelajar,
pembelajaran
koperatif, atau
simulasi
kumpulan?

Visual-ruang
Bagaimana saya boleh
guna bahan
bantu visual,
visualisasi, warna,
lukisan atau
metafora?

OBJEKTIF
PDP

Naturalis
Bagaimana saya
boleh
memasukkan
pemerhatian
terhadap dunia,
mengklasifikasi
atau kemahiran
mengenal pasti?

Logik-matematik
Bagaimana saya
boleh
memasukkan
nombor-nombor,
pengiraan, logik,
klasifikasi atau
kemahiran berfikir
secara kritis?

Muzik
Bagaimana saya
boleh
memasukkan
muzik atau bunyi
persekitaran atau
irama atau
kerangka melodi?

Intrapersonal
Bagaimana saya
boleh
membangkitkan
perasaan diri atau
memori atau
memberi pilihan
kepada pelajar?

Rajah 1
Persoalan yang timbul semasa
penyerapan unsur kecerdasan pelbagai dalam
(Armstrong, 1994)

486

merancang
pengajaran

Aplikasi Teori Kecerdasan Pelbagai dalam Pendidikan di

Malaysia
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia memperkenalkan teori
kecerdasan pelbagai dalam sistem pendidikan pada 2001 melalui
Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum yang kini dikenali sebagai
Bahagian Perkembangan Kurikulum. Antara justifikasi yang
digariskan adalah seperti berikut.
Disamping menghasilkan pelajar yang seimbang, Model
teori kecerdasan pelbagai membantu pelajar memperoleh apa yang
perlu untuk hidup di abad akan datang. Model teori kecerdasan
pelbagai dapat membantu kita menganjak fokus dari isi kandungan
kepada hasil pembelajaran generik yang lebih penting dan berguna
kepada pelajar.
(Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum, 2001: 14)
Berdasarkan inisiatif di atas, dapat dikatakan bahawa
kesemua unsur kecerdasan pelbagai adalah antara perkara yang
perlu diintegrasikan dalam kurikulum bagi melengkapi usaha
membangunkan modal insan yang seterusnya dapat menyumbang
kepada pembangunan negara.

ISU DAN PERMASALAHAN

Kesemua unsur kecerdasan pelbagai perlu diperkembangkan dalam
diri setiap pelajar melalui kurikulum selaras dengan hasrat Falsafah
Pendidikan Kebangsaan ke arah mewujudkan individu yang dapat
menyumbang kepada kesejahteraan diri, keluarga, masyarakat dan
negara. Perkembangan semua unsur kecerdasan pelbagai dalam diri
setiap pelajar adalah perlu memandangkan kesemua unsur
kecerdasan pelbagai adalah penting untuk kehidupan yang lebih
sejahtera. Isu-isu seperti jerebu, banjir lumpur, banjir kilat dan
masalah sampah sarap (berkait dengan naturalis); isu buli, ragut,
samun (berkait dengan interpersonal); isu dadah, lumba haram,
rempit, bohsia dan bunuh diri (berkait dengan intrapersonal); isu

487

siswazah menganggur dan masalah lepak (iaitu siswazah tidak

dapat menggunakan potensi visual-ruang untuk mentafsir dan
memanfaatkan ruang dan peluang yang ada di sekelilingnya.
Siswazah juga tidak dapat mengaplikasi kemahiran yang bersifat
kinestetik yang telah dipelajari) adalah antara beberapa isu yang
semakin serius. Isu-isu tersebut ada kaitan dan menggambarkan
tahap kecerdasan pelbagai yang dipunyai oleh rakyat Malaysia
secara umumnya masih lemah. Sehubungan itu jelaslah potensi
yang berkaitan kesemua unsur kecerdasan pelbagai perlu
diperkembangkan dalam diri setiap pelajar melalui kurikulum dan
pengajaran.
Walau bagaimanapun secara realitinya, pelaksanaan
pengajaran dan pembelajaran di Kolej-kolej Matrikulasi di
Malaysia adalah lebih mengarah kepada akademik dan untuk
prestasi yang baik dalam ujian atau peperiksaan (Hishammuddin,
2005; Murad, 2005). Bagi tujuan tersebut, pensyarah-pensyarah
kebanyakannya akan lebih memberi penegasan kepada penguasaan
fakta-fakta dan teori. Menurut Rohizani dan Norlida (2003), tidak
semua pelajar dapat menumpukan sepenuh perhatian kepada aspek
teoritikal yang dianggap kering dan tidak bermakna. Perkara ini
juga tidak selari dengan hasrat Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan;
hasrat penyediaan modal insan; dan hasrat mewujudkan
masyarakat yang sejahtera.
Kertas kajian ini mendedahkan sebahagian daripada kajian
yang mendapati bahawa pengintegrasian kesemua unsur
kecerdasan pelbagai dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran
adalah sebenarnya bersifat praktikal untuk dilaksanakan di samping
mencapai matlamat untuk memperkembangkan sikap saintifik dan
nilai murni. Justeru pengintegrasian unsur tersebut wajar
dipraktikkan oleh pensyarah selaras dengan kehendak Pusat
Perkembangan Kurikulum (2003).

488

KAJIAN
Kesemua unsur kecerdasan pelbagai iaitu verbal-linguistik, logikmatematik, visual-ruang, kinestetik, muzik, interpersonal,
intrapersonal dan naturalis ialah antara unsur yang diharap dapat
diperkembangkan dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran Sains
seperti juga unsur sikap saintifik dan nilai murni selaras dengan
kehendak Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan (Pusat Perkembangan
Kurikulum, 2003, 2003). Sikap saintifik dan nilai murni dalam
kajian ini adalah merujuk kepada komponen Sikap Saintifik dan
Nilai Murni bagi mata pelajaran dalam bidang Sains Kolej
Matrikulasi seperti fizik dan kimia sebagai yang digariskan oleh
Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum (2003). Kajian ini terbatas
kepada pengintegrasian unsur-unsur kecerdasan pelbagai tersebut
dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran program satu tahun
Kolej Matrikulasi; kerana tinjauan awal penyelidik mendapati
pensyarah-pensyarah Fizik dan Kimia Kolej Matrikulasi masih
ragu dengan kelancaran proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang
mengintegrasikan unsur-unsur kecerdasan pelbagai?

Objektif dan Soalan Kajian

Kajian ini dilaksanakan bagi mendapatkan gambaran tentang
kelancaran dan implementasi proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran
yang mengintegrasikan kesemua unsur kecerdasan pelbagai. Secara
khususnya objektif kajian ialah untuk mengenal pasti keadaan
perkembangan sikap saintifik dan nilai murni pelajar dalam proses
pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Jika kesemua unsur-unsur
kecerdasan pelbagai turut diintegrasikan dalam proses pengajaran
dan pembelajaran Fizik dan Kimia dalam bidang Sains. Persoalan
kajian ialah; bagaimanakah keadaan perkembangan sikap saintifik
dan nilai murni pelajar jika unsur-unsur kecerdasan pelbagai
tersebut turut diintegrasikan dalam proses pengajaran dan
pembelajaran Sains?

489

Kaedah
Kajian dilakukan menggunakan kaedah tinjauan melalui
pemerhatian. Pemerhatian dilakukan semasa proses pengajaran dan
pembelajaran yang mengintegrasikan unsur kecerdasan pelbagai
berlangsung untuk mengenal pasti keadaan perkembangan sikap
saintifik dan nilai murni pelajar.
Pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang mengintegrasi unsur
kecerdasan pelbagai dilaksanakan selama sepuluh minggu. Proses
pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang dilakukan dari semasa ke
semasa dipantau oleh beberapa penyelidik bagi memastikan ia
berlangsung mengikut kehendak dan tujuan kajian.
Dalam tempoh berkenaan, dua orang jurunilai iaitu J1 dan
J2 telah membuat pemerhatian secara berasingan. J1 dan J2 ialah
pensyarah yang dipilih dalam kajian ini berdasarkan pengalaman
mengajar melebihi lima tahun dalam mata pelajaran Kimia dan
Fizik Kolej Matrikulasi dan juga berpengalaman dalam Penilaian
Kerja Amali dalam Makmal Kolej Matrikulasi Teknikal. Kaedah
dan teknik pemerhatian yang dilakukan dalam Ujian Makmal di
Kolej Matrikulasi Teknikal telah digunakan dalam kajian ini.
Catatan gundal bilangan pelajar yang menunjukkan sikap saintifik
dan nilai murni tertentu sepanjang sesi tutorial (Amali) telah
dilakukan berdasarkan pemerhatian.

Integrasi Unsur Kecerdasan

Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran

Pelbagai

dalam

Proses

Dalam kajian ini, kaedah pengintegrasian unsur kecerdasan

pelbagai dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran adalah
mengikut model Amstrong (1994) seperti Rajah 1, iaitu pensyarah
menetapkan objektif pengajaran terlebih dahulu, diikuti dengan
memikirkan persoalan-persoalan untuk mengenal pasti dan
memasukkan aktiviti-aktiviti bagi mengintegrasikan unsur-unsur
kecerdasan pelbagai. Kesemua unsur kecerdasan pelbagai seperti

490

yang terdapat dalam Rajah 1 diintegrasikan dalam proses

pengajaran dan pembelajaran selaras dengan hasrat Falsafah
Pendidikan Kebangsaan untuk memperkembangkan semua potensi
pelajar secara harmonis, seimbang menyeluruh dan bersepadu di
samping mencapai matlamat pembelajaran Sains iaitu
memperkembangkan sikap saintifik dan nilai murni.
Penyelidik dengan kerjasama pensyarah di Kolej
Matrikulasi yang terlibat dengan kajian, terlebih dahulu memilih
tajuk dan subtajuk pelajaran sebagai yang terdapat dalam
rancangan pengajaran semester (RAMES). (Pusat Perkembangan
Kurikulum, 2003) dan huraian sukatan pelajaran (Pusat
Perkembangan Kurikulum, 2003). Daripada pelbagai tajuk dalam
Kima dan Fizik Kolej Matrikulasi, tajuk Matter dan Chemical
Bonding telah dipilih mengikut konsep persampelan mudah
(convenience sampling) kerana pada masa kajian dilakukan tajuktajuk tersebut ialah tajuk yang akan diajar di Kolej Matrikulasi.
Objektif pengajaran yang hendak dicapai ditetapkan dan
dikenal pasti juga unsur-unsur kecerdasan pelbagai yang relevan
untuk diintegrasikan dalam aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran.
Keseluruhan perkara tersebut ditulis dalam rancangan mengajar;
yang bermakna secara eksplisitnya pengajaran ini adalah
pengajaran yang mempunyai matlamat untuk mengintegrasikan
unsur kecerdasan pelbagai.
Pelaksanaan pengajaran dan
pembelajaran yang
mengintegrasikan unsur-unsur kecerdasan pelbagai dilaksanakan
dengan kerjasama pensyarah di Kolej Matrikulasi yang berkenaan.
Dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran, pensyarah seterusnya
mengintegrasikan unsur-unsur kecerdasan pelbagai yang relevan
dengan aktiviti-aktiviti yang dilaksanakan.

Instrumen Kajian
Instrumen kajian yang digunapakai untuk pemerhatian ialah senarai
Semak Pemerhatian Sikap Saintifik dan Nilai Murni. Sikap

491

saintifik dan nilai murni dalam kajian ini adalah merujuk kepada
komponen Sikap Saintifik dan Nilai Murni bagi mata pelajaran
Kimia dan Fizik Kolej Matrikulasi Teknikal sebagai yang
digariskan oleh Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum (2003). Walau
bagaimanapun aspek sikap saintifik dan nilai murni dalam kajian
ini adalah dibataskan kepada sepuluh aspek sahaja iaitu :
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
ix)
x)

minat dan sifat ingin tahu tentang alam sekeliling;

jujur dan tepat dalam merekod dan mengesahkan
data;
rajin dan tabah dalam menjalankan atau menceburi
sesuatu perkara;
bertanggungjawab ke atas keselamatan diri dan
rakan serta terhadap alam sekitar;
menghargai dan mengamalkan kehidupan yang
bersih dan sihat;
berhemah tinggi dan hormat menghormati;
sistematik;
bekerjasama;
berani mencuba;
serta yakin dan berdikari.

Pemerhatian dilakukan menggunakan senarai Semak

Pemerhatian Sikap Saintifik dan Nilai Murni yang diubah suai
daripada Penilaian Kerja Amali (PEKA) Sains Kolej Matrikulasi.
Penyelidik telah menggunakan kaedah external critisism untuk
mengira indeks. Kesahan isi berdasarkan purata skor kumulatif
yang diperoleh daripada penilai yang pakar dalam bidang
berkenaan (Mohamad Najib,1999). Khidmat tujuh orang penilai
yang pakar dalam pengajaran Sains Kolej Matrikulasi, diguna
untuk menilai kesahan isi dan nilai indeks kesahan isi yang
diperolehi ialah .85.

492

Pemilihan Kolej Matrikulasi dan Sampel Kajian

Pemilihan Kolej Matrikulasi dan sampel kajian adalah dilakukan
untuk selaras dengan keperluan reka bentuk dan tujuan kajian.
Kajian ini memerlukan pemantauan oleh penyelidik untuk menjaga
kesahan dalaman kajian dan pemerhatian oleh dua orang pemerhati
untuk tujuan pengumpulan data. Sehubungan itu pemilihan Kolej
Matrikulasi dan sampel kajian adalah
mengikut konsep
persampelan mudah (convenience sampling).
Tiga daripada lima kelas tutorial pelajar jurusan
Kejuruteraan Awam yang terlibat dari sebuah Kolej Matrikulasi
Teknikal yang terpilih ditentukan mengikut konsep intact-group
dan berdasarkan keputusan perbincangan dan keizinan pihak
pengurusan Kolej Matrikulasi berkaitan. Tiga kelas pelajar yang
menjadi subjek kajian tersebut mempunyai kriteria yang sederhana
dari segi pencapaian, sikap terhadap pelajaran dan disiplin yang
dikenal pasti tidak mengganggu pelaksanaan prosedur kajian.
Jumlah subjek kajian ini ialah seramai 115 orang (lelaki = 60,
perempuan = 55).
Analisis Data dan Dapatan
Dalam tempoh kajian dilakukan, sebanyak lapan pemerhatian
secara rawak dilakukan oleh setiap pemerhati ke atas kelas-kelas
yang menjalankan pengintegrasian unsur-unsur kecerdasan
pelbagai dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Data yang
terkumpul dianalisis menggunakan kiraan skor min peratusan
pelajar yang menunjukkan sikap saintifik dan nilai murni semasa
proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran berlangsung. Skor min
daripada set data oleh J1 dikira, begitu juga dengan skor min
daripada set data oleh J2. Daripada analisis skor min set data oleh
J1 dan skor min set data oleh J2, skor min peratusan keseluruhan
adalah seperti dalam Jadual 1.

493

Jadual 1

Bil.
1

7
8

9
10

Skor min peratusan keseluruhan yang menunjukkan

sikap saintifik dan nilai murni

Aspek Sikap Saintifik dan Nilai Murni

Minat dan sifat ingin tahu seperti suka menyoal,
menyiasat, memberi tumpuan, membuat
pemerhatian
Jujur dan tepat dalam merekod dan mengesahkan
data seperti menulis fakta atau data dengan betul
seperti yang di baca atau dilihat
Rajin dan tabah dalam menjalankan sesuatu
perkara seperti tekun, memberi tumpuan penuh,
bersungguh-sungguh
Bertanggung jawab ke atas keselamatan diri dan
rakan seperti menghindarkan kemalangan dan
punca-puncanya, tidak melakukan perbuatan yang
merbahaya
Menghargai dan mengamalkan kehidupan yang
bersih dan sihat seperti mengekalkan kebersihan,
menjaga kekemasan meja, susunan buku dan
bahan-bahan Pengajaran dan pembelajaran (P&P)
Berhemah tinggi dan hormat menghormati
seperti tidak mengganggu rakan yang sedang
memberi pendapat atau jawapan, akur dengan
keputusan pensyarah
Sistematik seperti pandai mengurus waktu, bahanbahan P&P atau tugasan yang diberi
Bekerjasama seperti memberi perhatian, terlibat
dalam perbincangan, membantu rakan atau
pensyarah,
bersama-sama menguruskan bahan P&P
Berani mencuba seperti berani menjawab soalan,
berani menyoal, berani melaksanakan eksperimen
Yakin dan berdikari seperti tidak kekok dengan apa
yang dilakukan, tidak bergantung pada rakan,
mampu bertindak sendiri, menjawab soalan dengan
yakin

Skor Min Peratusan Pelajar

J1
J2
Jumlah
98.38
96.93
97.66

95.25

95.33

95.29

98.48

95.33

96.91

98.42

100

99.21

96.77

99.14

97.95

98.42

100

99.21

95.25

94.91

95.08

96.90

94.91

95.91

91.52

92.14

91.83

94.75

94.91

94.83

Merujuk Jadual 1 di atas, dapat dikenal pasti bahawa skor

min peratusan pelajar yang menunjukkan sikap saintifik dan nilai
murni adalah pada julat 91.52 hingga 100 peratus. Sehubungan itu
dapat dikatakan bahawa dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran
yang mengintegrasi unsur-unsur kecerdasan pelbagai, peratus
pelajar yang menunjukkan sikap saintifik dan nilai murni ketika

494

proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran berlangsung adalah tinggi. Ini

bermaksud proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang
mengintegrasi unsur-unsur kecerdasan pelbagai adalah bersifat
kondusif. Dalam erti kata lain, proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran
Kimia dan Fizik bidang Sains yang mengintegrasi unsur-unsur
kecerdasan pelbagai tidak menimbulkan kesan negatif kepada
perkembangan sikap saintifik dan nilai murni para pelajar.
Analisis menggunakan statistik inferensi korelasi Pearson
Product Moment dilakukan ke atas dua set data pemerhatian (Data
daripada J1 dan J2). Nilai r = .88 pada aras signifikan p = .001.
Dapatan analisis ini menunjukkan terdapat korelasi yang tinggi
antara skor yang di beri oleh J1 dengan skor yang diberi oleh J2;
yang bermakna penilaian ini mempunyai kebolehpercayaan antara
penilai (interater reliability) yang tinggi.

PERBINCANGAN DAN CADANGAN

Berdasarkan dapatan kajian ini didapati pengajaran yang
mengintegrasikan unsur kecerdasan pelbagai tidak menyekat
perkembangan sikap saintifik dan nilai murni pelajar daripada
berlaku. Sikap saintifik dan nilai murni ialah antara aspek yang
perlu diperkembangkan dalam diri pelajar melalui mata pelajaran
Kimia dan Fizik bidang Sains di Kolej Matrikulasi. Sikap saintifik
dan nilai murni dalam kalangan pelajar tetap dapat
diperkembangkan di samping pada masa yang sama
memperkembangkan kesemua unsur kecerdasan pelbagai.
Perkembangan kesemua potensi pelajar secara menyeluruh,
seimbang dan harmonis adalah selaras dengan hasrat Falsafah
Pendidikan Kebangsaan dan konsep kurikulum bersepadu. Dapatan
kajian ini juga selaras dengan dapatan-dapatan kajian yang
dilakukan di Barat.
Dapatan ini juga memberi gambaran bahawa proses
pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang mengintegrasikan unsur
kecerdasan pelbagai mampu mewujudkan suasana pengajaran yang

495

kondusif untuk berlakunya pembelajaran. Proses pengajaran dan

pembelajaran yang mengintegrasikan kepelbagaian unsur adalah
selaras dengan konsep pembelajaran berasaskan minda dan
kurikulum bersepadu. Pengintegrasian unsur kecerdasan pelbagai
dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran akan mewujudkan
suasana persekitaran yang pelbagai yang merangsang otak pelajar
ke arah berlakunya sinaps. Sinaps ialah proses yang berlaku di
dalam otak manusia semasa berlaku pembelajaran iaitu apabila selsel neuron dalam otak saling berhubung antara satu dengan yang
lain di bahagian dendrit (Schunk, 2004). Mengikut konsep
pembelajaran berasaskan minda, proses pembelajaran akan lebih
berkesan jika sering berlaku sinaps di dalam otak manusia.
Sehubungan itu, pensyarah-pensyarah tidak perlu ragu akan
kesan daripada pengintegrasian unsur kecerdasan pelbagai dalam
aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Sebaliknya pensyarahpensyarah wajar mencuba sebagai variasi kaedah atau teknik
pengajaran mereka bagi membantu mengelakkan pelajar-pelajar
daripada mengalami kebosanan ketika proses pengajaran dan
pembelajaran berlangsung selain dapat memperkembangkan
potensi kecerdasan pelbagai pelajar. Pengintegrasian unsur
kecerdasan pelbagai dalam kurikulum juga wajar menjadi agenda
pendidikan di bawah konsep kurikulum bersepadu ke arah
mewujudkan generasi yang berketrampilan selaras dengan
penyediaan modal insan dan kehidupan yang lebih sejahtera.

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498

SISTEM PENGUJIAN
AUTOMATIK SECARA VISUAL
UNTUK MENGANALISIS
PERGERAKAN MOTOR HALUS
KANAK-KANAK
Nurfadilah Darmansah & Halijah Ibrahim

ABSTRAK
Cadangan bagi menghasilkan satu sistem penilaian kemahiran asas
pergerakan yang dapat mengurangkan masa pentadbiran serta ralat
penguji merupakan antara inovasi yang amat diperlukan bagi
meningkatkan lagi aspek keilmuan dalam bidang penilaian asas
pergerakan. Oleh itu, kertas kerja ini dihasilkan sebagai penulisan
awalan terhadap penghasilan sistem pengujian automatik yang
boleh digunakan bagi menilai dan menganalisis komponen
kemahiran motor halus dalam kemahiran asas pergerakan kanakkanak. Sistem pengujian automatik yang akan dibangunkan ialah
Sistem Pengujian Automatik secara Visual dan cadangan nama
komersialnya ialah VA-FiMs iaitu singkatan daripada Visual
Analysis of Fine Motor System. VA-FiMs dihasilkan bertujuan
untuk menganalisis pergerakan motor halus kanak-kanak berusia
empat hingga enam tahun yang direka sebagai sistem mesra
pengguna. Terdapat tiga fasa yang dicadangkan dalam
merekacipta VA-FiMs, iaitu fasa pemerolehan maklumat: ciri-ciri
fizikal kanak-kanak, fasa penggubalan sistem dan fasa
pengintegrasian sistem. Dalam merekabentuk VA-FiMs ini,
penyelidik telah mengenalpasti empat sistem ataupun komponen

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utama yang terlibat iaitu sistem sensor/penderiaan , sistem

kinematik, sistem visual dan sistem formula. Kesemua sistem
berkenaan akan diintergrasikan menjadi satu sistem dengan
rangkaian komunikasi tanpa wayar bagi memudahkan interaksi
antara sistem yang terlibat dan juga kelebihan lain menggunakan
cara ini ialah merupakan peranti tunggal untuk mengawal kesemua
sistem dan kawalan perkakas bagi pemindahan data, dan untuk
mengekalkan sistem semudah mungkin.Oleh yang demikian
dengan penerangan setiap bahagian yang lebih perinci
membolehkan proses menghasilkan VA-FiMs seperti yang diingini
berjalan dengan lancar dan boleh menghasilkan sesuatu sistem
dengan penggunaan teknologi terkini yang penting dan membawa
kesan jangka panjang terutama bagi sistem visual.
Kata kunci: VA-FiMs, Pergerakan Motor Halus Kanak-Kanak

PENGENALAN

Banyak instrumen standard untuk menilai tahap penguasaan

kemahiran asas pergerakan kanak-kanak telah dihasilkan seperti
instrumen Movement Assessment Battery for Children Edisi
Kedua (Henderson, Sugden & Barnett, 2007), Bruininks- Oseretsky
Test of Motor Proficiency (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005), dan
McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development atau lebih
di kenali sebagai MAND (McCarron, 1997). Selain daripada itu,
ujian Denver Developmental Screening Test juga merupakan
instrumen atau alat ujian yang digunakan untuk mengenalpasti
kanak-kanak yang tidak mengalami proses pertumbuhan fizikal
atau perkembangan pergerakan dengan normal pada umur satu
bulan hingga enam tahun (Frankenburg, & Dodds, 1967) yang
melibatkan pengujian kemahiran motor kasar dan juga kemahiran
motor halus. Pada umumnya, instrumen ini memerlukan penguji
yang mahir dan cekap terhadap prosedur bagi setiap item pengujian

500

dalam memastikan pengukuran penguasaan kemahiran motor

kanak-kanak dilaksanakan dengan tepat. Aspek penilaian dan
pemarkahan terhadap perlakuan kemahiran motor kanak-kanak
dilaksanakan melalui pemerhatian penguji semata-mata atau lebih
dikenali sebagai penilaian secara manual. Cadangan bagi
menghasilkan satu sistem penilaian kemahiran asas pergerakan
yang dapat mengurangkan masa pentadbiran serta ralat penguji
merupakan antara inovasi yang amat diperlukan bagi meningkatkan
lagi aspek keilmuan dalam bidang penilaian asas pergerakan. Oleh
itu, kertas kerja ini dihasilkan sebagai penulisan awalan terhadap
penghasilan sistem pengujian automatik yang boleh digunakan bagi
menilai dan menganalisis komponen kemahiran motor halus dalam
kemahiran asas pergerakan kanak-kanak.
Sistem pengujian automatik yang akan dibangunkan ialah
Sistem Pengujian Automatik secara Visual dan cadangan nama
komersialnya ialah VA-FiMs iaitu singkatan daripada Visual
Analysis of Fine Motor System. VA-FiMs dihasilkan bertujuan
untuk menganalisis pergerakan motor halus kanak-kanak berusia
empat hingga enam tahun yang direka sebagai sistem mesra
pengguna. Selain dari memudahkan urusan pentadbiran pengujian
dan penilaian kualiti pergerakan, penghasilan sistem ini merupakan
antara pembaharuan dalam melaksanakan kajian ke atas kanakkanak yang berfokus kepada penilaian berbentuk visual dan bukan
secara tradisional ataupun dikenali sebagai cara manual. Sistem
yang dibangunkan akan dinilai dan dikaji agar ia sesuai
diaplikasikan kepada fizikal, persekitaran dan juga sosial kanakkanak di negara ini.. Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (2001),
juga menyatakan mengenai penghasilan sesuatu sistem yang baru
atau pengubahsuaian sesuatu sistem yang sediaada dan
diperbaharui akan mendatangkan faedah kepada manusia dan
memenuhi kehendak pengguna yang berada di era globalisasi
kecanggihan teknologi kini.
Pengetahuan mengenai rekacipta sistem, prosedur dan
sistem pengujian automatik perlu dikuasai bagi memudahkan
penghasilan instrumen berkenaan. Dari aspek rekacipta sistem,

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Freider (1967) menyatakan bahawa ciptaan atau rekaan adalah

sesuatu yang perlu selari serta lebih baik daripada model yang
dibentuk terlebih dahulu. Daripada model sedia ada, para pereka
bentuk akan dapat mengubahsuai alat dengan kreativiti mereka
terhadap penyusunan bahagian-bahagian, struktur bahan dan reka
bentuk barangan yang hendak diubahsuai. Rekabentuk yang
dihasilkan mestilah mengambil masa yang lama untuk di terima
oleh manusia kerana manusia mengambil tempoh masa yang lama
untuk menerima sesuatu perubahan. Pernyataan ini disokong lagi
dengan penulisan Hosking & Harlis (1996) yang turut mengatakan
bahawa rekabentuk sistem merupakan satu proses mencipta sesuatu
rangkaian sistem yang bertujuan untuk memberikan keselesaan
kepada manusia dalam membantu melaksanakan urusan kehidupan
seharian. Tambahan pula rekabentuk sistem juga merupakan
penghasilan sesuatu penerokan baru atau inovasi yang dilakukan ke
atas sesuatu pengujian dengan bertujuan untuk memudahkan
pengguna ataupun pihak yang terlibat selain daripada faktor-faktor
lain. Selain itu, rekabentuk sistem juga bertujuan untuk
memudahkan kerja yang dilakukan dalam pekerjaan seharian
manusia, menjimatkan kos dan masa, sistem keselamatan
maklumat dipercayai dan juga kebolehterimaan keputusan secara
relevan (Rosli Yusof, 1993). Hellen & Haridas (1996) turut
menyokong kenyataan ini di mana rekabentuk bertujuan untuk
memberikan keselesaan kepada setiap pengguna dalam membantu
melaksanakan urusan kehidupan seharian.
Terdapat tiga fasa yang dicadangkan dalam merekacipta
VA-FiMs, iaitu Fasa pemerolehan maklumat: ciri-ciri fizikal kanakkanak, fasa penggubalan sistem dan fasa pengintegrasian sistem.
Ringkasan fasa adalah seperti yang ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1.1:

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Rajah 1.1: Tiga Fasa Dalam VA-FiMs untuk Menganalisis Pergerakan

Motor Halus Kanak-Kanak

SISTEM-SISTEM YANG TERLIBAT DALAM VA-FiMS

Dalam merekabentuk sistem pengujian automatik untuk

menganalisis pergerakan motor halus kanak-kanak ini, penyelidik
telah mengenalpasti empat sistem ataupun komponen utama yang
terlibat yang akan digabungkan dalam menghasilkan rekabentuk
VA-FiMs. Pengenalpastian rekabentuk dan pemilihan sistem yang
diperlukan adalah hasil daripada pembacaan kajian lepas serta
pembaharuan yang dicadangkan oleh penyelidik. Empat sistem
yang terlibat adalah, sistem sensor/penderiaan , sistem kinematik,
sistem visual dan sistem formula

Sistem sensor
Sistem sensor yang dihasilkan merupakan satu modul
sensor yang sangat kecil supaya subjek akan berasa selesa untuk

503

melakukan segala pergerakan dan membawanya, walaupun dalam

satu tempoh jangka masa panjang. Sensor ini mudah dilekatkan
pada segmen ataupun sendi badan. Sensor ini juga berupaya untuk
memberikan isyarat kepada sistem lain bagi merakamkan
pergerakan segmen badan sepanjang tempoh pengujian. Selain itu
juga, sensor yang dihasilkan bersifat mudahalih dan sangat
fleksibel keatas segala pergerakan yang dilaksanakan oleh
responden. Penghasilan modul sensor ini adalah berdasarkan
kepada sorotan kajian terdahulu yang menggunakan beberapa
konsep untuk penghasilan sistem sensor. Terdapat dua komponen
utama dalam sistem ini, iaitu perkakasan dan firmware. Perkakasan
ini terdiri daripada tiga modul iaitu modul sensor, modul pengawal
mikro, dan modul sendi. Firmware pula merangkumi komunikasi
antara komputer dan sistem sensor.
Kajian Chee Kian Lim dan rakan (2011) adalah antara
sumber rujukan utama dalam menghasilkan sistem sensor ini.
Kajian ini menyatakan bahawa pengkaji telah menggunakan modul
sensor (Wearable wireless sensing system for capturing human
arm motion) kepada parameter yang penting terhadap gerakan
badan seperti gerakan tubuh semula jadi (peralihan postur, putaran
tubuh badan, duduk, berdiri, berbaring, berjalan, melompat), ciriciri pengaruh persekitaran (halaju, anjakan, anggota badan yang
lebih rendah putaran, ritmadan jangka masa) telah dinilai terlebih
dahulu dan dunia sekeliling semasa pengujian dilaksanakan.
Berdasarkan parameter ini, pemantauan aktiviti fizikal, analisis
gaya berjalan ataupun aktiviti kemahiran halus dapat dikesan
dengan tepat dan juga dapat diuji setiap masa. Selain daripada garis
panduan dalam mereka cipta sistem sensor ini, terdapat juga
beberapa aspek yang turut dijadikan contoh dalam penghasilan
sistem sensor untuk VA-FiMs iaitu seperti sistem sensor ini padat,
ringan dan tidak menyekat gerakan manakala pita pelekat yang
terlekat akan mengikut segala pergerakan dan melekat kepada kulit
manusia walaupun semasa regangan. Sistem sensor mudah
dipasang pada lengan dengan bantuan luar yang minimum.
Berikut antara cadangan kedudukan lekatan sensor warna

504

merah bagi aktiviti Mari Menabung dalam instrumen VA-FiMs

seperti yang ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1.2.

Rajah 1.2: Sistem sensor bagi aktiviti Mari Menabung

Sistem kinematik
Sistem kinematik merupakan satu sistem yang mengkaji
jenis pergerakan sesuatu objek ataupun pergerakan manusia tanpa
merujuk kepada daya-daya yang menyebabkan gerakan objek itu.
Tujuan sistem kinematik diaplikasi dalam VA-FiMs ini, adalah
kerana setiap pergerakan yang dihasilkan akan melibatkan hukum
kinematik (Ariffin,2005) samaada kinematik sudut ataupun
kinematik sahaja. Pekara ini sama seperti kajian terdahulu iaitu
kajian Stodden dan Langendorfer (2006) menyatakan bahawa
kajian mereka mempunyai 11 perbezaan pembolehubah kinematik
dalam aktiviti menangkap bola dengan halaju bola yang telah
ditentukan. Kenyataan ini juga disokong dalam kajian Urbin,
Glenn S. Fleisig, Asheber, and James (2013), iaitu mengenai
tindakan lengan bagi setiap balingan yang berbeza akan
menghasilkan pergerakan kinematik dan sudut kinematik yang
berbeza. Ini menunjukkan bahawa setiap aktiviti yang dilaksanakan

505

melibatkan pergerakan akan menghasilkan sudut pergerakan yang

berbeza-beza.
Bagi VA-FiMs, pengkaji telah menganalisis beberapa kajian
yang mempunyai persamaan dari segi pergerakan kinematik
bahagian tangan. Antara sumber utama sebagai rujukan adalah
kajian oleh Chee Kian Lim dan rakan, (2011). Hasil daripada
analisis berkenaan, akan membantu pengkaji dalam menghasilkan
sistem kinematik yang sesuai dengan kajian ini. Dalam sistem
kinematik ini, penyelidik menetapkan aktiviti lengan dan jari
responden sebagai mekanisma utama sendi yang terlibat, iaitu
terdapat tiga bahagian bahu, siku dan juga pergelangan tangan.
Berikut adalah rangka dan juga kajian awalan pengkaji mengenai
sistem kinematik yang diperlukan dalam kajian ini. Sistem
kinematik dalam kajian ini menanggap pergerakan tangan dan
lengan responden adalah sentiasa berubah-ubah mengikut aktiviti
yang diuji.

Rajah 1.3: Sistem Kinematik bagi aktiviti Mari Menabung

506

Sistem Formula
Pembangunan ataupun penghasilan formula-formula yang
berkaitan dengan pergerakan dalam menghasilkan rekabentuk VAFiMs ini merupakan bahagian yang sangat penting. Penghasilan
formula sangat penting kerana banyak pergerakan tangan yang
akan terhasil semasa pengujian dilaksanakan iaitu seperti
pergerakan tangan, jari jemari, perbengkokkan siku dan pergerakan
bahu. Berikut adalah beberapa formula yang akan digunakan
berkaitan aktiviti ini, iaitu formula yang terdapat dalam kinematics
of linear motion dan juga static (Ariffn, 2005):

Rajah 1.4: Sudut pergerakan semasa aktiviti pengujian

dilaksanakan

507

Sistem Visual
Sesuatu objek dimanipulasi ataupun dianalisis dengan
menggunakan cara yang lebih mudah untuk menentukan
pergerakan dan konsep objek adalah melalui ciri-cirinya dalam
bentuk visual (David, Jun, Tamim dan Ales, 2013). Pembentangan
secara visual merupakan satu cara dan bahan yang berkesan untuk
mempamerkan dan menganalisis data pergerakan. Walau
bagaimanapun, apabila ia digunakan sebagai bahan untuk
memganalisis data pergerakan yang sangat besar atau data yang
kompleks, menggunakan kaedah visual semata-mata tidak
mencukupi (Andrienko, Andrienko & Wrobel, 2007). Oleh yang
demikian, dalam sistem visual bagi VA-FiMs ini, semua pergerakan
yang diuji akan disambungkan dan dimodelkan dalam simulasi
persekitaran secara terus bagi membolehkan pengguna melihat
paparan secara grafik di komputer dengan visualisasi postur
lengan, tangan dan postur-postur lain yang terlibat semasa aktiviti
sedang dilaksanakan. Pergerakan dalam bentuk paparan grafik
adalah seperti yang dinyatakan dalam Rajah. 1.5. Selain paparan
grafik secara menyeluruh dapat ditayangkan, sudut setiap sendi
juga boleh dilihat secara terus dalam paparan ini dengan melalui
tetingkap maklumat (information windows) dan juga akan
merekodkan semua maklumat sudut ke dalam teks fail untuk
analisis dan tindakan seterusnya

508

Rajah 1.5: Gambaran grafik melalui komputer penguji

MENGINTERGRASIKAN SISTEM
Dalam bidang kejuruteraan sistem, integrasi sistem
ditakrifkan sebagai satu proses yang membawa bersama-sama
subsistem komponen ke dalam satu sistem dan memastikan
bahawa sistem kecil berfungsi bersama-sama sebagai satu sistem
yang lagi besar (Gilkey & Herbert, 1960). Manakala dalam bidang
teknologi maklumat, integrasi sistem adalah proses yang
menghubungkan diantara sistem pengkomputeran yang pelbagai
sistem dan aplikasi perisian dari segi fizikal atau fungsinya, untuk
bertindak bersama-sama dan secara keseluruhan telah diselaraskan
(Moore & June 1982). Menurut Moore & June (1982) sistem
intergrasi ini merupakan sistem penyepadu dan gabungan sistem
lain menggunakan pelbagai teknik seperti rangkaian komputer atau
pengaturcaraan manual, kenyataan ini juga, telah dinyatakan dalam
kajian benefits of systems integration: qualitative or quantitative
(Zaitun,2003). Pengintergarsian sistem ini meliputi tindakantindakan yang betul, bagi memastikan bahawa sistem yang telah
dintergrasikan melaksanakan operasinya dengan kaedah betul dan
tidak berlaku percanggahan sistem (Thomas & Erik,2001).
Pengintegrasian sistem VA-FiMs menggunakan kaedah
secara rangkaian komunikasi tanpa wayar (wireless) sebagai
peranti komunikasi bagi menghubungkan kesemua sistem yang
terlibat. Sebab utama pemilihannya adalah penting untuk menerima
pakai alat komunikasi dengan penggunaan kuasa yang rendah dari
perspektif had penggunaan tersebut. Di samping itu, penggunaan
tanpa wayar adalah lebih baik agar setiap pergerakan mudah alih
tidak terganggu. Kos yang rendah dan saiz yang kecil untuk
pelaksanaan sistem adalah penting. Selain itu, kaedah secara
bluetooth tanpa wayar dapat memindahkan data pada kadar lebih
daripada 100 Kbps, sambil mengekalkan ciri-ciri yang dinyatakan
di atas. Seperti yang dinyatakan oleh Takahiro dan rakan-rakan
(2007), satu kelebihan menggunakan cara intergrasi ini ialah sistem

509

hanya mengunakan peranti tunggal untuk mengawal kesemua

sistem dan juga kawalan perkakas bagi pemindahan data, dan
untuk mengekalkan sistem semudah mungkin. Rajah 1.6
menerangkan secara gambar rajah berkaitan dengan pengintregrasi
sistem antara satu sama lain.

Rajah 1.6: Gambaran menyeluruh mengenai sistem yang

diintregrasikan

KESIMPULAN
Secara keseluruhan, dapat disimpulkan bahawa keperluan
menghasilkan sesuatu sistem dengan penggunaan teknologi terkini
adalah penting dan membawa kesan jangka panjang terutama bagi
sistem visual yang akan direka ini. Oleh itu, setiap bahagian telah
diterangkan dengan lebih perinci supaya proses menghasilkan VAFiMs seperti yang diingini berjalan dengan lancar. Penghasilan
rekacipta VA-FiMs akan melalui beberapa kaedah ataupun proses
dalam membangunkannya. Rekabentuk proses yang tepat dan
berkualiti memainkan peranan yang penting dalam pembangunan
sistem ini. Ia adalah kunci kepada kelancaran pembangunan
sesuatu sistem. Penggunaan rajah dan model akan membolehkan
pembangun VA-FiMs untuk memahami setiap fasa dengan lebih
terperinci agar perlaksanaan kerja-kerja proses mengintergasi
sistem menjadi mudah dan mengurangkan masa pengintergasi

510

sistem ini.

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PERLAKSANAAN PENDEKATAN
PENGAJARAN BERSAMA
DALAM KELAS INKLUSIF
Muhamad Khairul Anuar Hussin & Abdul Rahim Hamdan

ABSTRAK
Inklusif merupakan satu keperluan yang dibangkitkan
melalui Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia. Kajian ini
dijalankan secara metod gabungan mencadangkan agar satu
pendekatan pengajaran yang dapat memenuhi keperluan inklusif
disamping mengambil kira keperluan persekitaran dan keadaan
semasa pendidikan di Malaysia. Matlamat, cabaran, dan strategi
perlaksanaan pendekatan pengajaran bersama dilihat sebagai satu
kajian yang mampu memberikan keseimbangan terhadap
perlaksanaan inklusif secara lebih menyeluruh. Instrumen kajian
yang digunakan dalam kajian ini telah melalui tiga proses kesahan
yang memberikan nilai alpha cronbach 0.831 dengan jumlah
responden seramai 30 orang. Diharapkan dengan perlaksanaan
kajian ini kelak akan dapat memberikan impak terhadap
perlaksanaan inklusif disamping dapat menghasilkan satu model
yang boleh dijadikan rujukan kepada pihak-pihak yang terlibat
dalam pendidikan khas umumnya dan pendidikan di Malaysia
khasnya.
Kata Kunci: Pendekatan pengajaran bersama

515

PENGENALAN
Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia (PPPM) 2013-2025 telah
menggariskan tentang keperluan dan penambahbaikan inklusif di
seluruh negara. Melalui perlaksanaan PPPM Inklusif telah menjadi
satu keperluan yang mana ia menjadi piagam dalam aspirasi ekuiti
iaitu peningkatan enrolmen Murid Berkeperluan Pendidikan Khas
(MBPK) daripada 25 inisiatif utama dalam 1Agenda Bersepadu
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia pada tahun 2013. Bertepatan
dengan perluasan enrolmen MBPK maka terdapat lompong yang
perlu diisi oleh warga pendidik iaitu pengkhususan dalam
memenuhi pengisian inklusif tersebut. Maka dengan merujuk
kepada perlaksanaan inklusif di peringkat antarabangsa, satu
pendekatan yang dipelopori oleh Marilyn Friend (2007) iaitu
Pendekatan Pengajaran Bersama (PPB). Dalam artikel ini PPB
yang dimaksudkan ialah penglibatan dua atau lebih guru dalam
kelas inklusif dengan berperanan sebagai pembantu dan tenaga
pengajar bersama-sama di dalam kelas aliran perdana (Friend,
2007). Dalam artikel ini juga diterangkan tentang matlamat,
cabaran dan strategi perlaksanaan PPB dalam kelas aliran perdana
serta pembinaan instrumen kajian yang digunakan.
Perlaksanaan PPB memerlukan matlamat yang menjurus
kepada beberapa perkara. Dalam kajian ini, matlamat merujuk
kepada beberapa pecahan seperti peranan, persepsi, isu logistik,
dan stigmatism. Menurut Friend (2007) semua pihak perlu
mempunyai matlamat tersendiri bagi mencapai kejayaan dalam
perlaksanaan pengajaran bersama. Kerjasama dan sikap saling
memahami diperlukan bagi memastikan matlamat dapat dicapai.
Perlaksanaan pengajaran bersama mempunyai beberapa matlamat
yang perlu difahami agar tidak berlaku kekeliruan dalam kalangan
warga sekolah terutama pihak pentadbir dan dalam kalangan guruguru. Beberapa matlamat pengajaran bersama perlu diketahui
sebelum ia dilaksanakan. Antaranya adalah bagi meningkatkan
pilihan pengajaran untuk semua murid. Potensi murid berkeperluan

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pendidikan khas dalam akademik perlu ditingkatkan melalui

pelbagai cara dan salah satunya adalah melalui perlaksanaan
pengajaran bersama. Perbincangan yang sepatutnya dilakukan
untuk menilai prestasi murid yang berpotensi.
Dalam kajian ini, cabaran adalah merujuk kepada lima
perkara yang diberikan penekanan oleh Friend (2007). Antara
pecahan istilah dalam cabaran adalah masa perancangan, sokongan
pentadbir, perbezaan stail pengajaran, perbezaan interpersonal, dan
sikap guru. Seperti yang dibincangkan oleh Friend & Cook (2008;
2009; 2013) semua pecahan istilah yang mewakili cabaran dalam
PPB akan menjadi kekuatan kepada perlaksanaanya secara umum.
Kekuatan dan kelemahan dalam setiap pecahan istilah mampu
memberikan perubahan kepada PPB secara keseluruhannya. Dalam
melaksanakan pengajaran bersama terdapat banyak cabaran yang
harus ditempuhi terlebih dahulu sebelum sesebuah kejayaan
dicapai. Kajian menunjukkan bahawa cabaran akan menghasilkan
kekuatan dan pengalaman. Melalui pengalaman tersebut ia akan
memperkukuhkan sesuatu tindakan dan ini pasti akan
menghasilkan keputusan yang lebih baik. Begitu juga dengan dunia
pendidikan, perubahan akan wujud jika berlakunya cabaran dan
melalui cabaran tersebut sesuatu sistem atau kaedah menghasilkan
tindakan yang akan memberi nilai tambah baik. Beberapa isu
dalam PPB seperti logistik, masa merancang, hubungan kerja
dengan rakan yang berkongsi tanggungjawab, sokongan daripada
pihak pentadbir dan lain-lain. Banyak tindakan yang diperlukan
bagi membolehkan perubahan berlaku dan cabaran-cabaran ini
akan memberikan pengalaman yang berguna bagi tujuan
memperkukuhkan perlaksanaan PPB.
Dalam PPB terdapat lima istilah kecil yang merujuk kepada
strategi yang digunakan dalam perancangan, perlaksanaan, dan
penilaian PPB. Antara istilah yang terlibat seperti enam model
pengajaran bersama, penyertaan guru, komunikasi, penglibatan
pentadbir, dan perancangan bersama. Semua keenam-enam istilah
ini akan dijelaskan maksudnya dibawah. Terdapat pelbagai isu
dalam perlaksanaan pengajaran bersama. Antaranya ialah isu-isu

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logistik program seperti kaedah perancangan dan agihan

penjadualan guru. PPB juga menekankan perkongsian bersama
guru aliran perdana dan guru pendidikan khas dalam banyak
bidang. Berkenaan isu logistik seperti pemilihan penempatan murid
berkeperluan khas, melalui pengajaran bersama murid yang telah
dikenalpasti boleh mengikuti aliran perdana sahaja akan
dicadangkan mengikuti pembelajaran di kelas-kelas inklusif.
Penempatan mereka adalah selari dengan tujuan PPB iaitu
perkongsian secara menyeluruh dalam aspek pembelajaran dan
suasana di bilik darjah. Penyelesaian kepada masalah yang timbul
rentetan daripada perkongsian ini perlu diselesaikan dengan
perbincangan dan tindakan yang terancang agar semua pihak yang
terlibat berpuas hati selain mendapat manfaat.
Penjadualan juga merupakan suatu strategi yang perlu
dalam PPB. Perkara ini lebih menyentuh kepada penjadualan guru
yang mengajar di kelas inklusif. Penjadualan guru melibatkan
perkara-perkara yang berkaitan dengan giliran mengambil tempat
sebagai guru utama yang mengetuai pengajaran, pengagihan
peranan dalam mengenalpasti kelemahan murid, mengendalikan
sesi pembelajaran individu, mentadbir ujian, mendapatkan bantuan
sokongan pakar dan lain-lain perkara yang dapat membantu
membaiki pengisian pengajaran bersama. Semua yang dinyatakan
di atas merupakan strategi PPB. Semua isu tersebut akan dapat
diselesaikan dengan baik jika ada hubungan yang terancang dan
sikap profesional semua individu yang terlibat. Semua pihak perlu
menjalankan tanggungjawab mereka seperti yang telah dipersetujui
semasa merancang pengajaran bersama.

KEPERLUAN KAJIAN
Kajian ini dirangka untuk mendapatkan maklumat berkenaan
perlaksanaan PPB. Beberapa perkara diambil kira seperti matlamat,
cabaran dan strategi yang digunakan oleh guru aliran perdana dan
guru pendidikan khas dijadikan sandaran untuk mendapatkan

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maklumat berkaitan perlaksanaannya. Selain daripada itu kajiana

ini perlu dijalankan untuk mendapatkan maklumat dan cadangancadangan penambahbaikan PPB.

Matlamat
Pengalaman

Guru Aliran
Perdana

Cabaran
Guru
Pendidikan
Khas

Strategi

Rajah 1 Kerangka Konseptual Kajian

Rajah 1 menunjukkan dua kumpulan pemboleh ubah yang

digunakan dalam kajian dan satu mediator. Pemboleh ubah yang
pertama adalah kumpulan matlamat, cabaran dan strategi. Ketigatiga pemboleh ubah ini merupakan elemen yang ada dalam PPB.
Manakala bagi kumpulan pemboleh ubah kedua terdapat dua
kumpulan guru iaitu GAP dan GPK. Hubungan antara kedua-dua
pemboleh ubah ini dilihat sebagai satu ikatan yang kuat dan diukur
secara langsung tetapi dia juga diukur menggunakan mediator
pengalaman.
Dalam kerangka teori ini, bahagian ketiga dibahagikan
kepada matlamat, cabaran dan strategi. Menurut Friend & Cook
(2008) matlamat PPB perlu merangkumi peranan dan hubungan
guru termasuklah persepsi terhadap perlaksanaan pengajaran
bersama. Perkara ini perlu menjadi keutamaan kerana peranan
individu yang terlibat benar-benar difahami serta hubungan yang
baik perlu wujud dalam pengajaran bersama. Perkara ini akan

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memberikan impak terhadap setiap sesi pengajaran yang

dijalankan. Menurut Friend lagi ketiga-tiga aspek perlu ditempuh
oleh para guru bagi menjalankan PPB secara berkesan dan kelak
membentuk matlamat, cabaran, dan strategi yang diinginkan.
Dalam mencapai matlamat, isu-isu logistik yang berkaitan dengan
perlaksanaan program seperti sesi-sesi perancangan secara
profesional perlu berlaku dengan baik dan dijalankan secara telus
kerana akan melibatkan tindakan dan teknik guru-guru dalam
melaksanakan pengajaran kelak.
Menurut Friend (2010) matlamat yang dinyatakan oleh
beliau adalah berkenaan dengan perkongsian tanggungjawab bagi
mencapai kejayaan dan juga mengenalpasti kelemahan murid yang
terlibat dalam perlaksanaan PPB. Guru harus menanam matlamat
untuk menyediakan peluang pembelajaran mengikut kemampuan
dan kehendak setiap murid. Selain itu guru mesti bermatlamat agar
akses kepada kurikulum tersedia bagi semua murid selain menitik
beratkan keperluan dalam penyediaan pembelajaran murid
terutama murid berkeperluan pendidikan khas. Friend juga
menyatakan bahawa setiap guru perlulah menanam matlamat agar
sumber kepada perlaksanaan PPB ini mencukupi dan juga ada
penerimaan daripada pihak pentadbiran.
Matlamat yang dikongsi bersama akan membuahkan hasil
yang baik. Bagi mencapai tujuan tersebut, penjadualan perlu
menjadi agenda utama dalam matlamat perlaksanaannya.
Penjadualan pengajaran akan melibatkan guru aliran perdana dan
guru pendidikan khas. Penjadualan guru-guru perlu disusun dengan
baik agar tidak wujud pertindihan dengan tanggungjawab lain yang
perlu dilaksanakan. Penjadualan perlu merangkumi tarikh-tarikh
sesi perancangan, perbincangan dan penilaian terhadap pendekatan
pengajaran bersama yang dilaksanakan. Pengajaran bersama juga
bermatlamatkan penambahbaikan aspek kualiti pengajaran guru
bagi mengurangkan stigmatism kepada murid. Melalui penglibatan
guru pendidikan khas yang mengajar bersama-sama dalam sebuah
kelas, kes-kes yang melibatkan stigmatism akan dapat dikurangkan
dan secara beransur-ansur akan dapat diatasi sepenuhnya jika

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wujud perancangan yang sistematik untuk mengatasinya.

Conderman (2013); Cramer & Stives (2008) menyatakan
cabaran terhadap perlaksanaan pengajaran bersama dapat
dibahagikan kepada lima elemen. Elemen-elemen tersebut adalah
kekurangan masa untuk menjalankan sesi perbincangan dalam
kalangan guru-guru yang terlibat. Kekurangan sokongan pentadbir
juga merupakan cabaran yang perlu ditempuh oleh guru terutama
guru pendidikan khas yang ingin melihat perlaksanaan pendekatan
pengajaran bersama dapat dijalankan bagi memenuhi kekosongan
ruang yang ada rentitan daripada perlaksanaan program inklusif.
Cabaran yang wujud dalam kalangan guru daripada segi perbezaan
stail pengajaran juga boleh memberikan impak yang tidak
menyokong kepada kejayaan selain berbezaan interpersonal dalam
yang akan menyebabkan gangguan yang akhirnya mencabar
krebiliti seseorang guru. Sikap guru terdapat perlaksanaan
pengajaran bersama juga akan memberikan kesan langsung kepada
pengajaran dan pembelajaran murid yang terlibat. Perkara ini
meliputi sikap dan tanggapan awal dalam kalangan guru aliran
perdana dan guru pendidikan khas. Cabaran ini akan dilihat secara
deskriptif dalam kajian ini sama ada sikap guru akan
mempengaruhi perlaksanaan pengajaran bersama atau tidak. Selain
menilai kesan sikap guru-guru terhadap perlaksanaan secara
keseluruhan.
Dalam perlaksanaan pendekatan pengajaran bersama
terdapat beberapa strategi yang dicadangkan oleh ahli akademik
yang terlibat secara langsung dalam bidang ini. Antaranya adalah
cadangan daripada Scruggs, Mastropieri & Mc Duffie (2007).
Menurut mereka terdapat enam pendekatan yang telah dicadangkan
oleh Marilyn Friend iaitu Pengajaran Parallel (Selari), Pengajaran
Stesen, Pengajaran Berpasukan, Pengajaran Alternatif, Seorang
Mengajar-Seorang Memantau, dan Seorang MengajarSeorang
Membantu. Semua pendekatan ini dapat membantu dalam
menambah idea kepada perlaksanaan pendekatan pengajaran
bersama. Walaupun begitu terdapat beberapa pendekatan lain yang
diperkenalkan oleh ahli akademik lain.

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PROSES PERLAKSANAAN KAJIAN

Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah gabungan iaitu di antara
kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Menurut Gay et al. (2006) pendekatan
gabungan dalam sesebuah kajian akan dapat membantu pengkaji
mendapatkan maklumat dengan lebih jelas dan ia menerangkan
keadaan sebenar yang terjadi dalam sesuatu isu yang dibangkitkan
oleh pengkaji. Menurut Creswell & Plano Clark (2011) kajian yang
dijalankan dengan menggunakan kaedah gabungan akan dapat
memberikan penjelasan yang lebih mendalam. Walaupun kaedah
ini dikatakan sebagai metod ketiga dalam sesuatu kajian tetapi
kekuatan yang ada perlu dijadikan sandaran bagi memberi
maklumat kepada pengkaji (Mayring, 2007). Menurut Creswell &
Plano Clark (2011) kaedah gabungan dapat diinterpretasikan
dengan strand yang khusus dibentuk dalam tatacara menjalankan
kajian. Penjelasan mengenai interpretasi dapat dijelaskan dengan
rajah berikut. Terdapat tiga prosedur yang perlu dilaksanakan iaitu
membina soalan kuantitatif, membina soalan kualitatif dan
membuat interprestasi keseluruhan data yang diperoleh.
Daripada prosedur yang dijalankan data yang diperoleh
daripada kaedah kuantitatif dan kualitatif di analisis secara
berasingan. Data kuantitatif dan kualitatif akan dianalisis
menggunakan kaedah yang telah ditentukan oleh pengkaji. Bagi
tujuan kajian ini, pengkaji akan mendapatkan data kuantitatif
melalui set soalan temu bual yang diberikan kepada responden
mengikut prosedur mentadbir soalan kuantitatif yang diterangkan
dalam bab ini. Manakala bagi soalan kualitatif, ia ditadbir
menggunakan pendekatan eksplanatori yang akan diterangkan di
bawah sub topik yang lain. Bagi penggunaan aplikasi bantuan
dalam memproses dapatan kajian, data-sata yang diperoleh
daripada set soalan soal selidik akan diproses menggunakan
perisian ABM SPSS Structural Equation Model (SEM)-Analysis
of Moment Structures (AMOS).
Dapatan yang diperoleh daripada set soalan temubual ia
akan diproses dengan menggunakan perisian Atlas.ti. ATLAS.ti

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merupakan akronim kepada Archive for Technology, the Life

World and Everyday Language tambahan pada ti bermaksud
text interpretation. Penggunaan ATLAS.ti merupakan salah satu
cara untuk menganalisis data kualitatif secara lebih sistematik.
Penggunaan perisian komputer ini akan dapat membantu
penyelidik yang untuk mengasingkan maklumat dan membuat
analisis dengan cara yang mudah dan cepat. Penggunaan program
ini dipilih kerana ia menyediakan aplikasi dan alat bagi
memudahkan kod diproses dan dikategorikan mengikut tema
dalam bentuk visual dan jaringan yang telah dilakarkan oleh
pengkaji bagi tujuan membuat tafsiran ke atas maklumat yang telah
diperoleh. Diantara fungsi yang boleh digunakan dalam program
ATLAS.ti ini adalah mengekod teks, imej, video dan audio dengan
mudah. Ia juga boleh menggunakan link dengan menggunakan
ikon drop and drop. Selain itu penggunaan ATLAS.ti juga
membolehkan model visual dihasilkan melalui jaringan. Bagi
tujuan kajian ini ATLAS.ti hanya akan digunakan bagi mengekod
teks temu bual yang telah ditranskripkan ke dalam Microsoft word.
Dalam kajian ini, data kuantitatif akan diperoleh terlebih
dahulu
kemudian diikuti dengan pemerolehan dalam data
kualitatif. Menurut Gay et al. (2006) data kuantitatif akan
menberikan wajaran kepada keseluruhan dapatan data daripada
kajian yang mengunakan kaedah gabungan. Kajian ini akan
menggunakan set soalan yang telah diubah dengan kebenaran
daripada pengkaji. Set soalan yang digunakan dalam manual
bertajuk Co-teaching Beyond the Basics (2008) yang ditulis oleh
Marilyn Friend daripada Universiti North Carolina-Greensboro.
Daripada set soalan tersebut, pemboleh ubah yang digunakan
disesuaikan dengan soalan-soalan yang dinyatakan dalam dokumen
tersebut selain beberapa soalan dilakukan beberapa modifikasi
untuk disesuaikan dengan objektif kajian.
Instrumen kajian ini terbahagi kepada dua iaitu Instrumen
Soal Selidik dan Instrumen Temu Bual. Instrumen-instrumen yang
digunakan tersebut telah dimodifikasi daripada set Co-teaching
Beyond the Basics (2008) dengan kebenaran bertulis penulis asal

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iaitu Marilyn Friend. Beliau telah memberikan kebenaran seperti

yang dilampirkan. Manakala set soalan soal selidik ini di susun
sendiri oleh pengkaji mengikut kesesuaian dan turutan yang
dinyatakan dalam objektif kajian. Insrumen ini terbahagi kepada
dua set iaitu Set I dan Set II. Bagi Set I ia terdiri daripada soalan
soal selidik yang mengandungi empat bahagian. Manakala bagi Set
II pula terdiri daripada soalan-soalan temu bual. Bagi Set I, ia
mengandungi empat bahagian iaitu Bahagian I (Maklumat Diri
Responden), Bahagian II (Matlamat), Bahagian III (Cabaran) dan
Bahagian IV (Strategi). Semua bahagian ini akan merangkumi
keperluan untuk menjawab 3 objektif kajian. Manakala bagi Set II
iaitu soalan temu bual iaitu Bahagian Cadangan dan
Penambahbaikan. Berikut adalah jadual konstruk yang telah dibina
sendiri oleh pengkaji.
Jadual 1 Jadual Konstruk Item-Item Soalan Kuantitatif
Pemboleh
Ubah
Matlamat

Cabaran

Konstruk
Peranan dan hubungan guru.
Persepsi terhadap pengajaran
bersama.
Persepsi terhadap impak dan
keberkesanan.
Isu-isu yang berkaitan dengan
logistik program.
Perancangan untuk guru-guru
dan murid.
Sistem penjadualan yang baik
Kesan
pengajaran
bersama
kepada pengajaran guru.
Stigmatism terhadap murid

Jumlah
Soalan

20

Kekurangan masa untuk membuat

Perancangan bersama
Kekurangan Sokongan Pentadbir
Perbezaan stail pengajaran
Perbezaan interpersonal

524

20

Sikap guru
Strategi

Memasukkan enam pendekatan

pengajaran bersama dan masa
untuk menggunakannya
Guru sukarela untuk menyertai
pasukan pengajaran bersama
Berkomunikasi dengan bakal
rakan pengajaran bersama
Melibatkan pentadbir secara
langsung
Perancangan yang dipersetujui
bersama
Menjalankan
Perancangan
bersama sebelum pengajaran

20

60
JUMLAH

Populasi bagi kajian ini adalah dalam kalangan guru-guru

di negeri Johor. Responden yang dipilih adalah secara rawak
bersrata yang mana guru pendidikan khas dan guru aliran perdana
yang mengajar di kelas-kelas inklusif akan dipilih untuk menjawab
soalan-soalan soal selidik dan temu bual. Daripada kajian rintis
yang telah dijalankan ke atas 30 orang responden terdapat beberapa
soalan yang perlu diubahsuai kerana memberikan maksud dan
pemahaman yang mengelirukan terutama bagi 15 orang guru aliran
perdana yang terlibat. Nilai pekali alpha Cronbach telah diperoleh
daripada analisis SPSS 20.0 yang digunakan sebagai pengukur
kepada kesahan setiap item soalan yang digunakan. Terdapat
beberapa soalan yang perlu disesuaikan dengan pemahaman guru
aliran perdana. Selain itu terdapat pembetulan daripada segi
susunan perkataan dan pembetulan kandungan soalan kerana
memerlukan rujukan semula pada tajuk yang bersesuaian. Terdapat
beberapa kesalahan teknikal dalam soalan yang diajuakan dan
pengkaji telah membetulkan mengikut kesesuaian. Daripada kajian
rintis yang telah dijalankan, skor-skor yang telah diperoleh
daripada soal selidik telah diproses dan terdapat kesahan yang
tinggi bagi kesemua item yang telah dibentuk. Nilai alpha

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Cronbach keseluruhan item yang diperoleh ialah 0.831. Bahagian

II (Matlamat Pendekatan Pengajaran Bersama) nilai alpha cronbach
ialah 0.836. Bahagian III (Cabaran Pendekatan Pengajaran
Bersama) nilai alpha Cronbach ialah 0.824. Manakala Bahagian
IV (Strategi Pendekatan pengajaran Bersama) memberikan skor
alpha Cronbach 0.832. Berikut disertakan jadual yang
menunjukkan nilai alpha cronbach yang telah diperoleh.
Jadual 2 Jadual Nilai Pekali Alpha Cronbach Instrumen

Bil
1
2
3

Bahagian
Bahagian II
Bahagian III
Bahagian IV

Nilai Alpha Cronbach

0.836
0.824
0.832

Menurut Bernard (2013) pengujian tahap kesahan adalah

penting untuk memastikan item yang dibuat adalah bersesuaian
dengan responden yang hendak diuji. Dalam menjalankan kajian
ini 5 orang pakar telah terlibat. Pakar-pakar tesebut terdiri daripada
pakar dalam bidang bahasa, guru cemerlang pendidikan khas dan
pakar-pakar pendidikan khas daripada universiti. Bagi tujuan
kajian ini seorang Munsyi Bahasa Melayu (Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka) daripada SMK Taman Daya telah terlibat daam
memberikan cadangan berkaitan penggunaan bahasa, istilah, dan
tatabahasa keseluruhan instrumen kajian agar mudah difahami
mengikut kriteria ayat bagi soalan soal selidik. Seorang guru
cemerlang Bahasa Inggeris juga telah terlibat untuk menilai
kefahaman dan ketepatan proses alih bahasa yang dilakukan
daripada instrumen kajian asal yang dimiliki oleh Marilyn Friend.
Bagi penilai kesesuaian kandungan instrumen, dua orang
pakar pendidikan khas dari Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia dan
Universiti Perguruan Sultan Idris telah terlibat. Terdapat beberapa
catatan dan teguran yang diberikan oleh pakar-pakar tersebut
berkenaan istilah yang digunakan. Penambahbaikan telah
dilakukan berdasarkan kepada teguran yang telah diberikan. Bagi

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kesesuaian penulisan instrumen seorang guru cemerlang

pendidikan khas daripada SMK Permas Jaya telah terlibat. Beliau
telah memberikan cadangan-cadangan yang membina bagi
memastikan ayat-ayat yang digunakan dalam instrumen kajian
dapat difahami oleh guru-guru aliran perdana yang menjadi respon
kajian kelak. Penyesuaian telah dilakukan mengikut cadangan yang
telah diberikan.

KESIMPULAN
Perbincangan berkenaan PPB memerlukan ramai pemikir dan
pelaksana untuk duduk semeja bagi membincangkan
perlaksanaannya mengikut acuan dan kehendak masayarakat di
sesuatu tempat. Seperti yang dinyatakan oleh Winter (2007)
perlaksanaan program yang memenuhi permintaan dan persekitaran
perlu diambil kira dalam melaksanakan inklusif. Dalam kajian ini
beberapa perkara yang bersesuaian dan berpadanan dengan
kehendak warga pendidik dalam menjalankan inklusif dan
mengisinya dengan PPB. Walaupun kajian ini masih belum
dijalankan tetapi dengan mengambil kira kesahan dan nilai alpha
cronbach yang diperoleh diharapkan ia dapat memberikan impak
terhadap perlaksanaan PPB di Malaysia kelak.

RUJUKAN
Bernard, H. R. (2013). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and
Quantitative Approaches (2nd Ed.). United State: SAGE
Publications, Inc.
Conderman, G. (2011). Middle School Co-Teaching: Effective
Practices and Student Reflections. Middle School
Journal, 42(4), 24-31.
Cramer, E., Liston, A., Nevin, A. & Thousand, J. (2008). Co-

527

Teaching in Urban Secondary School Districts to Meet the

Needs of All Teachers and Learners: Implications for
Teacher Education Reform. International Journal of Whole
Schooling, 6(2), 58-76.
Creswell, J. W. & Plano Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and
Conducting Mixed Methods Research (2nd Ed.). United
States: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Friend, M. (2006). Co-Teaching: A Simple Solution That Isnt
Simple After All. Journal of Curriculum and Instruction
(JoCI). 2(2), 9-19.
Friend, M. (2007). Special Education: Contemporary Perspectives
for School Professionals (2nd Ed.). Boston: Pearson
Education, Inc.
Friend, M. & Bursuck, W. (2006). Including Students With Special
Needs: A Practical Guide for Classroom Teachers. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
Friend, M., & Cook, L. (2008). The New Mainstreaming: How it
really works. Instructor. 101(7), 30-36
Friend. M. (2008). Co-teaching Beyond the Basics. Greenboro:
University of North Carolina-Greenboro.
Friend, M., Cook, K. (2013). Interactions: Collaboration Skills for
School Professionals (3rd Ed.). White Plains, NY:
Longman.
Friend, M. (2010). An Illustration of the Complexity of
Collaboration in Special Education. Journal of Educational
and Psychological Consultation. 20, 9-7.
Gay, L. R., Geoffrey, E. Mills & Peter W. Airasian (2006).
Educational research. Competences for Analysis and
Application (8th ed.) New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice
Hall.
Mayring, P. (2007). On Generalization in Qualitatively Oriented
Research. Qualitative In HaltsAnalyse. In: Forum
Qualitative Sozialforschung 2. 1(20)
Winter, S. M. (2007). Inclusive Early Childhood Education: A
Collaborative Approach. New Jersey: Pearson Education,

528

Inc.

529

530

MODULE CONSTRUCTION ON
THE PREVENTION OF SMOKING
HABIT AMONG PRIMARY
SCHOOL STUDENTS
Roslee Ahmad & Norhayati Ahmad*

ABSTRACT
The increasing habit of smoking among pupils in primary school is
alarming and could lead to addiction of drugs. This research aims
to foresee how far the constructed Smoking Habit Prevention
Module could ensure whether the pupils smoking or not. The
survey consists of five sections, section A is about personal
characteristics, Section B is focusing in smoking habits symptoms,
section C deals with factors which triggers the habit, section D is
on effects caused by smoking and section E is on prevention. The
findings from the survey will form the basis of the module.
Furthermore, the effectiveness of the module will be evaluated by
pupils, counselors and teachers. The survey will be distributed to
200 primary school pupils, age between 10 and 12 years old. The
schools were chose for this purpose are SK Kota Masai 2, SK
Taman Pasir Putih, SK Taman Nusa Damai and SK Cahaya Baru.
All of the schools are of Pasir Gudang district of Johor. The all
chosen schools performed averagely in 2012 UPSR examination.
Keywords: Prevention, Smoking habit; Module, Pupils

531

INTRODUCTION
Smoking habit had become a norm in our society nowadays. There
are many parties had been trying to avoid and prevent smoking
habit among primary school students. Even though, there are pupils
who seem unable to understand the context of prevention embraced
by the schools and government. A study by Global Youth Tobacco
Survey found that 20% of students aged between 13 and 15 years
old are smokers. Whereas the smokers aged below 18 years old had
increased to 20%. (Source Berita Harian, 4 November 2008).
In general, the government is getting concern about the
increasing number of young smokers especially the students. With
this in mind, it had launched a campaign known as Kempen Tak
Nak in 9 February 2004. The 5 years campaign was launched by
the fifth Prime Minister Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi. It
consumed around 100 million or 20 million annually, aiming at to
bring awareness regarding the danger of smoking to all smokers in
general. Apart from that, many had confessed that its difficult to
quit smoking once the picked up the habit. Furthermore, they also
felt incompleteness, uncool, stressed and etc. The male smokers
view smoking as a way of life which reflects a persons status,
maturity and the readiness to shoulder responsibilities. According
to Griesar (2002), through a clinical study, found that smoking can
indeed bring calmness and ease pressure.

BACKGROUND STUDY
Smoking among students is quite worrisome. Despite numerous
efforts implemented by the schools and Education Ministry, the
rate of is smokers still going up. Therefore the Director of
Education of Malaysia had issued several circulars pertaining to
smoking. The pekeliling ikhtisas bil 4/1997 explains about
punishments upon students who caught smoking. Another circular
known as Pekeliling ikhtisas bil 5/1997 clearly stated that

532

schools are non-smoking area. If no preventive measures available,

the students will fall for the drugs and alcohol for sure. The
aroused addiction could affect health, mental and physical agility.
Therefore, students who frequently exposed to smoke from
cigarette found to be slow in their study compared to their peers
from much healthier environment. Hamdan (2004)
Nevertheless there are several cases on adverse effects
posed by long term exposure to cigarettes smoke. One fine
example would be the children aged between 6 to 15 years old who
exposed to the smoke in long term found to be having difficulties
to read and also weak in Mathematics (Berita Harian: 6 August
2005). This suggests that long term exposure to the smoke could
weaken ones memory and mental agility as well.
From religion (Islam) point of view, the prophet had
mentioned about that cigarette can weaken peoples mind, as
verses from Hadith below:

:

.
It explained that the prophet prohibits anyone from getting near to
anything which causes dizziness and weaken the body.
In addition to this, the Mighty GOD also prohibits its
servants from consuming anything deemed illegal (non-halal) and
not benefiting for oneself. Such doing (smoking) could lead to
temptations which cause he/she to behave abnormally i.e. addiction
to drugs which eventually could destroy the entire nation.
GODs Sermon: Dear humans, legitimate consumption is
far better from anything found in earth and do not follow the
footsteps of devils as they are your real enemy. (Al-Baqarah Verse
(2): sentence 168)
In line with the former prime ministers idea regarding
human capital, We do have a pair of Twin Towers, if given a
choice, I wont stop at one but I want to build millions of Twin

533

Towers. The way to realize it is to turn everyone into towering

personality a.k.a personalities highly filled with virtues. A person
with such characteristics will surely successful in any discipline.
(Datuk Seri Abullah Hj Ahmad Bawadi, 2005)
In contrary, a survey conducted by Andika, he found that
the effects of smoking on health are considered as common issue
and friendship could be forged through smoking (Andika, 2005).
Not only that, smoking can induce relaxedness and is an alternative
to overcome stress (Amir, 2007). Besides that, there are criminal
activities such as theft and blackmailing associated to cigarette
(Moktar, 2008). However, there are many youths smokers failed to
quit smoking despite up to four futile attempts (Research Article,
Bangi, 8 Disember 2010).

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Smoking is phenomenon dwelling in our society nowadays
especially among the grownups in general. Now it had found its
way into our youngsters or school children. According to Berita
Harian dated 26 September, there were 11812 deaths in 2010
caused by smoking habit or an average of 32 deaths due to heart
attack and stroke involving smokers. Fairuz Zaidan (2005)
mentioned that the habit of smoking among Malaysian begins as
early as 8 years old. Another source, Sufen (2004) mentioned that
there were 237 (3.2%) children aged 10 began to smoke, 355
(4.7%) began at 11 years old and 1004 (13.4%) at age 12.
Furthermore, statistic from Student Affairs Department in Johor
State Education Department shows that in 2005 there were 12
cases of smoking in school. If such occurrences didnt being
curbed, it might turn into drug addiction. Many Parties especially
the school are showing concern towards the matter because pupils
are vital assets for future generation.

534

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

Identifying the degree of smoking habit symptoms related to

pupils personal characteristics.
Identifying the degree of causes of smoking habit related to
pupils personal characteristics.
Identifying the degree of smoking effect related to pupils
personal characteristics.
Identifying the effectiveness of preventive measures
implemented among pupils.
Study the difference in degree of cause, effect and prevention
of smoking habit among pupils.
Identifying the relationship between smoking habit prevention
module with the modules assessment according to pupils
characteristics.

QUESTION REVIEW
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

What is the degree of smoking habit symptoms related to

pupils personal characteristics
What are causes of smoking habit related to pupils personal
characteristics
What is the degree of smoking effect related to pupils
personal characteristics
What is degree of effectiveness of preventive measures
implemented among pupils
Is there any difference in degree of cause, effect and prevention
of smoking habit among pupils
Is there any relationship between smoking habit prevention
module with modules assessment according to pupils
characteristics

535

STUDY DESIGN
This study is being carried out by using Quantitative method where
sampling is done randomly and the questionnaire had been sent to
four primary schools in Pasir Gudang, Johor Bahru. Acquired data
is statistically analysed to obtain the mean score for item listed in
the Smoking Prevention Module among Pupils. The schools were
chosen are the so called Average Performers in 2012 UPSR
examinations result.

LOCATION STUDY
This research was conducted in four schools located in Pasir
Gudang.
1. SK Kota Masai 2
2. SK Taman Pasir Putih
3. SK Taman Nusa Damai
4. SK Cahaya Baru

RESEARCH SAMPLE
A sample of 20 male pupils aged 12 was chosen from each school
which makes 80 pupils all together. All of them are involved with
smoking. Since small samples the researchers take the entire study
population for the larger data to meet the objectives of the study are
consistent with Kerlinger (1973).

ANALYSIS REVIEW
10 sets of questionnaire were dispatched to each school for the
purpose of preliminary study and the findings are as follow:

536

Part A: Personal Characteristics

Table 1 shows the distribution of frequency and percentage of
respondents according to personal characteristics. 10 male
respondents (100%) consists of 5 Malays (50%), Chinese (0%), 2
Indians (20%) and 3 students from other ethnicity (30%). All of the
respondents are 12 years old with 5 of them are Muslims (50%), 2
Hindus (20%) and 3 are Christians (30%).
The respondents are from primary schools located in Pasir
Gudangs district. 7 out of all respondents (70%) have 4 siblings, 2
of them (20%) have 6 siblings and only one (10%) respondent has
8 siblings.
As for the respondents family status, as many as 7 of them
(70%) are living together with their parents, 2 of them are living
with divorced parent and only one respondent is raised by single
parent due to deaths.
Nevertheless, all of the respondents are year 6 pupils
(100%) and they are smokers.

537

No.
1

Frequency
10

Percentage
100%

5
0
2
3
10

50%
0%
20%
30%
100%

Religion
Islam
Hindu
Christian

5
2
3

50%
20%
30%

5
6

Type of School
Location of the school

10
10

100%
100%

Number of Siblings
4 Persons
6 Persons
8 Persons

7
2
1

70%
20%
10%

STATUS
Living Together
Divorced
Past Away
Year 6
Smoker

7
2
1
10
10

70%
20%
10%
100%
100%

8
9
10

Item
Sex: Male
ETHNIC
Malay
Chinese
Indian
Others
Age (12 Years old)

Table 1
Part B : Symptoms of Smoking Habit
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6

Item
Physical
Thinking Pattern
Emotion Pattern
Behaviour Pattern
Personality
Self Attitude

Frequency
10
7
6
8
10
10
Table 2

538

Percentage
100%
70%
60%
80%
100%
100%

Table 2 shows the distribution of frequency and percentage of

respondent according to symptoms of smoking habit. Physical,
Personality and Self Attitude emerged as the highest frequency
among all the symptoms identified with 10 (100%) respondents.
Whereas, Behavioural Pattern consists of 8 respondents (80%),
followed by 7 (70%) with Thinking Pattern. The least number of
respondents as many as 6 (60%) displayed Emotion Pattern.

Part C : Cause of Smoking Habit

No.
1
2
3
4
5

Item
Self Attitude
Risk of Dependent
Social Relationship
Family
Environment

Frequency
10
4
4
7
8
Table 3

Percentage
100%
40%
40%
70%
80%

Table 3 shows the distribution of frequency dan percentage of

respondents according to the cause of smoking habit. The highest
frequency shown is self attitude with 10 (100%) respondents,
followed by the environment with 8 (80%) respondents; family
with 7 (70%) respondents, social relationship and risk of dependent
has 4 (40%) respondents each.

Part D: Effects of Smoking Habit

No.
1
2
3
4

Item
Behaviour and attitude
Health
Illness
Induced drug consumption

Frequency
2
10
10
4
Table 4

539

Percentage
20%
100%
100%
40%

Table 4 shows the distribution of frequency and percentage of

respondents according to the effects of smoking habit. Health and
illness stood the highest among all the effects with 10 (100%)
respondents, whereas induced drug consumption consists of 4
(40%) respondents and behaviour and attitude consists of 2 (20%)
respondents.

Part E: Prevention of Smoking Habit

No.
1
2
3
4
5

Item
Academic approach
Self Appreciation
Self Identification
Self Realization
Problem Solving Skill

Frequency
10
6
10
5
8
Table 5

Percentage
100%
60%
100%
50%
80%

Table 5 shows the distribution of frequency and percentage of

respondents according to the prevention of smoking habit. The
academic approach and self identification have the highest
frequency which is 10 (100%) respondents, whereas 8 (80%)
respondents are of problem solving skill, then self appreciation and
self realization each has 6 (60%) and 5 (50%) respondents.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The prevention of smoking habit among pupils is vital as for them

to have healthy and positive mind. In contrast, negative mind set
and conduct will have destructive effect on self, society and nation.
Out of such concern, the researcher had come out with a prevention
module as guidance for the pupils in this challenging life.

540

REFERENCES
Abdullah Hassan, Ainon Mohd, (2002), Mendorong Diri Sendiri,
KL, Tts Millennia Paperback.
Ab Alim Abdul Rahim, Kamarulzaman Kamaruddin, (2010),
Psikologi Bilazim, Kuala Lumpur, Utusan
publications & Distributors Sdn. Bhd.
Abd. Halim Mohd Hussin, Meriam Omar, Mohd Muzaffar Shah
Mohd Razali, Lan, O.C., Sabasiah Husin, Wan Abdul
Kader Wan Ahmad & Zuria Mahmud, (2008), Kod Etika
Kaunselor
:
Persatuan
Kaunseling
Malaysia
(PERKAMA). SPADA, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia
(USIM). Pandan Indah, Kuala Lumpur.
Ahmad Hafizi Saad, (2008), Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi
Tingkahlaku Merokok dikalangan Pelajar Sekolah : Satu
Tinjauan di SMK Taman Selesa Jaya 2. UTM. Thesis
Sarjana Muda.
Corey, G., (2006), Theory and Practice of Counselling and
Psychotherapy, (7th ed.) USA : Brooks/Cole
Chua Yan Piaw, (2009), Statistik Penyelidikan Lanjutan, Malaysia,
Mc Graw Hill.
Creswell, J.W, (1994), Research Design Qualitative and
Quantitative Approaches. Thousand Oaks : CA SAGE
Publication.
Dayang Hjh Tiawa Awg Hj Hamid, Abdul Hafidz Hj Omar,
(2009). Analisis Data Kualitatif, Johor, Nasmax Sdn.
Bhd.
Daniel J. Canary, William R. Cupach, Susan J. Messman, (1995),
Relationship Conflict, London, New Delhi, Sage
Pulications : (4) 77 97.
David Capuzzi, Douglas R. gross, (2001), Introduction to the
Counselling Profession, United States of America,
Allyn & Bacon A Pearson Education Company.
David Clutterbuck, Gill Lane, (2004), The Situational Mentor,

541

England, Gower Publishing Company : (1) 1 - 15

Zulkarnaen Mohd Rabawi, (2002), Faktor-faktor yang
Mempengaruhi Pelajar Merokok di Sekolah Menengah
Teknik Sultan Ahmad Shah, Kuala Rompin, Pahang.
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Tesis sarjana Muda.
Zaidah Selamat, (2007), Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi
Pelajar Merokok : Kajian Tinjauan. Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia. Tesis Sarjana Muda.
Zainal Madon, Mohd Sharani ahmad, (2006), Remaja Moden,
Pahang PTS Professional Publishing Sdn. Bhd. (2) 49-57

542

THE RELIABILITY OF SCORING

ITEM FOR KEMAHIRAN
MELAKAR TASK
Siti Khadijah Lokman & HalijahIbrahim

ABSTRACT
Nowadays, a lot of standard instruments in measuring fundamental
movement skills has been produced internationally. such as The
Movement Assessment Battery for Children Test (MABC)
(Henderson & Sugden, 1992), Test of Gross Motor Development
(TGMD) (Ulrich, 1985), Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor
Proficiency (BOTMP) (Bruininks, 1978) and McCarron
Assessment of Neuromuscular Development (MAND) (McCarron,
1997). such as The Movement Assessment Battery for Children
Test (MABC) (Henderson & Sugden, 1992), Test of Gross Motor
Development (TGMD) (Ulrich, 1985), Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of
Motor Proficiency (BOTMP) (Bruininks, 1978) and McCarron
Assessment of Neuromuscular Development (MAND) (McCarron,
1997). However, the suitability of using these instruments to
evaluate the Malaysian children is unknown. Most of the
developers of standard instruments claim that the instruments
generate high cross culture validity (Cools, Martelaer, Samaey, &
Andries, 2009). Yet, studies by (Chow, Henderson, & Barnett
(2001) and Miyahara et al., (1998) showed that some item
constructs less dominated by Hong Kong and Japanese children.
Therefore, a new culturally appropriate fundamental movement
skills instruments have been developed to measure the fundamental
movement skills among preschool. This instrument named

543

CEKAP, the abbreviation of Cemerlang Kemahiran Asas

Pergerakan. This article generated in order to present the reliability
of the scoring item of Kemahiran Melakar one of items included
in CEKAP. A total of 20 preschool children (10 boys, 10 girls)
aged 5 years old (45%) and six years old (55%) from one selected
private preschool has involved in this study. The Rasch Model
using the Winsteps software Program version 3.64.2 has been used
to analyze the reliability of the scoring item for Kemahiran
Melakar in CEKAP. Findings shows that the person reliability
index for item Kemahiran Melakar A (0.67) is higher than person
reliability index for item Kemahiran Melakar B (0.31). These
results show that the level of person reliability is weak in which the
scoring item unable to separate persons ability. The item
reliability for both Kemahiran Melakar has shown a good index
value ranging between 0.91-0.96. These results indicated that the
movement criteria for both item able to measure the targeted
element and able to classify the scores. The scoring items for both
tasks have a consistent level of difficulty. Improvement on the
description of the movement criteria of the scoring items for
Kemahiran Melakar is needed to increase the index value of person
and item reliability as well as to suitability items for a variety of
people abilities.
Keyword: Fundamental movement skill

INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, a lot of standard instruments in measuring fundamental
movement skills has been produced internationally such as The
Movement Assessment Battery for Children Test (MABC)
(Henderson & Sugden, 1992), Test of Gross Motor Development
(TGMD) (Ulrich, 1985), Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor
Proficiency (BOTMP) (Bruininks, 1978) and McCarron
Assessment of Neuromuscular Development (MAND) (McCarron,
544

1997). There are advantages and disadvantages when using the

standards instruments to assess childrens performance of
fundamental movement skills (FMS). Besides, There are several
different ways and approach to measure childrens performance of
FMS, each with advantages and disadvantages. Tester should
consider many factors in selecting appropriate assessment approach
(Hands, 2002) either quantitative, qualitative assessment or
combination of quantitative and qualitative assessment approaches.
Quantitative assessment approaches involve measuring the
products or outcome of the performance (Hands, 2002; Lam, 2011;
Zuvela, Bozanic, & Miletic, 2011). The product or outcome usually
measured in number or quantity as example number of steps, time
in second to run and others. The result usually will be converted or
transformed into relative scale and compared to the performance of
normative group (Burton & Miller, 1998; Hands, 2002). Whereas
for qualitative assessment approaches, the assessment focused on
the process in producing the movement which is the product of the
changes in the form and pattern of the individual movement
whether it follows the sequence in motor development or vice
versa (Burton & Miller, 1998; Gallahue & Ozmun, 2006; Hands,
2002).
Several studies in evaluating the childrens performance on
fundamental movement skills using the standard instruments have
been implemented in Malaysia (Ibrahim, Heard, & Blanksby, 2011;
Ibrahim, Sabaruddin, Mohd Hashim, & Zainuddin, 2007; Ibrahim
& Larkin, 2004; Man, Kaur, Zainuddin, Mohd Hashim, & Ibrahim,
2006; Zainuddin, Abd Majid, Ibrahim, Mohd Hashim, & Ahmad,
2011; Zainuddin, Ibrahim, & Latif, 2010). However, the suitability
of using these instruments to evaluate the Malaysian children is
unknown. Most of the developers of standard instruments claim
that the instruments generate high cross culture validity (Cools,
Martelaer, Samaey, & Andries, 2009). Yet, studies by (Chow,
Henderson, & Barnett (2001) and Miyahara et al., (1998) showed
that some item constructs less dominated by Hong Kong and
Japanese children.

545

In Malaysia, the Ministry of Education had expanding the

educational opportunities by preparing the education towards
preschool children and also supported by Department of Social
Development (KEMAS) under Ministry of Rural and Region
Development. The development of education demand towards
preschool children show the need of conduction assessment on the
fundamental movement skills. Therefore, a new culturally
appropriate fundamental movement skills instruments have been
developed to measure the fundamental movement skills among
preschool. This instrument named CEKAP, the abbreviation of
Cemerlang Kemahiran Asas Pergerakan. This article generated in
order to present the reliability of the scoring item of Kemahiran
Melakar one of items included in CEKAP.

METHODOLOGY
A total of 20 preschool children (10 boys, 10 girls) aged 5 years old
(45%) and six years old (55%) from one selected private preschool
has involved in this study. The Rasch Model using the Winsteps
software Program version 3.64.2 has been used to analyze the
reliability of the scoring item for Kemahiran Melakar in CEKAP.
The scoring item is based on three scale score that given to the
ability of children completing the Kemahiran Melakar task. There
are five criteria of movement that had been predetermined to
measure the quality of movement performed by the subject while
completing the task. There two sub-item of Kemahiran Melakar
tasks: Kemahiran Melakar A - Tunjukkan Jalan Kepada Hang
Tuah Pergi Ke Istana Melaka and Kemahiran Melakar B -Bantu
Semut Pergi Mendapatkan Kek.

RESULT
Item Kemahiran Melakar A

546

Rasch analysis has been conducted to obtain the index value of

person and item reliability. Table 1(a) presents the summary of the
person reliability of scoring item for the Kemahiran Melakar A.
The person reliability index is 0.67 indicated that this scoring item
has potential to be replicated if this item were given to another
subject measuring the same construct (Bond & Fox, 2007). This
scoring item also has high capability in isolating person ability.
However, the person separation index value was 1.44. These index
value shown that the scoring item has good person reliability but
unable able to separate person ability either excellent or poor.
Table 1(b) shows the summary of the item reliability of
scoring item for Kemahiran Melakar A with index value 0.96. This
index value indicated that movement criteria as described in the
scoring item able to measure individual ability accordingly. In
addition, the item separation index is 4.90 indicated that the
scoring item able to differentiate individual into several range of
ability.
Table 1(a) Person Reliability of Scoring Item for Kemahiran Melakar A
------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
TOTAL
MODEL
INFIT
OUTFIT
|
|
SCORE
COUNT
MEASURE
ERROR
MNSQ
ZSTD
MNSQ
ZSTD |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| MEAN
8.4
5.0
1.88
.94
|
| S.D.
2.8
.0
1.94
.52
|
| MAX.
12.0
5.0
4.39
1.91
|
| MIN.
2.0
5.0
-4.37
.56
.00
-1.5
.00
-1.5 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| REAL RMSE
1.11 TRUE SD
1.59 SEPARATION 1.44 PERSON RELIABILITY .67 |
|MODEL RMSE
1.07 TRUE SD
1.62 SEPARATION 1.51 PERSON RELIABILITY .70 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|

Table 1(b) Item Reliability of Scoring Item for Kemahiran Melakar A

------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
TOTAL
MODEL
INFIT
OUTFIT
|
|
SCORE
COUNT
MEASURE
ERROR
MNSQ
ZSTD
MNSQ
ZSTD |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| MEAN
42.0
20.0
.00
.45
.76
-.3
.70
-.3 |
| S.D.
11.9
.0
2.71
.29
.47
.9
.41
.6 |
| MAX.
59.0
20.0
2.22
.95
1.19
.6
1.05
.3 |
| MIN.
27.0
20.0
-4.62
.26
.00
-1.6
.00
-1.3 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| REAL RMSE
.54 TRUE SD
2.66 SEPARATION 4.90 ITEM
RELIABILITY .96 |
|MODEL RMSE
.54 TRUE SD
2.66 SEPARATION 4.96 ITEM
RELIABILITY .96 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|

547

Data Analyses for Item Kemahiran Melakar B

Table 2(a) is the summary of person reliability of scoring item for
Kemahiran Melakar B. The person reliability index value is 0.31
indicated that this scoring item has low potential to be replicated to
another subject on measuring the same construct (Bond & Fox,
2007). This item scoring also has low separation person ability
with index value of 0.66 indicated that this item unable to separate
person ability.
Table 2(a) Person Reliability of Scoring Item for Kemahiran Melakar B
------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
TOTAL
MODEL
INFIT
OUTFIT
|
|
SCORE
COUNT
MEASURE
ERROR
MNSQ
ZSTD
MNSQ
ZSTD |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| MEAN
9.0
5.0
.60
.62
.93
.0
.80
.2 |
| S.D.
2.1
.0
.83
.08
.70
.9
.76
.5 |
| MAX.
13.0
5.0
2.45
.75
2.66
1.8
2.72
1.3 |
| MIN.
4.0
5.0
-1.13
.54
.18
-1.7
.12
-.6 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| REAL RMSE
.70 TRUE SD
.46 SEPARATION
.66 PERSON RELIABILITY .31 |
|MODEL RMSE
.62 TRUE SD
.55 SEPARATION
.89 PERSON RELIABILITY .44 |
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Table 2(b) is the summary of item reliability of scoring item

for Kemahiran Melakar B. The item reliability index value is 0.91
indicated that the movement criteria of the scoring item for
Kemahiran Melakar B are able to separate the difficulty of items
accordingly (Bond & Fox, 2007). Furthermore, item separation
index value is 3.96 and appropriate to separate person into different
range of ability.
Table 2(b) Item Reliability of Scoring Item for Kemahiran Melakar B
------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
TOTAL
MODEL
INFIT
OUTFIT
|
|
SCORE
COUNT
MEASURE
ERROR
MNSQ
ZSTD
MNSQ
ZSTD |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| MEAN
36.0
20.0
.00
.44
.80
-.2
.80
.1 |
| S.D.
19.1
.0
1.84
.30
.24
.5
.55
.6 |
| MAX.
59.0
20.0
2.63
1.03
1.12
.5
1.50
1.0 |
| MIN.
4.0
20.0
-3.02
.22
.44
-1.0
.13
-.6 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| REAL RMSE
.54 TRUE SD
1.76 SEPARATION 3.26 ITEM
RELIABILITY .91 |
|MODEL RMSE
.54 TRUE SD
1.76 SEPARATION 3.27 ITEM
RELIABILITY .91 |
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

548

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Rasch analysis results of scoring item for Kemahiran Melakar
obtained a large range of reliability index value. Findings shows
that the person reliability index for item Kemahiran Melakar A
(0.67) is higher than person reliability index for item Kemahiran
Melakar B (0.31). These results show that the level of person
reliability is weak in which the scoring item unable to separate
persons ability. The item reliability for both Kemahiran Melakar
has shown a good index value ranging between 0.91-0.96. These
results indicated that the movement criteria for both item able to
measure the targeted element and able to classify the scores. The
scoring items for both tasks have a consistent level of difficulty.
Improvement on the description of the movement criteria of
the scoring items for Kemahiran Melakar is needed to increase the
index value of person and item reliability as well as to suitability
items for a variety of people abilities. Results also show that the
movement criteria are unable to separate the persons ability.

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Fundamental Measurement in the Human Sciences (Second
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551

A META-ANALYSIS:
PEDAGOGICAL STRATEGIES
FOR TEACHING MATHEMATICS
AMONG ABORIGINAL
STUDENTS
Zuriati Sabidin, Zaleha Ismail, Zaidatun Tasir & Mohd Nihra
Haruzuan Mohamad Said

ABSTRACT
Numeracy is a part of mathematics and are closely related to each
other. Specifically, numeracy is the ability to perform basic
mathematical operations and understand simple mathematical ideas
and apply knowledge and skills in mathematics in everyday life.
Understanding of the students' achievement in numeracy determine
the higher level. This is because the basic understanding of
numeracy in the classroom makes the students can use their
knowledge of numeracy in everyday life. This meta-analysis will
study the pedagogy strategies that support Indigenous students
learning of numeracy, which aimed to improve Indigenous
students numeracy outcomes by improving knowledge and
classroom practices. However, the literature is limited on studies
that examined on NC among indigenous students. So, the role of
Pedagogical Strategies on enhancing Numeracy Competence is yet
to be understood. Numeracy Competence is very crucial in the
learning of mathematics, but often neglected as Malaysian
mathematics curriculum mostly emphasize on calculations, skills
and procedures. The question of the study is as follows: What are

552

Pedagogical Strategies for facilitated the development of numeracy

competence among Aboriginal students?
Keywords: Pedagogy, Pedagogical strategies, Numeracy,
Mathematics, Teaching strategies, school, Aboriginal students

INTRODUCTION

Pedagogy is the study of teaching, especially teaching in the

formal education. In other words, it is the science and art of
teaching in schools. As a field of extensive research, pedagogy
also involves the study of the process of teaching and learning,
classroom management, school organization and teacher-student
interactions. However, there are some pedagogical strategies that
take into considerations language background, low socioeconomic status, and of non-dominant or minority cultures need
to be proposed and experimented. In the recent years, it has been
generally recognized that the conventional approaches in learning
and teaching numeracy for aboriginal students have limited
effectiveness. However, the aboriginal students performance in
literacy and mathematics has not much improved since then.
Efforts to improve the teaching and learning of this minority
group should be given serious attention since students who have
not mastered basic skills in reading, writing and arithmetic are
dropouts and at-risk groups who will face difficulties in meeting
the needs of further education and career. Numeracy competence,
which is the ability to understand, evaluate, perform and utilize
numeracy in different situations and contexts are very crucial in
learning mathematics, but often neglected as Malaysian
mathematics educators emphasize mostly on curriculum,
calculations, skills and procedures. Understanding of numeracy
should be taught to Aboriginal students as early as in preschool
(Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2010; ODonoghue, 2002) so

553

as to avoid them from being able to do the calculation algorithms

without knowing the reason behind the operations (Lucia, 2008;
Brown, Askew, Millett, & Rhodes, 2003; Bobies, 2005; Clark,
2004). In primary schools, understanding of numeracy is
important because this skill can be used to determine students'
mastery at higher levels. Moreover, understanding of numeracy in
the classroom is useful in daily life (Westwood, 2008). Noraini
Idris (2009) in her study found that numeracy concepts such as the
concept of ten, the concept of the collection, the concept of
numbers and counting skills play an important role in helping
students to build a strong foundation in literacy and numeracy. It
has been found that students with the knowledge of numeracy
concepts are able to learn mathematical concepts at higher levels.
The concept of numeracy as a life skill (LeFevre et al.,
2009) that needs to be connected to authentic activities is
currently of considerable interest to educators of young children.
As noted by Ginsburg, Lee, and Boyd (2008), children develop
strong and deep knowledge of mathematics as part of their early
development. The crucial task for educators is to connect
informal knowledge to the formal knowledge associated with
schooling(Ginsburg, H. P., Lee, J. S., & Boyd, 2008). Broad
exposure to a range of numeracy-related activities at home may be
one of the ways to facilitate those connections.
At present, there is little systematic research that evaluates
the underlying structure and nature of informal numeracy skills
and empirically links these skills to the development of later
formal mathematics skills (Purpura & Lonigan, 2012). The
process of mathematical education should focus on the
development of NC to create a generation of mathematically
literate citizens ( Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2010). This
goal is in line with national educational philosophy statement.
Low achievement in basic skills such as numeracy can
significantly contribute to the failure of Aboriginal students to
cope with schooling. However, when the curriculum take into
considerations the culture, appropriate pedagogical context the

554

diversity of students backgrounds, and formative assessment for

monitoring students progress, students achievement can be
enhanced (Warren & DeVries, 2009; Frigo & Simpson, 2000;
Matthews, Howard, & Perry, 2003; Nicol, R. and Robinson,
2000)
Since the aborigines have their own paradigm of
education, there should be special teaching methodologies to
attract the students interest, attention and focus in the subject. In
order to achieve these, teacher should build a program by
selecting content and the adapting curricula to address students
learning needs, interest and prior knowledge (Alias et. al., 2011).
There is another necessary level of relationship that includes the
deliberate creation of time and space before any engagement in
learning can be affected(Campbell, M., & Christie, 2009), as
good community engagement starts with respect, which is a
quality of individuals rather than institutions (Eady &
Woodcock, 2010). Thus, the process of relationship building is
integral to learning in these communities. They should guide and
facilitate learning with a suitable methodology in the classroom.
Furthermore they should develop activity and assessments that
promote students interest and depth of understanding (Tan et. al,
2014).

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
This small-scale meta-analysis aims to answer the following
research questions:
What are the Pedagogical Strategies to facilitate the development
of numeracy competence among Aboriginal students?
Hence this study will create an evidence-based research which
will give a top to bottom seeing on the part of PS and how it
could be saddled to encourage the improvement of NC among

555

Aboriginal students.

METHODOLOGY
This meta-analysis only focuses on primary and secondary school
thus only published papers that provide original and empirical
meta-analysis which focused its application on students were
selected. The terms [Pedagogical Strategies], [Numeracy],
[Teaching Strategies] and [Mathematic] were used to conduct the
search in EBSCOHost, IEEEXplore Digital Library, JSTOR,
SAGE Journal, ScienceDirect, Taylor & Francis Online, Web Of
Science and Interdiciplinary Journal of Mathematics.
Then again, to reduce the probability of presenting
preference at this stage, the electronic review was not narrowed
down, and the ensuing emphases were carried out physically. One
concern emerges as the participants' age gathering was regularly
not or inadequately reflected in titles, decisive words or abstracts.
The electronic quest produced 50 papers by utilizing titles as the
premise. The vast majority of the writing is determined from
outside Malaysia and more to early schooling which is preschool
and it shows up a considerable measure of analysis done outside.
Preliminary today, the fundamental center of pedagogical methods
in the classroom to numeracy for aborigines student is no more in
Malaysia.
The aim of the review reported here, is to consider the
research evidence that bears upon the ways in which the approach
adopted by teachers during the daily mathematics lesson in
delivering the Numeracy Strategy in Malaysia has impact on
pupils confidence and competence in mathematics.

Table 1 Review Of Study Pedagogical Strategies For Numeracy/

Mathematics In School

556

Author
(Jorgensen
& Lowrie,
2011)
(Meaney &
Evans,
2012)

(Matthews
et al., 2003)

(Sterenberg
&
Mcdonnell,
2010)

Owens,

Strategies/
approach
Media
technology

descriptions

Digital games Guitar Heroes

- examining rates regularly in
the setting of stamping up
costs or growth
Three-pronged 1. to discover what reckoning
research
strategies continue to be
program
used or have been used in
the past.
2. to
determine
how
reckoning practices could
be connected to Western
calculating;
3. to develop strategies for
maintaining
traditional
mathematical practices.
Innovative
1. Count Me In Too
Mathematics
Indigenous:
NSW
Programs: Five
Department of Education
Exemplars
and Training Program
[2001-3] (CMITI).
1. Counting
On:
NSW
Department of Education
and Training program
[2001-2].
2. Mathematics in Indigenous
Contexts [K-6]: NSW
Board of Studies Project
[2001-3].
3. Aboriginal Students WII
GAAY (Gifted Child)
(Mathematics
Camp:
Armidale CSO Project
[2003].
technology
1. Digital cameras
2. Digital photographs
3. locating a benchmark at the
site (chose a fence post)
4. a scavenger hunt where
students used the GPS
Project:
8 Out of class lessons, the clarify

557

level
secondary

Primary
and
secondary

primary

secondary

primary

2014

ways

Murcia, K.
and
McKenzie,
S (2009)
(Higgins &
Parsons,
2009)
(Warren,
Elizabeth
and Baturo,
Annette R.
and
Cooper,
2005)

technology

of purpose, the use of narrative

and a change in relationships
with students
Interactive whiteboard

Numeracy
1. the number framework
Development
2. the diagnostic interview
Project
3. the strategy teaching model
Investigate or - enables students to actively
social
make
sense
of
new
constructivist
information
and
ideas,
situated in meaningful and
real
world
contexts
(Bickmore-Brand, 1990).
- The key dimensions of the
pedagogy are the use of
manipulative material and
the
construction
of
knowledge in social settings
(often groups) (Schifter,
1998).
- Teachers act as guides,
listeners and facilitators
(Schifter, 1998), and new
mathematical knowledge is
built
upon
previous
understandings
(NCTM,
2000).

primary

primary

Primary
and
secondary

Obviously, most studies resulted in primary schools. In most

cases, technology uses had applied as pedagogies to improve
numeracy competence in school. However, many researchers
highlight the need for transformed pedagogy for effective
integration of technology into the curriculum (McCormark, R &
Scrimshaw, 2001). In addition, many countries have introduced
programs to enhance understanding of Aboriginal students in
mathematics or numeracy.

558

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

What is it that makes teachers shift their practice? How does
authority suggest itself to make teachers more susceptible to new
ideas; to attach them to or ignore specific ways of teaching
aboriginal students in the classroom?
Nevertheless, it was frequently a test for teachers to exploit
unplanned numeracy action which recommends that it might be a
test to see numeracy opportunities as they emerge. From the metaanalysis, dialect likewise assumes an imperative part in learning.
In embracing the dialect methodology to showing mathematics, it
gets to be essential to perceive the particular dialect of
mathematics (Zevenbergen, 2011). English is accepted as a global
medium of communication and knowledge as the students
capacity to mediate in the use and understanding of English
thought form one competencies identified by Power (2006).
Therefore, one way to show progress along the lines advanced by
(Power, 2006) is to investigate the pedagogical issues that have a
direct guide to how students acquire, use, and communicate an
understanding of mathematical knowledge in solving problems
that might be encountered in daily life (Chinnappan & Pandian,
2009).
The real world problems to be solved require teachers to
formulate solution or other method in teaching to encourage
attendance over the day so that the students remain in school
(Jorgensen & Lowrie, 2011). Inferred from writing identified with
teaching method and numeracy, are mainly centered around
students in preschool. Very few studies are accessible to take a
look at the issues of students in secondary schools. The literature
reveals that culture is indeed an important element of gaining new
knowledge and experience and as such must be given significant
consideration by educators. However, the findings of (Alias et al.,
2011) also suggest that in relation to the aboriginal students in
secondary level of schooling and the influence of culture on

559

learning certain subject is less evidence

In time, not only will the school be integrating processes
of teaching but also the mathematics content will be more
culturally based as teachers and community discuss mathematics
in terms of cultural knowledge (Owens, 2014). Most teachers
were agreeable with recognizing the scientific information in the
lessons and exercises they offered student furthermore
communicated a longing to enhance students dispositions.
Initially they utilized just a constrained scope of tool to develop
numeracy; however this enhanced over time, particularly in
connection to computerized tools, for example, spreadsheets.
Teachers perceived the imperativeness of connections as a
recognizing gimmick of numeracy furthermore most made
advancement in blending numeracy into their lessons(Geiger &
Dole, 2012). However , it was frequently a challenge for teachers
to see numeracy moments which proposed that it might be a test
to see numeracy opportunities as they emerge (Geiger & Dole,
2012). Nonetheless, integrating a selective orientation into
learning activities was the most difficult part of numeracy for
generally teachers.

CONCLUSION
Aboriginal children perceived that learning math was difficult ,
that there was more to learn in discipline than whatever other
subject and that they couldn't do a few parts of arithmetic despite
the fact that they knew a lot. If Aboriginal kids have negative
convictions about mathematics and themselves as learners of
mathematics, then correct math projects and showing methods
need to be created to help overcome such perspectives (Howard,
P., Perry, B., Lowe, K., Ziems, S., & McKnight, 2003). Such
mathematics programs, that accentuated the kids' backgrounds
and settings, would bring an importance to their learning bringing
about expanded inspiration and engagement, because they truly

560

preferred adapting new things in mathematics.

A number of researches have shown that pedagogies are
effective in secondary schools, as well as in primary schools.
Young children at the concrete operational stage could benefit
from pedagogies through problem solving. Meanwhile, students
who are supposed to have reached the formal operational stage at
the secondary school level not only benefit in those competencies
but also in self-esteem, analytical thinking and retention.
However, the researchers are more comfortable conducting
pedagogical research among older students than younger ones. In
summary, the significant role of pedagogical in the development
of numeracy competence should be harnessed in both primary and
secondary schools. In this twenty first century, the challenge is to
nurture students with multiple competencies so that they will be
better equipped to face and solve authentic real life problems of
today and the future.
There is not a single literature that provides a
comprehensive report on the Pedagogical strategies for Malaysian
aboriginal students. Therefore not only it is crucial to determine
the PS specifically for developing NC among the aboriginal
students, the implementation and evaluation need to be
investigated. This research will determine the best practices for
our local needs so as to narrow the gap between the educational
status of the aborigines and the non-aborigines.

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ISSUES ON STUDENTS
PLAGIARISM: A REVIEW
Andi Anto Patak, Hamimah Abu Naim & Rohaya Talib

ABSTRACT
Academic honesty encourages the academic integrity. This paper
analyzed the issues of students plagiarism in area where English is
not the official language. This paper provided descriptions of
learning environment, lecturers assessment practice, and students
writing skills, which considered as factors affecting the students
plagiarism. This study recommends finding out the fit model of
factors affecting students plagiarism.
Keywords:
EFL, Learning Environment, Lecturers Assessment
Practice, Students Writing Skills, Students Plagiarism

INTRODUCTION
Academic honesty is essential to encourage academic integrity
(Sutherland-Smith, 2007). However, promoting academic integrity
in a country where English is taught as Foreign Language (EFL)
make lecturers persistent doubt due to the lack of students writing
ability. Although EFL lecturers may have taught the required skills,
and students may have been able to pass necessary courses, some
students remained poor in academic writing. Lecturers hope to
improve the students academic writing; however they used
established rating on assessment practice. Hence, lecturers
expectation is not always the same as the students achievement,

566

especially for academic writing achievement.

However, Lee and Schallert (2008) wrote that finding
helpful ways to develop students writing ability is a primary
concern for EFL teachers. Nevertheless, lack of academic writing
among EFL students might be attributed to poor teaching,
insufficient curricular constraints, a lack of strict rating and
assessment. In addition, failure on the part of lecturers to teach the
basic skill to create the original work might discourage students
academic integrity.
Whilst it may be true that teaching techniques and content
have changed over the years, a far greater cause student inability to
write ethically may be a lack of writing assessment practice.
Students habit on obey the lecturers rule unconsciously in terms
of assessment, warns the lecturers to strengthen the students
writing ability. Students might think that being in the writing
classroom is in relationship to meet the lecturers expectation.
Whilst lecturers assessment practice is recognized as an important
part of teaching and learning, many students might complain that
they do not understand the lecturers assessment on the papers
because they are written in lecturers perspective.
Furthermore, the lecturers in EFL academic setting could
claim that learning environment is one of factors affecting the
students plagiarism. Thus, lecturers should encourage the
conducive learning environment in order students are able to avoid
plagiarism. In addition, they way of lecturers assessing students
writing skill could be considered as an aspect of learning processes
to promote academic honesty. Otherwise, ignore encouraging the
honesty in academic setting would engage students in plagiarism.
Yugianingrum (2008) found that there are many academic
papers, including EFL undergraduate theses showed low awareness
of citing the sources properly. Besides, the supervisors showed
poor attitudes toward the importance of citing other works
properly. He finally concluded that the authors of literature and
linguistic thesis violated by the general convention about citation
style, lack of citing skill, and low supervision awareness from

567

university.
This condition encourage the Direktorat Jenderal
Pendidikan Tinggi (2012) requires students to get published in a
scientific journal for bachelor, national scientific journal for
master, and International Journal for doctor level. However, this
need further research to prove the policy that getting published
either in national or international level can encourage academic
integrity. Besides, Kementerian Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia
(2010) issued the Regulation of the Minister of National Education
of the Republic of Indonesia on the Prevention and Combating
Plagiarism in Higher Education. This regulation is expected to
avoid plagiarism. Nevertheless, the contribution of this policy as a
factor affecting students plagiarism needs further research.
STUDENTS PLAGIARISM
Sutherland-Smith (2007) explained that the term of plagiarism is
rooted from plundering, a Latin term; in other words, plagiarism
is kidnapping the words of others, as a child is kidnapped from a
parent, based on the Statute of Anne of 1710. In addition,
plagiarism is defined by Cambridge Dictionaries Online (2014b) as
to use another persons idea or a part of that persons work and
pretend that it is your own. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
(2014) defines plagiarism as the act of using another persons
words or ideas without giving credit to that person.
ISSUES ON STUDENTS PLAGIARISM
From the literature review, researchers have analyzed three main
factors which affect students plagiarism practice. These three
factors are learning environment, lecturers assessment practice,
and students writing skills.

568

Learning Environment
This study base the learning environment on distance education
learning environments, the online learning environment, and the
constructivist online learning environment (Walker and Fraser,
2005; Clayton, 2007; Taylor and Maor, 2014). These studies
extended related constructs. By elaborating constructs on the three
surveys, it can be summarized that learning environment constructs
are divided into twelve (12) categories. These categories are (i)
relevance, (ii) interaction, (iii) tutor support, (iv) making sense, (v)
instructor support, (vi) collaboration, (vii) authentic learning, (viii)
active learning, (ix) student autonomy, (x) computer competence,
(xi) material environment, and (xii) information design and appeal.
Online learning environment and distance education
learning environments included active learning respectively. In
preference to use constructs for instructor support and students
interaction and collaboration as distance education learning
environment use, the online learning environment employ tutor
support and students collaboration. The constructivist online
learning environment included peer support as well as tutor support
as what were in the online learning environment. Constructs of
interaction, tutor support, peer support, and relevance in the
constructivist online learning environment are similar to construct
in distance education learning environment, that are instructor
support, students interaction collaboration, and personal
relevance.
By getting connected in learning environment, a student
could experience significant learning that creates a concern.
Moreover, social interaction in learning environment where
students have access to global network can form a social network
community. Thus, learning environment in global network through
social network community can encourage or discourage plagiarism
(Ma, Wan, and Lu, 2008).

569

Lecturers Assessment Practice

Cambridge Dictionaries Online (2014) defines assess as to
decide the quality or importance of something. The lecturers
assessment practice term in this research is based on the definition
of Brown and Hudson (1998) and Trinity Inclusive Curriculum
(2012). Brown and Hudson (1998) listed the indicators to be
assessed as an alternative in language assessment as (i) necessitate
students to achieve, or produce something, (ii) using simulations,
(iii) lecturers should be none disturbing in extending everyday
classroom activities, and (iv) allow students to be assessed on
everyday normal classroom.
However, giving assignments that correspond to
consequential pedagogical performance is essential. Moreover,
lecturers should spotlight on processes in addition to products and
tap into higher stage thinking and analytic skills. Lecturers also
should afford information about both the strong and weakness of
point of students. Furthermore, the test should be multicultural
responsive when appropriately administered. Finally, lecturers
should certify using human judgment in scoring, promote open
disclosure and rating criteria, and appeal to present innovative
instructional and assessment responsibilities.
Moreover, Trinity Inclusive Curriculum (2012) emphasized
the understanding of the course work, skill to explain, evaluate,
reflect, and apply theory as well as research skills such as the
aptitude to discover, evaluate, systematize and synthesize resources
in an academic design. The capability to investigate and widen a
research topic comprehensively, going beyond the learning process
in class, and competency in English language especially for
comprehend grammar and vocabulary are also considered. Writing
competency in terms of academic writing skills and referencing,
Information Technology competency, particularly the ability to use
MS Word is measured. Finally, students organizational ability and
time management with significant external responsibilities that can
be a major component of writing should be assessed.

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Whatever the assessment in English language that lecturers

manage, guiding the students to encourage academic honesty is the
vital aspect to be considered. Moreover, lecturers should rely on
the assessment results due to their direct control in the assessment
practice. Besides, lecturers should transform their assessment
paradigm. Particularly, lecturers should view the assessment
practice as a fundamental element for helping students avoid
plagiarism.
Students Writing Skills
A basic meaning of writing as defined by Cambridge Dictionaries
Online (2014b) that is a persons style or forming letters and words
with a pen or pencil, or something written. However, a good
writing skill is an essential requirement that will influence study
completion of EFL students. Helping students in developing their
writing skills contributes to deter plagiarism in academic writing.
The detailed of students writing skills in this research was
provided by Brown and Bailey (1984) that there are five categories
in language assessment, they are (i) organization, (ii) logical
development of ideas (content), (iii) grammar, (iv)
punctuation/spelling/mechanics, and (v) style and quality of
expression (vocabulary). Moreover, (Tullos, n.d.); Arizona
Department of Education (2011); Trauth (2007); (Association of
American College and Universities, 2013) further described the
additional writing skills are referencing, citing, paraphrasing,
summarizing, quotation, synthesizing, and novelty.
One of the main goals of academic writing in EFL setting is
to develop EFL students with honor codes to deter academic
dishonesty (McCabe and Trevino, 1993). Therefore, an academic
writing course requires students to engage actively and intensively
in academic writing practices. Students are expected not only to
pass the writing course by doing writing course assignments, but
they are also expected to practice writing skills. Hence, the

571

increased demand and expectation for the quality of academic

writing practices in the university level could be responded by
students appropriately. One of the quality indicators is the honesty
in writing that demand the students to be conscious on academic
honesty in an attempt to prevent the students plagiarism.

IMPLICATIONS
By analyzing the issues of students plagiarism in EFL academic
environment, it is projected to create an integrity atmosphere in
learning environment. Thus, EFL students are able to deter
academic dishonesty in order to facilitate them to be proficient in
their study. Furthermore, by studying the factors affecting the
students plagiarism, it can promote the importance of creating
honor codes in EFL environment. However, by finding out the
issues of students plagiarism, it is expected to encourage EFL
lecturers to be more professional and objective in assessing
students writing to warn the students to be honest in academic
writing as a response to the policy of the regulation of Indonesian
Ministry of Education about plagiarism deterrent (Kementerian
Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia, 2010).

RECOMMENDATION
Considering the different English language area, learning
environment, assessment practice, and writing ability, their results
might not represent the issues of students plagiarism in EFL
context. These problems of a limited number of research studies
that inform the practice require further explanation in terms of
factors that might affect the students plagiarism in a more
inclusive manner. Analyzing the issues of students plagiarism in
EFL environment comprehensively, further research needs to (i)
develop an instrument in EFL writing assessment, (ii) identify the

572

level of learning environment, lecturers assessment practice,

students writing skills, and students plagiarism, (iii) study the
effect of learning environment on the lecturers assessment practice
and students writing skills, (iv) study the effect of lecturers
assessment practice and students writing skills on students
plagiarism level as well as the effect of lecturers assessment
practice on students writing skills, and (v) find out the fit model of
factors that affecting the students plagiarism in Indonesia as the
country where English is not the official language.

CONCLUSION
The complexity of students plagiarism in EFL countries needs to
be viewed in light of encourages the academic honesty. This forms
new learning environments and require the changes in lecturers
assessment practice and students writing skills. The synergy
among learning environment, lecturers assessment practice, and
students writing skills is expected to minimize the level of
students plagiarism.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my gratitude to the Directorate of Higher Education of
the Indonesian Ministry of Education for giving me opportunity to
be in the Program of PhD in Measurement and Evaluation, Faculty
of Education, UTM. In addition to Dr. Hamimah Abu Naim and
Dr. Rohaya Talib, for sharing their truthful and illuminating views
on a number of issues related to the study.

573

REFERENCES
Arizona Department of Education. (2011). Rubric: Summary of a
Paragraph. Arizona Department of Education.
Association of American College and Universities. (2013).
Creative Thinking Value Rubric. Association of American
Colleges and Universities.
Brown, J. D., & Bailey, K. M. (1984). A Categorial Instrument for
Scoring Second and Language Writing Skills. Language
Learning, 34(4), 2138.
Brown, J. D., & Hudson, T. (1998). The Alternatives in Language
Assessment. TESOL Quarterly, 32(4), 653.
Cambridge Dictionaries Online. (2014a). plagiarize - definition in
the American English Dictionary - Cambridge Dictionaries
Online. Cambridge University Press.
Cambridge Dictionaries Online. (2014b). writing - definition in the
American English Dictionary - Cambridge Dictionaries
Online. Cambridge University Press.
Clayton, J. (2007). The validation of the online learning
environment survey. In Proceedings ascilite Singapore 2007:
Full paper: Clayton (pp. 159167).
Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Tinggi. (2012). Publikasi Karya
Ilmiah. Jakarta.
Kementerian Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia. (2010). Peraturan
Menteri Pendidikan Nasional Republik Indonesia tentang
Pencegahan dan Penanggulangan Plagiat di Perguruan Tinggi.
Lee, G., & Schallert, D. L. (2008). Constructing Trust Between
Teacher and Students Through Feedback and Revision Cycles
in an EFL Writing Classroom. Written Communication, 25(4),
506537.
Ma, H. J., Wan, G., & Lu, E. Y. (2008). Digital Cheating and
Plagiarism in Schools. Theory Into Practice, 47(3), 197203.
McCabe, D. L., & Trevino, L. K. (1993). Academic Dishonesty:
Honor Codes and Other Contextual Influences. The Journal of
Higher Education, 64(5), 522.

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Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. (2014). Plagiarism Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster
Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated.
Sutherland-Smith, W. (2007). Plagiarism, the Internet, and Student
Learning: Improving Academic Integrity. Taylor & Francis.
Taylor, P. C., & Maor, D. (2014). The Constructivist On-Line
Learning Environment Survey (COLLES). Curtin University
of Technology.
Trauth, L. (2007). Grading Rubrics (Ids , exam essays , and
papers).
Trinity Inclusive Curriculum. (2012). Written Work: What you are
assessing? Trinity College Dublin.
Tullos, D. C. (n.d.). Research Paper Grading Rubric.
Walker, S. L., & Fraser, B. J. (2005). Development and Validation
of an Instrument for Assessing Distance Education Learning
Environments in Higher Education: The Distance Education
Learning Environments Survey (DELES). Learning
Environments Research, 8(3), 289308.
Yugianingrum. (2008). Citations And Citing Behaviors in EfL
Undergraduate Theses. EDUCATIONIST, 2(2).

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KEBERKESANAN MODUL
PENCEGAHAN DADAH
BERASASKAN PENDEKATAN
KAUNSELING CHOICE THEORY
BAGI MENINGKATKAN
KESEDARAN MURID SEKOLAH
MENENGAH
Nur Haslinda Hussin & Roslee Ahmad

ABSTRAK
Objektif kajian ini untuk membina satu modul pencegahan
penyalahgunaan dadah berasaskan Pendekatan Kaunseling
terhadap golongan remaja terutamanya murid sekolah menengah
yang mudah terpengaruh / berisiko terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan
dadah disebabkan faktor kurangnya kesedaran tentang bahaya
dadah tersebut dan untuk memupuk perlakuan sihat menjauhi
dadah. Intervensi dalam kajian ini bermaksud membuka pemikiran,
perasaan dan tingkahlaku murid yang mudah terjebak dengan
penyalahgunaan dadah supaya dapat meneroka, mencegah dan
mempertingkatkan keyakinan diri dan kesedaran ke arah yang
positif. Terdapat tiga pembolehubah berkaitan kesedaran murid
yang dikaji iaitu dari segi pengetahuan, sikap / tingkahlaku dan
moral-agama murid terhadap penyalahgunaan dadah. Murid yang
berisiko merupakan kelompok murid yang berkecenderungan
terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan dadah seperti gam, ganja, heroin,
syabu dan ice yang berdasarkan rekod salah laku disiplin murid

576

bagi sekolah-sekolah menengah negeri Melaka. Kajian ini

menggunakan kaedah penyelidikan mixed method untuk
mendapatkan gambaran yang menyeluruh tentang keberkesanan
pelaksanaan modul pencegahan penyalahgunaan dadah terhadap
kelompok rawatan dan untuk melihat tahap kesedaran murid
kedua-dua kelompok terhadap penyalahgunaan dadah. Oleh itu,
kajian eksperimental ini dijalankan bagi membentuk dan
meningkatkan kesedaran dalam diri pelajar dari peringkat awal lagi
sebelum terjebak dengan permasalahan ini. Soal selidik kajian pula
dibangunkan berdasarkan Pendekatan Kaunseling Choice Theory
(William Glassier, 1952). Diharapkan keputusan kajian akan
menghasilkan strategi intervensi bagi mencegah murid dari terlibat
dalam penyalahgunaan dadah, membina pola-pola personaliti,
sikap / tingkahlaku, pengetahuan dan moral-agama remaja (murid)
yang berisiko terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan dadah, membina
kerangka konsep dan modul pencegahan dadah berasaskan
Pendekatan Kaunseling Choice Theory. Secara keseluruhan, hasil
kajian diharap dapat membantu pihak Kementerian Pendidikan
Malaysia dan Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia dalam merangka
usaha dan pendekatan yang lebih strategik menyediakan modal
insan ke arah kesejahteraan dan pencegahan penyakit dalam
Rancangan Malaysia ke-10 (2010-2015) (Najib, 2010).
Kata Kunci: Kesedaran murid terhadap penyalahgunaan dadah

1.1

PENGENALAN

Gejala penyalahgunaan dadah di kalangan remaja terutamanya

golongan pelajar adalah merupakan suatu realiti dalam masyarakat
tetapi ia tidak begitu terdedah kepada umum. Keterlibatan
golongan muda ini dalam gejala penyalahgunaan dadah amat
merugikan negara kerana mereka adalah generasi pewaris negara
dan kegagalan membentuk mereka secara positif akan memberi
impak yang besar kepada corak kehidupan generasi masa hadapan.

577

Remaja mudah terpengaruh dengan penyalahgunaan dadah

disebabkan oleh faktor usia remaja tersebut yang mengalami krisis
pembentukan identiti. Identiti yang terbentuk akan bersifat positif
atau sebaliknya bersifat negatif, bergantung kepada pengalaman
yang dilaluinya dan juga pengaruh faktor persekitaran seperti hasil
interaksi dengan keluarga dan rakan sebaya (Mohammad dan
Mohmood, 2002). Ini bermakna faktor persekitaran mampu
mempengaruhi pembentukan identiti seseorang remaja tersebut
tambah lagi sekiranya kurang kesedaran dan pengetahuan terhadap
bahaya penyalahgunaan dadah. Faktor ini turut mempunyai kaitan
dengan tahap perkembangan mental, fizikal dan emosi, pengaruh
persekitaran, kurang kemesraan dalam keluarga serta kurang
pengetahuan tentang agama (Hj jamaludin Hj Ahmad, 2007).
Mengikut laporan Kedudukan Masalah Dadah dan
Kemajuan
Tindakan
Anti
Dadah
(1985),
perbuatan
penyalahgunaan dadah di kalangan pelajar-pelajar sekolah
diketahui bermula di awal tahun 1970an. Ekoran itu, pelbagai
langkah pencegahan telah diambil oleh pihak kerajaan melalui
perkhidmatan bimbingan dan kaunseling melalui tindakan disiplin
di sekolah-sekolah. Laporan tersebut turut menyatakan bahawa
daripada 671 penagih yang pertama kali dikesan adalah terdiri dari
pelajar sekolah berumur 14 hingga 18 tahun.
Isu penyalahgunaan dadah kini terus menjadi agenda
penting di dalam kesihatan umum masyarakat dunia disebabkan
bilangan individu yang terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan dadah. Di
Malaysia, keadaan penyalahgunaan dadah adalah di tahap yang
membimbangkan. Berasaskan kajian Kementerian Belia dan Sukan
(1997), 14% daripada 5860 remaja yang dikaji terlibat dalam
penyalahgunaan dadah. Bilangan penagih terus meningkat dari
tahun ke tahun dengan 34,743 orang penagih ditangkap semenjak
tahun 2004 sehingga Februari tahun 2005 (Agensi Antidadah
Kebangsaan, 2006). Kebanyakan daripada mereka yang terlibat
(76.3%) adalah terdiri daripada penagih-penagih yang mempunyai
tahap pendidikan SRP/PMR dan juga SPM/MCE/SPMV. Senario
ini memperlihatkan bahawa penyalahgunaan dadah yang

578

melibatkan golongan pelajar bukan perkara yang baru tetapi masih

berlanjutan sehingga ke hari ini. Bagi menjamin kesejahteraan
negara pada masa hadapan, adalah penting untuk melahirkan
pelajar yang bebas daripada terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan dadah.
Menurut April Sikes dan rakan (2011) beberapa faktor
risiko telah dikenalpasti dalam kajian yang dijalankan kepada
beberapa orang remaja di Amerika. Kajian tersebut mendapati
bahawa remaja melibatkan diri dengan masalah penagihan dadah
adalah disebabkan oleh perasan ingin tahu, pengaruh rakan sebaya,
keruntuhan institusi kekeluargaan dan persekitaran. Oleh itu, kajian
ini akan mengenal pasti tahap kesedaran murid sekolah menengah
terhadap penyalahgunaan dadah di kalangan remaja masa kini di
negeri Melaka. Tinjauan tahap kesedaran murid terhadap
penyalahgunaan dadah ini akan dilihat dari sudut pengetahuan,
kerohanian dan perlakuan murid tersebut sama ada rendah,
sederhana mahupun tinggi. Tahap kesedaran yang rendah
seterusnya akan membawa kepada penggunaan pendekatan
Kaunseling Choice Theory dalam Modul Kesedaran Pencegahan
Dadah dalam menangani penyalahgunaan dadah di kalangan murid
sekolah menengah.

1.2

LATAR BELAKANG MASALAH

Penglibatan remaja terutamanya golongan pelajar di dalam

penyalahgunaan dadah pada masa kini secara globalnya telah
meningkat (Laporan Dadah Sedunia, 2011). Penciptaan dadah
berbentuk recreational, ditambah lagi dengan gaya hidup bebas
remaja
telah
mendedahkan
mereka
dengan
peluang
menyalahgunakan dadah.
Di Malaysia, penyalahgunaan bahan dadah bukan satu
persoalan baru. Ia telah menjadi satu ancaman bukan sahaja kepada
individu atau keluarga, malah turut menjadi satu masalah besar
kepada negara (Syed 1995; Mahmood 1999; Abdul 1992; Ruslina
2004). Trend penyalahgunaan bahan jenis dadah di Malaysia telah

579

berakar umbi sejak sekian lama iaitu bermula sejak penjajahan

British lagi. Kini, golongan remaja dan belia dari pelbagai bangsa
telah mula menyalahgunakan dadah dalam skop yang lebih luas
terutamanya penggunaaan dadah jenis Canabis, Heroin, Morphin,
dan Amphetamin.
Langkah pencegahan yang serius hanya dilakukan pada
pertengahan tahun 1970-an. Namun telah ramai golongan remaja
dan belia yang terdedah kepada penyalahgunaan dadah ini yang
sudah bermula sejak 1960-an lagi. Pelbagai usaha telah dilakukan
seperti pengenalan kepada akta kesalahan pelbagai jenis dadah
pada 1973, pengenalan pusat rawatan dan pencegahan pada tahun
1975. Namun begitu, sehingga kini isu dadah masih lagi menjadi
permasalahan terutamanya di kalangan golongan remaja dan
pelajar. Berdasarkan statistik terkini jumlah penduduk Malaysia
ialah sebanyak 28.3 juta dengan 10.5 juta penduduknya ialah
golongan belia dan remaja (15-39 tahun) (Jabatan Perangkaan
Negara, 2010). Daripada statistik tersebut, hampir setiap tahun
golongan ini telah mendominasi carta statistik dadah Negara.
Contohnya pada sepanjang tahun 2011 sahaja, sebanyak 11,194
orang penagih dadah dikesan dengan 6, 956 orang adalah penagih
baru dan 4, 238 orang penagih berulang. Daripada jumlah itu
golongan belia merupakan golongan yang paling ramai terdedah
dengan risiko penagihan iaitu sebanyak 76.54 peratus atau 8,513
orang. Diikuti golongan remaja pula sebanyak 4.14 peratus atau
461 orang. (Laporan Agensi Anti Dadah Kebangsaan, Disember
2011). Namun begitu, bukan hal ini yang amat dibimbangkan tetapi
pengaruhnya mula meluaskan di kalangan pelajar-pelajar sekolah.
Fenomena penyalahgunaan dadah ini turut didorong oleh
beberapa faktor yang mempunyai kaitan dengan perkembangan
mental, fizikal dan emosi, pengaruh persekitaran, bekalan dadah,
kurang kemesraan keluarga, serta kurang pengetahuan dan
kesedaran tentang bahaya dadah. Berdasarkan statistik oleh AADK
telah menyenaraikan faktor mula menggunakan dadah ialah untuk
keseronokan, sebagai penahan sakit, pengaruh kawan, secara tidak
sengaja, perasaan ingin tahu, tekanan jiwa, rangsangan dan lain-

580

lain faktor.
Oleh itu, bagi meningkatkan lagi kesedaran orang ramai
akan bahaya penyalahgunaan dadah ini, pelbagai program telah
dijalankan oleh pihak AADK dengan kerjasama Kementerian
Pendidikan Malaysia dalam mengambil langkah awal mengenal
pasti pelajar yang terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan dadah melalui
aktiviti urin test dan turut mengadakan kempen kesedaran
pencegahan penyalahgunaan dadah di peringkat negeri, kebangsaan
mahupun sekolah pada setiap tahun.
Namun begitu, walaupun pelbagai program telah dijalankan
dalam usaha untuk memupuk kesedaran dan pencegahan awal
daripada terlibat dengan gejala penyalahgunaan dadah ini, ianya
kelihatan seperti mencurah air ke daun keladi dengan
penangkapan seramai 360,833 orang pada tahun 2010 di bawah
Ops Tapis, iaitu operasi menangkap orang yang disyaki penagih
dadah oleh pihak polis (PDRM, 2010). Apa yang boleh dijelaskan
di sini bahawa dengan jumlah tangkapan yang tinggi setiap tahun,
ianya memberikan petunjuk bahawa program-program antidadah di
Malaysia ini masih lagi gagal memberikan impak positif secara
menyeluruh terutamanya dalam usaha menangani masalah yang
semakin meruncing kini yang turut melibatkan golongan remaja
terutamanya pelajar-pelajar sekolah.

1.3

PERNYATAAN MASALAH

Penyalahgunaan dadah tidak mengenal mangsa, sesiapa sahaja

boleh terjebak dengannya sama ada individu tersebut adalah kanakkanak, remaja, dewasa, belia, orang tua, sudah bekeluarga atau
bujang, kaya atau miskin, bekerjaya baik atau tidak, berpangkat
tinggi atau rendah, berstatus baik atau tidak, kuat beragama atau
tidak, menjadi pemimpin atau tidak, keturunan raja atau tidak,
berpendapatan tinggi atau rendah dan kategori lain (Jamaluddin,
2009).
Berdasarkan jumlah penangkapan setiap tahun yang tinggi

581

menunjukkan bahawa masih tidak diketahui faktor risiko yang

mempengaruhi remaja terutamanya golongan pelajar secara
menyeluruh. Menurut kajian yang dijalankan di kawasan berisiko
tinggi penyalahgunaan dadah menunjukkan bahawa golongan
remaja dan belia mempunyai pengetahuan yang tinggi terhadap
risiko dan bahaya dadah (Roslee dan Mohamed, 2005). Maka,
boleh dikatakan bahawa punca penyalahgunaan dalam kalangan
remaja dan belia pada era ini bukanlah disebabkan kekurangan
maklumat mengenai bahaya penggunaan dadah kepada mereka,
ianya lebih mendalam dan tersirat daripada itu.
Justeru itu, apakah sebenarnya yang menyebabkan
penglibatan remaja dan belia dalam aktiviti ini? Mengapakah
remaja dan belia tidak kira di bandar ataupun di luar bandar masih
lagi terlibat walaupun pelbagai kempen dan program kesedaran
telah di jalankan kepada mereka terutamanya para pelajar di
sekolah? Adakah benar walaupun para pelajar mengetahui dan
sedar akan bahaya penyalahgunaan dadah ke atas diri mereka
namun mereka tidak mampu mengelakkan diri daripada
terpengaruh dan tertarik menggunakan dadah tersebut ? dan apakah
kekurangan dan kelemahan program kesedaran sedia ada yang
tidak memberikan impak yang kuat ke atas remaja terutamanya
golongan pelajar di sekolah menengah.
Lantaran ini, pengkaji berminat untuk mengetahui secara
mendalam dan secara khusus tentang tahap kesedaran pelajar
tentang penyalahgunaan dadah dan keberkesanan penggunaan
pendekatan kaunseling Choice Theory dalam modul kesedaran
pencegahan penyalahgunaan dadah yang diharap dapat
memberikan sumbangan dalam menangani permasalahan ini.
Dengan pengenalpastian ini juga, program-progam yang bakal
dijalankan di masa hadapan akan melalui hala tuju yang lebih
efektif dan berkesan dalam mencegah penyalahgunaan bahan dadah
di kalangan remaja terutamanya pelajar sekolah.

1.4

OBJEKTIF KAJIAN

582

Objektif kajian secara umum adalah untuk mengenalpasti tahap

kesedaran pelajar terhadap penyalahgunaan dadah dan melihat
keberkesanan modul yang dijalankan ke atas pelajar yang
mempunyai tahap kesedaran yang rendah. Manakala objektif kajian
secara khusus pula adalah untuk :
1.4.1 Mengenal pasti bentuk profil murid sekolah menengah
secara keseluruhan.
1.4.2 Mengenal pasti tahap kesedaran murid terhadap
penyalahgunaan dadah dari segi pengetahuan, moral-agama
dan sikap perlakuan mereka.
1.4.3 Mengenal pasti keberkesanan modul kesedaran pencegahan
dadah berasaskan pendekatan kaunseling Choice Theory.
1.4.4 Memberi kesedaran kepada pelajar agar menjauhi
penyalahgunaan dadah dari peringkat awal kepada golongan
remaja terutamanya murid sekolah.
1.4.5 Membina dan mewujudkan satu modul kesedaran
pencegahan dadah bagi murid berisiko terlibat dengan
penyalahgunaan dadah.
1.4.6 Memupuk dan meningkatkan tahap kesedaran murid dari
segi pengetahuan, moral-agama dan sikap / perlakuan
terhadap bahaya penyalahgunaan dadah.

1.5

PERSOALAN KAJIAN

1.5.1

Apakah bentuk profil murid sekolah menengah secara

keseluruhan ?
Apakah tahap kesedaran murid secara keseluruhan terhadap
penyalahgunaan dadah sama ada rendah, sederhana atau
pun tinggi ?
Adakah tahap kesedaran yang rendah mempengaruhi murid
ke arah penyalahgunaan dadah ?
Adakah tahap kesedaran yang sederhana mempengaruhi
murid ke arah penyalahgunaan dadah ?

1.5.2

1.5.3
1.5.4

583

1.5.5

Adakah tahap kesedaran yang tinggi mempengaruhi murid

ke arah penyalahgunaan dadah ?
1.5.6 Apakah tahap kesedaran murid antara kelompok kawalan
dan kelompok rawatan dari segi pengetahuan terhadap
penyalahgunaan dadah sebelum pelaksanaan modul
dijalankan ?
1.5.7 Apakah tahap kesedaran murid antara kelompok kawalan
dan kelompok rawatan dari segi moral-agama terhadap
penyalahgunaan dadah sebelum pelaksanaan modul
dijalankan ?
1.5.8 Apakah tahap kesedaran murid antara kelompok kawalan
dan kelompok rawatan dari segi sikap perlakuan terhadap
penyalahgunaan dadah sebelum pelaksanaan modul
dijalankan ?
1.5.9 Apakah tahap kesedaran murid antara kelompok kawalan
dan kelompok rawatan dari segi pengetahuan terhadap
penyalahgunaan dadah selepas pelaksanaan modul
dijalankan ?
1.5.10 Apakah tahap kesedaran murid antara kelompok kawalan
dan kelompok rawatan dari segi moral-agama terhadap
penyalahgunaan dadah selepas pelaksanaan modul
dijalankan ?
1.5.11 Apakah tahap kesedaran murid antara kelompok kawalan
dan kelompok rawatan dari segi sikap perlakuan terhadap
penyalahgunaan dadah selepas pelaksanaan modul
dijalankan ?
1.5.12 Adakah terdapat perbezaan antara kelompok kawalan dan
kelompok rawatan secara keseluruhan dari segi kesedaran
murid terhadap penyalahgunaan dadah ?

1.6

KEPENTINGAN KAJIAN

Kajian ini bukan untuk mengenepikan rawatan dan pendekatan

kaunseling Islam atau pun pendekatan kaunseling Barat yang lain

584

tetapi bertujuan mengemukakan suatu pendekatan alternatif dalam

terapi kaunseling berdasarkan konteks membuat pilihan terbaik
untuk diri sendiri. Cadangan menggunakan modul kesedaran
pencegahan penyalahgunaan dadah merupakan alternatif terhadap
pendekatan kaunseling sedia ada untuk menangani permasalahan
penyalahgunaan dadah yang berlaku di kalangan pelajar sekolah
masa kini. Pendekatan ini diperkenalkan dan diaplikasikan oleh
kaunselor sekolah secara profesional dengan tujuan membantu
memberikan kesedaran dalam mempertingkatkan lagi pengetahuan,
moral-agama dan sikap perlakuan murid dan menangani kes-kes
penyalahgunaan dadah yang berlaku di kalangan pelajar.
Bagi pihak Kementerian Pendidikan pula, kajian ini dapat
dijadikan panduan yang lebih berfokus memandangkan
permasalahan yang dihadapi pihak sekolah seperti pengetua, guru
disiplin, kaunselor dan guru adalah mencari suatu formula untuk
menangani permasalahan disiplin yang berkaitan dengan kesedaran
murid terhadap isu-isu rokok, ponteng sekolah, pengambilan bahan
terlarang dan sebagainya di kalangan pelajar.
Dapatan kajian dapat memberi kesedaran khususnya kepada
kaunselor bahawa Pendekatan Kaunseling Choice Theory perlu
dilaksanakan secara terancang, sistematik dan profesional bagi
menangani permasalahan pelajar yang berkaitan dengan tingkah
laku pengambilan bahan terlarang. Mereka perlu sedar bahawa
Pendekatan Kaunseling Choice Theory yang diamalkan oleh
sesetengah kaunselor tanpa sebarang suatu garis panduan yang
khusus adalah sukar untuk dijadikan panduan kepada mana-mana
kaunselor yang mahu meneroka sesuatu pendekatan yang baru
kelak. Dengan adanya analisis secara khusus dan mendalam ini,
modul kesedaran pencegahan penyalahgunaan dadah dapat dibina
dan dibentuk serta distandardkan bagi memudahkan para kaunselor
menangani kes-kes penyalahgunaan dan pengambilan bahan
terlarang / dadah di kalangan pelajar sekolah secara lebih
profesional dan berkesan. Langkah ini bukan sahaja dapat
membantu para kaunselor untuk meningkatkan peranan,
profesionalisme dan keilmuan dalam bidang kaunseling, bahkan

585

dapat membantu mereka meningkatkan pencapaian akademik para

pelajar apabila fokus pembelajaran dapat ditingkatkan ke tahap
yang maksima. Usaha ini bukan sahaja meningkatkan pengetahuan,
kefahaman dan kemahiran kaunselor dalam menangani kes-kes
penyalahgunaan dadah di kalangan pelajar, bahkan meningkatkan
keyakinan dalam amalan Pendekatan Kaunseling masa kini.
Maklumat dan dapatan kajian ini juga diharap dapat
memberi pengetahuan, kesedaran dan panduan yang bermanfaat
kepada para kaunselor yang bakal menghadapi dunia pekerjaan
khususnya bagi mereka yang akan bertugas di sekolah, agensi atau
organisasi sama ada kerajaan mahupun swasta seperti Kementerian
Kesihatan dan Agensi Antidadah Kebangsaan (AADK) yang
memerlukan pengetahuan berkaitan kemahiran menolong pelajar
atau remaja yang berisiko terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan dadah.
Selain itu, diharapkan melalui jangkaan hasil penyelidikan ini juga
dapat membangunkan satu modul khusus bersifat intervensi
menangani permasalahan HIV/AIDS yang berpunca daripada
penyalahgunaan dadah.
Kepentingan lain bagi kajian ini juga diharapkan dapat
memberi manfaat dan kesedaran terhadap individu terutamanya
golongan pelajar terhadap penyalahgunaan dadah. Ini penting agar
pelajar dapat menghindarkan diri mereka dari dibelenggu dadah
seterusnya mampu mencapai matlamat ke arah negara bebas dadah
menjelang 2020. Ianya juga membolehkan ibu bapa sedar terhadap
peranan dan tanggungjawab mereka dalam mendidik anak-anak,
memberi kesedaran kepada guru untuk bersama membantu
mencegah penyalahgunaan dadah khususnya di kalangan pelajar
yang mana sekaligus membentuk kesedaran kepada keluarga,
anggota masyarakat dan komuniti sekolah tentang usaha sama bagi
mewujudkan langkah pencegahan untuk memerangi gejala
penagihan dan penyalahgunaan dadah yang wujud di kalangan
pelajar.

1.7

DEFINISI KONSEP DAN DEFINISI OPERASIONAL

586

1.7.1

Modul Kesedaran Pencegahan Dadah

Kesedaran merujuk pada tahu, ingat, insaf dan mengerti (Kamus

Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 2005). Kamus Zaba (2001) pula
menakrifkan kesedaran ialah ingat, tahu dan insaf. Dalam konteks
kajian ini kesedaran pencegahan dadah bermaksud individu sedar
bahawa perlakuan penyalahgunaan dadah yang dilakukan adalah
menyalahi akidah, syariat, akhlak dan undang-undang. Ini selaras
dengan ajaran Islam yang menjelaskan perlakuan penyalahgunaan
dadah merupakan perlakuan seseorang yang mendorong kepada
tingkah laku merosakkan dan memudaratkan diri yang turut
memberi kesan pada keruntuhan akhlak dan mendatangkan
masalah kepada kesihatan badan.
Mengikut Dictionary of Psychology (2009) pula
pencegahan bermaksud to keep something from happening.
Pencegahan yang dimaksudkan di sini ialah intervensi atau usaha
untuk mengubah atau mengganggu proses yang berlaku pada masa
akan datang. Justeru, tindakan intervensi merupakan tindakan di
peringkat awal yang bertujuan mencegah daripada terjadinya
perlakuan di peringkat kedua. Mengikut Burt, Resnick dan Novik
(1998) intervensi peringkat awal berbentuk pencegahan dan
perkembangan boleh membantu untuk mengenalpasti ciri-ciri
remaja berisiko dan seterusnya menjalankan usaha-usaha
pencegahan dan memberikan kesedaran untuk membantu remaja
berkenaan untuk menghindari daripada terlibat dengan tingkah
laku bermasalah seperti terlibat dalam penyelewengan seksual,
ponteng sekolah, penyalahgunaan dadah, lari dari rumah dan
terlibat dalam kelompok rakan sebaya delinkuen. Jamaluddin
(2007) turut menjelaskan bimbingan kelompok perkembangan
adalah membantu individu yang mempunyai masalah dari segi
sifat, sikap, pegangan dan pandangan.
Oleh itu dalam konteks kajian ini, modul kesedaran
pencegahan penyalahgunaan dadah bermaksud strategi intervensi
atau kaedah yang digunakan / diaplikasikan untuk menangani

587

masalah penyalahgunaan dadah dengan memberikan kesedaran

kepada diri seseorang agar menjauhi diri daripada terjebak dengan
penyalahgunaan dadah dan mengetahui bahaya / kesan negatif
apabila terlibat dengan permasalahan ini.

1.7.2

Pendekatan Kaunseling Choice Theory

Dalam konteks kajian ini, pendekatan kaunseling merujuk kepada

proses menolong antara kaunselor yang mempunyai pengetahuan
dan kepakaran dalam memberi rawatan psikologi mengikut
konteks Barat kepada klien yang menghadapi masalah disiplin
yang berkait dengan pengetahuan, perlakuan dan moral.
Pertolongan ini berbentuk teknik dan kaedah secara profesional
yang memberi kesedaran terhadap golongan berisiko terhadap
penyalahgunaan dadah yang mana pendekatan Choice Theory
diaplikasikan kepada remaja supaya mereka mengetahui bahawa
setiap masalah-masalah hidup boleh ditangani dengan membuat
pilihan yang lebih baik dalam hidup mereka.

1.7.3

Penyalahgunaan Dadah

Dadah adalah bahan atau kimia yang amat merbahaya kepada

individu yang menggunakannya kerana ia mengubah cara minda
dan tubuh manusia berfungsi (Agensi Anti dadah
Kebangsaan,2011, Hazman, et al, 2004). Menurut Abdul (1998),
penyalahgunaan dadah merupakan seseorang yang menggunakan
mana-mana bahan dadah yang bertujuan untuk mengalami psikik
fizikal yang dicirikan oleh tingkahlaku atau respon lain. Selain itu,
Abdul (1998) juga menyatakan bahawa seseorang yang terlibat
dengan penyalahgunaan bahan adalah disebabkan oleh desakan
menggunakan dadah secara berterusan atau berkala untuk
mengalami kesan psikik dan pada masa yang sama dapat
mengelakkan gejala tarikan kerana ketiadaannya.

588

Selain itu, Mohamed, Razak dan Mohd (2002) turut

menyatakan bahawa penyalahgunaan dadah akan mengakibatkan
seseorang membuat tindakan yang tidak rasional dan sentiasa
bertindak di luar kawalan. Akhirnya, penyalahgunaan dadah akan
mengakibatkan seseorang itu berasa sukar untuk mencetuskan idea
yang bernas. Dalam konteks kajian ini, penyalahgunaan bahan
bermaksud seseorang yang mengambil mana-mana bahan dadah
tanpa kebenaran untuk tujuan keseronokan atau perasaan ingin
mencuba semata-mata dan pengaruh kawan.

1.8

PENUTUP

Isu penyalahgunaan dadah di kalangan remaja terutamanya

golongan pelajar merupakan suatu topik yang selalu dikaji. Hal ini
menunjukkan terdapat kesedaran di kalangan masyarakat untuk
berusaha mengenalpasti faktor-faktor risiko dan kelemahan yang
berlaku dalam masyarakat hari ini sehingga timbulnya masalah ini
dalam negara. Justeru itu, usaha-usaha dan langkah-langkah
penyelesaian cuba diutarakan bagi menyelesaikan isu tersebut.
Lantaran ini, kajian ini dijalankan bertujuan untuk
mengetahui secara mendalam dan secara khusus untuk melihat
tahap kesedaran para pelajar terhadap penyalahgunaan dadah dan
keberkesanan pelaksanaan modul kesedaran pencegahan
penyalahgunaan dadah dengan menggunakan pendekatan
Kaunseling Choice Theory. Pengkaji percaya dengan
mengenalpasti secara jelas tentang tahap kesedaran para pelajar
yang berisiko terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan dadah ini, ianya
mampu memberikan gambaran yang lebih spesifik dalam mencari
langkah membendung permasalahan ini daripada terus menular.
Dengan pengenalpastian ini juga, program-progam yang bakal
dijalankan di masa hadapan akan melalui hala tuju yang lebih
efektif dan berkesan dalam mencegah penyalahgunaan bahan dadah
terutamanya dalam kalangan remaja dan para pelajar sekolah.

589

RUJUKAN
Agensi Antidadah Kebangsaan (AADK). www.mohr.gov.my. (15
Jun 2006).
Agensi Antidadah Kebangsaan (2007a). Jurnal Antidadah
Malaysia : Malaysian Anti Drugs Jurnal, Jld 1, No.2,
Disember 2007, Issn 1985-2007. Agensi Antidadah
Kebangsaan dan Kementerian Keselamatan Dalam Negeri,
Putrajaya.
Fraser, M.W. (1987). Reconsidering drug involvement among
youth & young adults : Implication for targeted primary
prevention. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 14(4),
21-46.
Hazlin Ramli (2001). Sikap dan Pengetahuan Pelajar Terhadap
Penggunaan Dadah. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Thesis
Sarjana Muda.
KPM (2003). Panduan Pelaksanaan Pendidikan Pencegahan
Dadah di Sekolah. Kuala Lumpur : Bahagian Sekolah,
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.
Kumar, S. (2000). Penyalahgunaan Bahan (Substance Abuse) di
Kalangan Pelajar di Sebuah Kolej Swasta. M.A. thesis.
Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.
Mahmood, Nazar, M. (2002). Memulihkan Kesan Pengambilan
Bahan Psikoaktif. PTS Publication & Distributor Sdn. Bhd.
32-86.
Manja Mohd Ludin (1990). Psikologi Sosiologi dan Falsafah
Dalam Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur : Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka.
Newcomb, M.D., & Bentler, P.M. (1989). Substance Use and
Abuse Among Children and Teenagers. American
Psychologist, 22(2), 242-248.
Pelajar mudah terlibat dadah selepas SPM. (2002, September 12).
Utusan Malaysia Pelajar terbabit dadah meningkat. (2007,

590

April 27). Berita Mingguan.

PEMADAM. www.mmserve.com/drugs/pemadam. (15 Jun 2006).
Swisher & J.D.S (1979). Drug Education : Pushing or Preventing
and Education. Welfare Publication : California.
Tobler, N.S., Roona, M.R., Ochshom, P., Marshall, D.G., Streke,
A.V., & Stakpole, K.M. (2000). School-Based Adolescent
Drug Prevention Programme : 1998 meta- analysis.
Journal of Primarly Prevention. 20, 275-336.

591

592

SIFAT PERSONALITI GURU

UNTUK PENGAJARAN KREATIF
Azhari Mariani & Zaleha Ismail

ABSTRAK
Guru perlu memiliki personaliti yang positif selari dengan aspirasi
sistem pendidikan negara ke arah pembentukan guru yang
berkualiti. Memandangkan kemampuan guru untuk melaksanakan
pengajaran kreatif merupakan cerminan kepada kualiti guru yang
dikehendaki, maka keperluan untuk memahami sifat personaliti
yang diperlukan untuk pengajaran kreatif adalah sangat penting dan
releven dalam konteks pendidikan masa kini. Pemahaman kepada
sifat personaliti guru yang diperlukan untuk pengajaran kreatif
akan memudahkan pihak Kementerian Pendidikan dalam memilih
bakal guru yang kreatif dan berkualiti. Selain itu, personaliti guru
juga turut mempengaruhi kreativiti pelajar. Kertas konsep ini
bertujuan untuk membincangkan sifat personaliti guru yang
diperlukan untuk pengajaran kreatif berdasarkan kupasan literatur
berkaitan dengan tajuk pengajaran kreatif. Hasil kupasan tersebut
mendapati, majoriti penulis terdahulu telah mengenal pasti sifat
keberanian mengambil risiko dan keterbukaan merupakan sifat
personaliti yang paling banyak dibincangkan dalam penulisan
berkaitan pengajaran kreatif diikuti dengan sifat ketabahan dan
kecindan. Sifat ingin tahu, imaginasi dan kebebasan juga jelas
antara sifat personaliti yang dapat membentuk pengajaran kreatif
kerana mampu meningkatkan kreativiti guru. Pemahaman terhadap
sifat personaliti guru untuk pengajaran kreatif diharap dapat
meningkatkan kreativiti guru dalam mendepani arus pendidikan
yang penuh dengan liku dan cabaran. Pemahaman ini juga boleh

593

digunakan dalam menghasilkan instrumen untuk mengukur

pengajaran kreatif berdasarkan personaliti guru dan seterusnya
menjadi panduan kepada guru-guru untuk memperkasakan amalan
pengajaran kreatif mereka.
Kata Kunci: Sifat personaliti guru; Pengajaran kreatif, Ambil
risiko; Keterbukaan

PENGENALAN
Sifat personaliti merupakan corak pemikiran, perasaan dan
tingkah laku yang memberi maklum balas melalui pelbagai cara
dari pelbagai keadaan (Roberts, 2009). Pengajaran kreatif pula
merupakan proses pembinaan pengetahuan yang unik dan
bermakna dalam konteks pembelajaran (Rinkevich, 2011).
Proses ini merujuk kepada peranan guru sebagai individu yang
bertanggungjawab membimbing pelajar dalam membina
pengetahuan tersebut.
Sifat personaliti guru cenderung untuk memberi kesan
kepada darjah komitmen terhadap tugas, cara pengajaran dan
layanan terhadap pelajar serta bagaimana guru dapat melihat
perkembangan profesionalisme mereka (Darling-Hammond,
2000). Berdasarkan Buku Panduan Kreativiti, Pembangunan dan
Amalan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran (Kementerian Pendidikan
Malaysia, 2011), personaliti guru yang negatif seperti rasa
rendah diri dan kurangnya desakan dalaman atau motivasi diri
merupakan penghalang kepada amalan pengajaran kreatif guruguru di Malaysia. Perkara ini diakui oleh Briggs dan Davis
(2008) dan Brinkman (2010) yang berpendapat personaliti guru
yang negatif seperti kurang yakin atau terlampau serius
mengakibatkan pengajaran guru menjadi kurang kreatif. Justeru
guru perlu memiliki personaliti yang positif selari dengan
aspirasi sistem pendidikan negara ke arah pembentukan guru
yang berkualiti.

594

Lanjutan daripada itu, guru-guru perlu memahami sifat

personaliti yang diperlukan untuk pengajaran kreatif.
Memandangkan kemampuan guru untuk melaksanakan
pengajaran kreatif merupakan cerminan kepada kualiti guru
yang dikehendaki, maka keperluan untuk memahami sifat
personaliti yang diperlukan untuk pengajaran kreatif adalah
sangat penting dan releven dalam konteks pendidikan masa kini.
Pemahaman kepada sifat personaliti guru yang diperlukan untuk
pengajaran kreatif akan memudahkan pihak Kementerian
Pendidikan dalam memilih bakal guru yang kreatif dan
berkualiti. Selain itu, personaliti guru juga turut mempengaruhi
kreativiti pelajar. Kertas konsep ini bertujuan untuk
membincangkan sifat personaliti guru yang diperlukan untuk
pengajaran kreatif berdasarkan kupasan literatur berkaitan
dengan tajuk pengajaran kreatif.

SIFAT PERSONALITI GURU

KREATIF

UNTUK PENGAJARAN

Terdapat pelbagai sifat personaliti untuk pengajaran kreatif

yang telah dibincangkan dalam penulisan terdahulu. Secara
umumnya, sifat personaliti guru yang diperlukan untuk
pengajaran kreatif adalah sifat yang positif, unik dan di luar
kebiasaan. Sungguhpun demikian, tidak semua sifat yang positif
mengarah kepada pengajaran kreatif. Berdasarkan kupasan
literatur, sifat-sifat personaliti yang diperlukan untuk
pengajaran kreatif termasuklah keberanian mengambil risiko,
keterbukaan, ketabahan, kecindan, ingin tahu, imaginasi dan
kebebasan.

1.2.1

Berani Ambil Risiko

Majoriti pengkaji bersetuju keberanian mengambil risiko akan

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membentuk kreativiti seseorang (Sternberg, 2005; Horng et al.,

2005; Brinkman, 2010). Risiko boleh berbentuk intelektual,
sosial, psikologi, emosi dan juga fizikal (Daniels, 2013). EltonChalcraft dan Mills (2013) mendapati keinginan untuk
mengambil risiko dan tidak takut melakukan kesilapan
merupakan faktor yang mempengaruhi pengajaran dan
pembelajaran kreatif. Maksudnya, guru yang berani mengambil
risiko akan sentiasa melangkaui sempadan dalam pengajaran
dan tidak terlalu memikirkan kesilapan untuk menghasilkan
pengajaran yang
kreatif. Contohnya, guru perlu berani
mengaplikasikan kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran terkini
yang berasaskan teknologi seperti "blended learning" walaupun
belum pernah didedahkan kepada pelajar sebelumnya.

Keterbukaan
Guru perlu sentiasa bersifat terbuka untuk kreatif dalam
pengajaran (Maksi dan Pavlovi, 2011; Daniels, 2013; Il dan
Kemple, 2014). Guru yang bersifat terbuka adalah guru yang
fleksibel di mana mereka boleh memilih kemahiran yang sesuai
dan melaksanakannya mengikut situasi yang kompleks di bilik
darjah (Horng et al., 2005). Guru yang mengamalkan
keterbukaan sentiasa memberi pilihan dan berbincang dengan
pelajarnya bagi mengenal pasti minat, kekuatan atau potensi
yang ada pada diri pelajarnya (Rinkevich, 2011). Maksudnya,
guru sewajarnya memberi peluang kepada pelajar untuk
melontarkan idea-idea mereka. Sifat keterbukaan guru
sebenarnya membuka peluang kepada pelajar untuk lebih kreatif
kerana guru mengambil kira idea dan pandangan mereka
sewaktu proses pembelajaran.

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Ketabahan
Selain keterbukaan, untuk melaksanakan pengajaran kreatif
yang berkesan, guru juga perlu tabah dalam segala tindakannya.
Menurut Dacey dan Lennon (2000), personaliti yang perlu ada
untuk pengajaran kreatif ialah ketabahan dari aspek keazaman
yang tinggi, kerja kuat secara berterusan, boleh mengawal diri
dan memiliki kesabaran yang tinggi. Amabile (1989) dan
Brinkman (2010) menggambarkan personaliti ketabahan sebagai
memiliki minat yang mendalam, sangat berdedikasi dan tidak
akan berputus asa termasuklah kesabaran, motivasi dan
komitmen yang tinggi. Mason (2009) pula berpendapat, guru
yang tabah akan prihatin tentang halangan-halangan dan
masalah-masalah yang mungkin timbul dalam pengajaran. Ini
menunjukkan, guru yang memiliki ketabahan akan sentiasa
bekerja keras secara berterusan, mengambil kira permasalahan
yang timbul dan sentiasa sabar menunggu hasil kerja pelajar
kerana setiap tugasan atau penyelesaian masalah memerlukan
masa untuk diselesaikan.

Kecindan
Seterusnya, kecindan atau jenaka juga merupakan ciri
personaliti yang sering dijadikan watak penting dalam
pengajaran kreatif. Kecindan merupakan kebolehan untuk
mendekati masalah dan kehidupan secara umum dalam bentuk
yang segar, keanak-anakan dan berbentuk permainan (Daniels,
2013). Tidak semua guru memiliki bakat untuk berpersonaliti
kecindan. Justeru, guru harus kreatif untuk mencipta suasana
yang menceriakan di dalam kelas.
Torrance (1979) menegaskan, kebolehan dalam kecindan
merupakan personaliti kreatif yang penting dan amat
disukainya. Kajian turut membuktikan, guru yang kecindan
sewaktu pengajaran didapati mampu mengekalkan tumpuan

597

pelajar untuk belajar (Horng et al., 2005; Brinkman, 2010).

Maksudnya, guru yang kecindan diakui turut memberi impak
kepada pengajaran kreatif guru di mana ianya dapat menarik
minat pelajar terhadap pengajaran guru. Walau bagaimanapun,
sifat kecindan haruslah tidak keterlaluan bagi mengelakkan
daripada terpesong dalam mencapai matlamat pengajaran dan
pembelajaran yang telah ditetapkan.

Ingin Tahu
Sifat ingin tahu menjadikan guru lebih teruja untuk menyiasat dan
meneroka dengan lebih mendalam. Menurut Daniels (2013), sifat
ingin tahu biasanya dimulakan dengan keinginan untuk menjawab
persoalan-persoalan yang timbul seperti "bagaimana ia berfungsi?";
"bagaimana menjadikannya lebih baik?" atau "kenapa begitu?".
Situasi sebegini juga akan menjadikan guru cenderung untuk
kreatif dalam pengajaran kerana persoalan-persoalan yang
dikemukakan memerlukan pelajar berfikir untuk mencari
jawapannya. Secara tidak langsung, sifat ingin tahu menghadirkan
bentuk komunikasi antara guru dan pelajar dengan lebih berkesan.
Perbincangan aktif sesama pelajar juga akan menghidupkan
suasana pembelajaran yang kreatif di dalam bilik darjah.

Imaginasi
Imaginasi merupakan salah satu sifat personaliti guru yang
membawa kepada pengajaran kreatif. Menurut Daniels (2013),
imaginasi memainkan peranan penting dalam proses pemikiran
kreatif dan konsepsi guru yang melibatkan proses mental. Dalam
konteks pengajaran, imaginasi biasanya melibatkan proses
penyelesaian masalah dan guru yang kreatif akan dapat mengawal

598

pemikirannya untuk bertindak dengan lebih rasional (Flowers dan

Garbin, 1989). Maksudnya, sifat personaliti imaginasi akan
mendorong guru untuk membuat jangkaan dan ramalan terhadap
langkah penyelesaian masalah yang pastinya penting dalam
konteks kehidupan seharian.

Kebebasan
Kebebasan juga merupakan sifat personaliti yang membawa
kepada pengajaran kreatif. Kebebasan turut berkait rapat dengan
motivasi intrinsik yang mampu meningkatkan lagi kreativiti guru
ke arah pembentukan pelajar yang kreatif dalam menyelesaikan
masalah (Daniels, 2013). Justeru untuk kreatif, guru perlu
memiliki sifat kebebasan untuk menyampaikan idea dan mampu
bertindak sendiri tanpa halangan daripada mana-mana pihak.
Walau bagaimanapun, kebebasan perlu juga ada batasan nya
kerana kebebasan tanpa kawalan boleh menjejaskan matlamat
pengajaran yang hendak dicapai.
Rangkuman sifat personaliti guru berdasarkan penulispenulis artikel berkaitan pengajaran kreatif iaitu berani mengambil
risiko, keterbukaan, ketabahan, kecindan, ingin tahu, imaginasi dan
kebebasan dapat diringkaskan seperti ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 1:

599

x
x

x
x

x
x

Elton et al. (2013)

Il & Kemple (2014)

Daniels (2013)

Rinkevich (2011)

x
x

Maksic & Pavlovic (2011)

Brinkman (2010)

Mason (2009)

Palaniappan (2009)

Horng et al. (2005)

Dacey & Lennon (2000)

Flowers & Garbin (1989)

Sternberg (2005)

Berani Ambil
Risiko
Keterbukaan
Ketabahan
Kecindan
Ingin tahu
Imaginasi
Kebebasan

Amabile (1989)

Torrance (1979)

Jadual 1 Sifat personaliti guru hasil kupasan literature

x
x
x
x

PENUTUP
Kesimpulannya, majoriti penulis dan pengkaji terdahulu
mendapati sifat keberanian mengambil risiko dan keterbukaan
merupakan sifat personaliti yang paling banyak dibincangkan
dalam literatur berkaitan pengajaran kreatif diikuti dengan sifat
ketabahan dan kecindan. Sifat ingin tahu, imaginasi dan
kebebasan juga jelas antara sifat yang dapat membentuk
pengajaran kreatif kerana mampu meningkatkan daya kreativiti
guru. Pemahaman terhadap sifat personaliti guru untuk
pengajaran kreatif diharap dapat meningkatkan kreativiti guru
dalam mendepani arus pendidikan yang penuh dengan liku dan
cabaran. Pemahaman ini juga boleh digunakan dalam
menghasilkan instrumen untuk mengukur pengajaran kreatif
berdasarkan personaliti guru dan seterusnya menjadi panduan
kepada guru-guru untuk memperkasakan amalan pengajaran
kreatif mereka.

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PENGHARGAAN
Penulis ingin merakamkan sekalung penghargaan kepada
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (KPM) dan Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) atas pembiayaan kewangan melalui
Tier 1 Grant Vote No. 05H73.

RUJUKAN
Amabile, T. M. (1989). Growing up creative: Nurturing a lifetime
of creativity. Norwalk: Crown House Publishing Limited.
Briggs, M. dan Davis, S. (2008). Creative Teaching: Mathematics
in The Early Years and Primary Classroom. Routledge: New
York.
Brinkman, D. J. (2010). Teaching Creatively and Teaching for
Creativity. Arts Education Policy Review. 111(2): 4850.
Dacey, J. dan Lennon, K. (2000). Understanding creativity: the
interplay of biological, psychological and social factors.
Buffalo: Creative Education Foundation.
Daniels, S. (2013). Facilitating Creativity in the Classroom:
Profesional Development for K12 Teachers. Dalam
Gregerson, M.B, Snyder, H.T dan Kaufman, J.C. (2013).
Teaching Creatively and Teaching Creativity. New York:
Spinger.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher quality and student
achievement: A review of state policy evidence. Educational
Policy Analysis Archive. 8(1): 27-39.
Elton-Chalcraft, S. dan Mills, K. (2013). Measuring challenge, fun
and sterility on a phunometre scale: evaluating creative
teaching and learning with children and their student teachers
in the primary school. Education 3-13:International Journal
of Primary, Elementary and Early Years Education. 1(1): 116.
Flowers, J. H. dan Garbin, C. P. (1989). Creativity and perception.

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Dalam J. A. Glover, R. R. Ronning dan C. R. Reynolds

(Eds.), Handbook of creativity. New York: Plenum
Horng, J., Hong, J., Chanlin, L., Chang, S. dan Chu, H. (2005).
Creative teachers and creative teaching strategies.
International Journal of Consumer Studies. 29(4): 352358.
Il, R. L. dan Kemple, K. (2014) Preservice Teachers' Personality
Traits and Engagement in Creative Activities as Predictors of
Their Support for Children's Creativity. Creativity Research
Journal. 26(1): 82-94.
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia (2011). Buku Panduan Kreativiti:
Pembangunan dan Amalan dalam pengajaran dan
pembelajaran. Bahagian Pembangunan Kurikulum.
Maksi, S. dan Pavlovi, J. (2011). Educational researchers
personal explicit theories on creativity and its development: a
qualitative study. High Ability Studies. 22(2): 219231.
Mason, J. (2009). Teaching as disciplined enquiry. Teachers and
Teaching: Theory and Practice. 15(2): 205223.
Rinkevich, J. L. (2011). Creative Teaching: Why it Matters and
Where to Begin. The Clearing House: A Journal of
Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas. 84(5): 219223.
Roberts, B. W. (2009). Back to the future: Personality and
Assessment and Personality Development. Journal of
Research in Personality. 43(2): 137 - 145.
Sternberg, R. J. (2005). Creativity or creativities? International
Journal of Human-Computer Studies. 63(4-5): 370382.
Torrance, E. P. (1979). The search for satori & creativity. Buffalo,
NY: The Creative Education Foundation, Inc.

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CATATAN AWALAN
TERHADAP KAJIAN ASPEK
KEBOLEHPERCAYAAN
INSTRUMEN KEMAHIRAN
ASAS PERGERAKAN
KANAK-KANAK
Siti Sri Dalimah Suhaimi & Halijah Ibrahim

ABSTRAK
Perkembangan motor sering dikaitkan dengan keupayaan
pergerakan seseorang sama ada untuk bergerak pada masa dan
keperluan tertentu mahupun pergerakan yang berlangsung
sepanjang hayat. Manakala, kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan
memainkan peranan penting dalam konteks pengukuran dan teknik
pengumpulan data. Penyelidik memerlukan kesahihan data yang
dikumpulkan dapat memberikan maklumat yang tepat dan
bermakna. Kertas kerja ini merupakan satu catatan awalan terhadap
kajian aspek kebolehpercayaan instrumen kemahiran asas
pergerakan kanak-kanak. Penyelidikan yang akan dilaksanakan
bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti kesahan serentak bagi instrumen
Movement Assessment Battery for Children (M-ABC) dengan
instrumen Baharu. Oleh itu, pembacaan awalan dilaksanakan bagi
mengenal pasti kaedah kebolehpercayaan yang sesuai digunakan
untuk menilai item-item instumen Baharu. Kertas kerja ini akan

603

memperlihatkan kaedah kebolehpercayaan ketekalan dalaman

(internal consistency) menerusi prosedur yang akan ditetapkan
melalui pembacaan dari kajian-kajian lepas. Hasil penulisan ini
secara tidak langsung dapat mengukuhkan pengetahuan penyelidik
terhadap elemen kebolehpercayaan instrumen kemahiran asas
pergerakan kanak-kanak.
Kata Kunci: Instrumen kemahiran asas pergerakan

KEMAHIRAN ASAS PERGERAKAN

Kemahiran motor adalah tingkah laku asas bagi fitrah seorang
manusia. Kemahiran motor membantu kanak-kanak mempelajari
kemahiran yang baru (Haywood, Brooks, & Burns, 1986; Larkin &
Rose, 2005). Kecekapan penguasaan kemahiran motor pada
peringkat awal akan mempengaruhi kecekapan aktiviti fizikal dan
kemahiran motor dalam kehidupan harian akan datang (Gallahue &
Ozmun, 2006). Menurut Gregory, Payne, & Isaacs (2005),
ketidakupayaan kemahiran motor akan menghalang perkembangan
kanak-kanak seperti dari aspek perkembangan kognitif dan
interaksi sosial.
Kemahiran asas pergerakan pula adalah pegerakan yang
biasanya dikuasai setelah setahun selepas kelahiran seorang bayi
itu. Asas pergerakan ini merangkumi beberapa kemahiran seperti
mengawal keseimbangan badan, berlari dan memanipulasi alatan.
Cools, De Martelaer, Samaey, & Andries, (2011) menyatakan
kanak-kanak yang mempunyai masalah dalam penguasaan
kemahiran asas pergerakan akan mempengaruhi penglibatan dalam
aktiviti fizikal pada peringkat usia yang lebih dewasa. Apabila
mempunyai asas pergerakan yang lemah menyukarkan kanakkanak untuk melibatkan diri dalam aktiviti fizikal dan sukan.
Kemahiran asas pergerakan diklasifikasikan kepada tiga
kategori yang mengikut fungsi yang tertentu iaitu kemahiran
lokomotor, kemahiran manipulasi objek dan keseimbangan

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(Gallahue & Ozmun, 2006). Kemahiran lokomotor melibatkan

pergerakan tubuh badan yang membolehkan seseorang itu untuk
bergerak seperti berjalan, melompat dan berlari. Kemahiran
manipulatif merangkumi penggunaan kemahiran motor halus dan
motor kasar. Kemahiran pergerakan ini melibatkan kawalan objek
yang memerlukan kawalan motor, ketelitian dan ketepatan
pergerakan pada peringkat primer. Contoh pergerakan kemahiran
manipulatif seperti pergerakan melontar dan melambung bola,
menangkap, memukul dan menendang bola. Manakala, kemahiran
keseimbangan atau nonlokomotor melibatkan pergerakan
imbangan badan yang minima atau tanpa mempunyai sebarang
sokongan (Gallahue & Ozmun, 2006; Kalaja, Jaakkola, Olavi, &
Digelidis, 2011).

INSTRUMEN
PENGUKURAN
PERGERAKAN

KEMAHIRAN

ASAS

Terdapat pelbagai kajian penyelidikan berkaitan perkembangan

motor yang tertumpu kepada masalah gangguan motor dikalangan
kanak-kanak, di mana pelbagai instrumen penilaian telah
dibangunkan (Cools, De Martelaer, Vandaele, Samaey, & Andries,
2010; Yoon, Scott, Hill, Levitt, & Lambert, 2006). Kebanyakan
instrumen menilai aspek kuantitatif di dalam kemahiran pergerakan
dan tumpuan kepada prestasi kemahiran kanak-kanak yang
mencerminkan produk pergerakan kepada aktiviti yang
dilakukan. Instrumen jenis ini lebih fokus kepada pengesanan awal
manakala pembangunan persepsi sistem motor dikurangkan
(Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005; Henderson, Sugden, & Barnett,
2007; Smits-Engelsman, Hemderson, & Michels, 1998; Zimmer,
R., & Volkamer, 1987). Selain itu, terdapat sebahagian instrumen
yang menilai dari aspek kualitatif dalam kemahiran pergerakan.
Instrumen jenis ini memberi tumpuan kepada pergerakan badan
kanak-kanak semasa melakukan aktiviti dan berfokus kepada
proses sesuatu kemahiran pergerakan dilaksanakan (Burton &

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Miller, 1998).
Ulrich, (1985, 2000) telah melakukan pengubahsuaian
terhadap ujian Test of Gross Motor Development, Second Edition
(TGMD-2) yang menilai prestasi pergerakan motor kasar
berdasarkan daripada aspek kualitatif kemahiran pergerakan. Selain
itu, ujian ini digunakan untuk mengenal pasti prestasi kemahiran
motor kasar. Ujian TGMD-2 dapat merancang program untuk
memperbaiki kemahiran kanak-kanak yang menunjukkan
kelewatan. Selain itu, ujian TGMD-2 berfungsi untuk menilai
perubahan yang berlaku semasa peningkatan umur, pengalaman,
arahan atau melalui program intervensi.
Instrumen Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2
(MABC-2) juga merupakan ujian standard merujuk kepada norma
dan penilaian berorientasikan produk secara kuantitatif. Instrumen
ini bertujuan untuk menilai kecekapan motor kanak-kanak yang
berumur di antara 3 hingga 16 tahun (Henderson et al., 2007a).
Pemarkahan kuantitatif berdasarkan kepada bilangan percubaan
yang berjaya atau jumlah masa yang diperlukan untuk
melengkapkan ujian. Ujian penilaian ini merangkumi tiga sub skala
ujian iaitu manual dexterity, aiming and catching, dan balance.
Pelbagai populasi telah menggunakan ujian MABC-2 yang menilai
perkembangan kanak-kanak prasekolah (Fisher et al., 2005; Logan
& Getchell, 2010), kanak-kanak bersekolah (DHondt, Deforche,
Bourdeaudhuij, & Lenoir, 2009; Haga, 2008) dan kanak-kanak
yang mempunyai risiko (Smits-Engelsman et al., 1998).
Menurut Henderson et al., (2007), ujian Movement
Assessment Battery for Children (M-ABC-2) adalah untuk menilai
status perkembangan kemahiran asas pergerakan kanak-kanak.
Ujian ini memberi fokus kepada kanak-kanak dalam mengenal
pasti masalah gangguan atau kelewatan perkembangan kemahiran
pergerakan motor. Manakala, Henderson & Sugden, (1992)
menyatakan ujian M-ABC adalah untuk menilai kanak-kanak yang
mempunyai masalah gangguan kemahiran motor yang sedikit dan
sederhana. Ujian ini kebanyakkannya telah digunakan di seluruh
Negara secara tidak langsung. Oleh yang demikian, terdapat

606

pelbagai data dan maklumat yang boleh diambil. Ujian M-ABC-2

juga boleh dilakukan dengan masa yang singkat dan tidak
memakan masa yang panjang. Manakala, kanak-kanak berasa
seronok melakukan ujian tersebut kerana mereka mempunyai
perasaan bermain yang tinggi.
Melalui pembacaan awalan penyelidik memilih instrumen
Movement Assessment Battery for Children (M-ABC) sebagai
instrumen kajian kerana instrumen ini sesuai digunakan bagi
kanak-kanak peringkat prasekolah. Selain itu, instrumen ini adalah
untuk mengenal pasti kanak-kanak yang mempunyai masalah
gangguan kemahiran motor. Tambahan pula, instrumen ini
mengandungi data norma rujukan antarabangsa serta berupaya
menilai aspek kuantitatif dan kualitatif pergerakan. Seterusnya,
instrumen ini juga popular digunakan oleh para pengkaji luar
dalam jumlah yang besar mengenai kualiti ujian psikometrik
(Cools, De Martelaer, Samaey, & Andries, 2009; Henderson,
Sugden, & Barnett, 2007b; Henderson & Sugden, 1992).

PENILAIAN
DAN
PENGUKURAN
KEMAHIRAN ASAS PERGERAKAN.

INSTRUMEN

Kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan memainkan peranan penting dalam

konteks pengukuran dan teknik pengumpulan data. Penyelidik
memerlukan kesahihan data yang dikumpulkan dapat memberikan
maklumat yang tepat dan bermakna. Menurut American
Psychological Association, (1985), kesahan merujuk kepada
ketepatan, kesesuaian, bermakna, dan kebolehgunaan instrumen
tertentu atau secara khusus kesimpulan yang telah dihasilkan
melalui skor ujian. Manakala, menurut Zolkifli, (2006)
kebolehpercayaan dan kesahan ujian merupakan ciri-ciri penting
yang perlu ada dalam pengujian dan pengukuran. Hanya skor yang
sah boleh digunakan sebagai asas penilaian perkembangan individu
dan matlamat yang perlu dicapai.
Drost (2011) menyatakan penilaian dan pengukuran tingkah

607

laku manusia yang secara meluas dapat menerima pandangan yang

positif berdasarkan pencerapan menggunakan analisis kajian
sebenar yang berkaitan dengan tingkah laku. Contohnya, alat
pengukuran
tersebut
perlu
mempunyai
kesahan
dan
kebolehpercayaan. Ghazali, (2008) menyatakan kesahan dan
kebolehpercayaan instrumen amat penting bagi mempertahankan
ketepatan ujian daripada terdedah kepada ketidaksahihannya.
Semakin tinggi nilai kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan ujian maka
semakin jitu data yang diperoleh bagi menghasilkan kajian yang
lebih baik dan berkualiti.

Menentukan Kesahan Serentak Bagi Intrumen M-ABC Dengan

Instrumen Baharu.
Kesahan merujuk kepada nilai korelasi di antara pengukuran dan
nilai sebenar sesuatu pembolehubah. Jika pengukuran yang dibuat
tepat pada nilai sebenar sesuatu pembolehubah, nilai korelasinya
adalah tinggi dan penyelidikan tersebut mempunyai nilai kesahan
yang tinggi (Piaw, 2011). Terdapat pelbagai jenis penilaian
pengukuran bagi kesahan iaitu kesahan kandungan, kesahan
serentak, kesahan ramalan (predictive validity), kesahan kriteria,
kesahan konstruk dan kesahan muka. Dalam kajian ini, pengkaji
lebih memberi tumpuan terhadap nilai pengukuran kesahan
serentak.
Menurut Van Waelvelde, De Weerdt, De Cock, & SmitsEngelsman, (2004), penilaian kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan ujian
kemahiran asas pergerakan yang sah adalah penting untuk
kegunaan oleh pihak yang lebih pakar seperti doktor, ahli
fisioterapi dan guru-guru yang berada di sekolah pendidikan khas.
Oleh itu, berdasarkan kenyataan di atas nilai pengukuran
kebolehpercayaan dan kesahan sesuatu ujian merupakan aspek
penting bagi mendapatkan satu kajian yang jitu dan berkualiti.
Haynes, Richard, & Kubany, (1995); Vogt, King, & King,
(2004) menyatakan kesahan serentak (concurrent validity)

608

bermaksud penilaian pada prosedur pengukuran apabila terdapat

dua prosedur pengukuran yang berbeza dijalankan pada masa yang
sama. Penilaian kesahan serentak wujud apabila markah dari satu
prosedur pengukuran yang baru secara langsung berkaitan dengan
skor prosedur pengukuran yang standard dan pada konstrak yang
sama. Selain itu, terdapat hubungan yang konsisten antara skor
daripada kedua-dua prosedur pengukuran.

Menentukan Prosedur Kebolehpercayaan Ketekalan Dalaman

(Internal Consistency) yang akan digunakan bagi Item-Item
Instrumen Baharu.
Menurut Piaw, (2011), kebolehpercayaan dalam penyelidikan
merujuk kepada keupayaan sesuatu kajian untuk memperoleh nilai
yang serupa apabila pengukuran yang sama diulangi. Terdapat
pelbagai
kaedah
untuk
memperoleh
nilai
anggaran
kebolehpercayaan. Kebolehpercayaan mempunyai tiga kaedah
utama yang boleh digunakan untuk membina atau menganggarkan
nilai pengukuran kebolehpercayaan dalam penyelidikan kuantitaif.
Kaedah tersebut adalah kaedah uji-ulang-uji (test-retest), kaedah
ujian bahagi dua (split-half) dan kaedah ketekalan dalaman
(internal consistency).
Selain itu, Osman, Halim, & Mohd Meerah, (2006)
menyatakan terdapat empat kaedah utama yang boleh digunakan
untuk menganggarkan nilai kebolehpercayaan iaitu kaedah ujiulang-uji (test-retest), kaedah ujian setara (alternative-form), ujian
bahagi dua (split-half) dan ketekalan dalaman (internalconsistency). Lazimnya terdapat tiga teknik asas statistik yang
digunakan untuk menganggarkan ketekalan dalaman seperti
Spearmen-Brown Prophecy Formula C (Brown, 1910; Spearman,
1910), Cronbach Alpha (Cronbach, 1951) dan Kuder-Richardson
(Kuder & Richardson, 1937).
Manakala, melalui kenyataan Abu & Tasir, (2001) yang
disokong oleh (Ghazali, 2002) terdapat tiga kaedah untuk bagi

609

menguji
darjah
kebolehpercayaan
item
iaitu
kaedah
kebolehpercayaan
uji-ulang-uji
(test-retest),
kaedah
kebolehpercayaan ujian setara (alternative form) dan kaedah
kebolehpercayaan ketekalan dalaman (internal consistency).
Kaedah
kebolehpercayaan
ketekalan
dalaman
(internal
consistency) pula terbahagi kepada tiga prosedur iaitu prosedur
bahagi dua (split-half), prosedur Kuder-Richardson dan prosedur
Alfa Cronbach. Menerusi, kajian terkini Drost, (2011) pula
menyatakan kaedah kebolehpercayaan ketekalan dalaman (internal
consistency) dibahagikan kepada tiga prosedur ujian iaitu prosedur
bahagi dua (Split-Half), prosedur Inter-Rater dan prosedur Alfa
Cronbach.
Ghazali, (2002) menyatakan kaedah kebolehpercayaan ujiulang-uji (test-retest) merujuk kepada darjah skor yang sentiasa
konsisten setiap masa apabila diuji. Instrumen yang sama dinilai
secara berulang kali kepada kumpulan sampel yang sama, tetapi
ujian perlu dilakukan pada masa yang berlainan. Menurut Piaw,
(2011), kaedah ujian uji-ulang-uji (test-retest) adalah jika ujian
yang sama diberikan pada kali yang kedua dalam satu jangka masa
tertentu. Oleh itu, uji-ulang-uji merupakan ujian yang sama
diberikan untuk dua kali ulangan dilakukan pada waktu yang sama
tetapi hari yang berbeza oleh satu kumpulan sampel yang sama.
Keputusannya tetap sama dengan keputusan pada kali yang
pertama, maka ujian tersebut mempunyai kebolehpercayaan yang
tinggi.
Manakala, kaedah kebolehpercayaan ujian setara
(alternative form) pula adalah dua set item ujian yang berbeza
tetapi mempunyai kandungan yang sama, jumlah item yang sama,
struktur, aras kesukaran dan arahan yang sama. Kedua-dua
instrumen tersebut akan diberikan kepada kumpulan sampel yang
sama pada masa yang sama. Kaedah kebolehpercayaan kosistensi
dalaman (internal consistency) adalah untuk menilai ketekalan
dalaman instrumen dan hanya satu set item sahaja yang diuji
kepada sejumlah sampel yang kecil (Ghazali, 2002). Seterusnya,
Piaw, (2011) menyatakan kaedah konsistensi dalaman (internal

610

consistency) ialah kaedah yang menilai ketekalan dalaman

instrumen dengan mencari nilai korelasi antara skor setiap item
dalam ujian dengan jumlah skor bagi semua item dalam ujian (skor
indeks ujian).
Bagi bahagian keadah bahagi dua (split-half) adalah untuk
instrumen yang panjang dan sukar ditadbir. Ianya memerlukan
pembahagian kepada dua kategori mengikut nombor genap dan
nombor ganjil item. Menurut Piaw, (2011), melalui keadah ujian
bahagi dua (split-half) merupakan analisis item-item dalam suatu
ujian dipisahkan kepada dua kumpulan item secara rawak.
Kemudian, dengan mengira jumlah skor bagi kedua-dua kumpulan
item tersebut dan seterusnya menganalisis nilai kolerasi di antara
kedua-dua kumpulan skor tersebut. Kaedah bahagi dua (split-half)
sesuai dijalankan terhadap ujian yang mengandungi jumlah soalan
yang banyak seperti ujian soal selidik.
Selain itu, prosedur Kuder-Richardson pula adalah untuk
menentukan bagaimana kesemua item dalam test berhubungan
antara satu item dengan item yang lain. Contohnya, pengkaji perlu
memisahkan 10 item instrumen kajian kepada dua bahagian seperti
yang dinyatakan dalam kaedah bahagi dua (split-half). Prosedur
Alfa Cronbach pula adalah digunakan bagi meneliti pekali korelasi
yang berasaskan kepada purata korelasi item-item dalam satu ujian.
Prosedur ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti sesuatu instrumen itu
menggunakan item-item yang bertindih antara satu sama lain
ataupun tidak. Jika salah satu item bertindih antara satu sama lain
ianya perlu disingkirkan. Oleh itu, tumpuan kajian ini adalah untuk
mengukur kebolehpercayaan skor setiap item bagi instrumen
baharu dengan menggunakan kaedah Alfa Cronbach.

KESIMPULAN
Secara kesimpulanya, kertas kerja ini mengulas mengenai catatan
awalan terhadap kajian aspek kebolehpercayaan instrumen
kemahiran asas pergerakan kanak-kanak. Secara keseluruhan,

611

catatan ini hanya mengfokuskan kepada aspek kebolehpercayaan

terhadap kajian kemahiran asas pergerakan kanak-kanak terhadap
instrumen Baharu yang akan dibangunkan. Hasil bacaan kritis
pengkaji mengenai aspek kebolehpercayaan, didapati bahawa
catatan awalan kajian mengenai kebolehpercayaan ketekalan
dalaman (internal consistency) menerusi prosedur Alfa Cronbach
akan digunakan dalam objektif kajian seterusnya. Prosedur Alfa
Cronbach adalah digunakan bagi meneliti pekali korelasi yang
berasaskan kepada purata korelasi item-item dalam satu instrumen
yang Baharu. Kesimpulannya, dapatan kajian yang akan diperolehi
akan menjadi petunjuk samada instrumen Baharu ini merupakan
satu instrumen yang baik dari segi kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan
dalam mengukur prestasi kemahiran asas pergerakan kanak-kanak.

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616

INSTRUMENTS FOR ASSESSING

TECHNOLOGICAL
PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT
KNOWLEDGE (TPCK) IN
TEACHING MATHEMATICS
Zaleha Ismail & Norhafizah Sulaiman

ABSTRACT
Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) in teaching
mathematics could be investigated using an observation
instrument. Instrument is a practical data-collection tool that can be
used in teaching in learning process. The development of
instrument designed to measure participants in the research of their
technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK). TPCK is a
term used increasingly to describe what participants in this research
are required to use the technology in their teaching practices. The
instruments typically record classroom behaviors in the form of
tallies, checks, or other marks which code them into predefined
categories and yield information about which behaviors occurred.
The major structural components of a category observation
instrument seven components of technological pedagogical content
knowledge. The researchers have developed a classroom
observation instrument for evaluating the elements of teaching and
learning setting using technology based on TPCK. Using a rubric
for scoring, instruments allow researchers to evaluate a range of
classroom features.

617

Keywords: Instrument, TPCK, Mathematics, Observation, Rubrics

1.2

INTRODUCTION

Technological pedagogical content knowledge is the combination

of variety knowledge to rationale of integrates technology during
teaching and learning process in the classroom. Content
knowledge (CK), pedagogical knowledge (PK), and the
technological knowledge (TK) are the main constituents of
TPCK). Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), technological
content knowledge (TCK), technological content knowledge
(TPK) and the TPCK are the overlapping of these three basic
forms of knowledge. According to Angeli & Valanides (2009);
Jang (2010) and Mishra & Koehler (2006) said that technological
pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) to help teachers to get
more positive and suitable teaching and learning outcomes. TPCK
is not just a simple integrate of knowledge about content,
pedagogy and technology, but slightly a developing form of
transformative knowledge that truly combination the components
into new forms that have the ability to maximize the effectiveness
of using technology in the classroom.
Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) in
teaching mathematics could be investigated using an observation
instrument. Instrument is a practical data-collection tool that can
be used in teaching in learning process. The development of
instrument designed to measure participants in the research of
their technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK).
TPCK is a term used increasingly to describe what participants in
this research are required to use the technology in their teaching
practices. The instruments typically record classroom behaviors in
the form of tallies, checks, or other marks which code them into
predefined categories and yield information about which behaviors
occurred. The major structural components of a category
observation instrument seven components of technological
pedagogical content knowledge. The researchers have developed a
classroom observation instrument for evaluating the elements of
618

teaching and learning setting using technology based on TPCK.

Using a rubric for scoring, instruments allow researchers to
evaluate a range of classroom features. This instrument will be
discussed in the next section.

1.3

RATIONALE OF
INSTRUMENT

THE

DEVELOPMENT

OF

Instrument for assessing technological pedagogical content

knowledge in teaching mathematics is an organized system and is
used to observe record, arrange and analyze behavior of
participants in the research in teaching and learning process. The
strength of this instruments is through observation could be
obtained. Method of observation used in this instrument for
assessing technological pedagogical content knowledge in
teaching mathematics is video recording. This enables the analysis
to be done later. A rating system can provide a point of dialogue
during evaluation conferences specific to technology application
by classroom teachers (Brooks-Young, 2002; Darling-Hammond,
Wise, & Pease, 1983). The instrument was designed to enable
researchers to systematically examine the level and style of
technology integration in a standard classroom application.

619

1.3 THE
DESIGN
INSTRUMENT

AND

DEVELOPMENT

OF

The initial step in developing the TPCK instrument involved

reviewing related literature that cited numerous instruments that
were previously being used for assessing technology use in
educational settings. Most of these instruments focused on the
Students perception and practice of learning with technology
(Doering & Veletsianos, 2008; Hammond & Manfra, 2009a;
Manfra & Hammond, 2008; Schul, 2010a; Schul, 2010b),
Teachers perception and practice of teaching with ICT integration
in classrooms (Almas & Krumsvik, 2008; An & Shin, 2010; Hofer
& Swan, 2008), teachers development of TPCK (Wilson &
Wright, 2010) and measuring the various TPCK dimensions (Lee
& Tsai, 2010; Archambault, & Barnett, 2010; Koh, Chai & Tsai,
2010; Sahin, 2011; Schmidt et al., 2009). Besides that, most of the
researchers used survey, document analysis and interviewed to
conduct their researches. While developing this instrument, the
purpose remained clear that the aspects included would measure
participants of the research about the TPCK domains and their
attitudes toward TPCK.
Consequently, the instrument constructed contained 23
aspects for measuring participants of the research on the seven
TPCK domains: 2 TK aspects, 4 CK aspects, 4 PK aspects, 3 PCK
aspects, 3 TCK aspects, 4 TPK aspects and 3 TPCK aspects. For
these 23 aspects, researchers observe teaching practice of
participants following three-level scale:
1. Low
2. Medium
3. High

Table 1 An Example of
Mathematics

an Item for Assessing TPCK in Teaching

620

Aspect
Technological
Pedagogical
Content
Knowledge

Low
Teacher do not
use technology
and
teaching
approaches to
help
students
understanding

Medium
Teacher use
technology and
teaching
approaches that is
less helpful to
students
understanding

High
Teacher use
technology
and teaching
approaches to
help students
understanding

Table 1 shows the example an item assessing TPCK in

teaching mathematics. Every aspect in technological pedagogical
content knowledge component divided into three levels that are
low, medium and high. Each level has different characteristics to
determine the features of research participants from all aspects in
the TPCK domain. The instrument is built from several studies
carried out by Jang and Tsai (2012), Shin et al. (2008) and
Schmidt et al. (2009).
This instrument consists of 7 main components, namely,
content knowledge (CK), pedagogical knowledge (PK),
technological knowledge (TK), pedagogical content knowledge
(PCK), technological content knowledge (TCK), technological
pedagogical knowledge (TPK) and technological pedagogical
content knowledge (TPCK). Altogether there are 27 aspects in 10
components of observation instrument as shown in Appendix A.

1.3.1

Content Knowledge

Mishra & Koehler (2006) said that content knowledge is the

knowledge regarding actual subject area that is to be instructed.
According to Koehler et al. (2007) also said that content
knowledge is about the subject matter a teacher teaches. In other
words, Margerum-Leys & Marx (2002) noted that content
knowledge answers the question of what will be taught?. As
Shulman (1986) said knowledge of concepts, theories, ideas,

621

organizational frameworks, knowledge of evidence and proof

would be included in content knowledge. Koehler and Mishra
(2009) said that someone without this knowledge may have
misconceptions or misleading facts about the area. Teachers
should concern about the content they are going to instruct.
There are four aspects consist in content knowledge
component that are teacher prepare set induction, teacher give
different examples of mathematics application in the real life,
teachers can give explanation the content of the subject and
teacher have enough knowledge of the subject to respond students
questions in learning.

1.3.2

Pedagogical Knowledge

The methods and processes of teaching and contains the

knowledge in classroom management, evaluation, development of
lesson preparation and student learning refers to pedagogical
knowledge. Kanuka (2006) said that it consists of teaching
methods for addressing the desires of individuals learning and
strategies of presenting the subject area. Besides that, Koehler et
al. (2007) also said that this knowledge refers to preparation,
procedure, or strategies needed during teaching and learning. For
example, pedagogical knowledge includes of general classroom
management methods, course preparations, and assessment for
student.
There are four aspects consist in pedagogical knowledge
component that are teacher can apply many teaching strategies in a
classroom like collaborative learning, direct instruction, inquiry
learning, problem or project based learning and many else. Besides
that, teacher familiar the ways to arrange and maintain classroom
management, teacher can generate atmosphere for proper
communications between teachers and students and teacher use

622

suitable instructional tools such as pictures and models to describe

the idea of the subjects.

1.3.3

Technological Knowledge

The knowledge about a variety of technologies, ranging from low

technologies like pencil and paper to digital technologies like the
Internet, digital video, interactive whiteboards, and software
programs refer to technological knowledge. Koehler et al. (2007
noted that technological knowledge consists all instructional tools
from blackboard to higher technologies. Generally, technological
knowledge is about various technologies used in learning settings
(Margerum-Leys & Marx, 2002).
There are only two aspects consist in technological
knowledge component that are teacher have the technical skills
need to use technology and teacher have sufficient opportunities to
work with different technologies.

1.3.4

Pedagogical Content Knowledge

According to Shulman (1986), Pedagogical content knowledge

refers to the content knowledge that deals with the teaching
process refer to pedagogical content knowledge. Pedagogical
content knowledge is different for various content areas, as it
blends both content and pedagogy with the goal being to develop
better teaching practices in the content areas. PCK refers to
teaching knowledge applicable to a certain subject area (Harris et
al., 2007). It is necessary to turn content into instruction, like
presenting a subject in different ways or adapting instructional
materials, based on student needs and alternative ideas. This
supports the links between curriculum, assessment, and pedagogy.
There are three aspects consist in pedagogical content
knowledge component that are teacher know the way to choose
623

effective teaching strategies to lead students learning and

thinking, teaching strategies make students stay pay attention in
the content of this subject area and teacher use different teaching
strategies such as group discussion and cooperative learning to
teaching the content.

1.3.5

Technological Content Knowledge

The knowledge of how technology can form new representations

for certain content refers to technological content knowledge.
TCK suggests that teachers understand that knowledge, by using a
particular technology; they can transform the way learners practice
and understand concepts in a particular content. Margerum-Leys
& Marx (2002) said that TCK helps teachers imagine instances
where technology can be efficiently integrated into their teaching.
This type of knowledge shows that technology and content
influence and support each other. Thus, teachers must have a plan
about their content areas, and the use of specific technologies that
can enhance student learning.
There are three aspects consist in technological content
knowledge component that are teacher know about technologies
that can use to do mathematics, teacher can use technology to
improve students understanding and learning of the content and
teacher use technology to describe mathematical concepts.

1.3.6

Technological Pedagogical Knowledge

The knowledge of how variety of technologies can be used in

teaching, and to considerate that using technology may transform
the way teachers teach refer to technological pedagogical
knowledge. According to Margerum-Leys & Marx (2002) said that
TPK needs an understanding of general teaching strategies applied
624

to the use of technology. It needs an understanding the ways of

teaching and learning will transform with use of certain
technologies. TPK contains of the integration of technological
equipments and tools with suitable teaching strategies by realizing
their strengths and weaknesses. According to Koehler & Mishra
(2009) said that most of well known computer software are not
produced for educational purposes. But, computer software are
designed for business, entertainment, communications, and socialinteraction purposes. Therefore, teachers need to go further than
the general uses of these technologies and combine them into
teaching strategies.
There are four aspects consist in technological pedagogical
knowledge component that are teacher have technical skills that
require to use suitable technology in teaching, teacher have
classroom management skills that require to use suitable
technology in teaching, teacher can use technology for interaction
during teaching activities and teacher can use technology to enrich
my teaching tools and content.

1.3.7

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge

The knowledge essential by teachers for using technology into

their teaching in any content area refers to technological
pedagogical content knowledge. Teachers have a perceptive
understanding of the complicated relationship between the three
fundamental components of knowledge (CK, PK, TK) by teaching
content using suitable pedagogical methods and technologies.
There are three aspects consist in technological pedagogical
content knowledge component that are teacher can teach lessons
that appropriately merge mathematics, technologies and teaching
methods, teacher able to use technology to discover students
understanding about abstract concept of the topic and teacher can
apply technology and teaching methods in different course units to
help students understand easily.

625

1.4

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

In this study, discussions with five academic staffs from Faculty of

Education Universiti Teknologi Malaysia were held to examine
the suitability of each aspect in all TPCK domains. Later on, to
ensure that the instrument has high validity, two experts consulted
to check and validate an instrument for the actual study. All
suggestions given by the experts were taken into consideration to
improve the quality of the instruments. The instrument was
corrected several times in order to fulfill the criteria and objectives
of the study that will be conducted.
It is suggested to do reliability of the instrument. The
reliability will do between researchers and examiners. This
reliability known as inter examiner reliability. Inter examiner
reliability, is the degree of agreement among examiners. In this
study, two examiners will be appointed to examine and check
scoring of the instrument for assessing TPCK in teaching
mathematics that will be compared between examiners scoring
and researchers scoring.

1.5

CONCLUSION

This instrument will be useful to rate research participants

technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) in teaching
mathematics. The researchers used this tool to investigate features
of TPCK embodies during teaching and learning in mathematics.
This tool allows researchers to report on 23 components for
measuring research participants on the seven TPCK domains. The
researchers observe teaching practice of participants following
three-level scale (high, medium or low). Thus, the instruments for
assessing TPCK in teaching mathematics are ready to use in the

626

future.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank to Ministry of Education Malaysia
and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for their financial funding
through Tier 1 Grant Vote No. 05H73
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APPENDIX A
Categories
Objective

Explanation
Lesson had performance based objective(s);
objective(s) were particularly well-crafted
and precise.

References

Jang,
S.-J.,
&
Tsai,
M.F.
(201
2).

Content
Knowledge

Pedagogical
Knowledge

Technological
Knowledgr

Pedagogical
Content
Knowledge

Teacher prepare set induction

teacher give different examples of
mathematics application in the real life
teachers can give explanation the content of
the subject
teacher have enough knowledge of the
subject to respond students questions in
learning.
teacher can apply many teaching strategies
in a classroom like collaborative learning,
direct instruction, inquiry learning, problem
or project based learning and many else
teacher familiar the ways to arrange and
maintain classroom management
teacher can generate atmosphere for proper
communications between teachers and
students
teacher use suitable instructional tools such
as pictures and models to describe the idea
of the subjects.
teacher have the technical skills need to use
technology
teacher have sufficient opportunities to work
with different technologies
teacher know the way to choose effective
teaching strategies to lead students learning
and thinking

631

Shin, T.
S.,
Koehler
, M. J.,
Mishra,
P.,
Schmid
t, D. A.,
Baran,
E., &
Thomp
son, A.
D.
(2008)

Schmidt,
D.
A.,
Thompso
n, A. D.,
Koehler,
M. J., &
Shin, T.
S.
(2009).

/
/

/
/
/
/

/
/

/
/

teaching strategies make students stay pay

attention in the content of this subject area

Technological
Content
Knowledge

Technological
Pedagogical
Knowledge

Technological
Pedagogical
Content
Knowledge

Evaluation

Closure

teacher use different teaching strategies such

as group discussion and cooperative learning
to teaching the content
teacher know about technologies that can
use to do mathematics
teacher can use technology to improve
students understanding and learning of the
content
teacher use technology to describe
mathematical concepts
teacher have technical skills that require to
use suitable technology in teaching
teacher have classroom management skills
that require to use suitable technology in
teaching
teacher can use technology for interaction
during teaching activities
teacher can use technology to enrich my
teaching tools and content
teacher can teach lessons that appropriately
merge mathematics, technologies and
teaching methods
teacher able to use technology to discover
students understanding about abstract
concept of the topic
teacher can apply technology and teaching
methods in different course units to help
students understand easily
formative assessment is made based on
observations and student responses to
questions
Teachers ask questions to students so they
are able to think about the question
Teachers close and give feedback effectively
by repeat the topic they have learned and
give appreciation for the attention and
cooperation of students

632

/
/
/

/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/

STRUKTUR DAN PERWAKILAN

KEPIMPINAN DISTRIBUTIF DI
SEKOLAH
Siti Khadadiah, M. B. & Khadijah Daud

ABSTRAK
Kepemimpinan distributif merupakan istilah yang semakin banyak
digunakan untuk menggambarkan kepimpinan sekolah
oleh
sebahagian pihak sebagai kondusif bagi prestasi sekolah dalam
konteks kompleksnya sekolah beroperasi. Tujuan penulisan ini
untuk menyiasat persepsi guru besar dan guru sekolah rendah
mengenai dimensi struktur dan perwakilan kepimpinan distributif
yang relevan dalam sekolah rendah. Dapatan kajian hasil dari
temubual dan pemerhatian bahawa guru besar dan para guru lebih
positif mengenai dimensi struktur dan dimensi perwakilan dalam
kepimpinan distributif.
Kata kunci: Kepimpinan Distributif, Dimensi Struktur, Dimensi
Perwakilan, Sekolah Rendah, Sokongan Dan Galakan

PENGENALAN
Konsep kepimpinan distributif telah menarik perhatian yang
berterusan dalam bidang pendidikan beberapa tahun kebelakangan
ini (Ritcihie and Woods, 2007; Bennett et al, 2003 & Gronn,
2002a) yang menggambarkan kepimpinan sekolah oleh sebahagian
pihak sebagai kondusif bagi prestasi sekolah dalam konteks

633

kompleksnya sekolah beroperasi. Pasukan dan kerja berpasukan

juga semakin penting dalam pendidikan (Cranston and Ehrich,
2005). Kepimpinan distiributif dan pasukan kerja juga tidak
merupakan sebutan sebenar bagi fenomena yang sama. Kerja
berpasukan
tidak semestinya memerlukan kepemimpinan
mengambil inisiatif dan membantu untuk mengatur arah aktiviti,
walaupun kolektif, ciri-ciri yang muncul hasil dari setiap ahli
bekerjasama dalam pasukan di jelaskan dalam kajian (Woods et al.,
2004), adalah sama dengan tindakan konsertif. Menurut Gronn
(2002b) tindakan konsertif merupakan antara bentuk penting
dalam kepimpinan distributif dan merujuk kepada dinamik atau
tenaga tambahan yang timbul daripada penyatuan individu dan
berkongsi inisiatif, idea dan kepakaran masing-masing sehingga
hasilnya adalah lebih besar daripada jumlah tindakan masingmasing. Kepimpinan distributif juga tidak sama dengan delegasi
dan Harris (2004: 19) dan Harris (2014: 50-62) membezakan
kepimpinan distributif
dengan melibatkan pengagihan
tanggungjawab dan berpadanan dengan kuasa, bekerja melalui
pasukan
dan bukan hanya individu, dan melahirkan
tanggungjawab bersama.

TUJUAN DAN OBJEKTIF KAJIAN

Tujuan kajian ini menyiasat persepsi guru besar dan guru sekolah
mengenai dimensi sturktur dan perwakilan kepimpinan distributif
yang relevan dalam sekolah di Malaysia umumnya dan di Wilayah
Persekutuan Labuan, khasnya. Sekolah ini merupakan salah satu
antara sekolah rendah yang dimulakan pada tahun 1986. Sifat
hubungan profesional antara para guru besar dan para guru
sebagai contoh kajian kes yang merupakan antara usaha
penyelidikan. Objektif kajian seperti; (1) untuk mengenalpasti
dimensi kepimpinan distributif berstruktur dan perwakilan yang
relevan dalam sekolah; (2) untuk mendokumentasikan cara
kepimpinan distributif digalakkan dan disokong di sekolah.

634

LITERATUR KAJIAN
The National College for School Leadership atau NSCL (NCSL,
2004a: 3) berpendapat bahawa unsur kepimpinan distributif
merupakan pemisahan kepemimpinan dari aspek peranan dan
cabaran kepimpinan struktur tradisional dan organisasi. Kajian
NCSL telah mengenalpasti Lima Rukun kepimpinan distributif di
sekolah-sekolah iaitu; (1) yakin diri dan tidak menonjolkan diri
kepemimpinan; (2) kejelasan struktur dan tanggungjawab; (3)
pelaburan dalam keupayaan kepimpinan; (4) budaya kepercayaan;
(5) titik perubahan. NCSL mengakui bahawa kepimpinan
distributif merujuk kepada kedua-dua aspek yang dilakukan dan
keadaan organisasi yang setiap ahli melakukanannya. Kepimpinan
distributif bermakna lebih ramai pemimpin dan kepimpinan di
sekolah dan merujuk kepada 'keadaan setiap ahli melaksanakan
kepimpinan, organisasi dan budaya saling berhubungan yang
membolehkan kepimpinan di setiap peringkat untuk dilaksanakan
sejajar dengan tujuan dan strategi sekolah (NCSL, 2004: 3).
Dengan kata lain, kepimpinan distributif mempunyai unsur keduadua struktur dan perwakilan bagi memahami kepimimpinan
distributif kaitan antara kedua-dua dimensi (Woods et al., 2004).
Unsur saling kebergantungan timbal balik dalam
kepimpinan distributif didapati merupakan asas amalan seorang
pemimpin dan sebaliknya seorang pemimpin lain (Spillane, 2003:
344).
Hal ini melibatkan pemahaman kepimpinan sebagai
peredaran inisiatif yang setiap individu memulakan tindakan dan
perubahan, apabila sumber dan kekangan konteks organisasi, dan
sumbangan kepada hasil aliran dan pembentukan aktiviti organisasi
dalam konteks
yang sama (Woods, 2004: 6). Walau
bagaimanapun, jelaslah bahawa kepimpinan distributif bukan
fenomena tunggal atau set ciri-ciri yang mudah tetapi merupakan
campuran struktur budaya kompleks, sosial dan ciri-ciri individu,
dan tindakan.
Kepimpinan kepimpinan distributif terbuka kepada cabaran
yang boleh bertindak untuk tidak berkongsi atau mendemokrasikan

635

akses kepada kuasa tetapi meningkatkan beban dan tanggung

jawab kepada ahli peringkat bawah dengn lebih berkesan
berdasarkan tujuan dan nilai-nilai yang ditentukan oleh ahli yang
dominan di peringkat lebih tinggi dalam dan di luar hierarki
sekolah seperti di peringkat pusat (Hatcher, 2005; Maxcy and
Nguyen, 2006 & Woods 2004). Penulisan ini tidaklah berhasrat
mengkritik keterbatasan konsep dan amalan
kepimpianan
distributif. Namun, kepimpinan distributif mampu digunakan
sebagai satu bentuk instrumentalisme halus (Woods, 2005: 29)
demi mencapai cita-cita peningkatan pengurusan emosi (Hartley,
2004) kehidupan dalaman guru yang dibentuk untuk mengambil
visi, semangat dan emosi bagi membantu ke arah matlamat dan
kemajuan institusi yang dianggotai. Pertimbangan dan penelitian
tersebut juga dijadikan fokus perbincangan dalam penulisan ini.
Satu ulasan sistematik kajian menyimpulkan bahawa, walaupun
peningkatan idea kepimpinan distributif semasa, penelitian dalam
amalan untuk proses dan nilai-nilai organisasi masih relatif
terbatas (Bennett et al., 2003 & Woods et al., 2004). Salah satu
aspek yang penyelidikan bermanfaat cara kepemimpinan
berkembang dalam sebuah institusi dan penulisan ini berdasarkan
data dari beberapa buah sekolah secara aktif melaksanakan aspek
kepimpinan distributif, walau pun peringkat pelaksanaan mungkin
berbeza.
Konsep kepimpinan distributif
dengan dimensi dan
kerumitannya akan menyarankan bahawa tidak mungkin
kepimpinan distributif mewakili ciri khas setiap kumpulan atau
organisasi (Ritchie & Woods, 2007). Woods et al. (2004),
mencadangkan analisis dualistik yang dikenali sebagai dimensi
struktur dan perwakilan dalam kepimpinan distributif sesuatu
institusi. Melalui cadangan tersebut, kajian Wood et al. (2004)
mendapati bahawa dalam kalangan pemimpin sekolah tersebut
berperasaan
lebih santai
dan sederhana terhadap status,
kemudahan sekolah dan bersedia memberi perhatian berfokus.
Woods et al. (2004) menjelaskan dimensi struktur merujuk kepada
(1) pengagihan tanggungjawab dalam institusi seperti penyebaran

636

autoriti untuk pengurusan kanan dan pasukan lain; dan (2)

Pembinaan satu set tertentu idea dan norma-norma budaya seperti
mendorong para guru untuk mengambil inisiatif dan mencuba idea
baru; dan (3) perkembangan hubungan sosial dengan ciri-ciri
tertentu seperti kepercayaan yang tinggi. Dimensi perwakilan
merujuk (1) sebaran keupayaan penyertaan dalam kepimpinan; (2)
difusi amalan kepimpinan dalam kalangan ahli organisasi.

METODOLOGI
Tempat kajian yang digunakan merupakan di salah sebuah sekolah
rendah di Wilayah Persekutuan Labuan, Malaysia. Sekolah ini
menyediakan lima buah kelas rendah untuk murid-murid yang
umur antara 7-12 tahun dan membawa jumlah seramai 223 orang
murid. Seorang guru besar dan sepuluh orang guru telah di
tempatkan sekolah kajian kes. Walaupun guru besar dan para guru
penuh semangat mempromosikan rangkuman sistem pendidikan
sekolah rendah Malaysia, guru besar dan para guru masih
berpeluang untuk menentukan tahap penglibatan mereka dalam
kajian kes ini. Perbualan tidak formal dengan guru besar dan guru
sekolah memberi sokongan sistem pendidikan itu. Mereka percaya
bahawa beberapa kes terdahulu, jika berjaya dan kunci utama
mendapat manfaat daripada usaha-usaha mereka untuk mengubah
dan menyusun semula amalan. Secara ringkas peserta dalam kajian
ini merupakan seorang guru besar (Guru 1), seorang guru penolong
kanan pentadbiran (Guru 2) dan seorang guru Ketua Unit Skim
Pinjaman Buku Teks (SPBT) (Guru 3) bersedia ditemubual. Semua
nama telah diubah bagi memastikan kerahsiaan para peserta.

Reka Bentuk dan Prosedur Kajian

Temubual secara terbuka digunakan untuk mendapatkan maklumat
tentang kepimpinan distributif dari dimensi struktur dan dimensi

637

perwakilan serta sokongan dan galakkan terhadap kepimpinan

distributif. Sesi temubual dicatat dan pengkaji yang sentiasa
meneliti ketepatan makna peserta, para peserta yang terlibat dalam
maklum balas yang aktif, dan dikuatkan sebarang interpretasi data
sepanjang temubual. Tempoh kajian dan temubual adalah lima hari
dan semua temubual berlangsung di kawasan sekolah. Data yang
dikumpulkan berkaitan persepsi dan pengalaman peribadi serta
pemerhatian bilik darjah telah dijalankan.
Set pertama sesi temubual telah dijalankan dalam tempoh
hari pertama sesi pagi sidang persekolahan. Sesi temubual pada
hari kedua dijalankan. Guru besar dan guru senior sekali lagi
ditemuramah dengan tujuan menjelaskan data dan menjalankan
pemeriksaan tambahan ke atas mereka yang ditemubual. Soalansoalan di dalam terbitan temubual susulan dimasukkan yang telah
diubahsuai dari kajian Ritchie and Woods (2007) sebagai progres
tahun persekolahan dan berkaitan dengan konteks kajian.

ANALISIS KAJIAN
Beberapa kategori telah dibangunkan (struktur, perwakilan,
sokongan dan galakkan). Menambah dan menggabungkan, atau
memisahkan teks dikategorikan sebelumnya untuk mengenalpasti
tema yang muncul. Pengkaji telah mengkaji tema-tema dengan
para peserta untuk memastikan bahawa analisis ini adalah
konsisten dan tidak bertentangan dengan pengalaman mereka.
Lincoln dan Guba (1985) menekankan pentingnya menguji
pembinaan penyelidik untuk ketepatan fakta dan interpretasi untuk
menjaga kredibiliti. Satu laporan draf tema telah disampaikan
kepada peserta dengan ruang yang diberikan untuk ulasan
tambahan. Semua peserta menjawab dengan tegas bahawa tema
adalah refleksi yang tepat mengenai isu-isu dan keperihatinan
mereka. Satu lagi teknik yang digunakan untuk meningkatkan
kepercayaan dari hasil penelitian ini adalah versi teknik triangulasi
(Denzin andLincoln, 1994). Melalui beberapa temubual, pengkaji

638

mampu menjalin hubungan dan mengesahkan penemuan dari segi

sumber beberapa data yang membentuk tiga kumpulan kolaboratif
(Guru 1, Guru 2 dan Guru 3).

DAPATAN DAN PERBINCANGAN KAJIAN

Dua orang guru bersetuju bahawa dimensi struktur tanggungjawab
yang diamanahkan, mengambil inisiatif dan mencuba idea baru dan
hubungan sosial positif setelah diberi peluang dan cabaran. Mereka
diminta oleh guru besar diberi kepercayaan mengajar di kelas dan
pada masa yang sama diberi peluang melaksanakan tanggungjawab
pentadbiran. Kedua-dua guru 2 dan guru 3 berasa gembira dan
teruja bahawa mereka diberi peluang bertugas secara profesional.
Ia dilakukan secara profesional untuk memulakannya dan jika ada
masalah, kami berada di sini untuk membantu murid-murid di
dalam kelas kami. Pada suatu keadaan lain pula mereka bersamasama rakan sekerja bersama-sama terlibat dengan Sukan Tahunan,
Sambutan Maulidur Rasul dan lain-lain di peringkat sekolah dan
wilayah.
Kedua-dua orang guru yang telah menerima sebagai arahan
daripada guru besar walaupun mereka mengakui peranan
profesional. Mereka berasakan bahawa tugasan mengajar dalam
kelas dan membantu pentadbiran merupakan satu tanggungjawab
mahupun cabaran kepada kemampuan dan mempunyai keyakinan
untuk menanganinya kerana menganggap diri sebagai guru
profesional. Walaupun mereka menggambarkan perasaan mereka
dengan isyarat bimbang namun masih positif dalam sikap mereka.
Guru 2 berkata, Saya mempunyai murid pelbagai keupayaan di
kelas saya, dan semuanya hal ini tidak akan membuat banyak
perbezaan. Guru 3 tidak berasa tekanan semenjak bertugas
sebagai pengajar dan pada masa sama menjalankan tugas sebagai
guru SPBT.
Reaksi guru membawa kepada beberapa andaian mengenai
tanggungjawab mereka sendiri. Hakikat para guru ini ditugaskan

639

dalam kelas rutin atau bahagian pentdbiran, adalah menjadi

tanggungjawab utama mereka untuk membuat keputusan
pelaksanaan sehari-hari dalam proses kepimpinan distributif.
Sokongan dan galakan berterusan daripada guru besar,
membolehkan para guru mengambil tanggungjawab penuh untuk
memastikan bahawa semua murid-murid masih diberi perhatian
secara saksama semasa dalam kelas. Sebagai tindak balas kepada
soalan tentang hubungan sosial yang mempengaruhi tingkah laku
pengajarannya, Guru 2 menjelaskan, Saya tidak berfikir bahawa
itu yang diharapkan dari saya untuk memberi perhatian tugas
mengajar. Berada dalam tugasan yang rutin dan rencam adalah
salah satu daripada perkara-perkara yang perlu laksanakan semasa
bertugas.
Guru 2,Saya membantu guru besar untuk hal-hal
pentdabiran sekolah. Beliau dijangka memberi perhatian secara
berterusan sepanjang berada di sekolah. Walau bagaimanapun,
Guru 1, agak luwes dalam bantuannya, Saya memberi kerjasama
kepada semua guru lain saya, tetapi dengan guru tertentu, saya
kurang memberi perhatian supaya dia boleh berasa diberi
kepercayaan dan mengambil inisiatif untuk mencuba idea baru
dalam melaksanakan tugasnya.
Semua guru suara bulat dalam respon mengatakan bahwa,
setelah mereka berada di luar sekolah mereka, mereka tidak
bertanggungjawab untuk sekolah mereka lagi. Mereka percaya
bahawa setiap guru besar dan guru haruslah di sokongan dan
galakan berterusan termasuklah mengikuti latihan khusus dan
kaedah khusus dari masa ke masa. Walau bagaimanapun, mereka
menyatakan berpendapat bahawa beberapa bentuk kerjasama
dengan ahli profesional lain boleh memberi manfaat aspek
pendidikan sepanjang hayat.
Dalam aspek dimensi perwakilan, Tiada siapa yang benarbenar tahu perkara yang perlu dilakukan. Tapi perlukan seseorang
untuk melakukannya. Walaupun ada perbincangan yang perlu
bertanggungjawab dan untuk apa, jelas Guru 2. Sepanjang
temubual dengan guru besar dan para guru yang disebut

640

kepimpinan distributif dimensi perwakilan, masih berdasarkan

hal profesional. Sebagai contoh, para guru menyuarakan pendapat
mereka bahawa bantuan oleh ahli profesional lain dan orang lain
dihargai dan bernilai, tetapi kadang kala boleh mengganggu dan
membingungkan.
Kajian ini merupakan penyiasatan dimensi kepimpinan
distributif berstruktur dan perwakilan yang relevan dalam sekolah
serta cara kepimpinan distributif digalakkan dan disokong di
sekolah oleh guru besar dan dua orang guru yang mengalaminya.
Walaupun perkara yang dibangkitkan dalam bahagian ini mungkin
mempunyai implikasi lain bagi yang berminat dalam isu-isu
dimensi kepimpinan distributif yang relevan dan sokongan dan
galakan kepimpinan distributif di sekolah, keputusan dan analisis
yang dibincangkan di sini mencerminkan penemuan berdasarkan
semata-mata kepada tiga peserta yang ditemui, diakui ada
keterbatasan terhadap penemuan dalam kajian ini. Sama ada
dapatan kajian yang sama akan muncul di sekolah rendah lain
hanya boleh dijawab dengan kajian seterusnya.
Walaupun tidak banyak, jika ada, latihan untuk
menyediakan mereka untuk pengalaman yang menjelaskan dimensi
stuktur kepimpinan distributif, ketiga-tiga guru menceritakan
pengalaman positif dan dianggap penting untuk menjelaskan
konteks dimensi kepimpinan distributif di peringkat sekolah
(Ritchie and Woods, 2005). Konsep kepimpinan distributif dalam
konteks ini diperkuat oleh pemahaman bahawa para guru diberi
autonomi untuk mentafsir peristiwa dan keadaan di sekolah mereka
bertugas serta tidak menolak idea sokongan dan galakan daripada
pelbagai pihak dianggap sebagai satu bentuk profesional dalam
konteks dimensi perwakilan kepimpinan distributif (Woods, 2004).
Oleh itu,
telah dicadangkan bahawa
dimensi perwakilan
kepimpinan berstruktur beralih kepada pembangunan persahabatan
atau kemahiran bersosial antara guru dengan pihak pentadbir, guru
dengan guru, guru dengan murid-murid, guru dengan ahli
profesional, guru dengan pihak berkepentingan seperti yang
digariskan dalam Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia 2013

641

2025 (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2013).

RUMUSAN
Kepimpinan distributif bukanlah fenomena tunggal dan ini sudah
pasti sebarang cabaran untuk menjelaskan dan membezakan darjah
distributif struktur dan perwakilan di sekolah memang wujud.
Kajian kes dalam penulisan ini tidak dibentangkan sebagai model,
sebaliknya,
mencerminkan sokongan berterusan kepimpinan
distributif tersebut di Malaysia. Penjelasan ini diharapkan boleh
meningkatkan pemahaman tentang perubahan dalam sifat
kepimpinan distributif di sekolah juga menyediakan panduan
tentang cara sekolah boleh bergerak ke arah menerapkan bentuk
kepimpinan distributif yang ditetapkan. Terdapat keperluan untuk
kajian lanjut lagi berkaitan dengan sekolah-sekolah dalam
perjalanan untuk berkongsi dapatan bentuk kepimpinan distributif.

RUJUKAN
Bennett, N., Harvey, J. A, Wise, C. and Woods, P. A. 2003. Desk
Study Review Of Distributed Leadership. Nottingham,
NCSL/CEPAM.
Cranston, N. and Ehrich, L. 2005. Enhancing The Effectiveness
Of Senior Management Teams In Schools. International
Studies In Educational Administration, 33(1): 79 - 91.
Gronn, P. 2002a. Distributed Leadership As A Unit Of Analysis.
Leadership Quarterly, 13(4): 423 - 451.
Gronn, P. 2002b. Distributed leadership. In K. Leithwood, P.
Hallinger, K. Seashore-Louis, G. Furman-Brown, P. Gronn,
W. Mulford and K. Riley (Eds.). Second international
handbook of educational leadership and administration.
Dordrecht: Kluwer.

642

Day, C., Hall, C., Gammage, P. and Coles, M. 1993. Leadership

And Curriculum In The Primary School. London: Paul
Chapman.
Denzin, N. K. and Lincoln, Y.S. 1994. Introduction: Entering The
Field Of Qualitative Research, In Denzin, N. K. and Y.S.
Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). Handbook Of Qualitative Research.
Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.
Harris, A. 2014. Distributed Leadership Matters: Perspectives,
Practicalities And Potential. Singapore: Sage Publications
Pte Ltd.
Harris, A., Muijus, D. and Crawford, M. 2003. Deputy And
Assistant Headship: Building Leadership Potential.
Nottingham: National College for School Leadership.
Hartley, D. 2004. Management, Leadership And The Emotional
Order Of The School. Journal of Education Policy, 19(5):
583 - 594.
Hatcher, R. 2005. The Distribution Of Leadership And Power In
Schools. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 26(2):
253 - 267.
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. 2013. Pelan Pembangunan
Pendidikan Malaysia 2013-2025. Putrajaya: Kementerian
Pendidikan Malaysia.
Lincoln, Y.S. and Guba, E. G. 1985. Naturalistic Inquiry.
Newbury Park, California: Sage.
Maxcy, B. D. and Nguyen, T. S T. 2006. The Politics Of
Leadership: Reconsidering Leadership Distribution In Two
Texas Elementary Schools. Educational Policy, 20(1): 163 196.
NSCL. 2004a. The ve Pillars Of Distributed Leadership In
Schools, Part Of The NCSLs Boxed Set, Distributed
Leadership. Nottingham: NCSL.
Ritchie, R. 2006. Subject Leadership: Burning Issues In Primary
Education, Issue No. 13. Birmingham: National Primary
Trust.

643

Ritchie, R., Woods, P., Orr-Ewing, M. and McKenzie, L. 2004.

Leadership Development and Succession Planning: Final
Report. Bristol: Faculty of Education, University of the
West of England / South West Afliated Centre, National
College For School Leadership.
Spillane, J. P. 2003. Educational Leadership. Educational
Evaluation And Policy Analysis, 25(4): 343 - 346.
Woods, P. A. 2004. Democratic Leadership: Drawing Distinctions
With Distributed Leadership. International Journal of
Leadership in Education: Theory and Practice, 7(1): 3 - 26.
Woods, P. A. 2005. Democratic Leadership In Education.
London: Sage Publications.
Woods, P. A., Bennett, N., Wise, C. and Harvey, J. A. 2004.
Variabilities And Dualities In Understanding Distributed
Leadership: Findings From A Systematic Literature Review.
Educational, Management, Administration and Leadership,
32(4) : 439 - 457.
Woods, R. 2002. Enchanted Headteachers: Sustainability In
Primary School Headship. Nottingham: National College for
School Leadership.
Ritchie, R., Woods, P., Orr-Ewing, M. and McKenzie, L. 2004.
Leadership Development And Succession Planning: nal
Report. Bristol: Faculty of Education, University of the West
of England / South West Afliated Centre, National College
for School Leadership.
Ritchie, R. and Philip A. Woods. P. A. 2007. Degree Of
Distribution, Towards An Understanding Of Variations In
The Nature Of Distributed Leadership In School. School
Leadership and Management, 27 (4): 363 - 381.
Spillane, J. P. 2003. Educational Leadership. Educational
Evaluation And Policy Analysis, 25(4): 343 - 346.
Woods, P. A. 2004. Democratic Leadership: Drawing Distinctions
With Distributed Leadership. International Journal of
Leadership In Education: Theory and Practice, 7(1): 3- 26.

644

Woods, P. A. 2005. Democratic Leadership In Education.

London: Sage Publications.
Woods, P. A., Bennett, N., Wise, C. & Harvey, J. A. 2004.
Variabilities And Dualities In Understanding Distributed
Leadership: ndings From A Systematic Literature Review.
Educational, Management, Administration and Leadership,
32(4): 439 - 457.

645

EPISTEMIC MODAL VERBS AS

PROMOTIONAL ELEMENTS IN
SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
RESEARCH ABSTRACTS
Maryam Mehrjooseresht & Ummul K. Ahmad

ABSTRACT
Abstracts are essential parts of research write-ups and are
considered the main means employed by writers in handling
enormous flow of information in todays competitive academic
world. Abstract writers employ various persuasive elements to
negotiate the significance results of their research. Based on a
corpus of 866 thesis abstracts consisting of approximately 300,000
words, this study investigates the use of epistemic modality
markers in the genre of abstract written in English by novice
Malaysian researchers, particularly from the fields of Science and
Engineering. Using the framework of genre analysis, and based on
structural analysis of the genre, provided among others by Hyland
(2000), the abstracts were categorized into structural moves. While
the macro-level analysis revealed that abstracts form the two
disciplines share many common features, results from lexicogrammatical analysis, however, have shown that there are
differences in the variations and frequencies of epistemic modality
markers employed by writers within each move. Comparison of the
two sub-corpora have shown, amongst others, that science writers
were more tentative and used more hedges compared to
engineering writers in their use of epistemic modal verbs. By
paying more attention to the ways in which writers engage their

646

readers, we hope to gain insights into some of the rhetorical

strategies used by novice research writers in their attempts to
produce persuasive abstracts.
Keywords: Abstracts, Evaluation, Epistemic modals

1.4

INTRODUCTION

Evaluation and stance used as linguistic resources to project

writers attitude and reaction in texts have attracted increasing
attention in the literature over the years. Through evaluation,
academic writers acknowledge their viewpoints and exhibit subtly
the competitive nature of the research community (Hyland, 2000).
Second language writers, however, often find representing points
of view while making knowledge claims a challenging rhetorical
maneuver to accomplish. This study addresses academic writing
among Malaysian writers at post-graduate level across the
disciplines through a detailed study of the use of evaluative
language, based on Hunstons (2011) evaluation model as the
theoretical point of departure. Considering the basic features of
evaluation, the study explores how evaluations are used in novice
research writers abstracts as well as the ways they leave traces of
themselves across disciplines. The study focuses on the variations
of thesis abstracts to check how evaluative expressions are
employed by novice Malaysian research writers. Markers of
epistemic modality were investigated according to functional
categories and their distributions were mapped against the
structural moves. The results of the study, particularly the markers
of epistemic modality in the abstracts produced by novice research
writers, could become a reference point for identifying the
resources and strategies used by emerging writers according to
disciplinary practices.

647

2.1

THE STUDY

2.1.1 The Corpus

The study reported in this paper is based on a large corpus
consisting of 866 thesis abstracts written by novice writers from
four major research universities in Malaysia. The written corpus
comprised master and doctoral thesis abstracts from several fields
representing the sciences and engineering. The total word number
is 291,104. All writers come from the same language background
which is Malay and English is the medium of instruction. The
particulars of the corpus are given in Table 1.
Engineering corpus was represented by abstracts from Civil
Engineering (Hydraulic Engineering, Highway Engineering),
Electrical Engineering (EE), Mechanical Engineering (ME),
Environmental Engineering (EnvE), and Chemical Engineering
(CHE). The Science abstracts were collected from Physics (Phy),
Chemistry (Ch), Biology (Bio), Physiology (Physio), Zoology
(Zoo), and Botany (Bot). Both sets of abstracts were retrieved from
the thesis collections of four universities library produced by
students written from the year 2000 to 2010.

Table 1 Description of the corpus

Corpus
Science
thesis abstracts
Engineering
thesis abstracts
Total

no. of abstracts

no. of words

433

141242

Mean length
(words)
326.21

433

149862

346.11

866

291104

336.14

648

3.1

EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE

Negotiation of interactional meanings is a key feature of

communication in academic writing. Through evaluation, academic
writers acknowledge their viewpoints and exhibit subtly the
competitive nature of the research community. Evaluation is used
by academic writers, amongst others, to close off alternative
viewpoints by strengthening the asserted position of novel
knowledge claims (Gillaerts and Van de Velde, 2010; Hyland,
1998). Evaluation thus is an important rhetorical device that allows
writers to position their current research persuasively and
effectively within a broader research community to which they
belong (McGrath and Kuteeva, 2011).
As research students' progress to the completion of their
post-graduate studies, they are expected to construct arguments in
the ways that characterize expert professional academic practices.
Such professional practices require these emerging writers to add a
further dimension that is beyond the level of discourse, by which
they present their own primary research. At this stage, student
writers are required to balance the dual demands of appearing to be
objective while at the same time promoting their own research
findings. This goal is usually achieved through the appropriate
employment of linguistic resources of evaluation in order to
produce effective and convincing scientific knowledge claims.
Among the important part of academic genres in which academic
writers have to promote their research is the research abstract. As a
factual summary of a much longer accompanying report, most
commonly found at the beginning of research documents, abstracts
must communicate significant findings of the report, partly aimed
to prepare the readers and also to persuade them to accept the
novelty and credibility of the information presented in the
accompanying research.
The study of abstracts has become a major concern of
research in the area of applied linguistics. Because of the need to
learn about the underlying structure of these multifunctional texts,

649

linguists approach the genre of abstract from different perspectives.

This growth of interest can be contributed to the fact that abstracts
are essential parts of research and are considered the main means
employed by researchers for handling the enormous flow of
information in todays competitive academic world. Besides, many
journals published in languages other than English expects the
writers to write an English abstract of their research, which is to
certify the dissemination of knowledge worldwide (Lores, 2004).
Hence, abstracts are an important genre to study, for both practice
and research. As Hyland (2000) claims, abstracts are significant
carriers of epistemological and social negotiations of disciplinary
knowledge that reflect the value system of specific research
community. Writers as members of disciplinary academic
communities are expected to employ appropriate resources in their
abstracts for the purpose of sharing meanings and displaying the
discursive features of academic discourse in their disciplines.
The discursive aspects of claiming and staking knowledge
claims are hidden features in academic writing and these features
are often not taught and thus remain occluded to novice research
writers, particularly those who write in English as a second
language. There exist clear evidence on the lack of critical
perspective in novice researchers or students writingin
particular, novice second language writers are found to more
commonly reproduce rather than evaluate and question knowledge
claims. Many novice research writers are unaware that they are
supposed to position themselves and situate their work in relation
to the cumulative contributions of research findings in the field.
This challenge of communicating research findings effectively is
compounded especially for non-native speakers of English.
Flowerdew (2001) in his studies of non-native researchers in Hong
Kong has documented that one of the problems in non-native
speakers writing is the lack of authorial stance. In addition,
Yakhontova (1998) has proven that abstracts written by nonnativeresearchers have shown cultural proclivities at various
linguistic levels.

650

No study, however, has been carried out on novice,

emerging writers in other non-native context outside Hong Kong.
As Malaysian research universities gear towards getting their
research students to publish their research findings early as part of
their graduation requirements, this proposed study is much needed
to further understand the difficulties faced by student writers when
it comes to constructing research abstract and projecting their
authorial stance. Findings from this study could contribute towards
understanding the nature of writing research in second language in
general, and within the genre of research abstracts, in particular.
The findings also could provide some insights for student writers
to effectively negotiate the positioning of their research when
writing abstracts. Pedagogically, explanations of evaluative
language revealed by this study will provide rich resources for
teachers of advanced academic literacy to aid their students in
modeling evaluative strategies in thesis abstracts. The
incorporation of the knowledge of rhetorical and linguistic features
of abstracts into academic writing courses will be of great help in
preparing novice research writers to participate in the world of
publication.
A variety of linguistic resources such as evaluative
adverb(ial)s, evaluative verbs, evaluative adjectives, evaluative
nouns, and modal verbs are potential explicit sources of evaluation,
but the focus of study is on the epistemic modality markers. This
study, therefore, is concerned with the linguistic analysis of the
epistemic modal verbs that assist novice writers to process
information in order to further support and elaborate on the
findings. The main part of the study examines epistemic modals
that function to reflect the process of interaction and negotiations
within a text between writer and the imagined reader.

651

4.1

METHODODLOGY

The study began with a key search for modals in the corpora. The
primary purpose of this study is to highlight the epistemic modality
markers used for realizing rhetorical functions. More specifically,
this includes finding out whether novice writers display an
awareness of the evaluation which they use in the construction and
presentation of their arguments.
For the purpose of this analysis, a set of 14 search terms
(seven modal verbs and their negative counterparts) in electronic
form were examined using concordance software (AntConc,
Anthony, 2011), to determine whether they are functioning to mark
evaluation in the texts (Table 3). The search terms were selected
partly by consulting the literature on evaluation (Hunston, 2011;
Hunston and Thompson, 2000; Biber et al, 2007), and partly by
manually reading a large number of the thesis abstracts, which
helped in assessing what forms seemed to occur most frequently in
the thesis abstracts in question.
Table 3 List of epistemic modal verbs searched for
Modal verbs

can, can not, could, could not, may,

may not, might, might not, should,
should not, will, will not, would, would not

After identification of distribution of markers of epistemic

modal verbs throughout the texts, the modal verbs were mapped
onto rhetorical structure of the genre (cf. Hyland, 2000). The goal
was to identify the frequency and type of such items in different
sections of texts as well as comparing their distribution in each
discipline.

652

5.1

RESULTS

5.2 Distribution of Epistemic Modal Verbs in The Corpus

Table 4 gives the raw and nominalised frequency per 100,000
words for the modal verbs. On the whole, however, modal verbs
are almost equally common in both corpora. As shown in Table 5,
the most frequently used modal verb is can with 132 and 181
instantiations in the Science and Engineering corpus, respectively.
However, might, should, and would are few in number compared
to other modal verbs.
Table 4 Total frequency of epistemic modal verbs
Science
Raw
frequency
Modal
verbs

480

Engineering
Frequency
per 100,000
words
340

Raw
frequency

Frequency per
100,000 words

587

392

Table 5 Distribution of Modal Verbs

can
can not
could
could not
may
may not
might
should
should not
would
would not
will
will not

Science
n
187
0
124
9
63
3
14
16
0
26
0
46
1

f/100,00
132
0
86
7
44
2
10
11
0
18
0
32
1

653

Engineering
n
272
5
104
5
38
1
5
30
0
36
5
98
3

f/100,000
181
3
66
3
25
1
3
20
0
24
3
65
2

Total

480
340
578
392
Table 6 Evaluative language by thesis abstract sections

Modal verbs
Science

I
60
(42)
132
(88)

Engineering

Pur
13
(9)
22
(14)

M
51
(36)
113
(75)

Pro
234
(166)
212
(141)

C
118
(83)
101
(67)

Normalized figures of epistemic modal verbs in the Science

and Engineering thesis abstracts in Table 6 show that in both sets
of sub-corpus the most common position for expressing evaluation
is the Product section. It is noticeable that Engineers use modal
verbs nearly twice as often as the Scientists in the Introduction,
Purpose, and Method sections.
Table 7 Most frequent epistemic modal in rank order by fields
Science
Rank
1
2
3
4

Engineering
Item
can
could
may
will

Freq
132
81
44
32

Rank
1
2
3
4

Item
can
will
could
may

Freq
181
65
63
25

One of the differences between the two sub-corpora is that

the science writers are more tentative and hedged than the
engineering writers in their use of epistemic modal verbs. For
example, as it is shown in Table 7 epistemic will occurs twice as
often in the Engineering sub-corpus while may is represented more
frequently in the Science data (examples 1 and 2).
Example:
1.

This system will help water managers make better use of

various water sources [].
PE-CH-UPM (339)

654

Example:
2. Thus, studies on fimbrial gene and protein may be essential in
the production of [].
PS-Z-UPM (12)
Of particular interest is the frequency by which these
epistemic modality markers are used to provide promotional
information, suggesting that evaluation is most likely to ascribe
positive value to the presented information. Although negative
value is defined to ascribe negative value to dissenting views, in
our corpus in (3), for instance, it promotes the usefulness of the
study. The example illustrates the way the introduction section of
the abstract helps create a favorable image of the presented
research through the negative evaluation of the already known
produced devices. Here, the negative evaluation of the current
study enables the writers to position his own research.
Example:
3. <INT Most electric arc furnace slag (EAFS) produced is
normally considered unimportant and could not be used
effectively. Therefore, EAFS is usually of no usage and has
been classified by the Department of Environment (DOE)
Malaysia as scheduled waste. Consequently, the steel
industries need to provide a substantial amount of fund for its
disposal. > <PUR The objective of this thesis is to investigate
the potential use of EAFS in concrete.>
PE-CUTM-258

6.1

DISCUSSION

Though epistemic modal verbs occurred sufficiently frequently in

the students thesis abstracts to suggest that they were aware of the

655

pattern and knew how to use it effectively, a detailed analysis of

the thesis abstracts reveals that there are differences between the
science and engineering writers in terms of the use as well as the
functions of evaluative modal verbs to construct knowledge
claims.
As Hunston (2011) argues epistemic status is associated
with the evaluation of good and bad, particularly in texts which are
part of a knowledge-building agenda (p.26). Although authors in
the study employed negative evaluative markers, they emphasized
the promise of methodological significance of the research, a
strong commitment to novelty of the research, and purpose of the
research.
As described by Thompson and Hunston (2000) evaluation
constitutes comments on the level of certainty of the content. The
certainty of the propositional content is seen as a requirement of
the genres that build knowledge claims, which is why abstracts are
expected to present the outcomes of the study with a high level of
certainty. Broadly speaking, these differences may correspond to
the role of genre in prioritization of certain functions of evaluation.
An analysis of evaluative language in texts of second
language student writers enables specific issues to be identified
which are significant in terms of their ability to construct
evaluation and position their research in relation to other
knowledge or other knowers in their respective discipline. The
analysis of thesis abstracts revealed the L2 student writers
manipulation of the epistemic modal verbs in their thesis abstracts
shows their attempt in engaging and involving with their reader.
7.1

CONCLUSION

As explained earlier the main aim of this study is to explore the

interpersonal meaning in thesis abstracts used by L2 writers across
disciplinary discourse of Science and Engineering. The study of
examples like those analyzed in the study can be considerably
beneficial in raising students awareness of the reasons behind the
656

linguistic choices for constructing acceptable knowledge claim.

The outcome not only contributes to the extension and refinement
of our knowledge of disciplinary language practice, but has
important pedagogical implications as well. It will also be
applicable by academic writing instructors to enhance student
writing skills as well as improving their knowledge of
interpersonal language. Obviously, the investigation cannot
capture the full complexity of evaluation, and may only be
acceptable at some level of analysis, but they do provide a useful
basis for identifying dimensions of interpersonal language, in
particular as practiced by the second novice writers in Malaysian
context.

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Yakhontova, T. Selling or telling? The issue of cultural
variation in research genres. In Flowerdew J. ed. Academic
discourse. Harlow: Pearson Education. 216-232; 2002.

658

PENGETAHUAN TEKNOLOGI
PEDAGOGI KANDUNGAN (PTPK)
DALAM PROGRAM PENDIDIKAN
MATEMATIK
Suhaila Abdul Raub & Zaleha Ismail

ABSTRAK
Kejayaan pengintegrasian teknologi dalam pendidikan bergantung
kuat di bahu para guru bagaimana mereka menggunakan
kemudahan teknologi sebagai alat untuk mengakses pelbagai
maklumat yang kaya di sekeliling mereka, untuk tujuan pengajaran
dan pembelajaran. Jika guru pandai menggunakan kemudahan
teknologi sepenuhnya dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran, tentu
sekali ini akan memberi pengalaman pembelajaran baru dan
mengubah paradigm pengajaran dan pembelajaran di bilik darjah.
Pendidikan dan latihan guru yang sistematik merupakan satu
langkah penting untuk memastikan kemahiran dan pengetahuan
teknologi baru di dalam kurikulum matematik dapat
diimplementasikan. Oleh itu, artikel ini akan membincangkan
mengenai satu pengetahuan yang dianggap perlu dimasukkan ke
dalam program-program pendidikan guru pada masa kini iaitu
pengetahuan teknologi pedagogi kandungan (PTPK).
Kata Kunci: Pengetahuan teknologi pedagogi kandungan (PTPK)

PENGENALAN

659

Pengetahuan yang bagaimanakah diperlukan untuk menjadi

seorang guru matematik yang cemerlang pada masa kini?
Persoalan ini telah menjadi satu cabaran yang jelas kepada semua
institusi profesionalisme perguruan untuk menyediakan guru-guru
dalam perkhidmatan dan pra-perkhidmatan supaya sentiasa
berpengetahuan dan berketrampilan.
Dalam konteks ini,
pengetahuan berkaitan dengan penggunaan teknologi dalam
pengajaran telah menjadi popular sebagai satu aspek penting dalam
asas pengetahuan guru dalam abad ke-21 (Koehler et. al., 2014;
Chai et. al., 2014; Garrison, 2011).
Di Malaysia, aspek penggunaan teknologi telah mula
dimasukkan ke dalam kurikulum matematik di sekolah pada tahun
2000. Guru-guru dan pelajar-pelajar digalakkan menggunakan cara
baru dalam kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran dengan
mengintegrasikan teknologi. Saranan penggunaan teknologi dalam
pengajaran dan pembelajaran matematik dapat dilihat dalam
Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran yang ditunjukkan dalam rajah1. Dapat
dilihat bahawa unsur-unsur teknologi seperti spreadsheet,
kalkulator saintifik, kalkulator grafik, perisian geometri telah
dicadangkan dalam aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran bagi
tujuan pelajar memahami dan mendalami konsep matematik.
Rajah 1 Huraian sukatan Pelajaran Matematik Tingkatan 3, PPK 2011, halaman
24
OBJEKTIF
PEMBELAJAR
AN
11.1 Memahami
dan
menggunakan
konsep
persamaan linear
dalam
dua
pembolehubah

CADANGAN
AKTIVITI P&P

HASIL
PEMBELAJARAN

Menerbitkan
persamaan linear
dalam
dua
pembolehubah
yang berkaitan
dengan
situasi
kehidupan
sebenar.

(i) Menentukan sama

ada suatu persamaan
adalah
persamaan
linear dalam dua
pembolehubah.
(ii)
persamaan

660

Menulis
linear

CATATAN

Meneroka
menggunakan
kalkulator grafik,
perisian geometri
dinamik
dan
hamparan
elektronik untuk
menyelesaikan
persamaan linear
dan persamaan
linear serentak.

dalam
dua
pembolehubah
daripada maklumat
yang diberi.
(iii)
Menentukan
nilai
satu
pembolehubah
apabila diberi nilai
pembolehubah yang
lain.
(iv)
Menentukan
penyelesaian
yang
mungkin
bagi
persamaan
linear
dalam
dua
pembolehubah.

Dalam pendidikan matematik, literasi teknologi telah

menjadi satu daripada kemahiran asas dalam pengajaran guru (
Lawless & Pellegrino, 2007). Jika ianya diaplikasikan secara
optimum, ia boleh meningkatkan pemikiran secara analitik dalam
proses penyelesaian masalah pelajar,
memperkembangkan
pemahaman konsep matematik pelajar (Chew, 2009; Graham &
Thomas, 2000), memperbaiki pencapaian pelajar (Norain et al.,
2009) dan juga, teknologi telah terbukti memperbaiki cara
pembelajaran pelajar dalam bilik darjah (Awaatif & Norizan, 2011;
Guerrero, Walker, & Dugdale, 2004).
Keberkesanan penggunaan teknologi dalam pengajaran dan
pembelajaran matematik adalah bergantung kepada pengetahuan
guru menggunakan sesuatu teknologi sesuai dengan isi pelajaran
yang hendak disampaikan. Guru sepatutnya menggunakan
teknologi ini untuk memudahkan pembelajaran murid-murid
dengan pemilihan teknologi yang bersesuaian dengan objektif
pembelajaran. Contohnya, guru boleh menggunakan aplikasi
perisian geometri dinamik dalam membuat simulasi untuk

661

pemahaman masalah matematik. Oleh yang demikian, guru

perlulah meningkatkan pengetahuan mereka supaya keberkesanan
penggunaan teknologi dapat dicapai.
Pengetahuan Teknologikal Pedagogikal Kandungan
(Technological pedagogical content knowledge ) merupakan satu
istilah yang agak baru yang merupakan satu pengetahuan yang
penting dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Ini merujuk kepada
perkara yang guru harus tahu tentang teknologi dan strategi
pengajaran yang efektif serta hubungannya dengan isi kandungan,
pedagogi dan teknologi dalam konteks pembelajaran (Niess, 2005).
Pengetahuan Teknologikal Pedagogikal Kandungan adalah
integrasi antara pengetahuan isi kandungan, perkembangan
teknologi dan pengetahuan tentang pengajaran dan pembelajaran.
Guru hendaklah melengkapkan diri dalam penguasaan kemahiran
penggunaan teknologi, demi memainkan peranan dengan berkesan
untuk pelaksanaan perubahan kurikulum inovatif dalam era
teknologi maklumat dan telekomunikasi.

MASALAH MENGINTEGRASIKAN TEKNOLOGI DALAM

PENGAJARAN DI BILIK DARJAH
Pada kebiasaannya, guru-guru akan berhadapan dengan situasi
yang mencabar akibat terdapat beberapa halangan yang wujud
semasa ingin mengintegrasikan teknologi dalam pengajaran
mereka. Menurut Vrasidas & Glass (2007), terdapat beberapa
halangan yang dikenalpasti bagi guru untuk mengintegrasikan
teknologi dalam P&P. Halangan-halangan tersebut adalah seperti:

Keadaan semulajadi konservatif budaya persekolahan dan

amalan pengajaran

Keengganan guru untuk menukar pendekatan mengajar

tradisional

Kurangnya infrastruktur teknologi

Kurangnya teknologi khusus yang menjurus kepada

keperluan khusus guru dan pelajar

662

Kurangnya sokongan yang berterusan

Kurangnya masa dan tiadanya insentif pada guru.

Dalam satu kajian tempatan yang dijalankan ke atas guru

matematik, mendapati bahawa guru jarang menggunakan teknologi
seperti Ms Word, Ms Power Point, Spreadsheet dan perisian
aplikasi geometri bagi tujuan penyelesaian masalah matematik,
analisis data, mempelajari konsep baru secara visual dan juga
dalam pencarian maklumat dalam pengajaran matematik di bilik
darjah (Md Nor & Rashita, 2011). Walaupun terdapat segelintir
guru yang mengintegrasikan teknologi dalam pengajaran
matematik, namun mereka masih mengamalkan kaedah
pembelajaran secara tradisional iaitu masih berpusatkan pelajar dan
ini
sekaligus
tidak
menyokong
pembelajaran
secara
konstruktivisme yang mana ianya berkesan dalam pembelajaran
matematik pelajar (Rice et. al, 2011).
Masalah yang menjadi fokus utama di sini sebenarnya ialah
kurangnya latihan dan kursus pembangunan profesionalisme yang
memenuhi keperluan dalam pengajaran guru matematik.
Kebanyakan guru menghadiri kursus yang hanya merupakan asas
dalam penggunaan teknologi seperti pengenalan komputer, Ms
Excel, Ms Power Point tetapi jarang sekali menghadiri kursus yang
khusus seperti perisian geometri dinamik dan pengaturcaraan logo
(Md Nor & Rashita, 2011, Cuban,1999) . Selain itu, aspek
kecekapan dan keyakinan kepada diri sendiri dalam membuat
keputusan untuk menggunakan teknologi juga adalah satu halangan
yang sangat kritikal (Gado, Ferguson & van Hooft, 2006). Tingkah
laku guru mengintegrasikan teknologi dalam pengajaran juga
berasaskan kepada kepercayaan dan pengetahuan matematik
mereka (Brown & Borko, 1992). Kekurangan pengetahuan dan
ketidakselesaan guru menyebabkan mereka enggan untuk
menggunakannya dalam pengajaran.
Kesemua halangan ini memerlukan:

guru untuk menukar gaya pengajaran tradisional kepada

663

gaya berteknologi,

penyediaan guru-guru yang mengintegrasikan teknologi

dalam pengajaran dan pemberlajaran dengan mengintegrasikan
teknologi dalam program-program penyediaan guru, dan

penyusunan semula polisi, kurikulum dan penilaian.

MODEL PENGETAHUAN
KANDUNGAN

TEKNOLOGI

PEDAGOGI

Pengetahuan yang diperlukan oleh guru-guru adalah dinamik

mengikut perkembangan semasa.
Bertitik tolak daripada
kepentingan teknologi, Mishra & Koehler (2006) telah
memperkembangkan model pengetahuan pedagogikal kandungan
guru menjadi pengetahuan teknologi pedagogi kandungan dengan
menambah satu lagi komponen iaitu pengetahuan teknologi seperti
dalam Rajah 2.
Rajah 2 Komponen Pengetahuan Teknologi, Pedagogi Kandungan

PENGETAHUANTEKNOLOGI
PEDAGOGI
PEDAGOGIISIKANDUNGAN
KANDUNGAN
(PTPK)

PENGETAHUAN
PEDAGOGI
KANDUNGAN

PENGETAHUAN
KANDUNGAN

PENGETAHUAN
PEDAGOGI

PENGETAHUAN
TEKNOLOGI
KANDUNGAN

PENGETAHUAN
TEKNOLOGI

PENGETAHUAN
TEKNOLOGI
PEDAGOGI

Sumber: Mishra & Koehler, 2006

664

Shavelson, Ruiz-Primo, Li dan Ayala (2003) telah mencadangkan

satu rangka kerja
berheuristik yang berguna dalam
mengkonsepkan pengetahuan teknologi pedagogi kandungan
dengan mengandaikan bahawa struktur pengetahuan terdiri
daripada:
1.
Pengetahuan deklaratif tahu apa
2.
Pengetahuan prosedural tahu bagaimana
3.
Pengetahuan skematik tahu kenapa dengan mengambil
kira pengetahuan deklaratif & pengetahuan prosedural
4.
Pengetahuan strategik tahu bila, di mana dan bagaimana
menggunakan sesuatu pengetahuan khusus dan penggunaannya.
Niess (2005) pula, menerangkan empat aspek yang terkandung
dalam pengetahuan teknologikal pedagogikal kandungan guru
iaitu:
1.

2.

3.
4.

Idea atau tanggapan yang luas tentang apa yang

dimaksudkan mengajar sesuatu kandungan subjek dengan
mengintegrasikan teknologi dalam proses pembelajaran.
Pengetahuan mengenai strategi dan perwakilan pengajaran
untuk mengajar dalam sesuatu topik tertentu menggunakan
teknologi.
Pengetahuan tentang pemahaman, pemikiran dan
pembelajaran pelajar menggunakan teknologi.
Pengetahuan mengenai kurikulum dan bahan-bahan bantu
mengajar yang mengintegrasikan teknologi
dengan
pembelajaran.

Sejak tahun kebelakangan ini, model rangka kerja PTPK ini telah
digunakan untuk penyusunan semula program pendidikan guru
dan juga bengkel pembangunan profesional (Burns, 2007; Niess,
2007; Shoffner, 2007; Lee Suharwoto, Niess & Sadri, 2006; Niess,
2005) Ini sangat jelas menunjukkan bahawa institusi pendidikan
guru memainkan peranan penting dalam membentuk pengetahuan

665

guru menggunakan teknologi secara berkesan dalam kelas mereka

(Chai, 2010).

PTPK DALAM PROGRAM PENDIDIKAN MATEMATIK

Amalan pembangunan profesional yang berkesan mesti direka bagi
tujuan membantu guru-guru membina pengetahuan baru dalam
pengajaran dan pembelajaran (Hea-Jin Lee, 2001). Untuk menjadi
berkesan, pembangunan profesional mestilah menyediakan cara
atau kaedah yang mana guru-guru dapat mengaplikasikan secara
langsung apa yang dipelajarinya ke dalam pengajaran mereka
(Polly et. al., 2010). Model PTPK yang digunakan dalam banyak
program pembangunan guru pada masa ini telah banyak
mendatangkan manfaat atau perubahan yang ketara terhadap
pengetahuan teknologi pedagogi kandungan guru. Mereka juga
telah menggunakan pengetahuan yang dipelajari mereka semasa
kursus dalam amalan pengajaran mereka di bilik darjah selepas
menghadiri kursus ( Mouza et. al., 2014).
Dalam satu kajian oleh Sampaio & Coutinho (2013),
didapati bahawa pelaksanaan kursus integrasi teknologi dalam
pendidikan matematik dengan memberi tumpuan kepada
penggunaan papan putih interaktif menampakkan peningkatan aras
pengetahuan teknologi pedagogi kandungan guru dan perubahan
dalam sikap guru terhadap kebolehan mengintegrasikan papan
putih interaktif di dalam kelas matematik dan seterusnya dapat
meningkatkan mutu pembelajaran murid selepas menghadiri
kursus.
Dari hasil kajian Bos & Lee (2014) pula menunjukkan
kursus PTPK telah memberi kesan yang ketara terhadap
pengetahuan guru dalam mengintegrasikan pengajaran berasaskan
teknologi yang melibatkan topik konsep nombor, geometri,
statistik dan kebarangkalian. Beliau mencadangkan supaya
penekanan secara terus menerus diberikan terhadap kursus-kursus
yang memberi fokus kepada pengintegrasian teknologi dalam

666

pendidikan matematik.
Selain itu, PTPK dalam program pendidikan guru juga
memberi impak terhadap penggunaan spreadsheet. Analisis dari
kajian Agyei & Voogt (2012), bekas pelajar guru telah
menggunakan spreadsheet secara meluas untuk membantu muridmurid mereka meneroka konsep matematik, membuat pembuktian
teori matematik, membuat hubungkait antara formula matematik,
fungsi algebra dan graf dan meneroka atau menganalisis pola
nombor. Penggunaan spreadsheet yang digunakan dalam proses
pembelajaran semasa menjalani kursus, telah mempengaruhi dan
mengubah cara pengajaran guru tersebut di dalam bilik darjah.
Guru-guru juga mampu menggunakan spreadsheet untuk
melibatkan pelajar dalam aktiviti pembelajaran yang berbeza
seperti membuat persembahan, mengumpul data dan membuat
ramalan dalam topik-topik matematik yang tertentu. Ini
menunjukkan bahawa pemahaman guru-guru mengenai teknologi
telah beralih dari melihat teknologi sebagai alat untuk
pemudahcara kepada alat untuk mengembangkan pemahaman
pelajar tentang konsep-konsep matematik.

KESIMPULAN
Pengintegrasian teknologi dalam P&P matematik telah menjadi
suatu isu yang sering diberi perhatian kerana kesannya yang positif
dalam abad ke-21 ini di seluruh dunia. Institusi pendidikan guru
sangat memainkan peranan penting dalam membantu kerajaan
menyediakan guru-guru yang berkualiti pada masa kini dan akan
datang. Kualiti dan kesesuaian kursus dan kurikulum adalah faktor
penting yang mempengaruhi kebolehpasaran siswazah (Rancangan
Malaysia ke10). Oleh itu, program-program latihan perlulah direka
khas sesuai dengan keperluan pendidikan semasa. Sikap, persepsi
dan pengetahuan tentang pengintegrasian teknologi adalah menjadi
faktor kepada kesan positif penggunaan teknologi tersebut. Tanpa
latihan-latihan dan kursus-kursus, kebanyakan guru tidak bersedia

667

menggunakan teknologi dalam P&P dengan yakin.

Oleh kerana keperluan yang semakin bertambah bagi
program-program pendidikan guru untuk melengkapkan bakal guru
dengan pengetahuan dan kemahiran terkini yang diperlukan bagi
menguasai pengintegrasian teknologi , banyak kriteria dan
piawaian yang khusus bagi pengetahuan tersebut dibuat. Namun
begitu, tidak semua kriteria dan piawaian tersebut sesuai dengan
aspek kandungan matapelajaran dan juga pegagogi pengajaran.
Oleh yang demikian, penilaian kursus dari sudut penerapan PTPK
perlulah dilakukan bagi tujuan keberkesanan pengintegrasian
teknologi dalam pendidikan matematik.

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671

PENDEKATAN INKUIRI DAN

TEKNIK PENYOALAN TERBUKA
GURU: ISU DAN
PERLAKSANAANNYA DALAM
PROSES PENGAJARAN DAN
PEMBELAJARAN KIMIA
Arshad Jais, Noraffandy Yahaya, Nor Hasniza Ibrahim &
Mohamed Noor Hasan

ABSTRAK
Dalam perkembangan dunia pendidikan yang kian mencabar,
pendidikan sains di Malaysia telah mengalami transformasi
pendidikan yang berkehendakkan individu pelajar menguasai
kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi (KBAT). Justeru, dua elemen yang
boleh menjana KBAT pelajar pelajar ialah melalui pendekatan
inkuiri dan teknik menyoal guru. Sejauh mana kesan pendekatan
inkuiri dan teknik penyoalan guru memberi kesan kepada KBAT
pelajar perlulah diterokai yang seiring dengan kehendak PPPM
2013-2025.
Kata kunci: Kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi (KBAT), Pendekatan Inkuiri,
Teknik Penyoalan, Kimia

PENGENALAN
Peranan guru dalam sistem pendidikan khususnya di Malaysia
672

merupakan tunjang pelaksana setiap dasar yang dirancang oleh

Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (KPM). Guru merupakan
jentera penggerak bagi setiap dasar yang dirancang oleh KPM. Kini
tugas guru semakin mencabar, guru bukan sahaja menjadi
penyampai ilmu pengetahuan dan kemahiran kepada pelajar
malahan
bertanggungjawab
untuk
menyemai
minat,
memperkembangkan bakat dan kebolehan pelajar. Proses
pembelajaran yang berkesan akan mengasah pemikiran analitikal,
kritikal dan kreatif bagi membentuk individu yang dapat
menyesuaikan diri dengan perubahan persekitaran yang semakin
drastik selaras dengan hala tuju sistem pendidikan negara.
Menyedari hakikat ini, kerajaan Malaysia telah memberi fokus
untuk memacukan peningkatan profesionalisme guru dalam
gelombang pertama Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia,
2013-2025 (Saedah Siraj & Mohammed Sani Ibrahim, 2012).
Selain daripada itu, PPPM 2013-2025 mensasarkan setiap
pelajar di Malaysia akan mempunyai enam atribut utama untuk
memenuhi keperluan abad ke-21 iaitu salah satunya kemahiran
berfikir (Lembaga Peperiksaan, 2013). Antara kemahiran berfikir
yang amat dititikberatkan adalah kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi
(KBAT). Justeru itu kemahiran berfikir akan memangkin pelajar
supaya sentiasa mempunyai sifat inkuiri agar berupaya
menghasilkan inovasi dalam proses pembelajaran dan seterusnya
menyumbangkan idea mahupun ciptaan dalam aplikasi kehidupan
seharian (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia , 2013). Namun
sebaliknya, sebilangan besar murid Malaysia kurang berkemahiran
menguasai KBAT seperti menginterpretasi maklumat lebih
kompleks dan mengenal pasti strategi penyelesaian yang sesuai
serta mempamerkan proses kognitif dalam penyampaian keputusan
(Bahagian Pendidikan Guru, 2013). Antara faktor penyumbang
kepada permasalahan ini ialah pedagogi guru sains yang tidak
menekankan KBAT seperti pengajaran inkuiri (Jemaah Nazir,
2010) serta guru kurang mengutarakan soalan pada aras tinggi yang
boleh meransang pelajar berfikir dengan lebih kritis (Tan &
Mohammad Yusof , 2014). Oleh itu penekanan yang serius telah

673

diberikan oleh Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (2013) untuk

meningkatkan penguasaan KBAT seperti ilustrasi di bawah:

Sumber: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (2013)

Selain itu, pendidikan sains juga menekankan pengajaran

berasaskan inkuiri yang melibatkan guru memberi bimbingan yang
minimum untuk pelajar mereka bentuk serta menjalankan
siasatan, membina idea, dan menyatakan justifikasi dengan bukti
(Amaral & Garrison, 2007). Walau bagaimanapun, menyediakan
pengajaran berasaskan inkuiri dalam bidang sains merupakan salah
satu tugas yang mencabar bagi guru-guru kerana mereka perlu
belajar bagaimana untuk menguruskan bilik darjah inkuiri yang
berkesan dan bagaimana untuk mengukur kualiti inkuiri tersebut
(Meyer & Avery, 2010). Pembelajaran inkuiri-penemuan di
Malaysia masih belum diguna pakai dan disesuaikan sepenuhnya
oleh semua guru sains (Lanita, 2010). Namun sejauh manakah dua
aspek penting ini diperkasakan iaitu pendekatan inkuiri atau
inquiry-based science education (IBSE) dan teknik penyoalan
terbuka guru diaplikasi dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains
khususnya mata pelajaran Kimia di Malaysia adalah penting untuk
dikaji dengan lebih terperinci supaya ianya menjadi satu rutin bagi
pengajaran guru kimia.
Oleh itu dalam kertas konsep ini pengkaji berusaha untuk
menjelaskan tentang kelebihan dan kepentingan pelaksanaan

674

pendekatan inkuiri dan teknik penyoalan terbuka guru dalam

proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran Kimia bagi meningkatkan
KBAT dalam kalangan pelajar.

PERANAN
PENDEKATAN
PENGAJARAN

INKUIRI

DALAM

Proses pembelajaran secara inkuiri adalah satu proses yang

dinamik yang melibatkan hubungan yang dialectical di antara guru
dan pelajar (Dewey, 1958) manakala menurut Abd-El-Khalick et
al. (2003), pelajar terlibat secara aktif dalam proses pembelajaran
ini untuk membina pengetahuan kandungan sains. Selain itu,
inkuiri juga dilihat sebagai aktiviti pembelajaran yang merujuk
kepada penerokaan pelajar untuk membina pengetahuan melalui
penyiasatan dan penyoalan (Marshall, et al., 2007) Oleh yang
demikian, proses pembelajaran inkuiri ini sebenarnya jika
dipraktikkan secara serius boleh meningkatkan kemahiran berfikir
aras tinggi pelajar.
Tahap-tahap Inkuiri
Dalam aplikasi pembelajaran inkuiri, terdapat empat tahap inkuiri
iaitu pengesahan, berstruktur, terbimbing dan terbuka (Tafoya, et
al, 1980) seperti jadual di bawah:
Tahap Inkuiri
Pengesahan
Berstruktur
Terbimbing
Terbuka

Masalah
Guru
Guru
Guru
Pelajar

Prosedur
Guru
Guru
Pelajar
Pelajar

Penyelesaian
Guru
Pelajar
Pelajar
Pelajar

Pendekatan inkuiri terbimbing sering digunakan pada

peringkat sekolah sama ada rendah mahupun menengah. Namun
pada peringkat yang lebih tinggi, inkuiri terbuka digunakan.

675

Persoalannya adakah inkuiri terbuka tidak sesuai dilaksanakan

pada peringkat sekolah menengah ?.
Kelebihan Pendekatan Inkuiri
Selain itu, apa yang dimaksudkan dengan IBSE untuk pelajar
boleh dinyatakan dari segi proses dan hasil pembelajaran pelajar
tentang dunia persekitaran mereka (The Global Network of Science
Academies, 2010). IBSE adalah proses untuk membangunkan
pemahaman yang mengambil kira cara pelajar belajar dengan lebih
baik
melalui
aktiviti
fizikal
dan
mental
mereka
sendiri(Nurshamshida et. al., 2013). IBSE adalah berdasarkan
kepada pengiktirafan bahawa idea hanya difahami apabila berlaku
percanggahan dengan apa yang diketahui sebelumnya, jika ia
dibina oleh pelajar melalui pemikiran mereka sendiri tentang
pengalaman mereka maka ia akan lebih kekal lama dalam aktiviti
mental pelajar (Kock et al., 2013; Muhammad, 2013). Di dalam
kelas pengalaman ini termasuk pemerhatian langsung dan
penyiasatan bahan dan fenomena, perundingan daripada sumber
maklumat seperti buku, pakar sains, internet dan perbincangan
dengan orang lain seterusnya idea dikongsi, dijelaskan dan
dipertahankan (Ambarsari & Santosa, 2013; Muhammad , 2013).
Melalui pendekatan ini, pelajar diberi ruang untuk mencari makna
sesuatu konsep itu sendiri serta memberikan peluang kepada
pelajar menjalankan kajian secara hands on berbanding hanya
mendengar teori daripada guru. Jelasnya bahawa inkuiri
mempunyai satu hubungan yang kuat dengan penerapan kemahiran
berfikir aras tinggi pelajar kerana ciri-ciri KBAT terkandung di
dalam pendekatan inkuiri seperti menganalisis, mensintesis dan
mereka cipta. Oleh yang demikian, pendekatan ini akan melibatkan
pembangunan dan aplikasi kemahiran yang kritis dalam kalangan
pelajar.
Tetapi kajian mendapati banyak halangan masih lagi berlaku
iaitu guru sains masih mengamalkan pengajaran secara tradisional,
dan guru-guru tidak jelas dengan pendekatan inkuiri di samping

676

tidak memberi peluang kepada kelas untuk berbincang (Winnie

Sim dan Mohammad Yusof, 2014). Faktor kekangan masa
(Muhammad, 2013; Syahrunizam, 2010) juga menyumbang kepada
terbantutnya pelaksanaan inkuiri sains di sekolah menengah. Selain
itu, kerisauan guru terhadap berlakunya miskonsepsi dan bilangan
pelajar yang ramai dalam kelas juga menjadi penghalang
terlaksananya pendekatan inkuiri ini secara menyeluruh
(Syahrunizam, 2010).

PERANAN TEKNIK PENYOALAN GURU

Dalam rangka tetapan sebuah kelas, soalan guru ditakrifkan
sebagai ucapan guru yang bertujuan untuk membangkitkan tindak
balas lisan daripada pelajar (Brown & Edmondson, 1984). Guru
biasa menggunakannya sebagai isyarat pengajaran atau rangsangan
untuk menyampaikan perkara-perkara yang akan difikirkan oleh
pelajar. Penyoalan dibuat semasa proses pengajaran dan
pembelajaran untuk memenuhi beberapa tujuan. Secara amnya,
guru bertanya soalan untuk memudahkan pembelajaran pelajar,
dan penyoalan itu mengikut perbezaan kandungan mata pelajaran,
umur, atau keupayaan pelajar dan tetapan bilik darjah. Brown dan
Edmondson (1984) menunjukkan bahawa faktor utama guru
bertanya soalan adalah untuk menggalakkan pemikiran dan
kefahaman, menyemak pemahaman, mendapat perhatian, mengkaji
kandungan, dan mengurus tingkah laku.
Oleh itu guru perlu menyedari bahawa soalan-soalan yang
bersifat terbuka dianggap soalan yang berkualiti tinggi yang boleh
merangsang pemikiran pelajar dan menggalakkan pelajar untuk
meluahkan idea mereka, namun guru kurang menggunakan soalan
terbuka dan sering menggunakan soalan tertutup (Lee Youngju,
2010). Walaupun kepentingan soalan dalam amalan pengajaran
guru adalah penting , tetapi ramai guru tidak menyedari serta
mengetahui atau menganalisis penggunaan soalan di dalam kelas
(Lee Youngju, 2010). Selain daripada itu, soalan yang berkualiti

677

tinggi boleh ditakrifkan sebagai soalan yang merangsang proses

pembelajaran pelajar dan mengembangkan pemikiran pelajar.
Soalan yang baik menuntut pelajar untuk mencabar pemikiran
sedia ada dan menggalakkan pelajar meneroka konsep
menggunakan kemahiran intelek yang lebih tinggi. Taksonomi
Bloom (1956) mengelaskan soalan yang memerlukan KBAT ini
perlu berada pada aras aplikasi, analisis dan penilaian.
Kebolehan seorang guru bertanya soalan mempengaruhi
soalan yang ditanya. Brown dan Edmondson (1984) melaporkan
bahawa guru yang mempunyai kebolehan yang tinggi menyoal
soalan yang menggalakkan pemikiran, manakala guru yang
mempunyai kebolehan rendah cenderung menyoal soalan yang
berbentuk fakta atau soalan untuk menguruskan bilik darjah
semata-mata (Zanaton, 2011). Selain daripada itu, ketidaksediaan
guru merancang penyediaan soalan untuk merangsang pemikiran
pelajar semasa proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran akan
membantutkan proses pemikiran pelajar. Oleh itu, adalah perlu
seorang guru untuk merancang soalan sebelum bermulanya kelas
dan menggunakan teknik penyoalan inkuiri secukupnya dalam
kelas (Cho et al., 2012).
Kelebihan Teknik Soalan Guru
Malah
lebih
penting
lagi,
beberapa
kajian
telah
mendokumentasikan kesan positif daripada penyoalan guru yang
berkualiti tinggi terhadap pembelajaran pelajar (Winnie &
Mohammad Yusof, 2014; Zucker, et al., 2010). Selain daripada itu
terdapat sumber yang mendapati bahawa soalan guru dan pelajar
perlu dipertingkatkan kepada soalan aras tinggi supaya proses
berfikir menjadi lebih bermakna dan persekitaran pembelajaran
yang menyeronokkan (Tan dan Mohammad Yusof , 2014). Oleh
yang demikian, untuk menjadikan penyoalan yang lebih berkualiti
untuk penguasaan ilmu pelajar-pelajar, penyoalan terbuka guru
amatlah mustahak untuk diperincikan khususnya dalam
pembelajaran kimia di sekolah menengah di Malaysia.

678

Dalam era pembangunan pendidikan yang semakin

mencabar, kemahiran guru untuk menggalakkan penglibatan dalam
sesi pengajaran dan pembelajaran adalah mustahak dan sangat
perlu dititikberatkan untuk menerapkan kemahiran berfikir aras
tinggi pelajar iaitu melalui teknik penyoalan yang betul dan
berkesan. Kajian Oliveira (2010) mendapati sekiranya guru
menggunakan
soalan referensi dalam sesi pengajaran dan
pembelajaran inkuiri maka peluang untuk pelajar-pelajar
mengutarakan idea sendiri, pemahaman, pengalaman serta
mengaitkan pengalaman peribadi dengan isi pembelajaran adalah
lebih bermakna. Ciri-ciri seperti ini selari dengan harapan
kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi (KBAT) yang perlu dikuasai oleh
pelajar dalam konteks pendidikan (Fensham & Bellocchi, 2013;
Madhuri, et al., 2012; Zanaton, 2011). Antara teknik penyoalan
yang dapat meningkatkan soalan pelajar ke aras yang memenuhi
ciri-ciri KBAT ialah merangsang pemikiran pelajar dengan
menggunakan pendedahan teks sains
dan tayangan video
(Coutinho & Almeida, 2014).
Kemahiran berfikir yang perlu dikuasai oleh pelajar
khususnya dalam sistem pendidikan di Malaysia boleh dicapai
melalui teknik penyoalan guru yang merupakan elemen penting
untuk membantu pelaksanaan Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan
Malaysia (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia , 2013) bagi
melahirkan pelajar yang boleh bersaing pada peringkat global.
Pelajar yang dihasilkan daripada sistem pendidikan seperti ini
bukan sahaja mampu menguasai ilmu malahan berupaya memberi
kritikan idea yang bernas. Tugasan ini digalas oleh guru untuk
membina pemikiran kritis dan kreatif pelajar dengan mengutarakan
soalan-soalan aras tinggi (Albergaria-Almeida, 2010; Barnett &
Francis, 2012; Mahamod & Lim, 2011; Martinho, et al., 2012).
Hal ini menunjukkan bahawa teknik penyoalan guru amat
penting untuk membangunkan KBAT pelajar, namun kajian masih
mendapati soalan guru berada pada tahap frekuensi yang rendah
dalam mengaplikasikan soalan aras tinggi (Tan dan Mohammad
Yusof, 2014) dan pengajaran guru di dalam kelas teori untuk mata

679

pelajaran kimia masih menekankan soalan-soalan yang berbentuk

soalan isi kandungan pelajaran (Winnie dan Mohammad, 2014b).
Terdapat juga kajian yang mendapati bahawa guru kimia banyak
menggunakan strategi penyoalan yang berbentuk fakta yang tidak
memberi peluang kepada pelajar untuk kompeten berfikir secara
kritikal (Albergaria-Almeida, 2010b).

IMPLIKASI PENDEKATAN INKUIRI DAN TEKNIK

PENYOALAN
TERBUKA
GURU
TERHADAP
PEMBELAJARAN KIMIA
Pendekatan inkuiri ini memberi kesan positif dalam konteks di
Malaysia
kepada pendidikan sains khususnya mata pelajaran
Kimia serta menyokong kebolehan untuk dilaksanakan dan bagi
mencapai matlamat ini ke tahap yang jauh lebih penting daripada
pendekatan tradisional yang sering diamalkan sekarang.
Malahan proses penambahbaikan dalam penyoalan lisan
guru secara khususnya dalam amalan menyoal dengan
mengaplikasikan soalan terbuka kepada pelajar-pelajar hendaklah
menjadi rutin agar minda pelajar sentiasa berfikir dan menaakul
(Zanaton , 2011; Zhou, et.al., 2013) dan seterusnya memberi
impak
dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran secara
menyeluruh (Zanaton , 2011). Justeru itu, dengan memberi
penekanan kepada kedua-dua elemen pendekatan inkuiri dan
penyoalan terbuka guru yang sesuai digunapakai dalam pengajaran
dan pembelajaran kimia di sekolah menengah Malaysia secara
tidak langsung memberi sokongan dan dokongan kepada PPPM
2013-2025 di dalam membentuk modal insan yang boleh bersaing
di arena antarabangsa.

KESIMPULAN
Pendekatan inkuiri dan teknik penyoalan terbuka guru ini

680

seharusnya diberi fokus dalam pelaksanaan pembelajaran dan

pengajaran sains khusunys mata pelajaran Kimia di sekolah
menengah untuk memupuk keseronokan dan minat pelajar untuk
mendalami ilmu kimia. Pendekatan inkuiri dan kesepaduanya
dengan teknik penyoalan terbuka guru ini diharapkan dapat
membangunkan kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi di kalangan pelajar.
Oleh itu, model inkuiri berfokuskan teknik penyoalan guru yang
sesuai untuk konteks pembelajaran Kimia di sekolah menengah di
Malaysia perlu dibangunkan bagi menyokong pelaksanaan dasar
PPPM 2013-2025 dalam konteks memperkasakan pelajar dan ilmu
sains dan teknologi yang semakin berkembang pesat yang selari
dengan kehendak Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.

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pengajaran dan pembelajaran elektrokimia. Universiti Malaya.
Zhou, Q., Huang, Q., & Tian, H. (2013). Developing Students Critical
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Research Quarterly, 25, 6583.

684

MATHEMATICS
TEACHERS
HIGHER-ORDER THINKING
Najua Syuhada Ahmad Alhassora, Hamidreza Kashefi & Abdul
Halim Abdullah

ABSTRACT
This study is to investigate the implementation of higher-order
thinking skills among students by mathematics teachers. As
meeting this challenge, the quality of education that teachers
provide to student is highly dependent upon what teachers do in the
classroom. Thus, in preparing the students of today to become
successful individuals of tomorrow, mathematics teachers need to
ensure that their teaching is effective. Thus, the roles of teachers
begin here because they should have some criteria in order to
develop the higher-order thinking skills among the students. The
respondents for this study will be the students, teachers, ministry of
education and experts. This study will be conducted using
quantitative and qualitative.
Keywords: Mathematics teachers, Higher-order thinking

INTRODUCTION
The changes in the education system play important roles in
order to remain competitive in the global economy (Carnoy, 1999;
Gopinathan, 2007). One of the efforts to pursuit the economic
growth and transformation in twenty-first century is to have the
well-educated and skilled employees (Levy & Murnane, 2004;
Dimmock & Goh, 2011). This is because, when the transformation

685

in the education occurs, a key to accomplish and maintain the

highest achievement of the students is the quality of teaching
(Wright, Horn & Sanders, 1997; Mendro, 1998; Darling-Hammond
&Youngs, 2002; Rowan, Correnti & Miller, 2002) and the
emphasis on the importance of teachers and teaching practices in
order to improve the students achievement is stated in the policy
making. Thus, in order to improve the teaching, many of the
policymakers have attempted to make changes in the instructional
programs such as the curriculum, time scheduling, pedagogical
techniques and so on. Therefore, this change or logical strategy not
only focuses on seeking to improve the students achievement, but
at the same time, to improve the quality of teachers. Hence, the
purpose of this study is to shed light on issues regarding the
Mathematics teachers higher order thinking in order to promote
higher-order thinking skills among students.
BLOOM TAXONOMY
Higher-order thinking skills correspond to the Bloom Taxonomy
where which was first developed by Benjamin Bloom (Bloom &
Krathwohl, 1956). He classified the thinking process into six
cognitive levels, from Lower Order Thinking Skills (LOTS) to
Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS). The complexity of the
cognitive levels in Bloom Taxonomy increases as the level goes
higher as shown in Figure 1.0.
Evaluation
Synthesis
Analysis
Application
Comprehension
Knowledge

Figure 1 Level of Complexity In Bloom Taxonomy

686

However, in 1990, the revision of the original Blooms Taxonomy

was performed by a former student of Bloom, Lorin Anderson and
also developed in the same manner after 45 years later in 2001
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Therefore, it is known as Revised
Bloom Taxonomy. Figure 2.0 illustrates the Revised Bloom
Taxonomy.

Creating
Evaluating
Analyzing
Applying
Comprehension
Knowledge

Figure 2 Revised Bloom Taxonomy

Revised Bloom Taxonomy

In his study, Krathwohl (2010) has produced a long bloom
terminology change in the complex taxonomy of synthesis and
evaluation done by Anderson (2010), and replaced these two levels
of the complex aspects with evaluating and creating. Figure 3.0
shows the changes in terminology bloom taxonomy noun to verb.

687

Bloom Taxonomy

Revised Bloom Taxonomy

Evaluation
Synthesis
Analysis
Application
Comprehension
Knowledge

Creating
Evaluating
Analyzing
Applying
Comprehension
Knowledge

Figure 3 Change in terminology bloom taxonomy old to new

Generally, the varieties and benefits emphasizing higherorder thinking among students in Malaysia is that it started from
the stage and then applies to the more complex, the higher level
(Bahagian Pendidikan Guru, 2013). This is because students in
Malaysia are said to have low-level thinking skills. Therefore it is
appropriate for the education in Malaysia member high emphasis
on the command level to apply next to the more complex the
higher level thinking skills to analyse, evaluate and create.

HIGHER-ORDER THINKING
In fact, higher-order thinking does not stand alone. In the mean
time, there are some other concepts related to the higher-order
thinking such as; the critical thinking, problem solving, creative
thinking and decision-making (Murray, 2011). Basically, people
used higher-order thinking to any decisions and most of the people
have faith in what they do. Based on what they have decided, they
start to create new ideas, making a prediction and solving non-

688

routine problems (Murray, 2011). According to Lewis and Smith

(1993), they described higher-order thinking skills as achievement
of a purpose or way of finding possible answers from information
as the information are stored in the memory, and interrelates and/or
rearrange and extends in perplexing situations. In addition, Clarke
(1990) in his research stated that to impose the meaning and find
structure in disorder, using the higher-order thinking skills, it often
yields multiple solutions with self-regulations of thinking.
Therefore, for the purpose of enhancing and helping the students to
understand every kind of higher-order thinking mathematics
question, the entire concepts related to the higher-order thinking
are very important to be focused and implemented for students in
schools.
Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)
In HOTS, the students should be able to distinguish between
problems that encourage their HOTS and problems which don't.
Thus, in order to promote HOTS among the students in learning
Mathematics efficiently, it involves the top three of thinking skills
model of Revised Bloom Taxonomy. Nevertheless, in Malaysia,
the HOTS can be started from the application level to the
complexity level of cognitive skill, which is the creating (Bahagian
Pendidikan Guru, 2013). Previously, the use of higher-order
thinking skills among students was too low and the students could
only master the two lower cognitive levels of Bloom Taxonomy,
which are remembering and understanding levels. Consequently,
Malaysia achieved the low results for TIMSS and PISA, as it
requires the students to think critically and using the higher-order
thinking skills. Hence, the implementation of HOTS in Malaysia
has focused on involving the whole teaching and learning process,
examination questions, preparation of teaching aids and also in co
curriculum activities (Bahagian Pendidikan Guru, 2013).

689

Higher-Order Thinking and Mathematics Teachers

Teachers are one of the crucial factors in any educational reform.
In order for a reform to succeed, teachers need to have knowledge,
skills and attributes besides enhancing their pedagogical
perceptions to the new curricula and strategies that the reform
brings (Fullan & Hargreaves, 1992; Fullan, 2014). According to
Hargreaves (2003), on the educational changes, the teachers should
have some innovative and creative ideas for a new teaching method
and have do some efforts to change the traditional teaching
practices into a different type of teaching. This is because; it is an
approach that can enhance students higher-order thinking skills
(Hernandez, Kaplan & Schwartz, 2006).
According to Koh et. al (2011), in order to serve the
education field with high quality of professional teachers and
students, the teacher is needed to involve in the assessment of
students. Thus, at the same time it is one way of assessing teachers
own teaching abilities regardless of students achievement in
learning mathematics. Moreover, Hargreaves (2003) in his research
stated that a way to bring out long lasting and a great performance
of students was to depend on the quality of professional teachers.
This statement was supported by Koh et. al (2011), accordingly,
there is a strong relationship between the quality of the teacher and
the students achievement.
In conclusion, one of an effective way to support students
understanding towards higher-order thinking skills, is that the
teachers need to have sufficient competencies to encourage their
students to perform well in mathematical tasks (National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics, NCTM, 2009). Higher-order thinking
is important because it showed that students get used the
knowledge they have and at the same time, it requires the students
to understand what exactly they have learned (Murray, 2011).
Therefore, learning higher-order thinking skills in mathematics are
very desirable and compulsory

690

Higher-Order Thinking in Mathematics Education

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 2000) is a
document that focuses on the mathematics teaching and learning
education. One of the documents of NCTM is the Principles and
Standards for School Mathematics (PSSM). The PSSM
emphasized on the quality of instruction methods that students
should get from teachers, in order to help the students achieve a
better performance in learning mathematics. Besides that, the
PSSM also stressed that to promote student learning, students
should make use of flexible knowledge, questions should deal
with new problems, the teachers need to facilitate the students
learning and the most important aspect is to develop higher-order
thinking skills among students.
In addition, the NCTM has introduced a conceptual
framework intended to guide the secondary mathematics
instruction. The title was the Focus in High School Mathematics:
Reasoning and Sense Making (FHSM: NCTM, 2009) focused on
high school mathematics curricula in order to help students
develop the ability to formulate, represent, and solve
mathematical problems and the capacity for logical thinking and
explanation (NCTM, 2009). Besides that, teachers are asked to
promote higher-order thinking learning among students by
engaging the students with higher-order thinking questions of
mathematics in order to help the students cope with them.
According to Murray (2006), the emphasis on reasoning in
mathematics is because it has a relationship with the higher-order
thinking in learning mathematics. Therefore, in order to help the
students master the higher-order thinking skills in mathematics, the
teachers need to have some appropriate criteria that can help them
to successfully promote higher-order thinking skills among
students.

691

CONCLUSION
Due to the changes in the Malaysian education system, where the
focus of exam has been replaced with the implementation of
higher-order thinking skills, therefore the current debate about the
effectiveness of schooling was the concern for teacher
competencies. In other words, a teachers job is to implement
HOTS among students and at the same time, teachers are also the
one that needs to learn about how to enhance their skills and
knowledge in order to help students. In this case, the effectiveness
of the implementation of higher-order thinking skills among
students is still is questioned if teachers and students remain in the
learning stage.
REFERENCES
Anderson, L.W and D.R. Krathwohl (Eds).2001. A Taxonomyfor
Learning Teaching and Assessing: A Revision of Blooms
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Allyn & Bacon.
Boston, MA Pearson Education Group.
Bahagian Pendidikan Guru.2013. Program Latihan Kemahiran
Berfikir Aras Tinggi (KBAT) Dalam Pembelajaran Dan
Pengajaran Matematik. Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.
Oktober-2013.
Bloom, B. S., & Krathwohl, D. R.1956. Taxonomy of educational
objectives: The classification of educational goals.
Handbook I: Cognitive domain.
Carnoy, M.1999. Globalization and Educational reform: What
Planers Need to Know. Paris: UNESCO, International
Institute for Education Planning
Clarke, J. H.1990. Patterns of Thinking: Integrating Learning skills
in content teaching. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Chai, C. S., Ling Koh, J. H., Tsai, C. C., & Lee Wee Tan, L.2011.
Modeling
primary
school
pre-service
teachers
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)

692

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communication
technology
(ICT). Computers
&
Education, 57(1), 1184-1193.
Darling-Hammond, L., & Youngs, P.2002. Defining highly
qualified teachers": What does" scientifically-based
research" actually tell us?. Educational Researcher, 13-25.
Dimmock, C., & Goh, J. W.2011. Transformative pedagogy,
leadership and school organisation for the twenty-firstcentury knowledge-based economy: the case of
Singapore. School Leadership & Management, 31(3), 215234.
Fullan, M. (Ed.).2014. Teacher development and educational
change. Routledge.
Gopinathan, S.2007. Globalisation, the Singapore development
state and education policy: A thesis revisited. Globalisation,
Societies and Education, 5(1), 53-70.
Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. G.1992. Understanding teacher
development. Teachers College Press, 1234 Amsterdam
Avenue, New York, NY 10027.
Hargreaves, A.2003. Teaching in the knowledge society: Education
in the age of insecurity. Teachers College Press.
Hernandez, A., Kaplan, M. A., & Schwartz, R.2006. For the sake
of argument.Reading, 64(2).
Krathwohl, D. R., & Anderson, L. W.2010. Merlin C. Wittrock and
the
revision
of
bloom's
taxonomy. Educational
psychologist, 45(1), 64-65.
Lewis, A., & Smith, D.1993. Defining higher-order thinking.
Theory into Practice, 32(3), 131-137.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM).2000.
Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston,
VA: Author.
Levy, F., & Murnane, R.2007. How computerized work and
globalization shape human skills demands. Learning in
global era: International perspective on globalisation and
education, 158-174.

693

Mendro, R. L.1998. Student achievement and school and teacher

accountability. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in
Education, 12(3), 257-267.
Murray. E. C.2011. Implementing Higher-Order Thinking In
Middle School Mathematics Classrooms. The University Of
Georgia, Athens, Georgia.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM).2009.
Focus in high school mathematics: Reasoning and sense
making. Reston, VA: Author.
Rowan, B., Correnti, R., & Miller, R.2002. What Large-Scale
Survey Research Tells Us About Teacher Effects on
Student Achievement: Insights from the Prospects Study of
Elementary Schools. The Teachers College Record, 104(8),
1525-1567.
Sanders, W. L., Wright, S. P., & Horn, S. P.1997. Teacher and
classroom context effects on student achievement:
Implications for teacher evaluation.Journal of personnel
evaluation in education, 11(1), 57-67.

694

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF

INSTRUMENT MEASURING
CULINARY COMPETENCIES:
THE RASCH MEASUREMENT
MODEL
Nornazira Binti Suhairom, Aede Hatib Bin Mustaamal & Nor
Fadila Binti Mohd Amin

ABSTRACT
The current study emphasize on the development of a
comprehensive
measurement
instrument
for
workers
competencies. In vocational and technical professions,
competency-based assessment throws up some challenges to the
professions; however the rewards are potentially very substantial.
The creation of a genuinely valid competency-based assessment
strategy can yield great benefit, not only to the professions, but to
the whole community. Under a competency-based assessment
system, assessors make judgments, based on evidence, about
whether an individual meets criteria specified in the profession's
competency standards.
Keywords: culinary, competency measurement, instrument

INTRODUCTION
The current study emphasize on the development of a
comprehensive measurement instrument for workers competencies.

695

In vocational and technical professions, competency-based

assessment throws up some challenges to the professions; however
the rewards are potentially very substantial. The creation of a
genuinely valid competency-based assessment strategy can yield
great benefit, not only to the professions, but to the whole
community. Under a competency-based assessment system,
assessors make judgments, based on evidence, about whether an
individual meets criteria specified in the profession's competency
standards (Gonczi, Hager & Athanasou, 1993). Skilled workers are
recognized as quality workers when they have a unity between
technical and non-technical competencies (Ahmad Nabil, Dayana
Farzeeha, Muhammad Khair & Mohd Safarin, 2011). Currently
there are several studies in developing instrument for competency
measurement using Rasch Model Analysis for construct validation
(Azliana & Jamaludin, 2013; Jackson, Draugalis, Slack, Zachry, &
Agostino, 2002; and Nicholson, Griffin, Gillis, Wu, & Dunning,
2012). Bashook (2005) emphasized on psychometric requirements
in developing competency assessment. When measuring the
competencies of an individual during training or in practice, the
goal is for each assessment to be an accurate measure of the
persons knowledge, skills, abilities, or performance. Accuracy
means that the scores from the assessment are reliable and a valid
measure of that persons performance. The purpose of the current
study is to serve as a strong evidence to support the validity of the
instrument prior to the actual study. In detail, the specific objectives
are to examine the validity and reliability of the newly developed
Star-Chef Competency instrument.
METHODOLOGY
A survey technique was employed in the data collection utilizing
Star-Chef Competency instrument. The Star-Chef Competency
instrument was administered to 35 hotel Chefs who work in the
kitchen operations of hotels in Johor. Items in the instrument were

696

adapted from the instrument used in previous studies by Bissett,

Cheng & Brannan, 2010; Hu, 2010; and Zopiatis, 2010) which also
measures Chefs and culinary practitioners competencies as well as
specific government guidelines for Malaysian Chefs competencies,
NOSS Development Guidelines Nurfirdawati, Azmanirah, Marina,
Jamil, & Sarebah (2014) and World Chefs certification Scheme by
World Association of Chefs Societies (WACS) (Global Culinary
Certification, 2013).

RESULTS
Profile of the respondents
Table 1 shows the profile of the respondents; gender, age groups,
job positions and years of experience in culinary industry.
Table 1 Demographic profile of Respondents
Demographic factors
Gender
Age
(years old)

Job Position

Culinary experience

Education background

Factors
Male
Female
18-25
26-35
36-45
< 46
Executive Chef
Sous Chef
Executive Sous Chef
Pastry Chef
Chef de Partie
Commis
Below 5 years
5-10 years
11-15 years
16-20 years
21 years and above
High School graduate
College/ university (Diploma)

697

f
%
23
65.7
12
34.3
4
11.4
17
48.6
8
22.9
6
17.1
1
2.9
7
20.0
2
5.7
3
8.6
8
22.9
14
40.0
8
22.9
7
20.0
6
17.1
8
22.9
6
17.1
26
74.3
9
25.7
(Sample, n=35)

Analysis of Chefs Competencies for Superior

Performance (Star-Chef Competency Instrument)

Work

The data was analyzed using Winsteps version 3.72.3, a Raschbased item analysis program. Findings are presented into two
sections; the reliability and separation index and item validity.
Reliability and Separation Index for all items in the Star-Chef
Competency instrument
Figure 1 shows the value of items reliability and separation index.
The value of item reliability for the Star-Chef Competency
instrument is 0.80 with the item separation index of 2.00. The value
for person reliability is 0.99 with person separation index of 10.01.
These values indicate that each of the items is highly acceptable as
suggested by Bond and Fox (2007).

Figure 1 Item and Person reliability for all items in Star-Chef

Competency instrument

All items in the instrument are accepted because the separation

698

index is equal to 2, which is considered as acceptable value

(Azrilah, Azlinah, Noor Habibah, Sohaimi, Hamza & Mohd
Saidfudin, 2008). The data shows that items in the Star-Chef
Competency instrument can be categorize into 2 groups of item
ability strata. Person separation is used to classify people. Low
person separation (< 2, person reliability < 0.8) with a relevant
person sample implies that the instrument may not be sensitive
enough to distinguish between high and low performers. More
items may be needed (Linacre, 2002). As for the current study, the
person separation index value is 10.01 which is highly acceptable
and demonstrate that there are 10 levels of person ability can be
categorized in the instrument. The finding shows that the instrument
is able to distinguish people with different levels of competencies.

Reliability and Separation Index for each constructs in Star-Chef

Competency instrument
Table 2 shows the value of item reliability and separation index
obtained for all constructs. From the table, it can be seen that most
of the constructs of Star-Chef Competency instrument showed item
reliability value that is greater than 0.7. These values indicate that
each of the constructs is highly acceptable (Bond & Fox, 2007).
Table 2 Items reliability and separation index for each constructs of
Star-Chef Competency instrument
Constructs

Item ID

Items

Technical
Non-technical
Personality
Work performance
Total

1-86
87-165
166-195
196-203

86
79
30
8
203

Item
reliability
0.78
0.84
0.80
0.80

Separation
index
1.90
2.33
2.00
2.02

All of the constructs are accepted because the separation indexes

are equal to and higher than 2, which is considered as acceptable
value. However, technical competency construct need to be revised
as the value of item separation is 1.90 and it has the lowest item

699

reliability among other constructs (0.78). Item separation is used to

verify the item hierarchy. Low item separation (< 3 = high, medium,
low item difficulties, item reliability < 0.9) implies that the person
sample is not large enough to confirm the item difficulty hierarchy
(= construct validity) of the instrument (Linacre, 2002). The higher
the value of the separation index of the items, the better the
measurement instrument because the items are separated by levels
of varying difficulty. The separation index will increase if the
reliability of items is increased and misfit items are detected and
removed from the analysis. Table 3 shows the value of person
reliability and separation index for the constructs. The person
separation index value for all constructs is acceptable.
Table 3 Person reliability and separation index for each constructs of
Star-Chef Competency instrument
Constructs

Item ID

Technical
Non-technical
Personality
Work performance
Total

1-86
87-165
166-195
196-203

Total
items
86
79
30
8
203

Person
reliability
0.98
0.98
0.94
0.88

Separation
index
6.84
7.56
4.10
2.76

Item Validity
Item Polarity and Item Fit
Polarity item analysis represents by the (PTMEA correlation) value
determines whether all items are moving in one direction with the
constructs. Based on Table 4, all of the correlation coefficient is
positive for each of the constructs, showing the item ability to
measure the Chefs competencies is valid (Linacre, 2002).

700

Table 4 Polarity of items constructs

Constructs

PTMEA CORR

Min
Item
Max
Technical
0.13
TNCQ7
0.86
Non-technical
0.24
COGN1
0.86
Personality
0.4
NEUR5
0.84
Work performance 0.76
SWP7
0.85
*Max = maximum value; Min = minimum value

Item
COST5
HOW7
CONS3
SWP4

Total
items
86
79
30
8

Fit of the items in measuring the constructs is determined by total

mean square Infit and mean square Outfit of each item and the
respondent. Items which are below or exceeded the accepted range
(0.60 to 1.40) has to be separated in order to make modifications or
rephrase (Linacre, 2005). Items with value exceed 1.4 are
considered as items that are not homogenous with other items in the
same construct measurement scale. Items below value of 0.6
indicate that these items are redundant with other items. Table 5
(Appendix) shows Infit MNSQ and Outfit MNSQ value of the
instrument items and respondents. Analysis of the content validity
of the 203 items revealed that 136 item not demonstrate acceptable
goodness-of-fit to the Rasch measurement model, meaning that the
respondents scores on this particular item were inconsistent with
their overall response patterns. Tentatively, the Rasch measurement
model recommends these items to be deleted or rephrasing, after
considering the study objectives and purpose of measurement.

Unidimensionality
Raw variance explained by measures is the benchmark of the
instrument unidimensionality. Rasch analysis accept minimum
value of standardized residual variance at 40%, however the best
index value is 60% (Azrilah, et al. (2008).

701

Figure 6 Standardized residual variance (in eigenvalue)

The value of unexplained variance in 1st contrast must not

exceed 15% [3]. Based on Figure 6, the raw variance explained by
measures is 42.7%, whereas the unexplained variance in 1st
contrast is 8.2%. Table 5 shows the value of raw variance explained
by measures and the value of unexplained variance in 1st contrast
for each constructs in Star-Chef Competency instrument.
Table 5 Standardized residual variance (in eigenvalue) for each
constructs in Star-Chef Competency instrument
Constructs
Technical
Non-technical
Personality
Work performance

Raw variance explained

by measures
47.5%
51.3%
50.4%
65.6%

Unexplained variance
in 1st contrast
8.8%
6.7%
8.5%
13.6%

Discussions and Conclusions

Person separation for the present study is even broader continuum
than for items. It is typical to find larger separation values for items
than for persons, a function of the fact that most researchers work
with a small number of items and a larger number of people (Green
& Frantom, 2002). Conversely, the present study presents 203 items
and 35 people. Separation is affected by sample size, as are fit
indices and error estimates. With larger sample sizes, separation
tends to increase and error decrease. Thus, the current study needs
to revise and take into account this matter in order to increase the

702

separation of items in the Star-Chef Competency instrument.

Tentatively, in scale revision, the researchers are aware that there
are 136 items that need to be put into consideration. For the next
stage of study, a shortened version of the Star-Chef Competency
instrument can be considered after further modifications. The
researcher will prepare a precise instrument with less and
comprehensive items to enhance understanding of the respondents
towards the context of the study. With such characteristics of
questionnaire, the time spends in completing the questionnaire will
be much less time-consuming for technical workers who involved
in demanding daily work operations. Generally, the Star-Chef
Competency instrument is able to achieve the aims as a good
instrument to measure Chefs competencies. Analyses of validity
and reliability demonstrate that psychometric properties of StarChef Competency are good, thus demonstrates the instrument able
to produce meaningful measurement.

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705

706

Fig. 1.
APPENDIX-Analysis of Misfit
MEASURE
MODEL S.E.
INFIT
.32
.60
.38
-.98
-.22
.03
-.41
.21
.26
-.22
-.03
-.62
.26
.03
-.09
.26
-.22
-.09
-.83
-.76
-.35
-.83
1.06
.81
1.20
.86
.86
-.35
.70
-.76
.26
-1.06
-1.82
.03
-.22
-1.29
-.09
-.28
-1.29
-.16
-.03
.38
.32
-.28
-.09
-.16
.60

.24
.23
.24
.27
.25
.25
.26
.24
.24
.25
.25
.26
.24
.25
.25
.24
.25
.25
.27
.27
.26
.27
.22
.23
.22
.23
.23
.26
.23
.27
.24
.28
.31
.25
.25
.29
.25
.25
.29
.25
.25
.24
.24
.25
.25
.25
.23

MNSQ
1.78
1.34
1.22
1.77
1.77
2.03
1.55
1.52
1.61
1.44
1.47
1.27
1.35
2.46
1.21
1.59
1.33
2.00
1.81
1.64
1.64
1.46
1.50
1.39
1.41
1.29
1.18
1.36
1.22
1.26
1.23
1.61
1.44
1.44
1.33
1.40
1.39
1.79
1.27
1.17
1.46
1.82
1.37
1.50
1.48
2.36
1.83

Items

ZSTD
2.7
1.3
.9
2.6
2.6
3.3
2.0
1.9
2.2
1.6
1.7
1.1
1.3|
4.3
.9
2.1
1.3
3.2
2.7
2.2
2.2
1.7
1.9
1.5
1.6
1.2
.8
1.4
.9
1.0
1.0
2.2
1.6
1.6
1.3
1.5
1.5
2.6
1.1
.7
1.7
2.8
1.4
1.8
1.8
4.0
2.8

707

OUTFIT
MNSQ
1.76
1.31
1.30
1.47
1.60
2.07
1.50
1.57
1.57
1.58
1.35
1.10
1.25
2.37
1.11
1.61
1.47
2.19
1.93
1.70
1.36
1.39
1.61
1.57
1.49
1.49
1.37
1.37
1.24
1.41
1.26
1.40
1.19
1.35
1.23
1.17
1.33
1.58
1.06
1.23
1.36
1.75
1.23
1.39
1.34
2.05
1.78

ZSTD
2.7
1.3
1.2
1.7
2.2
3.5
1.9
2.1
2.1
2.1
1.4
.5
1.1
4.2
.5
2.2
1.8
3.8
3.0
2.4
1.4
1.5
2.2
2.1
1.9
1.9
1.5
1.4
1.0
1.5
1.1
1.5
.7
1.4
1.0
.7
1.3
2.1
.3
1.0
1.4
2.7
1.0
1.5
1.4
3.4
2.7

PT-MEASURE

ITEM

CORR. EXP.
J.52 .61
.58 .62
.60 .61
K .52 .54
L .54 .58
E .39 .59
X .51 .57
U .25 .60
Q .57 .60
T .13 .58
.58 .59
.50 .56
.62 .60
A .24 .59
.48 .59
P .49 .60
.45 .58
C .26 .59
F .37 .55
N .31 .55
O .59 .58
.45 .55
R .41 .63
V .45 .62
.47 .64
.41 .63
.42 .63
.46 .58
.38 .62
.34 .55
.60 .60
S .39 .54
.37 .47
.58 .59
.55 .58
.22 .52
.46 .59
I .31 .58
.37 .52
.55 .59
.66 .59
H .67 .61
.49 .61
Y .60 .58
.49 .59
B .43 .59
G .60 .62

AEST3
AEST4
AEST5
TCNQ1
TCNQ2
TCNQ3
TCNQ4
TCNQ5
TCNQ6
TCNQ7
TCNQ8
TCNQ9
TCNQ10
TCNQ11
PDCT1
PDCT2
PDCT3
PDCT5
TECH5
TECH6
QUAL1
QUAL4
NUTR5
SCIE1
SCIE3
SCIE4
SCIE5
CULT1
CULT2
SOCI3
SOCI4
SOCI5
SOCI6
SOCI8
PROF4
PROF5
LEAR5
EMOT2
EMOT8
WHY7
WHOM7
WHOM8
SWP3
SWP4
SWP7
SWP8
SWP11

.81
-.90
.60
-.62
1.11
-.22
.09
-.22
-.98
-1.13
-1.29

.23
.27
.23
.26
.22
.25
.24
.25
.27
.28
.29

.15
.26
.60
.15
.32
.86
.65
.09
.86
-.28
-.16
-.48
.26
.43
.21
.54
.75
. 91
.03
.15
-.98
-1.29
-.22
-.35
.09
-.35
.54
.26
.49
-.03
-.03
-.76
-.22
-.09
-.09
-.35
-.03
.16

.24
.24
.23
.24
.24
.23
.23
.24
.23
.25
.25
.26
.24
.24
.24
.23
.23
.22
.25
.24
.27
.29
.25
.26
.24
.26
.23
.24
.23
.25
.25
.27
.25
.25
.25
.26
.25
-.25

1.56 2.1
1.51 1.9
1.25 1.0
1.13 .6
1.35 1.4
1.33 1.3
1.28 1.1
1.28 1.1
1.45 1.7
1.49 1.9
1.80 2.7
2.12 3.6
1.70 2.4
1.74 2.6
1.32 1.3
1.15 .7
1.23 .9
1.11 .5
1.36 1.4
1.24 .9
1.23 .9
1.14 .6
BETTER FITTING OMITTED
.86 -.5
.80 -.8
.68 -1.3
.73 -1.2
.65 -1.5
.62 -1.8
.66 -1.5
.70 -1.3
.69 -1.3
.80 -.8
.78 -.9
.81 -.8
.80 -.8
.77 -1.0
.76 -1.0
.77 -.9
.75 -1.0
.78 -.9
.43 -2.8
.52 -2.3
.59 -1.8
.64 -1.6
.73 -1.1
.77 -.9
.64 -1.6
.73 -1.2
.65 -1.5
.78 -.9
.74 -1.1
.77 -1.0
.73 -1.1
.67 -1.5
.40 -3.2
.40 -3.2
.61 -1.8
.58 -2.0
.69 -1.3
.71 -1.3
.29 -4.0
.34 -3.7
.68 -1.3
.63 -1.6
.59 -1.9
.53 -2.0
.33 -3.6
.32 -3.8
.78 -.8
.73 -1.1
.59 -1.9
.64 -1.6
.58 -1.9
.59 -1.9
.48 -2.6
.51 -2.4
.60 -1.8
.61 -1.8
.45 -2.7
.49 -2.6
.55 -2.1
.57 -2.0
.74 -1.1
.76 -1.0
.52 68.6
.59-2.2
.80 -.8
.77 -1.0
.59 -1.9
.59 -1.9
.75 -1.0
.72 -1.2
.68 -1.4
.64 -1.6
.59 -1.9
.63 -1.7
.59 -1.8
.63 -1.7

708

W .65 .62
.55 .55
.57 .62
.43 .56
Z .50 .63
D .46 .58
M .37 .60
.52 .58
.45 .54
.42 .53
.41 .52

SWP13
AGRE2
NEUR4
E XTR1
EXTR3
OPEN1
OPEN2
PHYS1
PHYS3
PHYS4
PHYS5

.73 .60
.61 .60
.68 .62
.67 .60
.50 .61
.61 .63
.70 .62
.69 .60
.65 .63
m .67 .58
.66 .59
.59 .57
.55 .60
.60 .61
.66 .60
.75 .61
e .90 .62
y .83 .63
.63 .59
c .75 .60
.76 .54
q .71 .52
b .83 .58
.58 .58
.77 .60
r .73 .58
l .78 .61
z .71 .60
j .89 .61
p .83 .59
.80 .59
.59 -1.8
.67 .58|
t .73 .59
.65 .59
.74 .58
.75 .59
.73 .59

INNO5
INNO3
NUTR1
NUTR2
NUTR3
NUTR6
AEST1
CREA1
CREA4
HYGN1
HYGN2
HYGN3
HYGN5
HYGN6
RESE1
RESE2
RESE3
RESE4
RESE5
SAFE1
SAFE3
SAFE4
SAFE5
SAFE6
QUAL3
QUAL5
WHOM1
WHOM2
WHOM3
WHOM4
WHOM5
WHOM6
WHY1
WHY3
WHY4
WHY6
HOW1
HOW2

-.35
.09
.60
.03
.43
-.16
-.62
-.22
-.09
-.41
-.22
-.69
.60
.43
.65
.60
.09
.60
.65
-.28
.03
.65
1.15
1.15
1.20
.86
.03
-1.29
-.62
-.35
-.16
-.62
-.09
-.76
.21
.43
-.16
-.41
-.48
-.48

.26
.24
.23
.25
.24
.25
.26
.25
.25
.26
.25
.27
.23
.24
.23
.23
.24
.23
.23
.25
.25
.23
.22
.22
.22
.23
.25
.29
.26
.26
.25
.26
.25
.27
.24
.24
.25
.26
.26
.26

.62
.70
.76
.48
.64
.51
.64
.74
.43
.57
.37
.52
.71
.65
.49
.64
.61
.70
.63
.63
.66
.55
.28
.72
.42
.42
.64
.80
.65
.68
.68
.80
.79
.63
.61
.60
.68
.69
.46
.78

-1.7
-1.3
-1.0
-2.5
-1.6
-2.3
-1.5
-1.1
-2.9
-1.9
-3.3
-2.2
-1.3
-1.5
-2.5
-1.6
-1.8
-1.3
-1.7
-1.6
-1.5
-2.1
-4.3
-1.2
-3.1
-3.0
-1.6
-.8
-1.5
-1.4
-1.4
-.7
-.8
-1.6
-1.8
-1.8
-1.4
-1.3
-2.6
-.9

.66
.72
.81
.50
.66
.54
.67
.72
.45
.60
.36
.51
.78
.73
.60
.72
.63
.70
.63
.59
.65
.62
.32
.76
.40
.42
.69
.91
.62
.63
.71
.77
.81
.65
.60
.60
.71
.68
.45
.74

709

-1.5
-1.2
-.8
-2.5
-1.5
-2.2
-1.4
-1.2
-2.8
-1.8
-3.5
-2.3
-.9
-1.2
-1.9
-1.2
-1.7
-1.3
-1.7
-1.9
-1.6
-1.8
-3.9
-1.0
-3.3
-3.1
-1.4
-.2
-1.7
-1.7
-1.3
-.9
-.8
-1.5
-1.9
-1.9
-1.3
-1.4
-2.8
-1.1

.77
.78
.68
k .87
.79
o .59
.56
.52
h .76
v .76
d .81
n .64
.51
.75
u .77
.62
.74
.67
.75
.73
.82
.74
a .76
.65
f .80
g .74
.78
.49
.68
.73
.73
.74
.69
.66
x .72
w.73
.68
.67
i .81
.64

.58
.60
.62
.59
.61
.59
.56
.58
.59
.57
.58
.56
.62
.61
.62
.62
.60
.62
.62
.58
.59
.62
.64
.64
.64
.63
.59
.52
.56
.58
.59
.56
.59
.55
.60
.61
.59
.57
.57
.57

HOW3
HOW4
HOW6
HOW7
INFO3
LEAR1
LEAR4
MGMT1
MGMT2
MGMT3
MGMT4
MGMT5
COGN2
COGN3
COGN4
COGN5
COGN6
COGN7
COGN8
PROF2
PROF3
ENTR1
ENTR2
ENTR3
ENTR4
ENTR5
COST3
SOCI7
EMOT4
EMOT5
LEAD1
LEAD2
NEUR2
AGRE3
OPEN3
OPEN4
CONS2
CONS3
CONS5
SWP1

TAHAP KEMAHIRAN BERFIKIR

KRITIS MATEMATIK PELAJAR
SEKOLAH MENENGAH ATAS
NEGERI DI DAERAH BONE
SULAWESI SELATAN
Firdaus & Ismail Bin Kailani

ABSTRACT
Critical thinking is a compulsory skill for student because it can
help students in analyzing and evaluating the information for their
successful in the future. This study involved 69 students of XII
Science Program Level at Secondary High School (SMAN) in
Bone, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. They were selected from 20142015 academic years which consist of 39 students in urban school
and 30 students from rural school area. This study aims to
determine the level of critical thinking skills of secondary high
school students in Bone for non-routine mathematical problem
solving. It identifies three components of assessment namely;
identification and interpretation, analysis of information, and
evaluation of evidence and arguments. The results showed that the
level of critical thinking skills of mathematics students in the
identification and interpretation of information is at good level,
while the analysis of the information at moderate level, as well as
evaluating the evidence and arguments.
Keywords: Critical thinking, Non-routine

710

1. PENGENALAN
Pelbagai kajian menunjukkan bahawa kemahiran berfikir kritis
pelajar Indonesia dalam menyelesaikan masalah matematik tidak
rutin berada pada tahap rendah. Kenyataan ini disokong oleh hasil
kajian peringkat antara bangsa iaitu kajian Trends in Mathematics
and Science Study (TIMSS 2011) bahawa pelajar Indonesia
menduduki tempat ke-38 bagi matematik daripada 42 buah negara
yang mengambil bahagian (Mullis et al., 2012). Manakala kajian
OECD pada PISA 2012 pelajar Indonesia menduduki tempat ke-64
bagi literasi matematik daripada 65 buah negara yang mengambil
bahagian (OECD, 2013). Peringkat pelajar Indonesia yang rendah
tersebut disebabkan sistem pendidikan di Indonesia masih
memberikan tumpuan pada peperiksaan di mana kebiasaan guru
memberikan soalan-soalan matematik yang rutin (Soedjadi, 2000).
Kebanyakan proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang berlaku di
sekolah adalah kaedah syarahan yang bertumpu pada hafalan fakta
menyebabkan pelajar kurang berfikir dengan kritis (Phillips, 1995;
Duplass dan Ziedler, 2002; Hemming, 2000). Justru pengabaian
terhadap kepentingan kemahiran berfikir dalam proses pengajaran
dan pembelajaran memberi kesan kepada kebolehan berfikir pelajar
(Newmann, 1990; Onosko, 1989).
Kajian literatur menunjukkan bahawa tidak banyak ditemui
kajian yang berkaitan dengan berfikir kritis matematik pada
peringkat sekolah menengah atas di Indonesia, khasnya yang
melibatkan pelajar-pelajar di Sulawesi Selatan. Kerana itu, kajian
ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui tahap berfikir kritis pelajar sekolah
menengah di Daerah Bone Sulawesi Selatan dalam menyelesaikan
masalah matematik tidak rutin. Kajian ini menggunakan tiga
komponen penilaian kemahiran berfikir kritis matematik iaitu (1)
mengenal pasti dan interpretasi maklumat, (2) analisis maklumat,
dan (3) menilai bukti dan hujah.

711

2. LATAR BELAKANG MASALAH

Kemahiran berfikir kritis matematik adalah proses berfikir kritis
yang terkait dengan pengetahuan matematik, penaakulan
matematik dan pembuktian matematik dalam menyelesaikan
masalah matematik (Krulik dan Rudnick, 1995). Manakala Glazer
(2001) menyatakan bahawa berfikir kritis dalam matematik adalah
kemahiran kognitif dan disposisi untuk menggabungkan
pengetahuan, penaakulan, serta strategi kognitif dalam membuat
inferens, membuktikan dan menilai situasi matematik yang tidak
dikenali dengan cara reflektif. Kajian ini menggunakan tiga
komponen penilaian kemahiran berfikir kritis matematik iaitu (1)
mengenal pasti dan interpretasi maklumat, (2) analisis maklumat,
dan (3) menilai bukti dan hujah (Krulik dan Rudnick, 1995;
Glazer, 2001; Ennis, 1996; Facione, 2010).
Kajian menunjukkan bahawa pengajaran matematik masih
memberikan tumpuan pada amalan latih tubi dan tidak membantu
pelajar untuk berfikir kritis dan menggunakan pengetahuan mereka
pada situasi kehidupan nyata (Cobb et al., 1992). Menurut
Stodolsky dan Grossman, ramai guru matematik menganggap
matematik merupakan pengetahuan yang sudah baku dan
menganggap bahawa tanggung jawap guru hanya memindahkan
pengetahuannya kepada pelajar (Staples, 2007). Kebiasaan guru
untuk menilai kemampuan akademik matematik pelajar dengan
memberikan soalan-soalan rutin yang memiliki prosedur
penyelesaian yang tertentu. Demikian pula teknik pengajaran yang
tidak melibatkan soalan-soalan kognitif tahap yang tinggi (Norris
dan Ennis, 1989; Hemming, 2000; Marlina dan Shaharoom, 2010).
Kebiasaan ini akan membuat pelajar bersikap pasif dan tidak ada
dorongan untuk berfikir (Phillips, 1995; Turmudi, 2008). Hal
tersebut disokong oleh Kuhn (2001) bahawa pelajar cenderung
kurang terlibat dalam pemikiran kritis jika mereka yakin bahawa
pengetahuan merupakan suatu perkara yang sudah mutlak dan tidak
boleh berubah.
Situasi pembelajaran tersebut kurang berkesan dan tidak akan

712

mencabar pelajar untuk berfikir kritis (Marlina dan Shaharoom,

2010). Di peringkat antara bangsa, kajian Trends in Mathematics
and Science Study (TIMSS 2011) yang dilakukan oleh
International Association for the Evaluation of Educational
Achievement Study Center Boston College terhadap pelajar sekolah
menengah tingkatan dua, pelajar Indonesia menduduki tempat ke38 bagi matematik daripada 42 buah negara yang mengambil
bahagian (Mullis et al., 2012). Manakala kajian OECD pada PISA
2012 pelajar Indonesia menduduki tempat ke-64 bagi literasi
matematik daripada 65 buah negara yang mengambil bahagian
(OECD, 2013). Kajian TIMSS bertumpu pada soalan-soalan
tentang konsep matematik manakala soalan-soalan pada kajian
PISA lebih berfokus pada aplikasi matematik pada kehidupan
seharian pelajar. Analisis kajian mendapati pelajar Indonesia cekap
menjawap soalan aritmetik tetapi lemah dalam penyelesaian
masalah tidak rutin yang melibatkan ayat-ayat, memberi pendapat
dan membuat penaakulan. Kesemua dapatan ini telah mendorong
pihak Kementerian Pendidikan Republik Indonesia memantapkan
lagi usaha meningkatkan kualiti pembelajaran matematik di
sekolah.

3. KEMAHIRAN BERFIKIR KRITIS MATEMATIK

Salah satu mata pelajaran yang boleh membangun kemahiran
berfikir kritis adalah matematik (De Bono, 1976; Rajendran, 2010;
Appelbaum, 2004). Berfikir kritis dapat dikembangkan melalui
proses pembelajaran matematik kerana matematik memiliki
struktur dan keterkaitan yang kuat dan jelas antar konsepnya
sehingga pelajar yang mempelajari matematik berpotensi untuk
dapat berfikir rasional, logis dan kritis (Rajendran, 2010).
Kemahiran berfikir kritis sangat diperlukan dalam pembelajaran
matematik, kerana kemahiran berfikir kritis dapat meningkatkan
kualiti pembelajaran matematik yang lebih baik dan bermakna,
sehingga perlu upaya yang sistematik untuk membangun

713

kemahiran tersebut melalui pembelajaran matematik di sekolah

(Resnick, 1990; Cobb et al., 1992).
Secara umum kemahiran berfikir kritis ialah kebolehan untuk
menilai kemunasabahan sesuatu idea (Pusat Perkembangan
Kurikulum, 2002). Kemahiran berfikir kritis sangat penting dalam
menyelesaikan masalah kehidupan manusia, sama ada dalam
kehidupan secara individu mahupun ketika melakukan interaksi
sosial di masyarakat (Shakirova, 2007). Kemahiran berfikir kritis
hanya boleh diajarkan dalam bilik darjah dengan pembelajaran
yang bertumpu pada pelajar, sehingga berfikir kritis tidak efektif
diajarkan dalam bilik darjah tradisional yang menekankan hafalan
(Kennedy, 1991; Nickerson, 1987).
Pelbagai definisi berfikir kritis dinyatakan oleh pakar dengan
cara yang berbeza (Beyer, 1985). Sternberg (1986) menyatakan
bahawa berfikir kritis sebagai suatu proses mental, strategi dan
representasi untuk menyelesaikan masalah, membuat keputusan
dan belajar sesuatu yang baru. Demikian pula Krulik dan Rudnick
(1995) menyatakan bahawa berfikir kritis iaitu berfikir yang
melibatkan aktiviti menguji, menyoal, menghubungkan dan
menilai semua aspek daripada suatu situasi atau masalah, dan
berfikir kritis merupakan berfikir analitik dan refleksi. Manakala
menurut Ennis (1996) menyatakan bahawa berfikir kritis iaitu
berfikir reflektif yang bertumpu pada pola pengambilan keputusan
tentang apa yang mesti diyakini dan yang mesti dilakukan. Selari
dengan itu, Facione (2010) telah mengemukakan definisi
pemikiran kritis yang dirumuskan daripada pendapat sekumpulan
pakar. Definisi tersebut adalah hasil kajian yang beliau lakukan dan
dikemukakan dalam laporan Delphi (The Delphi Report). Pakar
merumuskan bahawa konsep asas yang terpenting dalam pemikiran
kritis ialah kebolehan interpretasi, membuat analisis, penilaian,
membuat kesimpulan, penjelasan, dan kawalan kendiri.

714

4. PERNYATAAN MASALAH
Kurikulum
pendidikan di Indonesia menekankan bahawa
kemahiran berfikir kritis matematik adalah penting untuk dicapai
oleh pelajar (KTSP, 2006). Tetapi kenyataan menunjukkan bahawa
kemahiran berfikir kritis pelajar di Indonesia dalam menyelesaikan
masalah tidak rutin masih rendah (Herman, 2006; Rohaeti, 2010).
Penyelidikan Rohaeti (2010) menemukan bahawa kesukaran
pelajar dalam berfikir kritis matematik adalah menghadapi masalah
yang berasas situasi nyata, menaakul secara matematik, dan
menyelesaikan masalah dengan pelbagai cara serta terhad
kemahiran dalam membuat keterkaitan antara idea baru dengan
konsep matematik yang telah dipahami sebelumnya. Situasi ini
ditunjukkan pula oleh rendahnya kemampuan pelajar Indonesia
menyelesaikan masalah tidak rutin pada pencapaian pelajar-pelajar
tingkat dua sekolah menengah di Indonesia berdasarkan TIMSS
2011 dan PISA 2012.

5. OBJEKTIF KAJIAN
Objektif kajian ini ialah menentukan tahap kemahiran berfikir
kritis pelajar dalam menyelesaikan masalah matematik tidak rutin
pelajar SMAN di daerah Bone Sulawesi Selatan
6. PERSOALAN KAJIAN
Persoalan kajian ini ialah apakah tahap kemahiran berfikir kritis
pelajar dalam menyelesaikan masalah matematik tidak rutin pelajar
SMAN di daerah Bone Sulawesi Selatan?

7. REKA BENTUK KAJIAN

Kajian ini berbentuk kuantitatif deskriptif. Dalam konteks kajian
ini, bentuk kajian yang digunakan ialah kaedah ujian bertulis di

715

mana pelajar perlu menjawab semua soalan pada tempoh masa

yang telah ditetapkan.

7.1

SUBJEK KAJIAN

Seramai 69 orang pelajar Tingkat XII Program IPA (Sains) Sekolah

Menengah Atas Negeri (SMAN) di Daerah Bone Sulawesi Selatan
Indonesia tahun akademik 2014-2015 yang terdiri daripada 39
orang pelajar SMAN dalam Bandar dan 30 orang pelajar luar
Bandar terlibat dalam kajian ini. Julat umur pelajar yang terlibat
dalam kajian ini adalah antara 16 hingga 17 tahun. Dalam konteks
kajian ini, pemilihan pelajar tahun akhir SMAN dibuat secara
bertujuan iaitu penyelidik dengan sengaja memilih sampel dengan
tujuan mendapatkan jumlah sampel yang mewakili populasi
(Mohamad Najib Abdul Ghafar, 1999)

7.2

TATA CARA KAJIAN

Responden perlu menjawap 4 soalan matematik tidak rutin

dalam masa 90 minit. Berdasarkan jawapan pelajar dianalisis dan
diterangkan dengan menggunakan 3 komponen penilaian
kemahiran berfikir kritis iaitu (1) mengenalpasti dan interpretasi
maklumat, (2) analisis maklumat, dan (3) menilai bukti dan hujah.
Skema pemarkaan diberi kepada jawapan pelajar berdasarkan
rubrik kemahiran berfikir kritis (Jadual 1). Seterusnya peratus bagi
setiap komponen penilaian dikira dengan membahagikan markah
yang diperolehi untuk setiap komponen penilaian dengan markah
penuh bagi setiap komponen penilaian item soalan. Terdapat 5
tahap yang dipertimbangkan iaitu tahap kemahiran cemerlang,
baik, sederhana, lemah dan sangat lemah untuk menentukan tahap
kemahiran berfikir kritis dalam menyelesaikan soalan tidak rutin
berdasarkan pemarkahan Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (Rujuk
Jadual 2).

716

Jadual 1 Pedoman penskoran rubrik kemahiran berfikir kritis matematik pelajar

Aspek yang Respon pelajar terhadap soalan
diukur
Tidak dapat menemukan fakta dan konsep
yang penting dari soalan
Menemukan sebagian fakta dan konsep
Mengenal
yang penting dari soalan yang diberikan,
pasti
dan Dapat menemukan fakta dan konsep tetapi
Interpretasi
tidak dapat memformulasikan masalah
maklumat
Menemukan fakta dan konsep yang penting,
dapat memformulasikan masalah
tetapi
tidak sempurna
Menemukan fakta dan konsep yang penting
dan dapat memformulasikan masalah dengan
sempurna.
Tidak ada usaha menganalisis andaian, fakta
dan konsep
Dapat menganalisis sebahagian andaian,
fakta dan konsep, tetapi tidak dapat
mengaitkannya
Analisis
Dapat menganalisis andaian, fakta dan
maklumat
konsep, mengaitkannya tetapi tidak dapat
mentafsir masalah menjadi model matematik
Dapat menganalisis andaian, fakta dan
konsep, mengaitkannya tetapi ada kesalahan
dalam mentafsir masalah menjadi model
matematik
Dapat menganalisis andaian, fakta dan
konsep, mengaitkannya dan dapat mentafsir
masalah menjadi model matematik
Menilai
Tidak ada usaha melakukan prosedural
bukti
dan penyelesaian
hujah
Melakukan prosedural penyelesaian atau
arah penyelesaian yang tidak jelas
Dapat melakukan prosedural penyelesaian
dengan arah yang jelas, tetapi ada fakta atau
konsep yang salah dalam penggunaannya.
Dapat melakukan prosedural penyelesaian
dengan benar tetapi ada kesalahan dalam

717

skor
0
1
2
3

4
0
1

4
0

1
2

melakukan pengiraan atau dapat melakukan

prosedural pembuktian formula, tetapi
terdapat kesalahan penggunaan konsep
Dapat melakukan prosedural penyelesaian
dengan benar, tepat dalam melakukan 4
pengiraan atau dapat melakukan prosedural
pembuktian formula dengan benar

Manakala untuk memperoleh tahap kemahiran berfikir

kritis
matematik,
penyelidik
menggunakan
Pemarkaan
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia seperti berikut:
Jadual 2 Julat Markat Bagi Penentuan Tahap Penguasaan Kemahiran Berfikir
Kritis Matematik (Pemarkaan Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia)
Julat
Markat %
80 100
60 79
40 59
20 39
0 19

Tahap Berfikir
Kritis Pelajar
Cemerlang
Baik
Sederhana
Lemah
Sangat lemah

8. DAPATAN KAJIAN
Jadual 3 Tahap Kemahiran Berfikir Kritis Pelajar dalam menyelesaikan masalah
matematik tidak rutin
SMAN Daerah Bone
Komponen Penilaian

Tahap Kemahiran
Berfikir Kritis Pelajar Mengenal pasti dan
Interpretasi
maklumat

Cemerlang
Baik
Sederhana
Lemah
Sangat lemah

44.9
26.1
23.2
5.8
0.0

718

Analisis
maklumat

Menilai bukti dan

hujah

10.1
23.2
23.2
40.6
2.9

5.8
21.7
18.8
49.3
4.3

Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa tahap kemahiran

berfikir pelajar pada komponen mengenalpasti dan interpretasi
maklumat seramai 44.9% pelajar pada tahap cemerlang, 26.1%
pelajar pada tahap baik, 23.2% pada tahap sederhana dan 5.8%
pelajar pada tahap lemah. Manakala pada komponen analisis
maklumat seramai 10.1% pelajar pada tahap cemerlang, 23.2%
pelajar pada tahap baik, 23.2% pada tahap sederhana, 40.6%
pelajar pada tahap lemah dan 2.9% pelajar pada tahap sangat
lemah. Demikian pula pada komponen menilai bukti dan hujah
seramai 5.8 % pelajar pada tahap cemerlang, 21.7 % pelajar pada
tahap baik, 18.8 % pada tahap sederhana, 49.3% pelajar pada
tahap lemah dan 4.3% pelajar pada tahap sangat lemah. Secara
keseluruhannya, dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa tahap
kemahiran berfikir kritis matematik pelajar pada komponen
mengenalpasti dan interpretasi maklumat pada tahap baik,
manakala komponen analisis maklumat pada tahap sederhana,
demikian pula komponen menilai bukti dan hujah pada tahap
sederhana.

9. PERBINCANGAN
Tahap kemahiran berfikir kritis matematik pelajar SMAN di
Daerah Bone Sulawesi Selatan dalam menyelesaikan masalah
matematik tidak rutin pada komponen mengenalpasti dan
interpretasi maklumat pada tahap baik, manakala komponen
analisis maklumat pada tahap sederhana, demikian pula komponen
menilai bukti dan hujah pada tahap sederhana. Perkara ini
disebabkan kerana guru matematik hanya memberikan soalansoalan rutin yang terkait dengan tajuk yag diajarkan di bilik darjah
dan pelajar tidak terbiasa menyelesaikan masalah tidak rutin,.
Pelajar lemah dalam membuat model matematik daripada situasi
kehidupan nyata atau pelajar lemah dalam menafsirkan masalah
kehidupan seharian ke dalam model matematik. Dapatan ini
memberikan gambaran bahawa kemahiran berfikir pelajar sekolah

719

menengah dalam menyelesaikan masalah matematik tidak rutin

masih rendah, sehingga perlu upaya daripada semua pihak,
utamanya
guru
matematik
untuk
membantu
pelajar
mempertingkatkan tahap berfikir pelajar melalui proses pengajaran
dan pembelajaran yang berkesan.
Untuk menyelesaikan masalah matematik tidak rutin, pelajar
perlu membuat penerokaan mendalam kerana tidak memiliki
prosedur penyelesaian yang tertentu. Dalam proses tersebut, pelajar
melakukan proses pengkhususan, proses inferens (mencari pola
dan hubungan), membuat konjektur tentang masalah yang
dihadapi, meramalkan hubungan dan hasil, dan peyakinan
(membangun keyakinan tentang pemahaman yang telah dibangun,
mencari dan mengkomunikasikan alasan mengapa sesuatu itu
benar) (Polya, 1962; Mason, Burton, dan Stacey, 2010).

10. PENUTUP
Kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa tahap kemahiran berfikir kritis
matematik pelajar Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri di Daerah Bone
Sulawesi Selatan pada komponen mengenalpasti dan interpretasi
maklumat pada tahap baik, manakala komponen analisis maklumat
pada tahap sederhana, demikian pula komponen menilai bukti dan
hujah pada tahap sederhana.

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logical argument. Social Education. 66(5), 10-14

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722

ANALISIS PUKULAN SUDUT

PENALTI PASUKAN HOKI
WANITA MALAYSIA DI
PERINGKAT ASIA
Zurina Binti Md Yusof & Halijah Binti Ibrahim

ABSTRAK
Kajian ini dijalankan bagi mengenalpasti faktor-faktor kekuatan
dan kelemahan pukulan sudut penalti pasukan hoki wanita
Malaysia di perigkat asia pada peringkat kumpulan. Subjek terdiri
daripada empat pasukan yang terlibat dalam kajian ini antaranya
adalah pasukan dari China, Thailand, India dan pasukan Malaysia.
Kajian ini dijalankan menerusi analisis video perlawanan yang
dirakam semasa kejohanan Sukan Asia 2014 yang bertempat di
Incheon Korea. Elemen Pukulan Sudut Penalti adalah elemen
utama yang dianalisis bagi menyumbang serta memperolehi mata
jaringan semasa perlawanan. Terdapat dua pecahan dalam elemen
yang dianalisis antaranya adalah pukulan sudut penalti serangan
dan pukulan sudut penalti pertahanan. Dapatan kajian terdahulu
menunjukkan bahawa memperoleh pukulan sudut penalti boleh
menghasilkan jaringan gol kepada pasukan. Kedua-dua pecahan
yang terdapat dalam pukulan sudut penalti adalah penting bagi
semua pasukan. Kebanyakkan gol yang terhasil disetiap kejohanan
adalah melalui pukulan sudut penalti. Cadangan agar pasukan hoki
wanita Malaysia memantapkan semula pukulan sudut penalti
serangan dan pertahanan sedia ada supaya lebih bersistematik dan
mampu bersaing dengan pasukan Negara lain. Teknik dan taktikal
dalam pukulan sudut penalti serangan dan pertahanan boleh

723

meningkatkan prestasi pasukan untuk terus mengekalkan prestasi

yang baik. Sumbangan dan motivasi daripada jurulatih jugak amat
diperlukan supaya pemain meningkatkan prestasi dalam pukulan
sudut penalti dengan lebih baik pada masa hadapan. Keupayaan
dalam mendapatkan jaringan gol ketika melakukan pukulan sudut
penalti boleh menjadi faktor penentu dalam memenangi sebuah
pertandingan.
Kata kunci: Pukulan Sudut Penalti, Pukulan Sudut Penalti
Serangan, Pukulan Sudut Penalti Pertahanan

PENGENALAN
Malaysia mempunyai pasukan hoki yang dianggap salah satu
pasukan yang kuat di peringkat dunia dan sering kali menyertai
setiap kejohanan utama yang dianjurkan termasuk Pertandingan
Piala Dunia, Sukan Olimpik, Sukan Asia dan Kejohanan Antara
Benua. Manakala di peringkat Asia Tenggara, pasukan Malaysia
merupakan pasukan yang digeruni serta dianggap satu pasukan
yang kuat. Seterusnya diperingkat kebangsaan pula, setiap negeri
mempunyai pasukan tersendiri serta pelbagai kejohanan yang telah
dianjurkan oleh Persatuan Hoki Malaysia ataupun kelab-kelab
negeri.
PUKULAN SUDUT PENALTI
Pukulan sudut penalti merupakan aspek penting dalam permainan
hoki. Menurut Kerr dan Ness, (2010) menyatakan bahawa di dalam
sukan hoki, kebanyakkan jaringan dapat dihasilkan melalui
pukulan sudut penalti. Kejayaan pukulan sudut penalti mempunyai
tiga fasa yang perlu dilaksanakan dan diaplikasi iaitu pusher,
stopper dan seterusnya hantaran ke arah pintu gol samaada terus ke
arah gol, melalui set piece ataupun sentuhan kedua dari pihak
penyerang. Ketiga-tiga fasa ini mampu menyumbangkan gol

724

kepada pasukan penyerang. Walaubagaimanapun, menurut Lee

(2002) menyatakan bahawa drag flicker adalah penyumbang gol
utama yang paling banyak serta berjaya mencipta jaringan gol
pasukan di dalam pukulan sudut penalti. Menurut Laird dan
Sunderland (2003) menyatakan bahawa kemahiran teknikal dan
taktikal sukan hoki padang yang paling penting adalah teknik
pukulan sudul penalti. Hantaran drag-flick yang digunakan dalam
sukan hoki untuk mendapatkan jaringan gol kerana faktor kelajuan
dan ketepatan berbanding teknik lain seperti hits dan push semasa
pukulan sudut penalti (Yusoff et al. 2008). Namun serangan jenis
drag-flick sangat jarang digunakan oleh wanita berbanding lelaki
dalam pukulan sudut penalti ( C. L. de Subijana et al, 2010).
Di dalam strategi pukulan sudut penalti terdapat pelbagai set
pieces yang akan dipersembahkan. Setiap set pieces yang direka
mempunyai tujuan serta strategi serangan tersendiri hasil daripada
idea serta pengalaman jurulatih pasukan. Oleh itu analisis yang
dapat dilakukan melalui pukulan sudut penalti tertumpu kepada
sasaran kelemahan pasukan lawan samaada kelemahan disebabkan
oleh pemain pertahanan, penjaga gol mahupun strategi pihak
lawan. Analisis akan dibuat melalui pemerhatian setiap pukulan
sudut penalti yang telah dianugerahkan oleh pengadil sepanjang
perlawanan.

Elemen Pukulan Sudut Penalti

Sudut Penalti Serangan
Semasa melakukan pukulan sudut penalti, terdapat tiga fasa utama
yang perlu dilaksanakan oleh pasukan serangan (Kerr dan Ness,
2010). Fasa pertama yang wajib bagi setiap pasukan adalah push-in
oleh pusher dengan berdiri dekat dengan garisan gol sekurangkurangnya satu kaki di luar garisan gol. Mata dan bahu kiri pusher
menghala kearah sasaran serta cangkuk batang hoki terhadap bola
di atas garisan gol. Seterusnya pergerakkan push-in melibatkan

725

pergerakan putaran yang cepat bermula dari pinggul, bahu dan

lengan secara serentak dengan berat badan dari kaki belakang
dipindahkan ke kaki hadapan. Bola diseret di permukaan padang
dengan kayu hoki untuk jarak tertentu dan kemudian dilepaskan
kearah sasaran utama iaitu stopper. Kedua-dua pergerakan badan
dan lakuan perlu dilakukan secara serentak ke arah sasaran yang
dituju.

Rajah 2 : Fasa pertama iaitu push-in dari pusher

Fasa seterusnya adalah fasa kedua iaitu fasa trap oleh
stopper ketika bola sampai melepasi garisan D. Dimana bahu kiri
stopper mestilah selari dengan tiang gol kiri dan kaki kiri haruslah
berada lebih hadapan dengan kaki kanan. Kemudian menyerkap
bola yang telah melepasi garisan D. Seterusnya stopper perlu
menolak sedikit bola tersebut ke dalam D untuk fasa ke tiga.

726

Rajah 3 : Fasa kedua iaitu stopper menyerkap bola dan menolak

bola ke dalam garisan D.
Akhir sekali adalah fasa yang dilakukan oleh penyerang
ketiga samada hit, push, drag-flic atau set piece. Pada fasa ini
penyerang perlu mempunyai matlamat samaada menghantar bola
terus kepada goal ataupun kepada penyerang lain.

727

Rajah 4 : Fasa 3 iaitu fasa serangan dari pihak ketiga oleh

penyerang
Walaubagaimanapun menurut Chivers dan Elliott (1987),
keseluruhan masa yang diambil untuk melakukan pukulan sudut
penalti adalah kira-kira 1 minit 9 saat hingga 2 minit 3 saat bagi
pemain lelaki dan perempuan mengikut standard kebangsaan. Oleh
itu adalah amat penting pukulan sudut penalti ini dilakukan secara
tepat dan bermatlamat bagi menghasilkan jaringan gol pasukan.
Pukulan Sudut Penalti Pertahanan
Pada setiap pukulan sudut penalti terdapat pasukan penyerang dan
pasukan pertahanan. Kedua-dua pasukan mempunyai strategi yang
telah dirancang. Bagi pukulan sudut penalti pertahanan terdapat 5
orang sahaja yang boleh berada di kawasan gol pertahanan iaitu
pelari pertama, pelari kedua, pos kanan, pos kiri dan penjaga gol.
Hanya 5 pemain pertahanan sahaja dibenarkan semasa berlakunya
pukulan sudut penalti.
Terdapat 2 strategi pertahanan dalam pukulan sudut penalti
iaitu dipanggil larian 2-2 dan larian 1-3 .

728

Rajah 5 : Larian 1-3 oleh pertahanan pasukan lawan dalam pukulan

sudut penalti

Rajah 6 : Larian 2-2 oleh pertahanan pasukan lawan dalam pukulan

sudut penalti
Cara larian setiap pemain pertahanan juga adalah berlainan.
Berikut merupakan cara larian setiap pemain pertahanan yang
terlibat semasa pukulan sudut penalti iaitu :
(1) Penjaga gol : berkedudukan dan biasanya berada ditengahtengah gawang gol.
(2) Pelari pertama: berada di sebelah kiri penjaga gol. Apabila bola
mula ditolak oleh pasukan penyerang, pelari akan berlari
menuju ke sasaran untuk menutup hantaran dari pemukul
pasukan lawan daripada membuat hantaran ke gawang.

729

(3) Pelari kedua: berkedudukan di sebelah kanan penjaga gol.

Kebiasaanya setelah pelari pertama berlari laju ke arah
pemukul, pelari kedua akan mengambil alih tugas menutup
hantaran kedua pasukan lawan samaada ke kanan atau kiri.
(4) Pos kanan: berkedudukan di sebelah kanan pelari kedua. Tugas
pos kanan adalah berada 3 tapak di hadapan dan menutup sudut
kanan penjaga gol dan menjaga pusher pasukan serangan.
(5) Pos kiri: berkedudukan disebelah kiri pelari pertama dan perlu
ke hadapan 3 tapak dan menutup sudut kiri penjaga gol.
Sudut penalti akan diberikan jika pasukan bertahan
melanggar peraturan ketika berada di dalam kawasan D pasukan
bertahan.

Penutup
Analisis ini bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti sesebuah pasukan atau
atlit dengan menggunakan video. Rakaman video yang telah
direkod akan diulang tayang mengikut kategori kepada atlit bagi
mengimbas kembali serta memperbaiki kelemahan dan
memantapkan lagi kekuatan pasukan supaya mampu bersaing
dengan pasukan dari Asia dan pasukan-pasukan dari Benua
Eropah. Analisis yang dilakukan ini juga adalah untuk
penambahbaikan taktikal dan teknikal permainan pasukan
Malaysia.

RUJUKAN
Chivers, L., and Elliott, B. (1987). The penalty corner in field
hockey. Excel, 4 (1), 5-8.
De Subijana CL, Juarez D, Mallo J, Navarro E. (2010).
Biomechanical analysis of the penalty-corner drag-flick of
elite male and female hockey players. Sports Biomechanics,
9 (2), 72-78.

730

Kerr, R., and Ness, K. (2010). Kinematics of the field hockey

penalty corner push-in. Sport Biomechanics, 5 (1), 47-61.
Laird, P. and Sutherland, P. (2003). Penalty Corners in Field
Hockey: A guide to success. International Journal of
Performance Analysis in Sport, 3(1), 19-26.
Lee, A. (2002). Technique analysis in sports: a critical review.
Journal of Sport Sciences, 20,813-828.
Yusoff, S., Hasan, N. and Wilson, B. (2008) Tree-dimentional
biomechanical analysis of the hockey drag flick performed
in competition. ISN Bulletin, National Sport Institute of
Malaysia 1, 35-43.

731

AMALAN KAUNSELING
KESIHATAN DALAM KALANGAN
KAUNSELOR DI INSTITUT
PENJAGAAN KESIHATAN
MALAYSIA
Merikan Aren, Faizah Abd Ghani, & Zainal Abidin Zainuddin

ABSTRAK
Isu berkaitan dengan kompetensi kaunselor yang menjalankan
perkhidmatan kaunseling di institusi penjagaan kesihatan telah
banyak dibincangkan terutama berkaitan dengan kelayakan
profesional dan latihan khusus untuk kaunselor yang telah
berkhidmat di institusi penjagaan kesihatan bagi mencapai tahap
profesionalisma dalam perkhidmatan kaunseling kesihatan.
Kaunselor yang profesional amat diperlukan bagi mengenal pasti
keperluan psikologi dan emosi di samping memberi sokongan dan
bantuan masalah psikososial serta masalah kesihatan dan juga
untuk memberi informasi serta panduan setiap tahap proses
pemulihan kepada pesakit dan ahli keluarga. Oleh itu, kajian
diskriptif ini bertujuan untuk melihat tahap kompetensi amalan
kaunseling kesihatan dalam kalangan kaunselor yang berkhidmat di
seting kesihatan di Malaysia. Hasil kajian mendapati bahawa min
kemahiran kaunseling berada di tahap tinggi (3.80) manakala tahap
sederhana dari aspek pengetahuan (3.66), kompetensi profesional
(3.61), persepsi (3.10) dan pengetahuan dalam isu perubatan dan
kesihatan (2.41). Dapatan kajian mendapati responden tidak tahu
atau kurang tahu mengenai pengurusan pesakit berdasarkan

732

penyakit, mengetahui punca penyakit, proses diagnosis,

terminologi, rawatan, rujukan dan pencegahan masalah kesihatan
dan perubatan. Di samping itu, masalah berkaitan ubat-ubatan yang
digunakan dalam pelbagai masalah perubatan dan masalah
psikiatri. Sehubungan dengan hasil kajian yang diperolehi, kajian
ini seterusnya membincangkan implikasi kajian terhadap peranan,
kualiti dan karakteristik kaunselor yang berkhidmat di institusi
penjagaan kesihatan.
Kata kunci; Kaunselor, Institusi Penjagaan Kesihatan, Amalan
Kaunseling Kesihatan dan isu perubatan dan kesihatan

PENGENALAN
Perkhidmatan kaunseling di Malaysia telah berkembang seiring
dengan kemajuan negara di mana perkhidmatan kaunseling telah
menawarkan pelbagai jenis kaunseling mengikut bidang
pengkhususan
seperti
kaunseling
keluarga,
kaunseling
perkahwinan, kaunseling remaja, kanak-kanak, kaunseling
organisasi dan kaunseling pencegahan dadah.
Biasanya
pengkhususan bidang kaunseling yang ditawarkan adalah
berasaskan kepada peranan dan matlamat jabatan yang
menawarkan khidmatan kaunseling seperti Jabatan Kebajikan
Masyarakat lebih memfokuskan kepada kaunseling keluarga,
perkahwinan dan remaja. Manakala di Kementerian kesihatan
perkhidmatan kaunseling yang ditawarkan adalah seperti
kaunseling HIV/AIDS, kaunseling berhenti merokok, kaunseling
pemulihan dadah dan alkohol dan juga kaunseling kesihatan mental
(Ee, Nachiappan & Taquddin, 2011; Ching & Kok-Mun, 2010;
Glamcevski, 2008).
Memandangkan profesion kaunselor semakin diiktiraf dan
setanding dengan profesion lain, peranan kaunselor telah dilihat
semakin diperlukan (PERKAMA, 2010 ; Muhd Mansur & S.
Nordinar, 2010). Selain daripada Perkembangan kaunseling yang

733

semakin mencabar telah mendorong kaunselor untuk terus

menguasai pelbagai bidang kaunseling pengkhususan seperti
perkhidmatan kaunseling kesihatan. Walau bagaimanapun
kaunseling kesihatan masih belum dikenali ramai termasuklah para
kaunselor yang berkhidmat di institusi penjagaan kesihatan sendiri.
Menurut Blonna, Loschiavo dan Watter (2011) menyatakan
bahawa amalan kaunseling kesihatan merupakan proses psikopendidikan yang merangkumi dua fungsi asas iaitu membantu klien
memahami dan berupaya menghadapi perasaan dan emosi
berkaitan dengan masalah kesihatan di samping membantu klien
untuk berkembang serta memberi sokongan yang berterusan
kepada rawatan. Kaunseling kesihatan pada mulanya dijalankan
secara singkat dan berorientasikan tugas dan tanggungjawab yang
bermula dan berakhir dengan masalah kesihatan secara spesifik.
Selain itu, Bond, Keithley dan Marsh (2002) juga menyatakan
bahawa praktis kaunseling kesihatan memberi manfaat kepada
mereka yang mengalami kematian, yang pulih dari trauma
disebabkan oleh kemalangan, bencana alam, dan mereka yang
menerima rawatan untuk masalah perubatan yang kritikal. Di
samping itu, pendekatan amalan dalam kaunseling kesihatan juga
memberi faedah kepada mereka yang telah didiagnos sebagai
pengidap penyakit kronik, mereka yang mengalami penderaan
fizikal, emosi dan seksual serta mereka yang mengalami masalah
kesihatan mental seperti kebimbangan, tekanan dan pesakit yang
mengalami penyakit yang tenat. Amalan kaunseling kesihatan juga
memberi kesan kepada organisasi khususnya institusi penjagaan
kesihatan di mana amalan kaunseling boleh mengurangkan
konsultasi di unit penjagaan kesihatan primier, mengurangkan
preskripsi ubat-ubatan, mengurangkan rujukan kepada psikiatrik
dan seterusnya boleh mengurangkan kos penjagaan pesakit.
Selain itu, masalah yang dihadapi oleh rakyat Malaysia
sekarang ialah peningkatan jumlah penyakit kronik seperti penyakit
jantung, diabetes mellitus, kanser, hipertensi dan strok. Situasi ini
semakin membimbangkan dan secra tidak lansung keperluan untuk
perkhidmatan kaunseling di institusi penjagaan kesihatan juga

734

semakin meningkat (Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia, 2010).

Selain itu, peranan kaunselor di institusi penjagaan kesihatan
dilihat semakin penting kerana mereka boleh bekerjasama dengan
profesional perubatan untuk memastikan pesakit mendapat
penjagaan kesihatan yang sempurna. Menurut Sigh (2010),
pengwujudan perkhidmatan kaunseling di institusi penjagaan
kesihatan sangat perlu memandangkan proses kaunseling
merupakan suatu kaedah yang diterima oleh masyarakat. Ini
adalah kerana, bantuan kaunselor yang profesional pada masa
tahap kritikal adalah sangat bermanfaat dan mereka percaya
bahawa kaunseling boleh membantu mereka dalam menangani
masa krisis.

LATAR BELAKANG KAJIAN

Sejarah perkhidmatan kaunseling di institusi penjagaan kesihatan
di Malaysia bermula pada tahun 1970an di mana beberapa orang
kaunselor telah dilantik untuk bertugas di klinik kesihatan mental
dan di hospital psikiatri. (Ee, Nachiappan & Taquddin, 2011).
Manakala menurut Glamcevski (2008) perkhidmatan kaunseling
yang bermula pada tahun 1980an lebih memfokus kepada
perkhidmatan masalah kesihatan mental sahaja. Pada awal tahun
1990an Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia telah menubuhkan Unit
Psikologi dan Kaunseling di beberapa buah hospital, klinik pakar,
dan di jabatan kesihatan negeri di seluruh Negara. Perkhidmatan
kaunseling di institusi penjagaan kesihatan seperti mana di jabatan
kerajaan yang lain pada dasarnya adalah bertujuan untuk
memperkasakan modal insan bagi mencapai tahap yang
maksimum. Melihat kepada kepentingan perkhidmatan ini,
khidmat kaunselor telah diperluaskan kepada pesakit dan juga ahli
keluarga pesakit. Selain daripada itu, orang awam juga telah
mendapat manfaat daripada perkhidmatan kaunseling yang
ditawarkan di institusi penjagaan kesihatan (Ee, Nachiappan &
Taquddin, 2011; Ching & Kok-Mun, 2010).

735

Sehubungan dengan itu, jawatan kaunselor di institusi

penjagaan kesihatan di Malaysia dilihat sangat positif dan semakin
berkembang memandangkan kebanyakan hospital yang mempunyai
doktor pakar telah mempunyai sekurang-kurangnya seorang
kaunselor. Ini selaras dengan pandangan Etherington (2002), yang
menyarankan bahawa setiap hospital sepatutnya mempunyai
kaunselor yang profesional untuk mengenal pasti keperluan
psikologi dan emosi, memberi sokongan dan bantuan serta
menangani masalah psiko-sosial dan juga masalah kesihatan di
samping memberi informasi dan panduan pada setiap tahap proses
pemulihan.
Perkhidmatan kaunseling di institusi penjagaan kesihatan
juga dilihat sangat penting kerana bukan semua pesakit
memerlukan rawatan secara perubatan kerana ramai pesakit yang
datang memerlukan rawatan kesihatan mental terutama yang
berkaitan dengan jiwa dan perasaan kemanusiaaan (Muhd. Mansur
& S. Nordinar, 2010). Ini adalah kerana Masalah fizikal boleh
dipercayai boleh mempengaruhi kesihatan mental seseorang
individu manakala faktor-faktor psikologi juga sebaliknya boleh
menyebabkan penyakit fizikal (Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia,
2000). Selain itu, penjagaan secara holistik oleh kaunselor
kesihatan adalah amat perlu terhadap pesakit termasuk mengenal
pasti isu-isu berkaitan psikologikal yang mana ianya penting untuk
mengenal pasti bagaimana pesakit bertindak ke atas kaedah
rawatan yang diterima disamping membantu pesakit mengurus
penyakitnya dengan lebih efektif (Frost, Dornhorst, & Moses,
2003).
Sehubungan dengan itu, maka Jabatan Perkhidmatan Awam
Malaysia dalam Pekeliling Perkhidmatan Bilangan 29 Tahun 2007
telah meminda skimskim perkhidmatan kaunselor dan penolong
kaunselor kepada skim perkhidmatan Pegawai Psikologi dan
Penolong Pegawai Psikologi bagi memantapkan lagi peranan dan
skop tugas para kaunselor di institusi penjagaan kesihatan.
Mengikut pekliling ini syarat lantikan ke skim Pegawai psikologi
ialah memiliki ijazah sarjana muda, sarjana ataupun ijazah doctor

736

falsafah (Ph.D) dalam bidang psikologi atau psikologi klinikal atau

kaunseling yang diiktiraf oleh kerajaan daripada institusi-institusi
pengajian tinggi tempatan atau kelayakan yang diiktiraf setaraf
dengannya. Perubahan ini adalah kerana bidang kaunseling adalah
merupakan satu cabang psikologi, maka dengan itu skim
perkhidmatan kaunselor sedia ada diperluaskan skop fungsi
tugasnya untuk merangkumi bidang psikologi, psikologi klinikal
dan kaunseling. Walau bagaimanapun jawatan Pegawai Psikologi
ini masih tidak jelas dan sehingga kini mereka lebih dikenali
sebagai kaunselor. Gelaran jawatan sebagai Pegawai Psikologi
hanya digunakan dalam urusan rasmi sahaja.

PERNYATAAN MASALAH
Peningkatan jumlah kes pesakit kronik di Malaysia memerlukan
perkhidmatan intervensi dari perkhidmatan kaunseling yang
profesional. Walau bagaimanapun perkhidmatan kaunseling yang
sedia ada di institusi penjagaan kesihatan adalah terhad kerana
kaunselor yang berkhidmat di institusi penjagan kesihatan tidak
terlatih dalam bidang khusus berkaitan dengan kaunseling
kesihatan. Oleh yang demikian, perkhidmatan kaunseling yang
ditawarkan oleh kaunselor lebih fokus kepada perkhidmatan
kaunseling kepada staf yang bermasalah disiplin dan berprestasi
rendah serta mempunyai masalah tingkah laku seperti penagihan
rokok, dadah dan alkohol serta masalah hubungan interpersonal.
Perkhidmatan bagi pesakit dan ahli keluarganya pula, kaunselor
kebanyakannya mengendalikan kaunseling berkaitan masalah
kesihatan mental, masalah HIV/AIDS dan kaunseling berhenti
merokok. Namun kebanyakan kes yang berkaitan isu perubatan dan
kesihatan yang memerlukan kaunseling telah dijalankan oleh
paramedik seperti psikiatris, pegawai perubatan, jururawat,
penolong pegawai perubatan, jururawat kesihatan awam (Ching
dan Kok-Mun, 2010; Stockton, Nitza & Bhusumance, 2010).

737

Amalan ini adalah kerana staf kesihatan dalam kumpulan

profesional telah dibenarkan untuk menjalankan kaunseling di
institusi berkaitan kesihatan tanpa perlu berdaftar dengan Lembaga
Kaunseling Malaysia (Akta 580 Akta Kaunselor 1998). Walau
bagaimanapun menurut Naslindh-Ylispangar, Sihvonen, Sarna, dan
Kekki (2008), staf kesihatan telah didapati tidak mempunyai
keyakinan dalam menjalankan kaunseling dan masih memerlukan
latihan khusus terutama pengisian, pendekatan dan kemahiran asas
dalam kaunseling. Oleh yang demikian, perkembangan profesional
kaunselor di institusi penjagaan kesihatan hendaklah berteraskan
pengetahuan, sikap, dan keperluan kemahiran khusus (Honskins &
Thompson, 2009).

METODOLOGI KAJIAN
Kajian ini telah dijalankan ke atas 31 orang kaunselor yang
berkhidmat di institusi penjagaan kesihatan di Malaysia dan
mereka dipilih secara persampelan rawak mudah di mana
responden ini mewakili setiap zon pentadbiran mengikut
Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia. Pungutan data telah dijalankan
dengan menggunakan borang soal selidik yang mempunyai soalan
tertutup dan terbuka yang bertemakan aplikasi amalan kaunseling
kesihatan di Malaysia dengan memfokuskan lima persoalan utama
iaitu pengetahuan, kemahiran, kompetensi profesional, persepsi
dan pengetahuan isu perubatan dan kesihatan. Data telah dianalisis
secara diskriptif bagi melihat tahap pencapaian min secara individu
dan juga keseluruhan mengikut tema berdasarkan persoalan dan
objektif kajian. Tahap pencapaian telah dikategorikan sebagai
tinggi, sederhana dan rendah. Di samping itu, setiap bahagian telah
dianalisis secara terperinci mengikut soalan yang dikemukakan
bagi mengenal pasti kekuatan dan kelemahan responden dalam
mengamalkan amalan kaunseling kesihatan. Hasil dapatan kajian
ini seterusnya dijadikan garis panduan bagi membina satu modul

738

yang dicadangkan iaitu Modul Kaunseling Kesihatan untuk

kaunselor yang berkhidmat di institusi penjagaan kesihatan.

DAPATAN KAJIAN
Hasil dapatan kajian yang terdiri daripada 9 lelaki dan 22 orang
perempuan mendapati bahawa mereka yang mempunyai kelayakan
akademi Sarjana Muda Kaunseling seramai 17 orang manakala
Sarjana Muda Psikologi adalah 14 orang. Majoriti responden
berumur dibawah 40 tahun (87.1%), manakala mereka yang
berumur lebih daripada 41 tahun adalah 12.9%. Hanya 25.8%
responden menjalani latihan di institusi penjagaan kesihatan dan
74.2% telah menjalani latihan institusi seperti sekolah, pusat
pengajian tinggi, institusi pemulihan dan lain lain organisasi.
Manakala dari segi tempoh pengalaman bertugas majoriti
responden (54.8%) telah berkhidmat kurang dari 5 tahun, 25.8%
berkhidmat 6 ke 10 tahun dan 19.4% berkhidmat lebih dari 10
tahun. Hanya 6.5% responden yang bertugas atas panggilan iaitu
bertugas selepas masa pejabat dan hanya 22.6% yang berdaftar
dengan Lembaga Kaunselor dan mempunyai Sijil Perakuan
Amalan. Majoriti responden (87.1%) menyatakan bahawa aliran
kehadiran klien yang datang untuk mendapat perkhidmatan
kaunseling adalah dirujuk oleh profesional perubatan manakala
12.9% adalah secara sukarela. Manakala 93.5% menyatakan
bahawa penempatan untuk berkhidmat di institusi penjagan
kesihatan adalah atas arahan dari Jabatan Perkhidmatan Awam
dan hanya 5.2% atas permintaan sendiri.
Dari segi aplikasi kaunseling kesihatan, dapatan mendapati
mendapati tanggapan responden terhadap dirinya dalam kemahiran
mengendalikan kes, hanya 3.2% cekap atau mahir manakala
32.5% mempunyai sedikit kemahiran dan 58.1% mempunyai
sederhana mahir. Erkaitan Manakala dalam latihan asas berkaitan
dengan bidang kesihatan,74.2% menyatakan tidak pernah dan
hanya 25.2% menyatakan pernah. Sehubungan dengan itu, 22.6%

739

responden menyatakan mereka tidak layak untuk memberi

perkhidmatan berkaitan isu perubatan dan kesihatan. Responden
juga menyatakan mereka mempunyai limitasi dalam memberi
perkhidmatan kaunseling kepada klien (67.7%) di mana 58.1%
responden memerlukan penyelia dalam mengendalikan kes klien
dan 100% responden bersetuju bahawa mereka perlu mengikuti
latihan khusus dalam kalam kaunseling kesihatan.
Hasil kajian juga mendapati bahawa tahap kompetensi
secara individu responden iaitu tahap tinggi 12.9%, sederhana
87.1% dan rendah 0%.
Manakala pencapaian keseluruhan
mengikut tahap kompetensi bidang utama yang dikaji di mana
pengetahuan (min 3.66) adalah ditahap sederhana, kemahiran (min
3.80) tinggi, kompetensi professional (min 3.61) sederhana,
persepsi (min3.10) sederhana dan pengetahuan dalam bidang
perubatan dan kesihatan (min 2.41) adalah sederhana.

PERBINCANGAN
Tiga peranan utama kaunselor yang dikenal pasti adalah
menjalankan khidmat kaunseling kepada kepada staf kesihatan,
pesakit dan ahli keluarga pesakit. Kebanyakan kes yang
dikendalikan adalah berkaitan dengan masalah atau isu tatatertib,
masalah kesihatan mental seperti tekanan dan depresi serta masalah
hubungan dan kekeluargaan. Selain itu, aktiviti bimbingan dan
latihan untuk staf kesihatan merupakan sebahagian daripada tugas
utama yang harus dijalankan oleh kaunselor di institusi penjagaan
kesihatan. Aktivi ini dijalankan melalui seminar, latihan dan
bengkel secara berkala. Di samping itu juga kaunselor juga
berperanan dalam memberi konsultasi kepada staf kesihatan,
pesakit dan ahli keluarga pesakit disamping memberi latihan psikopendidikan. Kaunselor juga berperanan dalam pentadbiran dan
pengurusan pejabat terutama berhubung dengan laporan kes dan
perkembangan staf. Berdasarkan hasil kajian mendapati bahawa
pendekatan yang kaunseling yang dijalankan adalah kaunseling

740

individu, kaunseling kelompok dan juga kaunseling keluarga.

Selain itu aktiviti seperti bimbingan dan latihan kerjaya serta psikopendidikan juga dijalankan bagi memberi informasi tentang
pengurusan psikologi dan gaya hidup. Hasil kajian ini selaras
dengan hasil kajian Merikan, Faizah dan Zainal Abidin (2011)
tentang isu dan cabaran kaunselor di institusi penjagaan kesihatan
di Malaysia yang mendapati bahawa peranan kaunselor di institusi
penjagan kesihatan kurang jelas, peranan kaunselor lebih kepada
memberi nasihat dan merupakan pegawai yang bertanggungjawab
untuk mengendalikan sesi kursus untuk staf dan pelajar.
Hasil kajian juga selaras dengan kajian terdahulu (Merikan,
Faizah & Zainal Abidin, 2011) berkaitan perpektif masyarakat
tentang perkhidmatan kaunseling di institusi penjagaan kesihatan
di Malaysia yang mendapati bahawa kebanyakan kaunselor
mempunyai limitasi dalam menjalankan tugas sebagai kaunselor
kerana mereka bertugas secara sendirian tanpa penyeliaan dan
menghadapi beban tugas yang agak berat. Kaunselor juga tidak
mempunyai pengalaman dan latihan yang mencukupi dan terhad
dalam bidang kesihatan dan perubatan.Tidak mempunyai tempat
atau bilik kaunseling yang sesuai untuk menjalankan sesi
kaunseling. Selain itu antara kekangan yang dihadapi oleh
kaunselor ialah anggota kesihatan sendiri tidak memahami apa itu
kaunseling dan situasi ini telah menyebabkan banyak gangguan
semasa sesi dijalankan. Hasil kajian ini juga menunjukkan aktiviti
kaunseling kurang menyerlah dan kurang diketahui ramai terutama
pesakit dan ahli keluarga memandangkan kebanyakan kehadiran
klien ke sesi kaunseling adalah melalui rujukan berbanding
kehadiran sukarela. Situasi ini diberatkan lagi kerana stigma
masyarakat seperti malu dan takut untuk berjumpa kaunselor.
Selain itu sikap kaunselor yang tidak aktif dan tidak giat
melakukan promosi tentang perkhidmatan yang ditawarkan.
Kekurangan pengetahuan dan kemahiran dalam menjalankan
kaunseling kesihatan memerlukan kaunselor untuk menghadiri
kursus seperti masalah kesihatan seperti kesihatan mental, diabetes
melitus, hypertensi, masalah jantung dan kardiovaskular serta

741

penyakit kegagalan buah pinggang. Situasi ini bertentangan dengan

kenyataan oleh Muhd. Mansur dan S. Nordinar (2010), menyatakan
bahawa sewajarnya mereka yang terlibat dalam kaunseling
merupakan orang-orang yang terlatih supaya dapat memperlihatkan
mutu perkhidmatan profesional yang terpuji. Dan cadngan dari
penyelia hasil dapatan kajian oleh Merikan, Faizah & Zainal
Abidin (2011) yang menyatakan kalaulah boleh mereka
(kaunselor) ini ditambah dengan sedikit pengetahuan tentang
anatomi fisiologi, bagaimana berlakunya punca penyakit itu saya
rasa adalah bonus untuk kaunselor kesihatan.
Dari segi amalan kaunseling berdasarkan kemahiran asas
kaunseling semasa latihan hasil kajian ini mendapati ianya amat
sesuai diguna pakai dalam sesi kaunseling berkaitan isu perubatan
dan kesihatan. Pendekatan kaunseling biasa yang digunakan oleh
kaunselor adalah pencegahan, pemulihan, pengembangan dan
pendekatan krisis. Di samping itu kaunselor juga menyatakan
bahawa mereka mempunyai masalah berkaitan rekod dan laporan
sesi. Disamping masalah kesukaran untuk mencapai sasaran piawai
yang ditetapkan oleh Kementerian Kesihatan. Kaunselor juga
menyatakan kesukaran dalam mengurus kes yang dirujuk kerana
diluar jangka dan kerana tiada persediaan dan limitasi pengetahuan
dan kemahiran berkaitan bidang perubatan dan isu kesihatan.
Dapatan ini bersesuaian dengan hasil dapatan oleh Merikan,
Faizah & Zainal Abidin (2011), yang mendapati bahawa peneyelia
tidak berpuashati dengan perkhidmatan keseluruhan kaunselor
yang berkhidmat di institusi penjagaan kesihatan dengan purata
tahap kepuasan yang diberi adalah 5.4 dari sekala 1 hingga 10.
Disamping itu hasil dapatan ini juga bertentangan dengan
kenyataaan Hooper dan Weitz (2006), menyatakan kaunselor
sepatutnya menyediakan tempat yang selesa , memastikan tiada
gangguan semasa sesi dijalankan, melayani pesakit dengan adil dan
saksama serta menepati temu janji. Selain itu, Kaunselor
seharusnya boleh mengaplikasikan pendekatan kaunseling yang
selaras dengan keperluan dan permintaan organisasi.

742

Berdasarkan kajian terdahulu cadangan untuk perlantikan

jawatan kaunselor di institusi penjagaan kesihatan haruslah
mempunyai pengetahuan berkaitan penyakit, rawatan dan
komplikasi penyakit serta kaedah pencegahan dan lain-lain. Adalah
disarankan agar Latihan penempatan jangka pendek seperti di
Jabatan Pesakit Luar, Wad Kanser, Wad Perubatan dan Klinik
Psikiatri boleh dilakukan untuk kaunselor sebagai persediaan untuk
berkhidmat di institusi penjagaan kesihatan. Selain itu, adalah
dicadangkan agar dianjurkan kursus seperti Pos-Basik untuk
kepakaran para kaunselor selama 6 ke 12 bulan. Pendekatan out
reach seperti mengikuti pasukan pemulihan semasa lawatan ke
wad setiap hari adalah perlu dipraktikan oleh kaunselor bagi
mengenal pasti keperluan pesakit untuk mendapat khidmat
kaunseling dan psiko-pendidkan.
Keperluan ini adalah selaras dengan kenyataan oleh
Calzone, Prindiville, Jourkiv, Jerkin et al. (2005), menyatakan
bahawa kaunselor di institusi penjagaan kesihatan tidak seharusnya
bergantung kepada pengetahuan dan kemahiran asas kaunseling
sahaja tetapi harus perlu mengembangkan kemahiran dan
pengetahuan selaras dengan perkembangan semasa iaitu evidance based counseling.
Selain itu, kaunselor perlu mempunyai garis panduan
sebagai panduan dalam melaksanakan perkhidmatan kaunseling ini
adalah kerana tidak terdapat garis panduan yang piawai untuk
kaunselor dalam menjayakan perkhidmatan kaunseling di institusi
penjagaan kesihatan di Malaysia di mana kebanyakan kaunselor
hanya berpandukan Fail Meja, Manual Prosidur Kerja dan juga
Surat Pekliling dari Jabtan Perkhidmatan Awam dan Kementerian
Kesihatan Malaysia sahaja. Adalah sangat wajar jika dapat
dirangka satu garis panduan untuk menjalankan tugas yang lebih
terperinci supaya kaunselor dapat menjalankan tugas tidak
terkeluar dari apa yang seharus dan yang sepatutnya mereka
lakukan. Garis panduan penting ini amat seperti mana dinyatakan
oleh Velleman dan Aris (2010), menyatakan bahawa proses
kaunseling akan melibatkan pemilihan pendekatan, teknik dan

743

kemahiran yang tepat dan sesuai berdasarkan situasi seperti

bagaimana, untuk siapa dan bila masalah itu sesuai diperlukan.
Sekiranya kaunselor mempunyai kompeten yang tinggi dalam
bidang pengtahuan, kemahiran, kompentensi profional, dan
persepsi serta pengetahuan dalam isu perubatan dan kesihatan
yang tinggi maka adalah dipercayai kaunselor akan dapat memberi
perkhidmatan yang kaunseling yang cemerlang. Ini hanya boleh
dicapai melalui latihan khususkaunseling kesihatan, penyediaan
garis panduan serta penyelian dan pemantauan yang berterusan
oleh penyelia.

IMPLIKASI DAN CADANGAN

Implikasi hasil dapatan kajian mendapati bahawa adalah sangat
perlu bagi pihak yang berkenaan untuk melantik kaunselor di setiap
institusi penjagaan kesihatan memandangkan keperluan kaunselor
memberi banyak manfaat kepada pesakit, ahli keluarga pesakit ,
staf organisasi dan orang awam. Perlantikan kaunselor hendaklah
selaras dengan syarat, peraturan dan undang undang yang telah
ditetapkan oleh pihak Lembaga Kaunselor Malaysia seperti
berdaftar dan mempunyai sijil amalan perakuan tahunan.
Kelayakan ini amat penting dan perlu diberi perhatian serius oleh
pihak berkenaan bagi memastikan kelayakan akademi dan
pengalaman latihan asas kaunseling sesuai mengikut penempatan
tempat mereka bertugas. Ini adalah bagi memastikan kaunselor
yang dilantik dapat berfungsi secara maksimum.
Latihan khusus untuk kaunselor yang telah berkhidmat di
institusi penjagaan kesihatan perlu diadakan dari masa ke semasa
untuk mengemas kini pengetahuan serta kemahiran mereka dalam
bidang perubatan dan kesihatan seperti melalui kursus jangka
pendek, penempatan latihan yang diselia dan memperbanyakan
program pembangunan profesional berterusan (CPD) berkaitan isu
perubatan dan kesihatan.

744

Kajian kepuasan pelanggan terhadap perkhidmatan

kaunseling di institusi penjagaan kesihatan perlu dijalankan bagi
memastikan perkhidmatan yang ditawarkan oleh kaunselor
mencapai matlamat dan piawaian penempatan kaunselor di
institusi penjagaan kesihatan selaras dengan objektif kaunseling
kesihatan.

KESIMPULAN
Berdasarkan hasil dapatan kajian mendapati bahawa perkhidmatan
kaunseling kesihatan merupakan sebahagian daripada keperluan
kepada pesakit, ahli keluarga pesakit, staf organisasi dan orang
awam dan perkhidmatan kaunseling kesihatan perlu diwujudkan di
setiap institusi penjagaan kesihatan. Justeru itu, peranan kaunselor
di institusi penjagaan kesihatan amat diperlukan dalam setiap
proses perawatan, penyembuhan dan pencegahan penyakit. Di
samping itu, penyeliaan dan garis panduan perlu diwujudkan bagi
membantu dan sebagai panduan untuk para kaunselor yang
berkhidmat di institusi penjagaan kesihatan untuk memberi
perkhidmatan yang sewajarnya mengikut etika dan matlamat
kaunseling kesihatan. Selain itu, kepentingan kecekapan,
kemahiran dan pengetahuan khusus untuk kaunselor yang
berkhidmat di institusi penjagaan kesihatan perlu diambil perhatian
serius selain kaunselor ini perlu diberi latihan secara jangka pendek
atau secara formal berkaitan bidang khusus kaunseling kesihatan.

RUJUKAN
Blonna, R., Loschiavo,J. & Watter, D.N. (2011). Health
Counseling, Microskills Approach for Counselor Educators
and School Nurses (2nd ed.). United Kingdom: Jones &
Barrlett Learning.

745

Ching, M.S & Kok-Mun, N. (2010). Counseling in Malaysia:

History, Current Status and Future Trends. Journal of
Counseling & Development, 88, 18-22.
Ee, A. M., Nachiappan, S. & Taquddin Abd Mukti. (2011).
Perkhidmatan Bimbingan & Kaunseling. Shah Alam:
Oxford Fajar Sdn.Bhd.
Etherington, K. (2002). Rehabilitation Counselling in Physical and
Mental Health. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Frost, G., Dornhorst, A. & Moses, R. (2003). Nutritional
Management of Diabetes Mellitus. England: Wiley.
Glamcevski,M. (2008). The Malaysian Counselling Profession,
History and Brief Discussion of the Future, Counselling,
Psychotherapy, and Health, 4 (1), Counselling in the Asia
Pasific Rim: A coming Together of Neighbours Special
Issue, 1-18.
Jabatan Perkhidmatan Awam Malaysia (2007). Pekeliling
Perkhidmatan Awam Bil.27 2007
Kementerian
Kesihatan
Malaysia.
(2010).
Kesihatan
Tanggungjawab Kita Bersama; Seruan YB Menteri
Kesihatan Malaysia Tentang NCD, 14 Disember 2010:
Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia.
Lembaga Kaunselor Malaysia. (2008). Kod Etika Kaunselor (Edisi
Semakan 2008). Kuala Lumpur Lembaga Kaunselor
Malaysia.
Lembaga Penyelidikan Undang-Undang (2003). Akta Kaunselor
1998 (Akta 580) dan peraturan-peraturan.Selangor:
International Law Book Services.
Merikan Aren, Faizah Abd Ghani & Zainal Abidin Zainuddin
(2011). Perspektif terhadap perkhidmatan kaunseling
kesihatan di institusi penjagaan kesihatan Malaysia.
Proceeding International Conference , Universiti
Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung.
McLeod, J.C. (2009). An Introduction to Counselling (4th ed.).
New York: Mixed Sources.

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Muhd. Mansur Abdullah & S. Nordinar Mohd Tamin (2010).

Proses
kaunseling
(3rd
Ed.)
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Naslindh-Ylispangar, A., Sihvonen,M, Sarna, S., Kekki, P. (2008).
Health status, symptoms and health counselling among
middle-aged: comparison of men at low and high risk.
Journal compilation; Nordic College of caring Science.
Persatuan Kaunseling Malaysia (2010). Latar belakang Kaunseling
Malaysia. Jurnal PERKAMA Jld 16. Kuala Lumpur.
Persatuan Kaunseling Malaysia.
Singh, K (2010). Counselling Skills for Managers. New Delhi: PHI
Learning Pvivate Limited.
Stockton,R., Nitza, A. And Bhusumance, D.B. (2010). The
development of professional
Counseling in Botswana. Journal of Counseling &
Development, 88, 9 -12.

747

THE NATURE OF
MATHEMATICAL CREATIVITY:
A REVIEW
Mohd Amirul Azzim Aminuddin, Zaleha Ismail & Hamidreza
Kashefi

ABSTRACT
Nowadays learning has been more challenging than before in
respond to global economic changes that are more concerned with
innovation. Creativity is no longer something that is unique or
distinctive as it has become a necessity and basis for the
achievement of any developed country. In the learning of
mathematics, mathematical creativity need emphasized because
this skill can improve the student ability in solving mathematics
problems. There are sample discussions on mathematical creativity
whereby many versions of its definition are put forward. Since the
appropriate characteristic mathematical creativity is useful
developing creativity, assessing as well as preparing supporting
resources, therefore it is necessary to gain an understanding of the
nature of mathematical creativity. In an attempt to accomplish this,
a review on a collection of articles which describe mathematical
creativity has been carried out
Keywords:
Originality

Mathematical

Creativity,

748

Fluency,

Flexibility,

INTRODUCTION
Many studies have investigated ways of characterizing, identifying,
and promoting mathematical creativity. For the previous research
by Haylock (1987), Kwon, Park, and Park (2006), to trace
mathematic creative among student is assessed by employing openended problems and measuring divergent thinking skills. In
research Leikin (2009) investigate the use of multiple solution
tasks in evaluating a students mathematical creativity. What many
of these studies had in common was that they focused on the
mathematical creativity of individuals. Nadjafikhah et
al,(2012),mention about the importance of mathematical creativity
that can improve student idea and produce new idea, is so much
apparent that there is no need to be emphasized
According to definition of creative that mention by
Torrance (1974), he suggested a definition of creativity that served
as the basis for a battery of tests designed to identify creativity. The
definition was based on three related components: fluency,
flexibility and novelty. Fluency refers to the continuity of ideas,
flow of associations, and use of basic and universal knowledge.
Flexibility is associated with changing ideas, approaching a
problem in various ways, and producing a variety of solutions.
Novelty is characterized by a unique way of thinking and unique
products of a mental or artistic activity. Elaboration refers to the
ability to describe, illuminate, and generalize ideas. Of these four
components the novelty or originality is widely acknowledged
because creativity is viewed as a process having to do with the
generation of original ideas, approaches, or actions, and is
manifested in novel and original products (for example, a new
work of art or a scientific hypothesis).
There are several definition for mathematical creativity
have been cited in the literature. In order to define the
mathematical creativity the majority are vague or elusive Mehdi
(2012) and doesnt have conventional definition of mathematical

749

creativity (Mann, 2005,Sriraman 2005, Haylock, 1987).

Mathematical creativity is often related to the generation of novel
idea, such as previous old problem in new way, coming up new
question, or finding new or useful solution to an existing problem
(Sriraman, 2008). Mathematic educator are also interest in order to
promoting a view of mathematic as a domain where new and novel
idea are appreciated (Mann, 2006a, 2006b). As opposed to studies
that focus on definition of mathematical creativity (Leikin, 2009;
Mann, 2006a; Sriraman, 2008), this study will make a comparison
between that definition of mathematical creativity and the theory
that have mention by (Torrance 1974).

1.2

METHODOLOGY

This study aim to review the definition of mathematical creativity

and its comparison to the theory Torrance . The key word that used
is creative in mathematics and mathematical creativity. This
following key word were used to search for related publication
indicator of mathematical creativity. Conducted via Science Direct,
Springer, Taylor & Francis, and Saga bub the search has produced
30, but only 7 were deemed relevant to the study following these
criteria: (1) the definition of mathematic creative, (2) the
characteristic of mathematical creativity and (3) the citation of
selected journal is above than 50. After being analyzed
qualitatively, the review of nature mathematical creativity and its
effectiveness were summarized as presented in Table 1
Table 1 : Definition of mathematical creativity

No.
1
2

Study

Definition
of
Mathematical
Creativitiy
Levenson (2013)
Students engage in multiplesolution tasks and novelty
Coxbill, Chamberlin Students must have an unusual
& eatherford (2011) ability to generate novel

750

Rodr (2011)

Leikin (2009)

5
6

Sriraman (2008)
Mann (2006)

Singh (1987)

Haylock (1987)

1.3

and useful solutions

The process that result in novel or
insightful solution and able to
formulate of new question
The ability a student to solve the
problem in many ways
The ability to produce original
Possibility
of
holding
extraordinary, new and unique idea
The
process
of
generating
significant ideas
Combination between two aspect
that is ability to overcome fixation
in mathematic problem solving
and
ability
for
divergent
production

RESULT

There are many definition of general creativity consequently in

accepted conceptualization of mathematical creativity (Mann
2006,Sriraman 2008,Liljedahl & Sriraman 2006, Haylock, 1987).
As in the case of general creativity, providing a precise and broadly
accepted definition of mathematical creativity is extremely difficult
and probably impossible to achieve Mann, (2006), Haylock,
(1987), Sriraman, (2004),Liljedahl & Sriraman, (2006). Mann
(2006) maintained that analysis of the research attempting to define
mathematical creativity demonstrates that the absence of an
accepted definition for mathematical creativity hinders research
effort.
Ervynck (1991) say that mathematical creativity is the
ability produce new direction based on the previous experience. He
made a research to identify the relationship between mathematical
creativity and advanced mathematical thinking. He concluded that

751

connection between mathematical creativity and advance

mathematical thinking is able to formulate mathematical objective
and find the inherent relationship among them. Mathematical
creativity must be include the abilities to solve problem and
develop thinking in structure (open ended question) to observe the
abstract and generalize mathematical content to discern or choose
to understand, which patterns are acceptable and to make
connections between unrelated ideas Haylock (1987). Therefore,
Ervynck (1991) considers solving an old problem in a new way as
an example of creative mathematical activity.
Sriraman (2004) states that creativity is not usually only
related to the original work but also discovering something not
already known by one or new information even if the results are
recognized by others Coxbill et al,(2013)state that mathematical
creativity is observed when a nonstandard solution is generate for a
problem which cannot be solved by using a standard method.
Ervynck (1991) considers solving an old problem in a new way as
an example of creative mathematical activity.
Other than that, Sriraman (2008) strongly agree that
concept of mathematic creative as one the qualities of advance
research mathematician. Leikin (2009),states that creativity is not
usually only related to the original work but also discovering
something not already known by one or new information even if
the results are recognized by others. Coxibill et al, (2013) state that
mathematical creativity is observed when a nonstandard solution is
generate for a problem which cannot be solved by using a standard
method.
Based on definition that mention by Liljedahl & Sriraman
(2006), they suggested that mathematic creativity is a higher level
in ability to produce the original work that significantly to explore
widely the body of knowledge. This level of requires student to
produce new question for the expert in mathematicians. This
statement is support by Fernando (2011) that say a student can
produce the result that is novelty or insightful solution and able to
formulate of new question. When a student able to produce new

752

solution, that student will achieve high level in learning of

mathematic (Liljedahl & Sriraman 2006).

1.4

DISCUSSION

Based on the definition of mathematic creative, we can conclude

that to measure the mathematic creative is based on Torrance
(1974) theory. Torrance (1974) suggested a definition of creativity
that served as the basis for a battery of tests designed to identify
creativity. The definition was based on three related components:
fluency, flexibility, and novelty. Fluency refers to the continuity of
ideas, flow of associations, and use of basic and universal
knowledge. Flexibility is associated with changing ideas,
approaching a problem in various ways, and producing a variety of
solutions. Novelty is characterized by a unique way of thinking and
unique products of a mental or artistic activity. Of these
components the novelty or originality is widely acknowledged
because creativity is viewed as a process having to do with the
generation of original ideas, approaches, or actions, and is
manifested in novel and original products. Below show the
comparison between definition of mathematical creativity that
follow all theory Torrance (1974).
Table 2. Comparison between definition of mathematical creativity that
follow all theory Torrance

No.

Study

Definition
Mathematical
Creativity

of Comparison
Between
Theory
Torrance
Levenson (2013) Students engage in Fluency
multiple-solution tasks Flexibility
and novelty
Originality
Singh (1987)
The
process
of Fluency

753

Haylock (1987)

generating significant
ideas
Combination between
two aspect that is
ability to overcome
fixation in mathematic
problem solving and
ability for divergent
production

Flexibility
Originality
Fluency
Flexibility
Originality

Silver (1997) related fluency to the number of ideas generated in

response to a prompt (p. 76). He claimed that the use of illstructured and open-ended problems in instruction may encourage
students to generate multiple solutions developing fluency. Leikin
(2009) referred to fluency as the pace at which solving proceeds
and measured the number of solutions produced by a student.
Other than that definition that Erkki Pehkonen, Helsinki say that
mathematic creative is space that student can able make
combination between logical thinking and divergent thinking that
allow student to produce many idea in problem solving situation
Flexibility, according to Silver (1997) refers to apparent
shifts in approaches taken when generating responses to a prompt
(p. 76). Leikin (2009) evaluated flexibility by establishing if
different solutions employ strategies based on different
representations, properties, or branches of mathematics. At times,
it helps to think of flexibility in relation to its counterpart, fixation.
In problem solving, fixation is related to mental rigidity Haylock,
(1997). Flexibility is then shown by overcoming fixation or
breaking away from stereotypes. Haylock (1977) further
differentiated between content-universe fixation and algorithmic
fixation. Overcoming the first type of fixation requires the thinker
to consider a wider set of possibilities than at first is obvious and
extend the range of elements appropriate for application. The
second type of fixation relates to when an individual adheres to an
initially successful algorithm even when it is no longer appropriate.

754

Originality is related to creating new ideas. For example,

the systems model of creativity suggests that when an individual
employs the rules and practices of a domain to produce a novel
variation within the domain content, then that individual is being
creative Sriraman, (2009). With regard to mathematics classrooms,
this aspect of creativity may manifest itself when a student
examines many solutions to a problem, methods or answers, and
then generates another that is different Silver, (1997). Leikin
(2009) measured the originality of a solution based on its level of
insight and conventionality according to the learning history of the
participants. Its refer to definition Chamberlin and Moon, (2005)
that mathematic creative that requires a student to shown the
unusual solution in order to generate the novelty of solution that
will produce.

1.5

CONCLUSIONS

The main goals of any educational is must fostering creative

student who are able to develop academic achievement or make
appropriate choices and decisions in unexpected situations. In the
human mind, creativity is the dynamic property that can improve.
The nature of mathematic is used to fostering creativity then
creativity is the evident in the mathematical activities. Therefore,
that is very important for mathematic educator is to identify and
develop mathematical creativity
Based on the some of definition mathematical creativity,
the most important is creating new mathematical concept,
discovering relation and reorganizing the mathematical theory.
Therefore, mathematical is not only relate to the novelty of solution
but also ability to discovering something not already know by one
even or other.
From the school level, mathematic creativity is know as
relationship between problem solving and or problem posing.
Therefore, every student should have opportunities to engage in

755

struggling to solve mathematics problem which are ill posed or

open ended. From there, student will face the challenging in
solving mathematics problem that could lead their experience
creativity in doing mathematic. After that, the student can able to
think as mathematician which the student are encourage to reflect
on their own idea. To ensure this purpose done in education, it is
necessary to improve teacher skill to plan and implement education
that provide a secure atmosphere. At the same time, student will
are encourage to take the risk, make a mistake and interact with
other and share their ideas
Empirical studies are strongly recommended to discover creative
environments which foster mathematical learning at levels of
schooling. Only creative teachers can train creative students.
Therefore, training teachers and making them aware of
characteristics of creative thinking and environments is one of the
necessities that one should consider. Hence, researches in that area
is fundamental

REFERENCES
Coxbill, E., Chamberlin, S. a., & Weatherford, J. (2013). Using
Model-Eliciting Activities As a Tool to Identify and
Develop Mathematically Creative Students. Journal for the
Education of the Gifted, 36(2), 176197.
Cropley, A. (2006). In Praise of Convergent Thinking. Creativity
Research
Journal,
18(3),
391404.
doi:10.1207/s15326934crj1803_13
Haylock, D. W. (1985). Conflicts in the assessment and
encouragement
of
mathematical
creativity
in
schoolchildren. International Journal of Mathematical
Education in Science and Technology, 16(4), 547553.
doi:10.1080/0020739850160412
Kim, H., Cho*, S., & Ahn, D. (2004a). Development of
Mathematical Creative Problem Solving Ability Test for

756

Identification of the Gifted in Math. Gifted Education

International,
18(2),
164174.
doi:10.1177/026142940301800206
Kim, H., Cho*, S., & Ahn, D. (2004b). Development of
Mathematical Creative Problem Solving Ability Test for
Identification of the Gifted in Math. Gifted Education
International,
18(2),
164174.
doi:10.1177/026142940301800206
Lev-Zamir, H., & Leikin, R. (2011). Creative mathematics teaching
in the eye of the beholder: focusing on teachers
conceptions. Research in Mathematics Education, 13(1),
1732
Mann, E. L. (2009). The Search for Mathematical Creativity :
Identifying Creative Potential in Middle School Students
The Search for Mathematical Creativity : Identifying
Creative Potential in Middle School Students, (April 2013),
3741. doi:10.1080/10400410903297402
Piaw, C. Y. (2011). Hindrances to Internal Creative Thinking and
Thinking Styles of Malaysian Teacher Trainees in the
Specialist Teachers Training Institute. Procedia - Social
and
Behavioral
Sciences,
15,
40134018.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.04.406
Singh, B. (1987). The development of tests to measure
mathematical creativity. International Journal of
Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 18(2),
181186. doi:10.1080/0020739870180203
Sriraman, B. (2003). The Journal of Secondary Gifted Education.
The Journal of Secondary Gifted Education.
Sriraman, B., Yaftian, N., & Lee, K. H. W. A. (2011). 8 .
MATHEMATICAL
CREATIVITY
AND
MATHEMATICS EDUCATION, (1991), 119130.
Sup, K. (2003). A Development of the Test for Mathematical
Creative Problem Solving Ability 1, 7(3), 163189.

757

758

KEFAHAMAN DAN
PENGETAHUAN GURU DALAM
PENTAKSIRAN KEMAHIRAN
BERFIKIR ARAS TINGGI (KBAT)
Jayeswary Shammugam & Ahmad Johari Bin Sihes

ABSTRAK
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji pengetahuan dan kefahaman
guru dalam pelaksanaan pentaksiran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi.
Fokus utama diberikan kepada pemahaman dan pengetahuan guru
terhadap kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi. Kedua mengkaji tentang
item pentaksiran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi. Kajian ini juga
ingin melihat kekangan kekangan yang dihadapi oleh para guru
dalam pelaksanaan pentaksiran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi.
Sebuah daerah di negeri Johor akan dipilih di mana terdapat
sekolah rendah kawasan luar Bandar dan bandar untuk tujuan
penyelikan. Borang soal selidik akan diedarkan. Selain dari ini ,
pemerhatian pengajaran akan dijalankan di kelas-kelas berkenaan
dan guru guru akan ditemuduga.
Kata Kunci: Pentaksiran kemahiran
Pemahaman guru, Pengetahuan guru

1.1

berfikir

aras

tinggi,

PENGENALAN

Sistem pendidikan merupakan asas penting bagi membangunkan

masyarakat dan Negara ke arah yang lebih baik. Sebagai sebuah

759

Negara berkembang pesat dalam pelbagai aspek pembangunan,

sektor pendidikan perlu berkembang dan mengalami anjakan
paradigma yang dapat merintiskan alaf baru dalam segala aspek
pendidikan. Ini juga merupakan satu langkah penting bagi
mengangkat martabat dan status Malaysia dalam dunia pendidikan
antarabangsa.
Sehubungan dengan itu Malaysia telah mengalami
transformasi dalam bidang pendidikan. Pelan Pembangunan
Pendidikan Malaysia 2013 2025 menekankan kepada konsep
kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi (KBAT) untuk melahirkan pelajar
yang dapat berdaya saing menjelang abad ke 21. Menurut PPPM
2013-2025 Kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi (KBAT) perlu untuk
meningkatkan kerangka pentaksiran bagi menambahkan item yang
menguji Kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi serta menggunakan rujukan
standard dalam Pentaksiran bersasakan sekolah.
Kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi (KBAT) ialah keupayaan untuk
mengaplikasikan pengetahuan,kemahiran dan nilai dalam membuat
penaakulan dan refleksi bagi menyelesaikan masalah, membuat
keputusan,berinovasi dan berupaya mencipta sesuatu.

1.2

PENTAKSIRAN

Pentaksiran ialah proses mendapatkan maklumat dengan

menggunakan pelbagai kaedah dan pendekatan sama ada formatif,
sumatif, formal dan informal, dalaman dan luaran bagi
mendapatkan evidens yang boleh dipertimbangkan dan seterusnya
membuat penghakiman tentang seseuatu produk pendidikan.
Proses ialah satu susunan langkah , tindakan, operasi yang
bertertib dan terarah yang digunakan untuk mendapatkan hasil
yang dikehendaki. Maklumat ialah evidens yang menggambarkan
prestasi murid dalam sesuatu perkara yang ditaksir Penghakiman
merupakan proses pertimbangan tentang pencapaian pendidikan
murid. Produk dalam konteks pendidikan merupakan pengetahuan,
kemahiran dan nilai atau adab yang diperoleh murid setelah

760

melalui proses pendidikan

Dalam konteks pendidikan pentaksiran merupakan satu
episod dalam proses pembelajaran yang merangkumi aktiviti
menghuraikan, mengumpulkan, merekodkan, memberikan skor
dan menginterprestasikan maklumat tentang hasil pembelajaran
calon bagi tujuan tertentu.

1.3

PERANAN GURU UNTUK KEMAHIRAN BERFIKIR

ARAS TINGGI (KBAT)

Guru memainkan peranan penting dalam memastikan kemahiran

berfikir aras tinggi ( KBAT) dapat dilaksanakan dalam pengajaran
dam pembelajaran mereka. Guru juga harus memastikan murid
aktif dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran mereka.
Guru juga harus memberi peluang kepada pelajar untuk
memberi pendapat, berbincang dan bertanya. Di samping itu, guru
hendaklah mempelbagaikan strategi dalam pengajaran dan
pembelajaran. Guru juga perlu mengubah teknik pengajaran secara
chalk and talk kepada kaedah yang lebih menjurus pelajar untuk
berfikir. Guru juga mesti merancang soalan, tugasan dan aktiviti
yang menuntut pelajar berfikir secara berterusan dan menilai
pemikiran mereka dan pemikiran individu lain. Penilaian atau
pentaksiran yang dijalankan dalam bilik darjah perlu menekankan
elemen kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi.

1.3.1

PENGETAHUAN

Menurut Kamus Dewan Edisi Keempat (2007), pengetahuan

bermaksud perihal mengetahui tentang sesuatu perkara.
Pengetahuan adalah sesuatu yang diketahui dan dipelajari.
Pengetahuan saintifik yang diperolehi daripada pembelajaran
konsep dan fakta dapat digunakan dalam kehidupan seharian. Oleh
yang demikian, dalam kajian ini penyelidik ingin mengetahui tahap

761

pengetahuan guru dalam pelaksanaan pentaksiran kemahiran

berfikir aras tinggi.
1.3.2 KEFAHAMAN
Dalam Kamus Dewan (1994), 'kefahaman' merujuk kepada perihal
memahami apa yang difahami tentang sesuatu atau sejauh mana
sesuatu itu difahami, atau tanggapan. Menurut Kamus Dewan
(2005) mentakrifkan pemahaman adalah proses, cara, perbuatan
memahami dan memahamkan. Jadi dapat disimpulkan bahawa
pemahaman adalah kemampuan untuk menangkap erti dari sesuatu
yang telah dipelajari seperti kemampuan seseorang, menafsirkan
maklumat dan meramalkan akibat satu peristiwa. Justeru dalam
kajian ini, penyelidik ingin mengetahui tahap pemahaman para
guru dalam pelaksanaan pentaksiran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi.

1.4

PERNYATAAN MASALAH

Malaysia menyertai peperiksaan TIMSS, suatu peperiksaan

peringkat antarabangsa yang diadakan 4 tahun sekali. Soalan yang
diuji didalam peperiksaan TIMSS adalah soalan silibus tingkatan 1
dan 2. Soalan peringkat peperiksaan TIMSS adalah soalan
berbentuk KBAT, maka pelajar-pelajar kita dikatakan tidak
mampu menyaingi dan menjawab soalan yang dikemukakan,
kerana bentuk KBAT tidak didedahkan di dalam kelas. PISA pula
adalah satu lagi peperiksaan yang diadakan 3 tahun sekali yang
diduduki oleh pelajar Tingkatan 3 Malaysia. Soalan PISA juga
merupakan soalan KBAT, dan mendapati soalan PISA adalah
lebih panjang, lebih rumit dan lebih mencabar pemikiran jika
dibandingkan dengan soalan TIMSS. Pelajar pelajar kita tidak
dapat mendapat keputusan yang baik. Bagi menyelesaikan masalah
ini dan demi meningkatkan kualiti pendidikan bertaraf
antarabangsa Kerajaan Pendidikan Malaysia telah merombak
semula peperiksaan dan pentaksiran untuk meningkatkan tumpuan
terhadap kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi. Pentaksiran kemahiran

762

berfikir aras tinggi ini terkandung dalam Pelan Pembangunan

Pendidikan 2013.
Para guru menghadapi masalah dalam pelaksanaan
pentaksiran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi dalam bilik darjah. Guru
kurang jelas dengan makna item kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi.
Menghadapi kesukaran dalam penyediaan item KBAT dan juga
guru kurang mahir membina item HOTS serta menghadapi
masalah dari segi kesuntukan masa. Kebanyakkan guru
menggunakan soalan jenis mengingat semasa pengajaran mereka.
Guru terlalu menekankan soalan fakta dalam ujian dan
peperiksaan. Soalan dalam buku teks kebanyakannya adalah jenis
ingatan atau fakta.
Maka kajian yang dijalankan oleh penyelidik adalah untuk
mengenalpasti pengetahuan dan kefahaman guru dalam
pelaksanaan pentaksiran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi serta
mengkaji bentuk bentuk masalah dan kekangan utama yang
dihadapi oleh guru dalam melaksanakan pentaksiran kemahiran
berfikir aras tinggi.

1.5

OBJEKTIF KAJIAN
i. Mengenal pasti pengetahuan guru dalam melaksanakan
pentaksiran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi.
ii. Mengenal pasti kefahaman guru dalam melaksanakan
pentaksiran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi.
iii. Mengenal pasti bentuk bentuk masalah dan kekangan
utama yang dihadapi oleh guru dalam melaksanakan
pentaksiran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi.
iv. Mengenal pasti strategi-strategi yang digunakan dalam
melaksanakan pentaksiran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi.

763

1.6

PERSOALAN KAJIAN

Adalah diharapkan melalui kajian ini persoalan persoalan

seperti berikut dapat dijawab
i. Apakah tahap pengetahuan guru dalam melaksanakan
pentaksiran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi.
ii. Apakah tahap kefahaman guru dalam melaksanakan
pentaksiran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi.
iii. Apakah masalah dan kekangan utama yang dihadapi oleh
guru dalam melaksanakan pentaksiran kemahiran berfikir aras
tinggi.
iv. Apakah strategi-strategi yang digunakan dalam
melaksanakan pentaksiran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi.

1.7

KEPENTINGAN KAJIAN

Pengkaji mengharapkan hasil kajian ini dapat memberi gambaran

dan membantu pihak-pihak tertentu supaya langkah-langkah
sewajarnya diambil bagi memantapkan lagi tahap pengetahuan dan
membantu
membentuk
pemahaman
serta
usaha-usaha
menggalakkan guru dalam melaksanakan pentaksiran kemahiran
berfikir aras tinggi. Antaranya ialah:
i. Dapat meningkatkan kesedaran terhadap guru tentang
kepentingan pelaksanaan pentaksiran kemahiran berfikir aras
tinggi membantu meningkatkan keberkesanan proses pembelajaran
dan pengajaran. Selain itu, para guru juga akan dapat menilai
sejauh mana tahap penguasaan mereka dengan mengambil
langkah-langkah yang sesuai jika perlu, seterusnya memperbaiki
kemahiran sedia ada guru bagi meningkatkan tahap

764

profesionalisme.
i.
Dapat membantu pelajar menyedari kepentingan kemahiran
berfikir aras tinggi dalam menilai setiap hasil pembelajaran yang
harus mereka kuasai.
ii.
Dapat memberi gambaran kepada pihak pentadbir sekolah
untuk dalam memantapkan lagi tahap pengetahuan guru mengenai
pentaksiran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi melalui programprogram ,kursus-kursus dan latihan dalam perkhidmatan (LDP) di
peringkat sekolah.
iii.
Dapatan kajian yang dijalankan juga diharapkan dapat
memberi maklum balas kepada pihak kementerian pendidikan
Malaysia dimana dapat menjadikan panduan dalam pelaksanaan
pentaksiran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi dari aspek pengetahuan
dan pemahaman guru.

1.8

METODOLOGI KAJIAN

Sebuah daerah di negeri Johor akan dipilih di mana terdapat

sekolah rendah kawasan luar Bandar dan Bandar untuk tujuan
penyelikan. Pengkaji ingin mengetahui mengenai pengetahuan dan
pemahaman guru dalam melaksanakan pentaksiran kemahiran
berfikir aras tinggi serta kekangan yang mereka menghadapi.
Borang soal selidik diedarkan untuk mendapatkan maklum
balas daripada guru-guru sekolah rendah mengenai pengetahuan
dan pemahaman
guru dalam melaksanakan
pentaksiran
kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi. Kaedah yang akan digunakan untuk
pemilihan sampel bagi kajian ini ialah kaedah rawak strata dalam
memilih guru lelaki dan perempuan. Cara ini dilakukan bagi
memastikan setiap sampel daripada populasi mendapat peluang
yang sama untuk terpilih. Data-data kajian dianalisis dengan
menggunakan perisian Statistical Package for Sosial Science

765

(SPSS) versi 17.0. Borang soal selidik akan diedarkan. Selain dari
ini , pemerhatian pengajaran akan dijalankan di kelas-kelas
berkenaan dan guru guru akan ditemuduga.

1.9

KONSEP KEMAHIRAN BERFIKIR ARAS TINGGI

(HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILL)

Dalam abad dua puluhan ini, ramai tokoh telah memberi

sumbangan yang besar terhadap perkembangan kemahiran berfikir.
Pada tahun 1956, Bloom memperkenalkan istilah aras pemikiran
atau levels of thought processes dalam taksonominya yang dikenali
sebagai Taxonomy of educational objectives : Cognitive
domains. Bloom menyatakan bahawa pemikiran aras tinggi
(higher-order thought processes) hanya boleh digembelingkan
dengan penggunaan objektif pengajaran aras tinggi. Bloom juga
berpendapat kesan daripada guru menggunakan soalan dan objektif
pengajaran aras rendah telah melahirkan pelajar-pelajar yang tidak
kreatif dan kritis. Ini berlaku kerana guru tidak sedar tentang
kepentingan penggunaan soalan dan objektif pengajaran aras tinggi
bagi menjana pemikiran kritis di kalangan pelajar.
Bloom Taxonomy membahagikan pemikiran kepada enam
peringkat bermula dari aras rendah iaitu mengingat, memahami,
menganalisis , menilaia dan mencipta seperti rajah 1(a).
Mencipta
Menilai
Menganalisis
Mengaplikasi
Memahami
Mengingat

Rajah 1(a) Taxonomy Bloom (1956)

766

Onosko dan Newmann (1994) menjelaskan bahawa

pemikiran aras tinggi (higher order thinking) didefinisikan sebagai
penggunaan minda secara meluas untuk menghadapi cabarancabaran baru. Penggunaan minda secara meluas berlaku apabila
seseorang itu perlu mentafsir, menganalisis atau memanipulasi
maklumat untuk menjawab soalan atau menyelesaikan masalah
yang dikemukakan. Hanya dengan mengaplikasikan maklumat
yang telah diperoleh lebih awal untuk menjawab atau
menyelesaikan masalah dalam situasi baru mungkin tidak akan
membuahkan hasil. Mengikut Zevin (1995), pada kebiasaannya,
pemikiran aras tinggi merupakan perluasan maklumat yang sedia
ada dalam minda untuk menghasilkan sesuatu yang baru atau asli.
Masalah-masalah yang mempunyai pelbagai kemungkinan
penyelesaian merupakan nadi kepada pemikiran aras tinggi.
Menurut Rajendran (2000) dalam kajiannya, sejak kira-kira
dua abad yang lalu para pendidik di seluruh dunia telah banyak
berfikir tentang mengajar kemahiran berfikir. Membantu pelajar
menguasai kemahiran mencari ilmu dengan sendiri dan
meningkatkan kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi kini sudah menjadi
salah satu daripada objektif pemantapan program pendidikan.
Kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi bermaksud terdapat ciri-ciri
perluasan pemikiran semasa seseorang diperlukan untuk
mengintepretasi, menganalisis, ataupun memanipulasi maklumat.
Seseorang juga berkemampuan membuat kesimpulan, inferens dan
generalisasi. Selain dari ini individu juga mendapat peluang
membuat ramalan, mencadangkan penyelesaian, mengenalpasti
dan menyelesaikan masalah dan membuat keputusan.
Marlina (2006) menyatakan, jika ciri-ciri individu yang
berfikiran kritikal di atas dilatih di kalangan pelajar khususnya
pada peringkat universiti, maka proses pembentukan negara ke
arah sebuah negara maju pada tahun 2020 dapat dicapai. Pelajar di
universiti merupakan golongan pelajar yang terpilih, golongan
yang mempunyai daya intelek yang tinggi dan mempunyai
sumbangan yang besar ke atas kemajuan sesebuah negara.

767

Sekiranya golongan ini mempunyai masalah untuk berfikir secara

kritikal, maka masalah ini mungkin dapat dikaitkan dengan proses
pengajaran dan pembelajaran universiti di negara kita. Di antara
strategi berkesan untuk membolehkan pelajar menguasai
kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi adalah dengan memberi masalah
yang mencabar, membimbing pelajar memanipulasi maklumat
untuk menyelesaikan masalah dan menyokong usaha pelajar
mencuba sesuatu yang baru.(Rajendran , 2000)
Menurut Rafei (1998) dalam kajiannya, berdasarkan model
yang dikemukakan oleh Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum (PPK)
dan Bahagian Pendidikan Guru (BPG), Kemahiran Berfikir
mengandungi komponen-komponen seperti pemikiran kritis,
pemikiran kreatif, menyelesaikan masalah , membuat keputusan
dan kemahiran belajar .

RUJUKAN
Bloom, B.S. and Krathwohl, D. R. 1956. Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals by a
committee of college and university examiners. Handbook
I: Cognitive Domain. NY: Longmans, Green.
Bloom, B. S. (ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives
handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: McKay.
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia, (2012). Pelan Pembangunan
Pendidikan Malaysia 2013 2025. Kuala Lumpur.
TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center (2007). The Trends in
International Mathematics and Science Study. Lynch
School of Education, Boston.
TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, (2007). Release ItemMathematic 8 Grade 2009. Lynch School of Education,
Boston.
TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, (2007). Release ItemScience 8 Grade 2009. Lynch School of Education, Boston.
N.S.Rajendran (2001). Pengajaran Kemahiran Berfikir Aras

768

Tinggi: Kesesiaan GuruMengendalikan Proses Pengajaran

dan Pembelajaran. Seminar Projek KBKK: Poster warisan
Pendidikan-Wawasan anjuran Pusat Perkembangan
Kurikulum, KPM, dari 1 hingga 2 Ogos.
Marlina binti Ali dan Shaharom bin Noordin (2006). Tahap
Penguasaan KemahiranBerfikir Kritis Di Kalangan
Pelajar pendidikan FIzik Merentas Jantina. Buletin
Persatuan Pendidikan Sains dan Matematik Johor Jilid
15 Bil. 1 Tahun.
Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum (2001). Kemahiran Berfikir dalam
Pengajaran danPembelajaran. Kuala Lumpur. Pusat
Perkembangan Kurikulum, Kementerian Pendidikan
Malaysia.
Onosko, J. J, & Newmann, F. M. (1994). Creating More
Thoughtful Learning Environment. In Mangieri, J. &
Blocks, C. C. (Eds.). Creating Powerful Thinking In
Teachers And Students: Diverse Perspectives. Forth Worth:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

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770

PEMBANGUNAN GAYA
PEMIKIRAN KEUSAHAWANAN
GURU DAN PENERAPAN CIRICIRI KEUSAHAWANAN
PELAJAR
Dayang Sinar Igah, Mohd Anuar Abdul Rahman & Khadijah Daud

ABSTRAK
Kajian yang dijalankan ini bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti
pembangunan gaya pemikiran keusahawanan guru dan penerapan
ciri-ciri keusahawanan pelajar sekolah menengah harian di Negeri
Sabah. Kajian dibuat menggunakan pendekatan dan Model
pemikiran Keusahawanan yang dipopularkan oleh Cunningham
dan Lischeron (1991). Model ini menjelaskan fokus yang terdapat
dalam pemikiran keusahawanan antaranya ialah inovasi, kebolehan
mengurus, menanggung risiko dan pemimpin mempunyai gaya
kepimpinan. Seramai 570 orang guru penasihat Program Usahawan
Muda (PUM), Koperasi Sekolah atau Kelab Keusahawanan dan
Pengguna dari 189 sekolah menengah harian negeri Sabah dipilih
sebagai responden
dalam kajian ini. Kajian dijalankan
menggunakan satu set soal selidik yang diedarkan kepada Guru
Penasihat Program Usahawan Muda (PUM), Koperasi Sekolah
atau Kelab Keusahawanan dan Pengguna dan menjalankan
temubual kepada 15 orang responden. Instrumen soal selidik dan
data mentah yang diperolehi akan dianalisis menggunakan perisian
Statistical Package of the Social Science for widow version 11.5
(SPSS).
Kata kunci: Gaya pemikiran keusahawanan guru, penerapan ciriciri keusahawanan pelajar

771

PENGENALAN
Falsafah Pendidikan Negara (FPN) menyatakan Pendidikan di
Malaysia bertujuan untuk melahirkan individu yang berkembang
secara menyeluruh dan seimbang dari segi jasmani, emosi, rohani,
dan intelek (PPK,1996). Melalui pendidikan, ciri-ciri kepimpinan
guru (Shippen dan Shippen, 2004), amalan sikap terbuka (Zenger
& Folkman, 2004), bijak (Chek Mat,2003), mementingkan pelajar
(Shippen dan Shippen, 2004), mengutamakan amalan
pembelajaran berterusan menunjukkan guru berkesan dalam
membangunkan dan menerapkan ciri-ciri, elemen, dan nilai
keusahawanan kepada pelajar (Musa,1992) sama ada secara
langsung sebagai disiplin ilmu (Peter F. Drucker) yang boleh
dipelajari menerusi pembelajaran formal dalam bilik darjah atau
melalui pembelajaran informal di luar bilik darjah.
Justeru kerana ciri-ciri, nilai, dan budaya usahawan dan
keusahawanan boleh dipelajari maka guru sebagai usahawan perlu
mempunyai pemikiran keusahawanan, ilmu pengetahuan, dan
kemahiran keusahawanan serta berkeupayaan mempersiapkan
minda menerima dan membuat perubahan, bersifat meneroka
(Musa, 1992), menyusun perancangan, strategi, aktiviti bersesuaian
agar proses menerapkan ciri-ciri, nilai, budaya dan amalan
keusahawanan dalam diri pelajar berjalan dengan lancar dan
berkesan (KPM, 2009) dan matlamat untuk melahirkan pelajar
sebagai insan berdaya tahan tinggi yang dapat memenuhi aspirasi
individu, masyarakat, dan negara (KPM, 1993) tercapai mengikut
sasaran yang ditetapkan.
Gaya pemikiran guru sebagai usahawan sosial merupakan
pemangkin kepada usaha menerapkan ciri-ciri keusahawanan
terhadap pelajar, di samping menjadi paradigma menyelesaikan
masalah pelajar di sekolah (Fullan, 1998). Pemikiran
keusahawanan
guru,
budaya
positif
dan
terbuka
(Yahya,Aziah,Yaakob, 2007), dapat mengubah sikap, tingkahlaku,
amalan, dan budaya hidup harian pelajar menerusi aktiviti dan
interaksi sosial di sekolah. Perkara ini menunjukkan peranan guru

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sebagai agen perubahan pendidikan (Ayob, 2005), pemimpin

pengajaran (Blase dan Blas, 1998), membangunkan diri pelajar
(Lambert, 2003) menerapkan ciri-ciri keusahawanan, dengan cara
mengembangkan kreativiti pelajar menjadi insan berdaya saing,
kreatif dan inovatif (Mohd Nor, 2004). Sesuai dengan tuntutan
FPN, guru berfungsi melalui pelaksanaan aktiviti pengajaran dan
pembelajaran secara formal (Ayob, 2005) atau tidak formal dalam
organisasi yang berkesan (Sparks,2003) menerusi aktiviti dan
program keusahawanan yang dilaksanakan di sekolah.
Walau bagaimana pun kejayaan penerapan ciri-ciri
keusahawanan menerusi aktiviti dan program keusahawanan di
sekolah hendaklah diurus dengan bijaksana oleh dengan lebih
cemerlang (Norasmah, 2002), memanfaatkan peluang yang ada
(Aisyah Buang, 2002), dan berkeupayaan mencipta pembaruan
(Hisrich & Peter, 1998). Justeru guru sebagai usahawan sosial,
memiliki pemikiran keusahawanan yang cemerlang adalah
perwatakan terbaik yang diperlukan oleh guru dalam menjayakan
proses menerapkan ciri-ciri keusahawanan terhadap pelajar . Guru
hendaklah mendidik, membimbing dan membangunkan pelajar di
sekolah dengan lebih berhemah bagi memastikan pelajar lebih
berjaya, berdaya saing dan menjadi modal insan yang kreatif dan
inovatif yang dapat melonjak pencapai kecemerlangan sesuai
dengan kehendak dan harapan negara (FPN).

LATAR BELAKANG MASALAH

Dapatan kajian sebelum ini mendapati bidang keusahawanan
berkeupayaan memajukan ekonomi (Jin Li, 2003) dan menjadi
pemangkin kepada perubahan, pertumbuhan dan perkembangan
ekonomi negara (Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia,2007).
Walau bagaimana pun, Pendidikan keusahawanan di Malaysia
hanya ketara selepas pelaksanaan Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah
Menengah (KBSM) (Laporan Jawatankuasa Kabinet,1979), di
mana wujud suatu kecenderungan dalam kalangan pelajar untuk
menjadi pemilik sesebuah perniagaan (Mohar,Manjit dan K.K.Jain
2007;2008). Justeru, pendidikan keusahawanan dianggap sebagai
773

perkara penting dalam usaha membentuk pelajar menjadi

usahawan yang berdaya saing (Jonsson dan Jonsson, 2003).
Demikian juga warga pendidikan di sekolah memerlukan anjakan
perubahan pemikiran berdasarkan realiti (Ibrahim, 2001) sesuai
dengan tuntutan dan kepentingan anggota masyarakat
(Hussein,1993).
Masyarakat di negara ini semakin peka dengan
kecemerlangan pendidikan di sekolah seiring dengan kemajuan
dunia teknologi. Prestasi sekolah dinilai, diperhatikan, dan
dibicarakan secara terbuka dalam pelbagai media massa oleh
pelbagai pihak (Hussein,1993). Sesuai dengan status sekolah
sebagai suatu sistem sosial, warga sekolah dicabar untuk
menyampaikan kualiti pendidikan yang berdaya saing (Ibrahim,
2001). Justeru, penerapan ciri-ciri keusahawanan perlu dijalankan
secara menyeluruh dalam bidang kurikulum atau kokurikulum
demi memenuhi aspirasi masyarakat dan sistem sosial negara ini.
Ekoran daripada situasi ini, pada 23 Jun, 1999 Program Mata
Pelajaran Vokasional (MPV) diluluskan oleh Jemaah Menteri dan
mula dilaksanakan pada tahun 2002. Program ini meliputi
kemahiran vokasional dengan penerapan pendidikan keusahawanan
mengandungi 22 mata pelajaran elektif yang dirancangkan untuk
pelajar yang kurang berminat dalam mata pelajaran akademik
(Laporan Penilaian Pelaksanaan MPV, 2003). Penerapan
pendidikan keusahawanan dapat membantu pelajar hidup berdikari,
sama ada secara makan gaji atau bekerja sendiri.
Hynes (1996), menyatakan program pendidikan adalah cara
berkesan membudayakan keusahawanan dan menimbulkan minat
pelajar. Dalam bidang
Kokurikulum, penerapan ciri-ciri
keusahawanan memerlukan persediaan yang mencukupi dari pihak
guru (Ashmore,1990) sebelum dilaksanakan melalui program
seperti Program Ushawan Muda (PUM), Koperasi Sekolah, dan
Kelab Keusahawanan dan Pengguna. Kaedah pembelajaran
berbentuk pengalaman adalah kaedah terbaik bagi pendidikan dan
latihan keusahawanan (Shuman dan Hornaday (1975),
Perkembangan ekonomi Malaysia meningkat selari dengan
kemajuan yang dicapai dalam bidang industri dan penggunaan
teknologi tinggi. Ramai majikan memerlukan pekerja yang

774

memiliki pengetahuan akademik dan mahir dalam teknikal (Yahya,

2003), berkualiti, berpendidikan, cekap, dan berketrampilan
(Yahya Buntat, 2004). Kekurangan usahawan di pasaran menjadi
kekangan pertumbuhan ekonomi (Buerah Tunggak,2007). Majikan
memilih pekerja yang bersemangat keusahawanan dan mempunyai
kemahiran employability. Justeru kemahiran employability perlu
diterapkan kepada pelajar agar pelajar dapat memiliki pengetahuan
akademik dan kemahiran teknikal (Yahya Buntat, 2004). Dalam
pendidikan keusahawanan aspek kreativiti, inovasi, dan
pembangunan ketrampilan sikap dan kemahiran diberi penekanan.
Pemikiran usahawan harus difahami secara jitu di peringkat
sekolah bagi menghapuskan tanggapan usahawan sebagai insan
individu luar biasa dan mempunyai kebolehan sejak lahir (Jaffar
Muhamad, 2003).
Untuk memenuhi perubahan ini, sistem persekolahan dan
golongan pendidik bertanggungjawab menyediakan pelajar yang
dapat memenuhi cabaran dunia perniagaan dan teknologi sesuai
dengan matlamat pendidikan Malaysia iaitu melahirkan individu
yang berkembang secara menyeluruh dan seimbang dari segi
jasmani, emosi, rohani dan intelek (PPK,1996).

PERNYATAAN MASALAH
Malaysia dikejutkan dengan dapatan kajian yang menyatakan
60,000 graduan di Malaysia masih menganggur (Malaysia Today,
2005) disebabkan masalah berkomunikasi seperti lemah dalam
penguasaan bahasa Inggeris dan tiada pengalaman. Akibat daripada
situasi ini, didapati 70% graduan IPTA tempatan, 26% IPTS 34%
graduan luar negara (Suresh, 2006) tidak mendapat pekerjaan.
Kajian SCANS (The Secretarys Commission on achieving
necessary skills,1991) mendapati lebih separuh pelajar yang
meninggalkan dunia persekolahan tidak mempunyai pengetahuan
asas yang diperlukan untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan yang baik, walhal ramai majikan tidak lagi mementingkan kemahiran sematamata sebaliknya kemahiran bukan teknikal (Cotton, 2001) seperti
kemahiran employability (kemahiran akademik, kemahiran
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mengurus diri dan kemahiran kerja berpasukan) menjadi

keutamaan semasa mengambil pekerja dalam industri mereka.
Oleh itu, usaha melahirkan usahawan tulen perlu dilakukan
secara lebih serius bermula dari peringkat akar umbi seperti
melentur buluh biarlah dari rebungnya maka kemahiran
employability ini perlu diterapkan kepada pelajar sekolah.
Kemahiran akademik merangkumi kemahiran berfikir secara
kritikal, menyelesaikan masalah, dan kemahiran matematik.
Kemahiran mengurus diri berkaitan dengan sikap dan perlakuan
positif, bertanggungjawab, dan kebolehan membuat penyesuaian.
Kemahiran kerja berpasukan merangkumi kemahiran individu
bekerja dengan orang lain dan kebolehan melibatkan diri dalam
sesuatu projek atau tugas (The conference Board of Canada, 1996).
Di sekolah, kemahiran ini boleh diterapkan melalui Pembelajaran
Berasaskan Masalah (PBM) atau Problem Based Learning (PBL).

OBJEKTIF KAJIAN
Kajian ini mempunyai lima objektif, iaitu:1. Mengenalpasti corak pemikiran keusahawanan guru-guru
penasihat persatuan
2. Mengenalpasti ciri keusahawanan yang dimiliki oleh pelajar
3. Mengenalpasti pengaruh pemikiran keusahawanan guru
terhadap ciri keusahawanan pelajar
4. Mengenalpasti keberkesanan mediator dalam mempengaruhi
hubungan gaya pemikiran keusahawanan guru penasihat
dengan ciri keusahawanan pelajar
5. Mengenalpasti amalan dan cadangan penambahbaikkan
aktiviti dalam penerapan ciri-ciri keusahawanan di sekolah.
KEPENTINGAN KAJIAN
Kajian ini dijalankan untuk menilai dan mengetahui sama ada
terdapat hubungan yang signifikan di antara gaya pemikiran
keusahawanan guru dengan ciri-ciri keusahawanan yang diamalkan

776

oleh pelajar. Hasil kajian ini diharapkan akan membawa kebaikan

kepada pihak berkepentingan iaitu:a. Kajian ini akan dapat membantu golongan guru menyahut
cabaran kementerian untuk melahirkan pelajar berkualiti
yang memiliki nilai dan pemikiran usahawan cemerlang.
b. Kajian ini dapat menghuraikan masalah yang perlu diatasi
dalam usaha menerapkan nilai dan pemikiran keusahawanan
di sekolah terutama sekali dalam menjayakan usaha
mendidik serta membentuk modal insan yang cemerlang.
c. Membantu Kementerian Pendidikan menilai aktiviti di
sekolah yang boleh memantapkan kurikulum pendidikan
yang sedia ada khasnya dalam usaha membuka ruang dan
peluang kepada golongan pelajar meneroka dunia
keusahawanan dan lahir sebagai usahawan yang membangun
dan menyumbang secara maksima dalam pembangunan
negara.
d. Membantu Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia (KPM) mencipta
idea dan inovasi bagi menyediakan perancangan Program
Pembangunan Pelajar secara fokus dan mengemaskini
senarai dan peranan guru terhadap pelajar dari semasa ke
semasa.
e. Membantu Pihak KPM menyediakan senarai semak bagi
mengkaji jenis latihan yang akan diberikan kepada kakitangan
pendidikan khasnya guru-guru sekolah.
f. Membantu Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri (JPN) menentukan jenis
kursus dan program pemantapan kurikulum sedia ada dengan
menzahirkan program yang lebih mencabar kepada golongan
guru.
g. Membantu Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri (JPN) mengetahui jenis
keperluan guru dan pelajar sekolah di kawasan bandar dan
luar bandar.
h. Membantu Pejabat Pelajaran Daerah (PPD) menentukan
kriteria penyeliaan dan pemantauan di setiap sekolah.
i. Membantu Pihak sekolah memperbaiki sistem pengurusan
murid dan membuat perancangan sistematik melaksanakan
Latihan Dalam Perkhidmatan (LDP) di peringkat sekolah
mengikut keperluan sasaran iaitu golongan pelajar.
777

j.

k.

Membantu Jawatankuasa Pentadbiran Dan Pengurusan

Sekolah, Pejabat Pendidikan Daerah, Jabatan Pendidikan
Negeri, dan Kementerian Pendidikan untuk
menyusun
strategi pembangunan pelajar.
Membantu kalangan guru mengenal pasti pengetahuan dan
kemahiran kendiri supaya sentiasa berusaha mengikuti
latihan kecemerlangan diri agar lebih berdedikasi dalam
membangunkan pelajar cemerlang di sekolah.

DEFINISI OPERASIONAL
Konsep Usahawan
Kamus Websters New World menyatakan usahawan ialah
seseorang yang mengorganisasi dan mengurus pengambilalihan,
mengandaikan risiko demi untuk keuntungan.
Hull, Bosley dan Udel (1980), menganggap usahawan
sebagai individu yang membeli, mewarisi perniagaan sedia dan ada
niat (dan usaha berterusan) meluaskannya. Definsi ini disokong
oleh Zaidatol dan Habibah (1997) dengan menyatakan usahawan
ialah seorang yang inginkan kebebasan dalam perniagaan,
membuat keputusan sendiri dan ingin berjaya atas usaha sendiri.
Meredith, Nelson dan Neck (1982) sebaliknya menganggap
usahawan ialah mereka yang mampu melihat, menilai peluangpeluang perniagaan, menggabungkan keperluan sumber-sumber
untuk mengambil peluang serta mengambil tindakan bersesuaian
demi memastikan kejayaan.
Pendapat lain bagi usahawan ialah penciptaan usaha niaga
baru yang melalui empat dimensi utama iaitu individu, organisasi,
persekitaran dan proses yang dibantu oleh rangkaian kerjasama
dalam kerajaan, pendidikan dan institusi (Kuratko dan Hodgett
(1996). Moha Asri (1999) melihat usahawan sebagai golongan
yang bekerja kuat, mempunyai idea-idea baru, daya cipta dan
kreativiti tinggi, sanggup menghadapi risiko kehilangan harta
benda dan berusaha meningkatkan operasi perniagaan mereka.

778

Khairuddin (1996) menegaskan usahawan sebagai individu

yang merancang, menerajui dan mengurus sebuah perniagaan atau
perusahaan, berorientasikan tindakan, bersifat kreatif, inovatif,
bercita-cita tinggi dan mempunyai wawasan. Corman dan Lussier
(2001), menegaskan usahawan berbeza daripada individu lain
kerana mereka sukakan kebebasan dan ada keupayaan mengawal,
mencipta, membina sesuatu yang baru dan mereka berkebolehan
menyelesaikan masalah yang kompleks, sanggup bekerja, optimis
dan memikul tanggungjawab berat untuk mencapai matlamat
mereka. Usahawan juga seorang yang boleh membentuk,
menghasilkan sesuatu yang tidak wujud (Juhary dan Ishak ,2001)
dan kreatif. Seorang yang tekun, ada keyakinan diri, berkeupayaan
dan bermatlamat (Sabri, 2002).
Pendek kata, usahawan ialah sesiapa sahaja yang
melibatkan diri dalam apa jua bidang perniagaan dan menggunakan
kreativiti untuk mengurus dan sanggup mengambil risiko dalam
pelbagai keadaan persekitaran, budaya, agama, dan negara.
Konsep Keusahawanan
Sarjana bidang keusahawanan mengemukakan pandangan yang
berbeza mengenai definisi keusahawanan. Definisi yang diberikan
oleh Schumpeter (1934) menggabungkan dua kombinasi iaitu
produk dan servis baru. Mohd Salleh (2004) pula melihat
keusahawanan sebagai ciri-ciri yang dimiliki oleh usahawan yang
membolehkan usahawan mencari peluang-peluang, mengambil
risiko dan mempunyai kecenderungan menjadikan idea sebagai
satu realiti.
Barjoyai (2000) pula melihat keusahawanan dari sudut
sikap, nilai, pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang membolehkan
seseorang itu mampu dan cekap untuk mencari, mengenal, merebut
peluang, dan menterjemahkannya kepada pelbagai strategi dan
usaha perniagaan bagi mendapatkan yang boleh mendatangkan
keuntungan.
Menurut Hisrich dan Peters (2008), keusahawanan ialah
suatu proses dinamik untuk mencipta kekayaan. Kekayaan dicipta
oleh individu yang menanggung risiko dalam bentuk modal, masa
779

dan komitmen kerjaya. Mereka menegaskan bahawa keusahawanan

ialah proses mencipta sesuatu yang baharu dengan mengambil kira
masa, usaha, risiko kewangan, psikologi dan sosial serta menerima
manfaat dari segi kewangan, kepuasan peribadi dan kebebasan
(PPK,KPM, 2012)
Kuratko dan Hodgetts (2007) pula menjelaskan
keusahawanan sebagai proses inovasi dan penciptaan melalui
empat dimensi iaitu individu, organisasi, alam sekitar dan proses.
Mereka berpendapat, sikap boleh melihat peluang, berani
mengambil risiko dan mempunyai kelangsungan untuk
merealisasikan idea bergabung dalam satu perspektif yang
tersendiri membentuk individu yang mempunyai minda
keusahawanan (PPK,KPM, 2012). Justeru itu, keusahawanan
dirumuskan sebagai minat dan keupayaan Hussaini et al, 2009)
meneroka peluang dan membangunkan kesedaran terhadap risiko
(risk awareness), kreativiti dan inovasi dalam aktiviti berkaitan
perniagaan dan pekerjaan. Ini bermaksud keusahawanan adalah
proses inovasi dan penciptaan oleh mereka yang mempunyai minat
mendalam, menerima berkeupayaan, bertanggungjawab dan
berkesanggupan memikul beban dan sanggup risiko demi untuk
mendapatkan keuntungan.

Gaya Pemikiran Keusahawanan Guru

Gaya pemikiran keusahawanan guru merujuk kepada cara guru
mempengaruhi pencapaian matlamat sekolah melalui beberapa
elemen. Pressley dan McCormick (1995) berpendapat guru-guru
cemerlang mempunyai pemikiran yang berbeza dengan guru-guru
biasa. Rosenholz (1989), Little (1990), Hargreves (1991)
mengatakan guru menjadi lebih berkesan sekiranya faktor
kolaboratif antara guru dapat diwujudkan. Teddie dan Reynolds
(2000) pula menyuarakan kepimpinan guru penting dalam
meningkatkan keberkesanan pencapaian matlamat sekolah.
Malahan, kemesraan yang terjalin antara guru bersama pelajar
secara tidak langsung meningkatkan pencapaian mereka (Sebring
dan Bryk, 2000). Hackney dan Henderson (2005) menegaskan

780

kepimpinan guru yang baik dan efektif membantu meningkatkan

lagi pembelajaran pelajar bersifat demokratik dan menggalakkan
pelajar berfungsi secara kritikal dan mampu bekerjasama sesama
pelajar.
Pemikiran seorang guru di setiap sekolah adalah berbeza
disebabkan faktor sikap, minat, pengetahuan, kemahiran,
kebolehan, cara bertindak dan pendekatan yang digunakan semasaa
melaksanakan tugas. Pada kebiasaannya, cara mengurus juga
berbeza (Ibrahim, 2001). Trend perubahan kepimpinan di sekolah
berlaku dan dipengaruhi oleh perubahan dalam pemikiran. Proses
kepimpinan di sekolah memerlukan anjakan paradigma daripada
pengetua kepada guru Nathan (2001), oleh itu identity guru dan
kualiti kepimpinan guru diperlukan untuk menambahbaik sekolah.
Oleh yang demikian, guru sebagai pemimpin, pelaksana dasar
kurikulum dan kokurikulum serta berhadapan dengan ibu bapa dan
pelajar dii sekolah sewajarnya guru lebih kritis dan kreatif untuk
mengurus pelajar dengan cara yang berkesan.
Persoalannya, sejauhmanakah pemikiran guru berjaya
mengurus, mendidik, memimpin dan membentuk pelajar sebagai
insan cemerlang, berdaya saing dan berdaya tahan? Bagaimanakah
guru melaksanakan tugasan dan perananannya? Apakah yang
difikirkan oleh guru untuk membantu dan mendidik pelajarnya?
Apakah gaya pemikiran yang digunakan oleh guru untuk
membentuk pelajarnya mencapai matlamat yang ditetapkan oleh
sekolah? Apakah strategi dan bentuk aktiviti keusahawanan yang
guru perlu laksanakan untuk membentuk pelajarnya berdaya saing
dan berjaya di pasaran pekerjaan ? Adakah guru mampu berfikir
seperti seorang usahawan cemerlang? Justeru kajian ini akan
meninjau ciri-ciri keusahawanan yang dimiliki oleh guru dalam
melaksanakan tugasnya dan bagaimana ciri-ciri keusahawanan itu
diterapkan kepada pelajarnya.

Penerapan Ciri-Ciri Keusahawanan Pelajar

Usahawan yang berjaya dapat dibezakan daripada individu lain
kerana ianya mempunyai ciri-ciri dan profil diri yang unik, hebat,
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mempunyai kompetensi keusahawanan iaitu kemampuan dan

kemahiran melaksanakan fungsi keusahawanan berkesan. Terdapat
beberapa ciri-ciri keusahawanan yang telah dikenalpasti untuk
membina usahawan yang berjaya dan berdaya saing (Khata, 2007)
dan boleh diterapkan dalam diri pelajar agar menjadi nilai dan
budaya dan amalan seharian.
Oleh itu, menerapkan ciri-ciri keusahawanan dalam diri
pelajar memerlukan kebolehan, pengetahuan, kemahiran, dan
keupayaan guru menghayati dan mengamalkan ciri-ciri
keusahawanan tersebut. Maksudnya, guru perlu bijak mengatur dan
menyusun strategi penerapan ciri keusahawanan agar bersesuaian
dengan diri pelajar.
Menurut kajian McClelland (1985) terdapat 13 ciri
usahawan yang berjaya antaranya ialah:1. Inisiatif diri
2. Dapat melihat dan merebut peluang
3. Kecekalan
4. Mencari maklumat
5.Menitikberatkan mutu kerja yang tinggi
6. Komitmen terhadap perjanjian kerja
7. Berorentasikan kecekalan
8. Perancangan yang sistematik
9. Menyelesaikan masalah secara kreatif
10. Keyakinan diri
11. Ketegasan
12. Meyakinkan orang lain
13. Menggunakan strategi-strategi pengaruh
Usaha menerapkan ciri-ciri keusahawanan kepada pelajar ini boleh
dilaksanakan oleh guru semasa proses pengajaran dan
pembelajaran formal atau tidak formal mengikut kesesuaian guru
di sekolah. Walau bagaimana pun dalam kajian ini focus adalah
kepada program yang dilaksanakan di luar pembelajaran formal
atau selepas proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran berlaku.
SOROTAN KAJIAN

782

Rosli Mahmod (2010), berpendapat perkataan usahawan dalam

Bahasa Inggeris entepreneur berasal daripada bahasa Perancis
entreprendre yang bermaksud memikul tugas atau mencuba.
Usahawan ialah individu yang mengusahakan sesuatu perusahaan.
Dalam Bahasa Malaysia istilah usahawan sebenarya berasal dari
perkataan usaha. Menurut kamus dewan, usaha ialah daya upaya
termasuk ikthiar, kegiatan, perbuatan dan lain-lain hal untuk
melaksanakan atau menyempurnakan sesuatu pekerjaan.
Schumpeter (1934) dalam Dollinger (1995) mendefinsikan
keusahawanan sebagai syarikat yang melaksanakan kombinasi baru
bagi pembangunan produk dan perkhidmatan baru, sumber baru
untuk bahan mentah, kaedah baru pengeluaran, pasaranbaru dan
organisasi berbentuk baru. Cole (1969) mendefinisikan
keusahawanan sebagai aktiviti yang mendatangkan manfaat
melalui
pembangunan
perniagaan
yang berorientasikan
keuntungan. Kuratko & Hodgetts (1992) menyatakan bahawa
entrepreneur is one who under takes to organize, manage and
assume the risks of busness.
Dollinger (1995) mengatakan
kewujudan usahawan
bukanlah satu fenomena yang baru. usahawan wujud di sepanjang
perjalanan sejarah, tetapi konsep dan pelaksanaanya pada masa lalu
dan sekarang adalah berbeza dari segi penciptaan dan penerokaan.
Stevenson, Roberts & Grousbeck (1989) menyatakan
keusahawanan sebagai kesediaan individu untuk merebut peluang
tanpa mengambil kira sumber semasa yang ada dalam kawalannya.
Richard Cantillon dalam Hisrich & Peter (1998), pula melihat
usahawan sebagai individu yang bersedia untuk memikul risiko
dan amat berbeza daripada mereka yang hanya menawarkan modal
dengan mengharapkan pulangan tetap.
Keusahawanan merupakan kebolehan yang dapat
diterjemahkan dalam bentuk kelakuan dan tindakan seorang
usahawan (Van Gelderen, 2007). Kebolehan ini meliputi
keupayaan memulakan dan mengurus perniagaan di samping
mampu membuat keputusan, mengenalpasti peluang, mengurus
masa, berkomunikasi dengan baik, menyelesai masalah secara
kreatif dan mengurus stress. Tiga domain utama telah digariskan
dalam perniagaan merangkumi kemahiran membuat keputusan,
783

pemasaran dan kewangan (Madura, 2007) dan (Zimmerer &

Scarborough 2005). Kemahiran membuat keputusan berkaitan
dengan urusan keseluruhan perniagaan, pemasaran berkaitan
dengan kos dan kewangan berkaitan dengan cara mengendalikan
sumber kewangan tersebut (Madura, 2007) dan (Zimmerer &
Scarborough 2005). Pendek kata, keusahawanan mempunyai
kaitan dengan usaha pembentukan peribadi dan ketrampilan
pembangunan diri dalam kalangan pelajar. Seorang guru yang
berfikiran sebagai seorang usahawan dan terlibat dalam dunia
mendidik pelajar perlu mempunyai kemahiran asas dalam bidang
keusahawanan agar ia mampu melahirkan pelajar yang memiliki
nilai-nilai keusahawanan yang tinggi, cemerlang peribadi,
cemerlang akademik serta dan boleh berdaya saing.
REKA BENTUK KAJIAN
Reka bentuk kajian merupakan perancangan dan struktur
penyiasatan bagi mendapatkan jawapan terhadap soalan kajian
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2000), panduan pengkaji menentukan arah
penyelidikan (Machfoedz, 2007;Wiersma,1991) di samping
bertujuan untuk mengekspresikan elemen-elemen tertentu bagi
memperolehi bukti-bukti empiris ( Bunging, 2008). Dengan kata
lain, reka bentuk kajian merupakan kaedah dan teknik tertentu
yang digunakan untuk memperoleh maklumat yang diperlukan bagi
menjawab beberapa soalan kajian.
Sehubungan dengan itu, bagi mendapatkan hasil kajian
yang komprehensif pengkaji akan menggunakan kaedah campuran
atau Mixed methods Research. Kajian rekabentuk campuran ini
akan menggabungkan data kuantitatif dan kualitatif dengan tujuan
untuk lebih memahami dan menerangkan masalah kajian
(Cresswell,2008). Menurut L.R. Gay et.al (2009), Kaedah
Campuran adalah rekabentuk penyelidikan pendekatan campuran
yang menggabungkan pendekatan kualitatif dan kuantitatif dengan
memasukkan kedua-dua data kualitatif dan kuantitatif dalam satu
kajian. Ia juga merupakan satu prosedur pengumpulan data,
analisis dan gabungan kedua-dua kajian kuantitatif, kualitatif dan

784

methodologi (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007). Brewer & Hunter

(1989), mendefinisikan kajian campuran (gabungan) sebagai
legitimate inquiry approach. Secara ringkasnya, pengkaji yang
menggunakan kajian kaedah campuran adalah bertujuan untuk
menghasilkan penyelidikan yang kukuh dan dapat memahami
kajian yang dijalankan dan memantapkan hasil yang diperoleh
daripada pelbagai perspektif sama ada dari sudut kaedah kualitatif
atau pun kaedah kuantitatif.
Terdapat beberapa faktor yang menjadi sebab atau alasan
yang membawa kepada pengkaji menjalankan kaedah campuran
antaranya ialah kesahan, keseimbangan, melengkapi, proses, soalan
berbeza, penerangan, keputusan di luar jangkaan, pembangunan
instrumen, sampel, kreadibiliti, konteks, illustrasi, utiliti, dan
mengesahkan. Kesahan digunakan untuk menyokong data kaedah
kualitatif dan kuantitatif. Menurut Gay (2006), tujuan kaedah
campuran adalah membina sinergi dan kekuatan yang ada di
samping untuk memahami fenomena dengan lebih lengkap
berbanding menggunakan satu kaedah sama ada kaedah kuantitatif
atau kualitatif sahaja. Faktor keseimbangan digunakan pengkaji
bagi menyeimbangkan kelemahan antara pendekatan kuantitatif
dan kualitatif. Sebaliknya, faktor melengkapi digunakan bagi
memastikan ketepatan data kualitatif atau kualitatif. Penegasan
telah dibuat oleh Creswell (2008) dengan mengandaikan bahawa
bagi menghasilkan pemahaman yang lebih baik terhadap masalah
kajian kombinasi antara kaedah kuantitatif dan kualitatif amat
diperlukan jika dibandingkan daripada menggunakan kaedah
kuantitatif atau kualitatif sahaja kerana dapat mengatasi masalahmasalah yang ada pada kaedah kuantitatif mahupun kualitatif.
Dari segi proses pula, kaedah kuantitatif akan menunjukkan
keputusan manakala kualitatif akan menunjukkan proses. Faktor
soalan berbeza juga akan timbul, antara pendekatan kuantitatif dan
kualitatif, kedua-duanya akan memberikan jawapan soalan yang
berbeza. Pada ketika ini faktor penerangan akan memainkan
peranan dengan menerangkan keputusan kuantitatif dan sebaliknya.
Walau pun pendekatan kuantitatif dapat menerangkan sesuatu
peristiwa dengan lebih mudah dan ekonomik (Mohd. Najib. 2003),
tetapi ada waktunya terdapat juga keadaan di mana keputusan yang
785

diperolehi berada di luar jangkaan. oleh itu, Penggunaan kaedah

campuran dapat menangani keputusan di luar jangkaan iaitu
sesuatu keputusan yang mengejutkan kerana adanya penerangan
yang berlainan. Memandangkan reka bentuk penyelidikan adalah
sebuah prosedur untuk mengumpul, menganalisis, dan melaporkan
data (Machfoedz, 2007) maka pengkaji harus mengenalpasti reka
bentuk kaedah yang tepat dan kaedah terbaik ialah dengan
menggunakan kaedah penyelidikan campuran.
Faktor lain ialah pembangunan instrumen di mana kaedah
kualitatif dibentuk untuk merekabentuk instrumen, kemudian
instrumen diuji. Semasa kajian dijalankan kaedah gabungan kajian
kuantitatif dan kualitatif diguna pakai. Gabungan kedua-dua jenis
kajian dapat mewujudkan suatu pemahaman menyeluruh terhadap
fenomena yang berlaku, berbanding menggunakan satu kaedah
sahaja (Gay, Mills dan Airasian, 2009). Jika pendekatan kuantitatif
yang digunakan, data numerikal dikumpul dan dianalisis bertujuan
untuk menggambarkan, menerangkan, meramal atau mengawal
sesuatu peristiwa yang ingin dikaji Gay, L.R. et al. (2009) dapatan
kajian tidak boleh diandaikan tepat atau sebaliknya. Oleh itu,
kajian campuran sesuai digunakan kerana tiada satu reka bentuk
kajian yang boleh digunakan untuk semua kajian, oleh itu pengkaji
haruslah merancang reka bentuk kajiannya sesuai dengan tujuan
kajiannya (Chua, 2006).
Kajian kaedah campuran juga sesuai digunakan apa bila
melibatkan sampel, terdapat satu kemudahan pendekatan
persampelan berbanding pendekatan lain. Tambahan pula jika
dipandang dari sudut kreadibiliti, kedua -dua pendekatan
mempunyai nilai integriti dalam kajian, penilaian yang tepat dan
dapatan yang lebih kukuh (Sale, Lohfeld dan Brazil, 2006). Begitu
juga jika dilihat dari segi konteks, kualitatif lebih mengutamakan
penjelasan berbanding kuantitatif. Dari segi illustrasi pula, data
kualitatif membantu membangunkan data kuantitatif secara
mendalam. Sebaliknya, utiliti lebih berguna untuk pengamal
kajian practitioners dan bila timbul perkara mengesahkan
dapatan kajian, kajian rekabentuk campuran akan digunakan bagi
mengesahkan bahawa kaedah kuantitatif diuji menggunakan nilai
nombor manakala kaedah kualitatif menghasilkan hipotesis melalui

786

aktiviti pemerhatian atau temu bual yang menghasilkan ketekalan

(Najib, 1999; Bachtiar, 2011). Ringkasnya, reka bentuk kajian
kuantitatif ditetapkan sebelum data dipungut, mana kala reka
bentuk kuantitatif bersifat mudah lentur dan boleh diubahsuai
mengikut situasi semasa.

SAMPEL DAN TEMPAT KAJIAN

Sampel kajian ini terdiri daripada semua guru penasihat persatuan
Program Usahawan Muda (PUM), Koperasi Sekolah dan Kelab
Keusahawanan dan Pengguna. Jumlah sampel adalah seramai 570
orang guru sekolah dari 189 buah sekolah menengah harian di
negeri Sabah yang memegang jawatan sebagai guru penasihat salah
satu daripada ketiga-tiga persatuan tersebut.

INSTRUMEN KAJIAN
Kajian ini akan menggunakan kajian campuran yang
menggabungkan kaedah kuantitatif dan kualtitatif. Data yang
diperolehi juga menggunakan data kuantitatif dan data kualitatif.

KAEDAH KUANTITATIF
Bagi mendapatkan data untuk kajian ini, dua jenis instrumen utama
digunakan untuk mengukur apa yang ingin diukur oleh penyelidik
bagi mendapatkan suatu data (Mohamad Najib, 2005). Instrumen
kajian kuantitatif menggunakan borang soal selidik yang mana
soalannya telah direkabentuk kepada empat bahagian. Bahagian A
mengenai demogrfi guru. Bahagian B berkenaan dengan gaya
pemikiran keusahawanan guru penasihat. Bahagian C berkenaan
dengan a program dan aktiviti keusahawanan yang dilaksanakan di
sekolah. Bahagian D berkenaan dengan penilaian ciri
keusahawanan pelajar. Kajian menggunakan borang dan soalan
soal selidik sebagai suatu instrumen dirasakan sesuai kerana soal
787

selidik mudah diurus dan ditadbir. Data yang diperolehi juga

mudah diproses dan dianalisis.
Model soal selidik yang digunakan ialah Model Skala
Lima Kaedah Likert (Najib, 1999) iaitu 1 untuk Sangat Tidak
Setuju (STS), 2 untuk Tidak Setuju (TS), 3 untuk Tidak Pasti Atau
Neutral (N), 4 untuk Setuju (S), manakala 5 untuk Sangat Setuju
(SS).

KAEDAH KUALITATIF
Penyelidikan kualitatif berfokuskan kepada penelitian fenomena
daripada pelbagai perspektif dan pembinaan makna adalah dari
perspektif subjek (Noraini, 2010). Kajian yang melibatkan
instrumen kualitatif memerlukan pengkaji berada dalam situasi
yang dikaji, mendengar dan memerhati sendiri fenomena yang
ingin dikaji. Ini bermaksud, pengkaji adalah sebahagian daripada
peserta kajian kerana itu maklumat kajian diperoleh secara
langsung daripada peserta kajian. Peranan pengkaji dalam kajian
kualitatif amat penting dan berisiko kerana sebagai instrumen
utama, cabaran yang perlu dihadapi oleh pengkaji
ialah
mempastikan dirinya tidak bias semasa membuat penilaian atau
ketika proses menginterpretasikan data yang diperolehi. Data yang
diperolehi berbentuk perkataan atau ayat yang dikumpul melalui
temubual atau yang direkod dalam bentuk gambar atau video.
Untuk kajian ini, temubual akan dibuat kepada 15 orang
responden yang terdiri daripada lima orang dalam kalangan
usahawan sebenar yang berjaya, lima responden dalam kalangan
guru dan lima responden lagi dalam kalangan pelajar.

788

RUJUKAN
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791

INTEGRITI PENTAKSIRAN
DALAM SISTEM PENDIDIKAN DI
MALAYSIA
Hazlin Haron, Rohaya Talib & Adibah Abdul Latif

ABSTRAK
Guru disaran membudayakan elemen integriti dan etika secara aktif
dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran (P&P) sebagai satu
usaha membina serta memelihara generasi masa depan yang
berpekerti mulia. Dalam teras memartabatkan profesion keguruan,
integriti merupakan dorongan dalaman agar guru melaksanakan
amanah mendidik anak bangsa sebaik-baiknya serta berusaha
meningkatkan keupayaan diri . Nilai-nilai integriti perlu ditanam
dalam jiwa pendidik bagi memastikan warga pendidik sentiasa
menjalankan tugas dengan bersistematik, berintegriti dan membina
kerja cemerlang yang luhur sekali gus mampu membentuk
keperibadian pelajar yang berintegriti. Penerapan integriti dalam
diri setiap guru, selaras dengan aspirasi Pelan Pembangunan
Pendidikan 2013-2025 agar setiap murid dipersiap untuk berani
menghadapi cabaran dan menegakkan keadilan serta
menyelesaikan konflik. Penerapan integriti dalam diri setiap guru
juga akan meningkatkan kredibiliti mereka dalam melaksanakan
sistem pentaksiran pendidikan yang diamalkan di negara kita kini.
Kata kunci:

Integriti , Pentaksiran

PENGENALAN
Menurut Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (2004), integriti bermaksud
keikhlasan, keterbukaan, amanah, berpegang kepada prinsip, sukar

792

dipengaruhi dan boleh dipercayai. Definisi integriti mengikut

Institut Integriti Malaysia (2004), merujuk kepada kualiti unggul
yang wujud secara keseluruhan dan padu kepada individu dan
organisasi. Integriti amat berkait rapat dengan etika. Integriti juga
termasuk sebagai elemen positif berlandaskan etika dan
pencerminan etika dalam tindakan sehari-hari. Oxford Dictionary
(2004) mendefinisikan integriti sebagai The quality of being
honest and having strong moral principles, the state of being
whole and undivided and the condition of being unified or sound in
construction.
Berdasarkan definisi di atas , kepentingan integriti dalam
profesion adalah jelas. Oleh itu kerajaan Malaysia telah
melancarkan Pelan Integriti Nasional (PIN) pada 23 April 2004
bertujuan untuk membangunkan masyarakat beretika yang dapat
membezakan perkara yang betul dan salah manakala matlamat
jangka panjang PIN adalah memenuhi cabaran keempat Wawasan
2020 iaitu membentuk masyarakat yang mempunyai ciri-ciri moral
dan etika yang kukuh, nilai keagamaan dan kerohanian yang kukuh
serta berbudi pekerti luhur (Mustafar, 2004 ).
Menurut Widing & Fridlund (2003) integriti berasal
daripada perkataan latin: integer yang bermaksud menyeluruh,
sempurna dan kesatuan yang teguh . Istilah integriti boleh
diklasifikasikan kepada empat persepektif iaitu ketekalan nilai
peribadi,komitmen terhadap nilai peribadi, komitmen terhadap
nilai komuniti dan komitmen terhadap nilai-nilai murni ( Standford
Encylopedia of Philosophy, 2004).
Pellegrino (1990)
mendifinisikan integriti sebagai
tahap/keadaan keseimbangan antara ruang peribadi (privacy) ,
autonomi dan nilai individu . Manakala Roberts (1994)
mentakrifkan integriti sebagai satu kesatuan di antara komitmen
sepenuhnya kepada nilai yang dipegang dalam setiap ucapan dan
tindakan seseorang.
Menurut Widang & Fridlund,
(2004) integriti juga
merupakan konsep penting dalam pentaakulan etika, iaitu integriti
berkait rapat dengan pembentukan dan pengukuhan etika yang baik
(Mahathir, 1998). Etika bermaksud prinsip moral (atau akhlak)
atau nilai-nilai akhlak yang menjadi pegangan seseorang individu
793

atau sesuatu kumpulan seperti persatuan, pekerjaan dan lain-lain (

Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 2004). Etika boleh didefinasikan
sebagai satu cabang ilmu pengetahuan yang merangkumi perkara
yang baik dan tidak baik seiring dengan kewajiban dan
tanggungjawab moral (Harold Koontz & Heinz Weihrich,1990 ).
Dalam erti kata yang lain, etika adalah panduan dan ketetapan yang
telah gariskan terhadap sesuatu tingkah laku supaya dapat
mencapai sesuatu matlamat . Dari sudut perspektif Islam, etika
merujuk kepada tingkah laku betul berasaskan Al-Quran dan
ketakwaan kepada Allah (Syadid Habibullah, 2010).
Islam juga amat menitikberatkan budaya integriti dalam
setiap pekerjaan yang dilakukan. Penghayatan integriti adalah
sejajar dan bertepatan dengan tuntutan Islam yang mengajar
umatnya mengamalkan akhlak yang mulia seperti mana yang telah
diperjuangkan oleh junjungan besar Nabi Muhammad SAW dalam
sebuah hadith:

Mafhumnya:

Sesungguhnya
aku
diutuskan
untuk
menyempurnakan akhlak (Riwayat al-Bukhari)
Sebagai penjawat awam , penghayatan prinsip integriti seperti
beramanah, jujur, tulus dengan penuh rasa tanggungjawab di
samping sentiasa menyerlahkan sifat-sifat mahmudah lain seperti
rajin, tekun, berdisiplin dan mengutamakan kualiti dan
kesempurnaan dalam setiap tugasan adalah dituntut (Jabatan
Kemajuan Islam Malaysia, 5 November 2010).
Menurut Sidek Baba (2011) dalam tradisi Islam, integriti
dikaitkan dengan autoriti. Al-Quran umpamanya adalah sumber
yang memiliki autoriti untuk memberi pedoman dan panduan
tentang bagaimana urusan hidup harus berlaku dan bagaimana
perjalanan hubungan manusia terhadap pencipta .

INTEGRITI PENTAKSIRAN PENDIDIKAN DI MALAYSIA

Sejak kebelakangan ini, ketirisan nilai integriti dalam masyarakat

794

semakin berleluasa (Jamiah, Azimi, Sidek & Hasnan, 2007).

Kehakisan nilai dalam masyarakat yang dicerminkan oleh penjawat
awam dengan wujudnya jenayah kolar putih, gejala sosial, rasuah,
diskriminasi, penindasan dan penyalahgunaan kuasa semakin parah
(Mustafar , 2006). Lantaran itu, kesedaran menerapkan nilai
integriti menjadi keutamaan dalam kalangan kakitangan awam
negara terutamanya guru. Guru yang sentiasa mengamalkan nilainilai integriti mampu melahirkan generasi modal insan kelas
pertama (Ismail, 2009). Oleh itu, penerapan nilai integriti dalam
jiwa pendidik amat penting untuk memastikan mereka sentiasa
menjalankan tugas dengan bersistematik, berintegriti dan dapat
membina budaya kerja cemerlang yang luhur (Hamidah, Siti
Salina, & Farrahdina , 2006). Kejayaan seseorang guru dalam
menghayati nilai integriti secara tidak langsung akan memberi
kesan langsung kepada para pelajar terutamanya dalam pencapaian
akademik dan pertumbuhan akhlak.
Kebocoran soalan Ujian Penilaian Sekolah Rendah (UPSR)
baru-baru ini bukanlah suatu isu yang boleh dipandang ringan
kerana insiden ini merupakan satu bentuk pengkhianatan terhadap
amanah yang diberikan kepada para guru. Kejadian ini telah
mencemar kredibiliti institusi perguruan dan membuktikan betapa
rapuhnya integriti dalam kalangan guru. Tindakan membocorkan
soalan peperiksaan merupakan satu tindakan khianat yang tidak
sewajarnya dilakukan oleh para guru kerana mereka merupakan
contoh teladan kepada anak didik. Bagaimana mungkin guru dapat
mencorak anak didik menjadi insan yang berkeperibadian mulia
sedangkan mereka melakukan pecah amanah semasa melaksanakan
tugas ( Sinar Harian, 17 September 2014).
Kebocoran soalan tersebut tidak akan berlaku jika pihak
yang diberi amanah menjalankan tugasan dengan jujur . Kebocoran
itu bukan saja boleh dipersoalkan masyarakat serta meletakkan
tanggapan negatif kepada Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia (KPM),
malah mengganggu emosi calon yang bertungkus-lumus membuat
persediaan intensif sejak beberapa bulan lalu. Dalam sesebuah
organisasi, integriti pihak yang dipertanggungjawabkan adalah
aspek penting bagi memastikan setiap amanah digalas dengan baik.
Ibu bapa dan masyarakat akan menganggap isu ini sebagai bukti
795

pihak yang dipertanggungjawabkan tidak amanah dalam

menjalankan tugas. Kejadian ini juga menyebabkan intergriti
Lembaga Peperiksaan dan Kementerian Pendidikan tercemar
(MyMetro, 15 September 2014).
Menurut Schmeiser, & Cynthia B ,(1995) keraguan
terhadap pegangan etika yang diamalkan oleh guru ketika
melaksanakan pentaksiran pelajar bukanlah suatu perkara yang
baharu. Pemberian gred dan markah pelajar di sekolah kerap
menimbulkan kontroversi(Cureton, 1971; Ebel& Frisbie, 1986;
Hopkins, Hopkins & Stanley, 1990) . JCSEE , (2003) menegaskan
bahawa pentaksiran pelajar perlulah beretika, adil, berguna, boleh
dilaksanakan dan tepat .
Dalam sistem pentaksiran, mentaksir penglibatan pelajar di
dalam kelas merupakan satu cabaran yang sukar yang kerap
dihadapi oleh para pentaksir ( Seemantini Pathak, 2008). Skor
penglibatan pelajar dalam kelas merupakan sesuatu yang subjektif.
Sukar untuk ditentukan markah atau gred yang sebenar (Melvin,
2000). Pemberian gred dalam penglibatan kelas
akan
meningkatkan diskriminasi kaum, jantina, tidak mempedulikan
kepelbagaian budaya dan akan menurunkan motivasi murid untuk
belajar (Gilson,1994). Kebanyakan pentaksir menentukan markah
/ gred pelajar secara spontan dan selalunya markah/ gred tersebut
tidak tepat (Bean and Peterson, 1998). Amat mustahil seseorang
pentaksir untuk menetapkan gred secara adil terhadap penglibatan
pelajar dalam kelas (Lowman ,1995).
Menurut Pelan Strategik Interim, Kementerian Pelajaran
Malaysia (2011 2020), transformasi pentaksiran ialah satu proses
perubahan ke arah penambahbaikan kaedah penilaian murid sedia
ada. Justeru, transformasi pentaksiran membawa penghijrahan
daripada pentaksiran berorientasikan peperiksaan kepada
pentaksiran yang holistik, seimbang, fleksibel, adil dan merujuk
standard.
Bagi memastikan transformasi dalam pendidikan mencapai
matlamat yang ditetapkan, guru sebagai pentaksir perlu
melengkapkan diri dengan ilmu dan memiliki pegangan etika yang
baik. Seorang guru perlu pakar dalam ilmu pengetahuan dan
berkualiti unuk meningkatkan profesion perguruan (Mohd Taib Hj.

796

Dora, 2005). Guru yang beretika akan sentiasa menanamkan sikap

positif dan menghapuskan sikap negatif dalam melaksanakan
tugas-tugas yang diamalkan bagi meningkatkan kualiti kerja. Jika
seseorang guru itu berjaya menghayati dan melaksanakan
tanggungjawab dengan sempurna , natijahnya dapat membantu
guru tersebut menangani cabaran dalam dunia pendidikan pada hari
ini (Abdul Ghani , 2004).
KEPENTINGAN INTEGRITI DALAM PENTAKSIRAN
Terdapat banyak kepentingan yang diperoleh sekiranya pentaksir
menerapkan integriti dalam diri. Menurut Hazim (2012) ,
kepuasan pelajar dan guru akan terserlah sekiranya guru
menerapkan nilai integriti dalam diri. Tidak akan timbul hasil
pentaksiran yang berat sebelah atau pilih kasih dalam sesuatu
pentaksiran. Selain memiliki ilmu dan kemahiran tentang
pentaksiran, guru juga harus mematuhi Kod etika profesion
perguruan yang juga ada menekankan prinsip tindakan secara adil
terhadap semua murid tidak kira bangsa, warna kulit, jantina,
bahasa, agama, kepercayaan politik, tempat asal, keturunan, daya
intelek dan lain-lain .
Dalam kod etika perguruan, guru yang mengamalkan nilai
integriti dalam diri secara tidak langsung dapat menjaga imej
profesion keguruan. Menurut Hardingam (2004) profesion
keguruan tidak boleh dianggap sebagai satu kerjaya yang boleh
diceburi sesiapa saja kerana hanya mereka mempunyai kualiti,
berketerampilan, kewibawaan, kelayakan, minat. Iltizam, dan
berjiwa pendidik layak menjadi guru. Oleh itu, amat penting
seseorang guru itu menjaga imej profesion keguruan daripada
dicemari tuduhan yang mampu menggugat kredibiliti dan
profesionalisme guru. Kelemahan intergriti dalam diri seseorang
akan menyumbang kepada keruntuhan nilai moral dan kerosakan
sesuatu profesion pekerjaan. Demi kepentingan pendidikan dalam
melahirkan generasi yang berilmu dan berketrampilan, guru perlu
mengetepikan kepentingan diri, berkhidmat degan penuh jujur dan
sentiasa menjaga integriti serta nama baik jabatan pendidikan (

797

Alimuddin, 2009)
Persoalan mengenai kredibiliti guru bukanlah asing dalam
pelaksanaan Pentaksiran Berasaskan Sekolah (Val Klenowski,
2013). Menurut Dr Siti Rahaya Ariffin Dekan Fakulti Pendidikan
UKM dalam Berita Harian (2009) , sistem penilaian peringkat
sekolah yang dilaksanakan Kementerian Pelajaran menggantikan
kaedah yang dilaksanakan ketika ini dapat meningkatkan kredibiliti
seseorang guru yang juga bertindak penilai prestasi pelajar. Guru
didedahkan dengan kemahiran proses penilaian mengikut kriteria
yang ditetapkan berasaskan penanda aras yang sesuai dengan tahap
pencapaian murid. Proses penilaian peringkat sekolah ini secara
tidak langsung meningkatkan kredibiliti guru dalam memantau
prestasi murid .
Murid memainkan peranan penting dalam pembelajaran
dan berhak dinilai (Bean & Peterson, 1998; Dallimore et al., 2006;
Gioia, 1987; Melvin, 2000; Smith, 1994). Pemberian markah
terhadap penglibatan murid dalam kelas mampu memberikan tanda
positif kepada pelajar terhadap apa yang akan ditaksir oleh guru
seperti pemikiran secara kritis, pembelajaran secara aktif,
kemahiran berucap, dan kemahiran dalam perbualan. Apabila
pelajar menyedari bahawa mereka ditaksir untuk diberikan gred ,
mereka akan menukar cara pembelajaran mereka agar lebih
bersedia dalam perbincangan(Bean and Peterson, 1998) .Pendapat
beberapa orang pengkaji ( Brookhart, 2004; Glasser, 1971; Hargis,
1990;Karmel, 1970) menyatakan bahawa gred selalunya akan
memotivasikan pelajar untuk melakukan yang lebih baik.

IMPLIKASI INTEGRITI PENTAKSIRAN

Awal abad ke 20, didapati gred/markah pentaksiran terhadap
pelajar sangat berbeza antara satu sama lain dan tidak tepat
(Finklestein, 1913; Monroe, 1923; Rinsland, 1937). Ini jelas
menunjukkan bahawa etika pentaksiran amat diperlukan oleh guru
sebagai panduan ketika mejalankan pantaksiran (Susan Green,
Robert Johnson et. Al, 2007). Menurut Ahmad Hozi (2009),
sebelum guru memilih sesuatu kaedah penaksiran, guru harus

798

terlebih dahulu jelas tentang hasil pembelajaran yang hendak

ditaksir, dan kemudian memadankannya dengan kaedah penaksiran
yang menepati keperluan. Kajian yang dijalankan oleh Rohaya
Talib dan Mohd Najib Abd Ghafar (2008) & Suzana Abd Mutalib
& Jamil Ahmad (2012) mendapati bahawa amalan penaksiran
dalam kalangan guru yang tidak kompeten akan membawa
implikasi negatif iaitu guru gagal memantau kemajuan
pembelajaran akibat kurangnya pengetahuan, tidak dapat
menghasilkan keputusan yang adil, perancangan pengajaran yang
lemah dan tidak dapat mencungkil potensi sebenar murid,
melaporkan prestasi murid dalam pelajaran secara tidak tepat
kepada ibu bapa, mengakibatkan ketidakpercayaan dan keraguan
dalam proses penaksiran yang menyebabkan kualiti pentaksiran
dipersoalkan oleh pelbagai pihak akibat daripada akauntabiliti
pentaksiran yang gagal dilaksanakan sepenuhnya.
Guru yang tidak berintegriti juga akan menyebabkan pelajar
hilang minat terhadap pembelajaran contonya seperti sikap dan
tindak tanduk guru yang berat sebelah atau tidak berlaku adil
terhadap pelajar-pelajarnya, sama ada disengajakan atau tidak (
Prof. Madya Dr. Azizi Hj ,Yusof Boon & Kamaliah Noordin).
Sikap ini telah meninggalkan kesan yang sangat negatif terhadap
prestasi pembelajaran pelajar-pelajar yang tidak dipedulikan oleh
guru itu (Trawick.1997).
Selain itu, faktor ketelusan dan kejujuran guru dalam
menilai dan mentaksir tahap prestasi pelajar juga menjadi halangan
dalam pentaksiran (Karel Stokking, Marieke van der Schaaf, Jos
Jaspers, Gijsbert Erkerns, 2011). Menurut rencana Topical
Teaching Time to Challenge the Stigma of the Classroom yang
telah diterbitkan di internet, salah satu tugas guru ialah
memberikan laporan tentang prestasi pelajar. Sekiranya prestasi
pelajar tidak memuaskan, kebanyakan ibu bapa akan menyalahkan
guru kerana tidak mengajar dengan betul. Tekanan seperti itu
menyebabkan ada segelintir guru yang mengubah keputusan
peperiksaan/ ujian pelajar semata-mata tidak mahu dipersalahkan .

CARA MENGATASI KETIRISAN INTEGRITI DALAM

799

PENDIDIKAN
Profesor Emeritus Tan Sri Dr. Khoo Kay Kim menegaskan
bahawa untuk melonjak transformasi pendidikan, kerajaan perlu
melakukan perubahan terhadap guru terlebih dahulu ( Zaitul Azma
Zainon, 2012). Keguruan adalah profesion mulia dan sebagai
seorang yang terlibat dalam bidang profesional, guru perlu
menghayati etika terbaik untuk menjadi contoh atau model kepada
pelajar. Menurut Wakin (1996) individu bertanggungjawab
terhadap pembentukan integriti diri mereka. Individu disifatkan
sebagai bermoral apabila melakukan tindakan yang betul secara
konsisten dan sebati dengan dirinya . Golongan guru
bertanggungjawab menjaga imej baik profesion dan berusaha
meningkatkan kredibiliti profesion keguruan ke tahap yang
tertinggi dan dihormati. Sebagai seorang guru yang berintegriti,
seharusnya mereka sedar bahawa maruah guru dan profesion
perguruan terletak di tangan guru itu sendiri ( Azlina, 2008).
Musschenga (2001) menjelaskan bahawa pembangunan
integriti menekankan pendidikan untuk memahami falsafah dan
kepentingannya serta menjadikannya sebahagian daripada identiti
diri. Tujuan utama pendidikan etika, moral dan integriti adalah
untuk mengurangkan tingkah laku yang tidak beretika atau
kelakuan yang menyimpang yang wujud dalam sesebuah organisasi
sama ada dalam organisasi sektor awam mahu pun organisasi
sektor swasta (McNair dan Milam 1993; Bampton dan Maclagan
2005). Pengkaji-pengkaji (Crockett 2005; Fagan et. al. 2007;
Felton dan Sims 2005; French 2006) berpendapat bahawa
pendidikan etika,moral dan integriti boleh meningkatkan
pemahaman dan kesedaran tentang kepentingan etika, moral dan
integriti.Sebaliknya jika organisasi tidak menumpukan perhatian
terhadap pembangunan dan pemantapan etika, moral dan integriti
di kalangan anggota organisasi maka akan timbul isu yang boleh
menjejaskan imej dan reputasi organisasi di mana ketiadaan prinsip
moral yang teguh di kalangan anggota organisasi boleh membawa
kepada kelakuan yang menyimpang kerana individu berkenaan
tidak berupaya menilai sesuatu kelakuan atau tindakan dengan
pertimbangan yang rasional dan bermoral (Baxter and Rarick

800

1987).
Transformasi pentaksiran sekolah di negara kita membawa
penghijrahan daripada pentaksiran berorientasikan peperiksaan
kepada pentaksiran yang holistik, seimbang, fleksibel, adil dan
merujuk standard (Pelan Strategik Interim, KPM 2011-2020).
Sehubungan dengan transformasi tersebut guru harus mengikuti
kursus-kursus pendidikan yang dianjurkan oleh pihak Kementerian
Pendidikan , Jabatan Pendidikan Negeri dan Pejabat Pendidikan
Daerah. Kursus-kursus pendidikan yang dihadiri penting bagi
seseorang guru untuk mempertingkatkan keupayaan dan prestasi
dalam profesion pendidikan yang kian mencabar dan kompleks ini
( Rohani Abdul Hamid,1998)

KESIMPULAN
Nilai-nilai integriti perlu ditanam dalam jiwa pendidik bagi
memastikan warga pendidik sentiasa menjalankan tugas dengan
bersistematik dan berintegriti sekali gus mampu melaksanakan
pentaksiran dengan adil dan saksama. Guru yang berintegriti juga
diharapkan dapat bersama-sama dalam pembentukan modal insan
secara holistik melalui penekanan terhadap penguasaan ilmu
pengetahuan, modal intelektual, pembudayaan sikap progresif dan
pengamalan nilai, etika serta moral yang tinggi seperti tercatat di
dalam Pelan Induk Pembangunan Pendidikan (PIPP), Pelan
Integriti Nasional (PIN) dan seperti yang dihasratkan dalam Misi
Nasional.
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Lumpur

807

KOMPETENSI DIMILIKI GURU

PELATIH PRASEKOLAH
DI INSTITUT PENDIDIKAN GURU
Miller Yong & Anuar Abd. Rahman

ABSTRAK
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti tahap kompetensi yang
dimiliki guru pelatih prasekolah di Institut Pendidikan Guru.
Kompetensi tersebut ialah pengajaran, pengurusan, komunikasi,
perkembangan profesional, penjagaan dan perlindungan kanakkanak. Kajian ini berasaskan kepada reka bentuk kuantitatif yang
menggunakan skala likert. Responden kajian melibatkan guru-guru
pelatih prasekolah seramai 223 orang. Bagi tujuan mengenal pasti
kompetensi yang dimiliki, data yang diperolehi telah dianalisis
menggunakan SPSS Ver.21. Hasil kajian menunjukkan guru
pelatih prasekolah di IPG mempunyai kompetensi yang signifikan
secara statistik dalam program latihan perguruan mereka.
Kata kunci: Pengajaran, Pengurusan, Komunikasi, Perkembangan
Profesional, Penjagaan dan perlindungan kanak-kanak

PENGENALAN
Kurikulum Standard Prasekolah Kebangsaan (KSPK) yang
mengandungi pelbagai tunjang telah direkabentuk semata-mata
untuk memenuhi tuntutan pendidikan prasekolah di negara ini
(KPM. 2010). Kandungan KSPK untuk disampaikan kepada
kanak-kanak memerlukan latihan peguruan yang sesuai yang perlu
perhatian oleh pihak IPGM sebagai sebuah institusi latihan

808

keguruan di negara ini. Ini adalah bertujuan untuk melahirkan

guru-guru prasekolah yang terlatih yang akan dihantar mengajar di
prasekolah kebangsaan. Sebarang usaha yang dilaksanakan untuk
melatih guru perlu diselaraskan dengan kandungan kurikulum
pendidikan prasekolah untuk membolehkan para guru prasekolah
memperolehi latihan yang sesuai dengan kehendak KSPK.
KSPK menuntut kompetensi guru prasekolah yang
berkemahiran tinggi, berpengetahuan, dan berpengalaman dalam
pengajaran dan pembelajaran untuk memberi pengetahuan dan
pengalaman dalam penguasaan 4M (membaca, menulis, mengira,
dan menaakul) kepada kanak-kanak prasekolah. Ini sejajar dengan
kenyataan Rafel Haji Mahar (2001) yang menegaskan bahawa
keberkesanan pengajaran dan pembelajaran prasekolah bergantung
kepada pelaksanaan yang melibatkan guru-guru yang benar-benar
faham, menghayati dan mampu melaksanakan pengajaran dan
pembelajaran seperti yang dihasratkan.
Untuk mempastikan guru pelatih atau pelajar guru benarbenar kompeten dalam profesion pendidikan prasekolah, maka
kajian hendaklah dijalankan untuk mendapatkan maklumat
kompetensi yang harus diperolehi ketika mengikuti latihan
perguruan di IPG. Masalah ketidakselarasan mutu latihan dengan
kehendak kurikulum KSPK yang dilaksanakan oleh guru-guru
tentulah tidak timbul di prasekolah. Ini merupakan cabaran yang
besar kepada pensyarah-pensyarah dalam pendidikan prasekolah di
IPG yang memainkan peranan sebagai institusi yang
bertanggungjawab untuk menangani isu guru-guru yang tidak
kompeten dalam pengajaran. Pensyarah prasekolah dianggap
sebagai individu yang bertanggungjawab dalam menghasilkan
guru-guru prasekolah yang kompeten dalam menyampaikan
pengajaran dan pembelajaran seperti yang dihasratkan dalam
kandungan KSPK (KPM, 2010).
Pelbagai penyataan yang diutarakan tentang kompetensi
pengajaran yang melibatkan bukan sahaja guru-guru tetapi juga
guru pelatih yang ditawarkan kursus pendidikan prasekolah di IPG.
Kompetensi seperti yang dinyatakan oleh Rothwell (2002) adalah
suatu ciri yang mempengaruhi individu ke arah perlakuan dan
kemahiran tertentu bagi mencapai prestasi yang boleh dicontohi.
809

Selanjutnya, Tobia Ley dan Dietrich Albert (2003) menyatakan

bahawa kemahiran dan kompetensi yang digunakan dalam
organisasi adalah bagi mengungkap ciri-ciri seseorang individu
pekerja untuk mempergunakan kepakaran mereka dengan lebih
baik atau untuk membangunkannya dengan lebih lanjut.
Sebagai pusat latihan perguruan pihak IPG perlu sentiasa
peka dengan mutu latihan yang sesuai dengan keperluan
pendidikan prasekolah di negara ini.
Kurikulum Standard
Prasekolah Kebangsaan (KSPK) perlu ditelusuri serta difahami
sepenuhnya supaya mutu latihan dapat digariskan sebagai panduan
oleh para pensyarah semasa memberi latihan kepada para pelatih
guru yang menuntut di IPG. Cabaran-cabaran yang membabitkan
pendidikan prasekolah tidak seharusnya diabaikan, sebaliknya
perlu diberi perhatian dan ditangani segera bagi mencapai objektif
KSPK.

LATAR BELAKANG MASALAH

Kajian yang dilaksanakan terhadap peranan guru prasekolah dan
masalah-masalah yang menjadi isu terhadap pelaksanaan
kurikulum di prasekolah perlu dilihat sebagai punca masalah
kekurangan kompetensi yang dimiliki semasa dalam latihan guru di
Institut Pendidikan Guru.
Kecemerlangan pendidikan prasekolah banyak bergantung
kepada faktor guru. Guru-guru prasekolah hendaklah diberi latihan
yang secukupnya sebelum mereka melaksanakan tanggungjawab
mengasuh dan membimbing murid. Guru prasekolah perlu
menguasai ilmu dan kemahiran dalam aspek-aspek perkembangan
kanak-kanak dan pendekatan pengajaran sejajar dengan kehendak
matlamat pendidikan prasekolah yang menekankan kepada
perkembangan menyeluruh, menyediakan kemahiran asas dan
memupuk sikap positif murid.
Menurut Fullan (2000), guru ialah nadi perubahan
pendidikan dan guru juga agen yang paling signifikan. Mereka
mempunyai peranan sebagai agen perubahan kepada objektif
perubahan Kurikulum Standard Prasekolah Kebangsaan (KSPK).

810

Dalam aspek pembelajaran Hurwith dan Day (2001) menegaskan

bahawa guru mempunyai pengaruh penting tentang perkara yang
dipelajari oleh murid. Guru juga membina pengetahuan dan
kemahiran daripada kurikulum kerana mereka adalah pembuat
keputusan yang utama dalam bilik darjah. Gaudelius dan Speirs
(2002) juga menyatakan bahawa guru bertanggugjawab untuk
melaksanakan kurikulum secara berkesan. Guru ialah agen yang
paling penting kerana secara langsung mereka menyumbang dan
membangunkan kemahiran 4M murid.
Justeru itu, kajian
kompetensi guru pelatih amat releven dengan objektif kajian. Ini
adalah kerana hasil kajian dapat menggambarkan kompetensi yang
dimiliki oleh guru pelatih dalam menyediakan guru prasekolah
yang profesional.
Lihana (2005) mendapati amalan pedagogi guru prasekolah
berada pada tahap membimbangkan. Beliau mendapati guru-guru
masih belum menghayati dan mengamalkan dengan baik konsep
Amalan Bersesuaian Perkembangan (ABP) walaupun sudah
termaktub dengan jelasnya dalam Kurikulum Prasekolah
Kebangsaan. Beliau merumuskan bahawa salah konsepsi dan
prakonsepsi guru menghalang keberkesanan amalan pendekatan
pedagogi yang sesuai untuk peringkat awal kanak-kanak. Guru
prasekolah juga didapati berhadapan beberapa masalah berhubung
pengetahuan tentang peranan dan tugas sebenar mereka. Mereka
kurang menekankan pedagogi, kurang latihan amali dan kurang
demonstrasi dari segi memahami perkembangan kanak-kanak.
Rohaty (2003) merumuskan bahawa mereka ini menghadapi
masalah kecetekan ilmu dari aspek praktikal yang mana ini boleh
mengganggu perancangan dan pengurusan prasekolah dan proses
pembelajaran kanak-kanak.
Isu-isu tersebut menjelaskan kekangan yang banyak dan
membimbangkan untuk mencapai matlamat pendidikan prasekolah
kebangsaan seperti yang termaktub dalam Kurikulum Standard
Prasekolah Kebangsaan (KPM, 2010). Guru yang berkualiti adalah
asas untuk menjayakan hasrat negara bagi memperoleh pendidikan
yang berkualiti dan merealisasikan hasrat Falsafah Pendidikan
Negara iaitu untuk melahirkan insan yang seimbang dan harmonis
dari segi jasmani, emosi, rohani dan jasmani (Abu Bakar Bachik,
811

2002). Pendidikan prasekolah mempunyai identiti sebagai saluran

penting untuk perkembangan kanak-kanak dari segi kognitif,
afektif dan psikomotor secara bersepadu. Pendidikan prasekolah
juga amat signifikan untuk menyahut cabaran matlamat pendidikan
prasekolah. Ini adalah kerana pendidikan prasekolah adalah
tunjang pendidikan asas yang menuntut kompetensi yang
diperlukan oleh guru pelatih seperti yang diajar di dalam kelas
kuliah. Kompetensi ini seharusnya direalisasikan ketika menjalani
latihan mengajar di prasekolah untuk memenuhi hasrat Kurikulum
Standard Prasekolah Kebangsaan (KSPK, 2010).

PERNYATAAN MASALAH
Cabaran utama yang dihadapi di Institut Pendidikan Guru ialah
untuk melahirkan guru-guru prasekolah yang kompeten untuk
menyempurnakan pendidikan prasekolah. Sistem pendidikan di
Malaysia dewasa ini ialah untuk menyediakan perkhidmatan
pendidikan yang berkualiti dan seterusnya menghasilkan 'output'
tenaga kerja yang bermaklumat dan berketrampilan sesuai dengan
kehendak-kehendak pembangunan negara. Senario inilah
memerlukan kita melihat sistem latihan guru prasekolah di Institut
Pendidikan Guru. Antara perkara yang perlu diberi perhatian ialah
penguasaan kompetensi profesionalisme dalam pendidikan
prasekolah. Oleh itu kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti
kompetensi yang dimiliki guru pelatih di IPG.
OBJEKTIF KAJIAN
Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti kompetensi yang
dimiliki guru pelatih di IPG dalam aspek pengajaran, pengurusan,
komunikasi, perkembangan profesional serta penjagaan dan
perlindungan kanak-kanak.

PERSOALAN KAJIAN

812

Adakah guru pelatih di IPG memiliki kompetensi dalam aspek

pengajaran, pengurusan, komunikasi, perkembangan profesional
serta penjagaan dan perlindungan kanak-kanak.

KEPENTINGAN KAJIAN
Kajian ini menambah kepada pengetahuan umum dengan
menunjukkan bagaimana kompetensi yang dimiliki memainkan
peranan penting dalam menentukan kejayaan latihan perguruan
guru pelatih di Institut Pendidikan Guru dan kecemerlangan
pelaksanaan pendidikan prasekolah. Justeru itu, hasil kajian ini
nanti dijangka akan dapat membantu seluruh organisasi pendidikan
dari peringkat penggubal dasar (Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia)
hingga ke peringkat pelaksana dasar iaitu guru-guru di prasekolah.
Dapatan ini juga dirasakan penting kepada pembangunan
profesionalisme perguruan di kalangan pensyarah dan guru pelatih
di Institut Pendidikan Guru.

SOROTAN KAJIAN
Kompetensi Pengajaran
Kompetensi pengajaran melibatkan keupayaan untuk menyediakan
kurikulum bersepadu yang memenuhi keperluan kanak-kanak
individu, menilai tingkah laku, dan termasuk aktiviti pembelajaran.
Copple dan Bredekamp (2006) menyatakan bahawa pendidik
profesional awal kanak-kanak diharap dapat merancang aktiviti
pembelajaran berdasarkan keperluan individu setiap kanak-kanak.
Seorang guru perlu menjadi biasa dengan aktiviti-aktiviti
perkembangan kanak-kanak dan membimbing kanak-kanak
melalui pengalaman kehidupan harian (Bredekamp, 1995).
Jacobs dan Crowley (2007) menyatakan
bahawa
mewujudkan tempat yang menarik untuk kanak-kanak bermain,
belajar, dan membesar adalah salah satu tanggungjawab utama
semua pihak. Mereka bentuk kurikulum memerlukan fleksibiliti
813

untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan pelbagai keperluan dan

kepentingan kanak-kanak. Menyediakan kurikulum mengikut
kesesuaian umur berdasarkan kebolehan dan rasa ingin tahu kanakkanak adalah perlu di dalam kelas pendidikan awal kanak-kanak
atau prasekolah.

Kompetensi Pengurusan
Kompetensi Pengurusan merujuk kepada keupayaan guru untuk
melibatkan pelajar. McKeachie dan Svinick (2006) menyatakan
bahawa guru yang berupaya menggunakan teknik iced breaking
cenderung untuk memulakan kelasnya dengan yang baik.
Kebolehan untuk menguruskan aktiviti kelas dengan berkesan
adalah lebih penting daripada isi kandungan subjek untuk beberapa
minggu pertama. Apabila kanak-kanak dapat membiasakan diri
dan melibatkan diri dalam aktiviti kelas, mereka boleh belajar
dengan lebih berkesan.
Kaca (1997) menyatakan bahawa
pendekatan yang penting untuk pengurusan bilik darjah koperatif
adalah mewujudkan peraturan kelas yang jelas dan garis panduan
yang munasabah.

Kompetensi Komunikasi
Kompetensi komunikasi termasuk kemahiran untuk berkomunikasi
dengan kanak-kanak, keluarga, rakan-rakan dan masyarakat.
Wright, Stegelin dan Hartle (2007) menyatakan bahawa membina
hubungan positif dengan keluarga adalah berkaitan dengan hasil
pendidikan kanak-kanak. Guru-guru yang memiliki kemahiran
komunikasi yang baik mempunyai kebolehan untuk mengenal pasti
keadaan struktur dan sosioekonomi keluarga kanak-kanak.
Kemahiran komunikasi yang berkesan dan hubungan yang baik
dengan ibu bapa adalah elemen penting dalam mempengaruhi
perkembangan dan pembelajaran
kanak-kanak.
Kemahiran
komunikasi yang berkesan dan hubungan baik dengan ibu bapa
mempengaruhi kualiti program dalam pendidikan prasekolah.

814

Guru-guru dan ibu bapa yang bekerjasama akan memberi manfaat

kepada anak-anak (Puckett dan Diffily, 2003). Oleh itu, guru perlu
membina hubungan komunikasi dengan ibu bapa melalui
perjumpaan, bertukar-tukar e-mail serta bahan bercetak mengenai
prestasi kanak-kanak.

Kompetensi Perkembangan Profesional

Pendidik yang profesional perlu terus berkembang, memperbaiki,
belajar, menemui, dan mengkaji (Brooke, 1994).
Beliau
mengatakan bahawa perkembangan kompetensi profesional
melibatkan perkembangan diri, menghadiri sebarang pengetahuan
baru dan penyelidikan, dan membuat refleksi bagaimana
pengalaman mengajar boleh diperiksa untuk diperbaiki dalam
amalan pengajaran. Pendidik awal kanak-kanak perlu sentiasa
meningkatkan perkembangan profesional melalui program awal
kanak-kanak, kursus latihan dalaman, atau menghadiri bengkel dan
persidangan. Barich (2007) menekankan bahawa profesionalisme
mesti merupakan kebiasaan kepada guru-guru yang lebih
berpengalaman dan amalan mereka yang mempunyai kesediaan
untuk berkembang dan berubah. Pendidikan meningkatkan
pemikiran reflektif yang mana mencerminkan prestasi untuk
membantu pendidik mengkaji proses pengajarannya. Tambahan
pula, pemikiran reflektif memudahkan perkembangan diri yang
berkaitan dengan kompetensi profesional, yang seterusnya
meningkatkan kualiti pengajaran diri di masa depan.
Kompetensi Penjagaan dan perlindungan Kanak-kanak
Feeney, Christensen, dan Moravick (2005), menyatakan tugas
paling penting guru profesional pendidikan awal kanak-kanak
miliki ialah memastikan keselamatan dan kesihatan kanak-kanak
yang mana juga merupakan aspek paling penting kepada ibu bapa
dan masyarakat pada umumnya. Kanak-kanak mesti mempunyai
persekitaran yang sihat dan selamat bagi melindungi mereka
daripada bahaya dan menyediakan keperluan untuk mengekalkan
815

kesihatan. Maria Montessori telah dikreditkan dengan mengatakan

bahawa peranan utama guru adalah untuk menyediakan
persekitaran untuk kanak-kanak. Selain itu,
Bloom (2005)
menekankan bahawa guru bertanggungjawab kepada kurikulum,
penyeliaan, berkomunikasi dengan ibu bapa, dan menyediakan
persekitaran pembelajaran yang selamat dan progresif untuk kanakkanak, mempunyai tanggungjawab yang banyak dan memerlukan
asas pengetahuan profesional yang luas.

KAEDAH KAJIAN
Kajian ini berasaskan kepada reka bentuk kuantitatif. Dalam
kajian ini, soal selidik menggunakan skala likert digunakan untuk
mengenalpasti kompetensi para guru pelatih semasa mengikuti
latihan perguruan di IPG. Kaedah ini merupakan salah satu kaedah
yang digunakan secara meluas bagi tujuan penyelidikan dalam
bidang pendidikan. Sampel kajian dipilih daripada populasi guru
pelatih yang sedang mengikuti kursus perguruan dan pernah
menjalani praktikum di sekolah. Bilangan responden yang terlibat
dalam kajian ini adalah 223 orang. Responden terlibat dalam kajian
ini terdiri daripada mereka yang datang dari latar belakang
pendidikan dan kursus yang sama di seluruh Malaysia.

Instrumen Kajian
Pengkaji menggunakan instrumen jenis skala likert untuk
mengenal pasti kompetensi yang dimiliki berlandaskan kepada
kerangka konsep kompetensi profesionalisme guru prasekolah yang
mengandungi lima elemen iaitu pengajaran, pengurusan,
komunikasi, perkembangan profesional, dan penjagaan dan
perlindungan kanak-kanak. Pengkaji menggunakan instrumen soal
selidik jenis skala likert ini kerana ia dapat membantu
memperolehi maklumat secara langsung daripada responden yang
hendak dikaji. Di samping itu, jenis instrumen ini sangat sesuai

816

digunakan untuk menjawab persoalan kajian kuantitatif yang

hendak dikaji. Nana (2007) dan Moleong (2002) menyatakan soal
selidik merupakan satu alat yang digunakan bagi memperoleh
maklumat secara langsung daripada responden, dan ia juga
merupakan bentuk kajian deskriptif.
Babbie (1995) pula
menjelaskan instrumen yang menggunakan skala likert adalah
berguna untuk menentukan sejauh mana sikap dan perspektif
tertentu responden. Skala likert adalah fleksible, mudah untuk
dikira dan mempunyai kapasiti untuk merangkumi banyak jawapan
(Adam dan Schvaneveldt,1991).

ANALISIS DATA
Analisis data dilaksanakan untuk mengenal pasti kompetensi
dimiliki guru pelatih di IPG. Untuk itu, data dianalisis
menggunakan pakej SPPS versi 16.0. Menurut Zikmund (2003)
perisian SPSS telah digunakan secara meluas dan diterima sebagai
teknik untuk menganalisis data kuantitatif. Semua responden
diminta memberi maklum balas melalui skala likert dengan 5
menunjukkan sangat setuju dan 1 menunjukkan sangat tidak
setuju. Skor min yang diperolehi dikumpulkan kepada tiga
kategori berdasarkan skor min sebenar untuk membezakan level
iaitu (a) 1.00-2.33 (tahap rendah), (b) 2.34-3.65 (tahap sederhana),
dan (c) 3.66-5.00 (tahap tinggi) yang akan digunakan untuk
menginterpretasi data bagi tahap kompetensi yang dimiliki guru
pelatih.

DAPATAN KAJIAN
Keputusan statistik deskriptif menunjukkan bahawa keseluruhan
komposit min untuk kelima-lima kategori dalam kompetensi
dimiliki para guru pelatih IPGM ialah 4.37 (SD=0.45) yang mana
terletak pada kategori tahap tinggi. Mereka merasakan diri mereka
mempunyai kompetensi yang diperlukan untuk menjadi guru
prasekolah. Kompetensi dalam kategori komunikasi mempunyai
817

min paling tinggi iaitu 4.43 dan SD=0.68. Sebaliknya kompetensi

dalam kategori pengajaran mempunyai skor terendah iaitu 4.33 dan
SD=0.49. Analisis ini ditunjukkan dalam jadual 1.1.
Jadual 1.1 : Statistik Deskriptif Kompetensi Dimiliki
Guru pelatih IPG
Kompetensi
N
Min
Sisihan
Piawai
(SD)
Pengajaran
233
4.33
0.49
Pengurusan
233
4.42
0.80
Komunikasi
233
4.43
0.68
Perkembangan Profesional
233
4.34
0.47
Perlindungan dan Penjagaan Kanak-Kanak
233
4.39
0.49
Komposit
4.37
0.45

Kompetensi Pengajaran
Keputusan kajian menunjukkan kedua-dua elemen memperbaiki
pengajaran selepas membuat penilaian terhadap kanak-kanak (M
=4.41, SD=0.59) dan membantu kanak-kanak dalam membina
keyakinan diri (M=4.41, SD=0.62) mempunyai skor min pada
tahap tinggi. Manakala elemen memerhati dan mendokumentasikan
tingkah laku kanak-kanak (M=4.23, SD=0.71) menghasilkan skor
min terendah. Kesimpulan maklumat dalam kategori ini dapat
diringkaskan melalui Jadual 1.2.
Jadual 1.2 : Statistik Deskriptif Kompetensi Pengajaran
Dimiliki Guru pelatih IPG
Kompetensi Pengajaran
N
Min
Sisihan
Piawai
(SD)
Merancang aktiviti pembelajaran berdasarkan
233
4.27
0.64
kebolehan dan minat kanak-kanak.
Membentuk kerja bermakna dalam aktiviti
bermain.
Memerhati dan mendokumentasikan tingkah
laku kanak-kanak.

818

233

4.34

0.61

233

4.23

0.71

Memperbaiki pengajaran selepas membuat

penilaian terhadap kanak-kanak.

233

4.41

0.59

Membantu kanak-kanak dalam membina

keyakinan diri.
Menggunakan ruang dan bahan-bahan dengan
berkesan
untuk
melaksanakan
aktiviti
Pembelajaran kanak-kanak.
Membimbing pembelajaran kanak-kanak

233

4.41

0.62

233

4.39

0.44

233

4.40

0.63

4.33

0.49

Komposit

Kompetensi Pengurusan
Keputusan kajian menunjukkan gabungan keseluruhan skor min
bagi kategori pengurusan adalah 4.42 (SD = 0.80) yang berada
pada kategori tahap tinggi. Responden menganggap mereka
mempunyai kompetensi yang sangat baik dalam kategori
pengurusan. Membantu kanak-kanak untuk berurusan dan
perhubungan dengan rakan sebaya (M=4.37, SD=0.60)
mempunyai skor min yang tertinggi dan berada pada kategori tahap
tinggi. Sebaliknya, elemen merancang aktiviti yang melibatkan ibu
bapa (M=4.07, SD=0.81) mempunyai skor min terendah yang
mana masih menunjukkan dalam kategori memiliki kompetensi
pada tahap tinggi. Dapatan analisis kajian dalam kategori ini
dapat diringkaskan dalam Jadual 1.3.
Jadual 1.3 : Statistik Deskriptif Kompetensi Pengurusan
Dimiliki Guru pelatih IPG
Kompetensi Pengurusan
N
Min
Sisihan
Piawai
Memahami setiap pencapaian kanak-kanak.
233
4.22
(SD)
0.69
Membantu kanak-kanak membina pasukan
kerja.
Memupuk sikap penghargaan terhadap
perbezaan individu.

233

4.34

0.64

233

4.36

0.60

Membantu kanak-kanak untuk berurusan dan

perhubungan dengan rakan sebaya.

233

4.37

0.60

Merancang aktiviti yang melibatkan ibu

bapa.

233

4.07

0.81

819

Komposit

4.42

0.80

Kompetensi Komunikasi
Keputusan kajian menunjukkan gabungan keseluruhan skor min
bagi kompetensi komunikasi adalah 4.43 (SD = 0.68) yang berada
pada kategori tahap tinggi. Responden beranggapan mereka
memiliki kompetensi komunikasi yang sangat baik. Membina
hubungan kasih sayang dan kepercayaan dengan kanak-kanak
(M=4.43, SD=0.68) mempunyai skor min yang tertinggi dan jatuh
pada kompentensi tahap tinggi. Sebaliknya, mempermudahkan
rundingan (M=4.07, SD=0.70) mempunyai skor yang paling
rendah yang mana masih menunjukkan dalam kategori
berkompetensi tahap tinggi. Maklumat kompetensi komunikasi ini
dapat diringkaskan melalui Jadual 1.4.
Jadual 1.4 : Statistik Deskriptif Kompetensi Komunikasi
Dimiliki Guru pelatih IPG
Kompetensi Komunikasi
N
Min
Sisihan
Piawai
(SD)
Mempermudahkan rundingan.
233
4.07
0.70
Berinteraksi dengan kanak-kanak secara positif.
Membina hubungan kasih sayang dan
kepercayaan dengan kanak-kanak.

233

4.47

0.57

233

4.56

0.55

Menjadi pendengar yang baik kepada kanakkanak.

233

4.51

0.60

Membina komunikasi yang jujur dan berterus

terang dengan keluarga.

233

4.34

0.67

Menyokong dan bekerjasama dengan rakan

sebaya / sekerjaya.

233

4.46

0.63

Berkongsi maklumat dengan rakan sekelas

mengenai amalan profesion.

233

4.41

0.60

4.43

0.68

Komposit

Kompetensi Perkembangan Profesional

820

Keputusan kajian menunjukkan skor min komposit keseluruhan

bagi perkembangan profesional ialah 4.34 (SD=0.47) yang mana
berada pada kompetensi kategori tahap tinggi. Maklum balas
Responden ini menunjukkan bahawa kompetensi mereka dalam
perkembangan profesional sangat berwibawa. Aktif menghadiri
kelas (M=4.53, SD=0.58) mempunyai skor min yang paling tinggi
dan jatuh ke dalam kategori tahap tinggi. Sebaliknya, memohon
bantuan sumber dari masyarakat (M=4.00, SD=0.78) mempunyai
skor yang paling rendah yang mana masih menunjukkan pada tahap
tinggi dalam kategori ini. Maklumat hasil dapatan perkembangan
profesional ini diringkaskan dalam Jadual 1.5.
Jadual 1.5 : Statistik Deskriptif Kompetensi Perkembangan
Profesional Dimiliki Guru pelatih IPG
Kompetensi Perkembangan Profesional
N
Mi
Sisihan
n
Piawai
Membantu keluarga / ibu bapa memahami 233
4.3
0.66
(SD)
perkembangan kanak-kanak.
7
Menghormati kaedah pengajaran yang berbeza.

233

Memohon bantuan sumber dari masyarakat.

233

Menerima pengetahuan
profesional baru
mengenai Penjagaan dan Pendidikan Awal
Kanak-Kanak.
Aktif menghadiri kelas.
Komposit

0.60

233

4.4
0
4.0
0
4.38

233

4.53

0.58

4.34

0.47

0.78
0.68

Kompetensi Perlindungan dan Penjagaan Kanak-Kanak

Keputusan kajian menunjukkan skor min komposit keseluruhan
untuk perlindungan dan penjagaan kanak-kanak ialah 4.39
(SD=0.49) yang jatuh pada tahap tinggi. Maklum balas daripada
responden menyatakan bahawa kompetensi perlindungan dan
penjagaan kanak-kanak yang dimiliki adalah amat berwibawa.
Elemen mengekalkan persekitaran yang bersih (M=4.58, SD=0.55)
mempunyai skor min yang tertinggi dan jatuh ke dalam kategori

821

pada tahap tinggi. Sebaliknya, melaksanakan pertolongan cemas

(M=4.01, SD=0.89) mempunyai skor min yang paling rendah dan
masih menunjukkan pemilikan kompetensi pada kategori tahap
tinggi dalam kategori ini.
Maklumat dapatan kajian kompetensi
perlindungan dan penjagaan kanak-kanak dapat diringkaskan
dalam Jadual 1.6.

Jadual 1.6 : Statistik Deskriptif Kompetensi Perlindungan dan

Penjagaan Kanak-Kanak Dimiliki Guru pelatih IPG
Kompetensi Perlindungan dan Penjagaan
N
Min
Sisihan
Kanak-Kanak
Piawai
(SD)
Membuat refleksi amalan pendidikan.
233
4.32
0.67
Melaksanakan pertolongan cemas.
Mengekalkan persekitaran pembelajaran yang
selamat.

233
233

4.01
4.54

0.89
0.56

Menilai perkembangan mental.

Mengekalkan persekitaran yang bersih.

233
233

4.32
4.58

0.65
0.55

Memupuk etika peribadi yang positif dalam

kalangan kanak-kanak.

233

4.54

0.57

4.39

0.49

Komposit

PERBINCANGAN
Hasil kajian ini terhadap kompetensi yang dimiliki guru pelatih
prasekolah di IPGM dapat memberikan input betapa guru pelatih
masa depan perlu menguasai kemahiran untuk membolehkan
mereka dapat berinteraksi secara berkesan dengan kedua-dua ibu
bapa dan juga anak-anak mereka. Keputusan daripada kajian ini
mendapati guru pelatih prasekolah di IPGM mempunyai skor min
yang sangat tinggi dalam kategori kompentensi komunikasi.
Pengalaman bersama dengan murid-murid prasekolah memberi
kesan terhadap kompetensi komunikasi.
Oleh itu, latihan

822

mengajar adalah aspek yang sangat penting dalam latihan

perguruan untuk menguasai kemahiran komunikasi.
Pihak yang bertanggungjawab mereka bentuk program
latihan perguruan di IPGM dalam opsyen pendidikan prasekolah
mungkin perlu mengambil kira terhadap hasil dapatan kajian ini.
Ini kerana ia merupakan satu peluang kepada bakal guru untuk
memperolehi kompetensi dalam kemahiran komunikasi maka
aspek ini boleh dibangunkan dalam program kursus pendidikan
prasekolah di peringkat awal sebagai persediaan mereka menjadi
guru prasekolah. Menurut Stegelin & Hartle (2007), membina
hubungan positif dengan keluarga dapat mempengaruhi
perkembangan pembelajaran kanak-kanak yang mana ini
menyokong kajian yang dibuat oleh Bennett(2007) dan Knowles,
Holton dan Swanson (2005).
Antara dapatan menarik dalam kajian ini ialah kategori
kompetensi pengurusan yang mana menunjukkan skor min yang
paling rendah. Kompetensi pengurusan merupakan kemahiran
penting yang guru pelatih IPGM perlu ketahui untuk mereka
merangka dan melaksana struktur aktiviti murid-murid prasekolah.
Oleh itu, IPGM boleh mengambil kira dengan menawarkan lebih
kursus yang berkaitan dengan pengurusan bilik darjah. Ini selari
dengan kenyataan Svinick (2006) dan Gultekin (2006) yang
menekankan pelbagai strategi dalam pengurusan bilik darjah.

KESIMPULAN
Kesimpulannya, terdapat min markah yang signifikan secara
statistik bagi kompetensi dimiliki guru pelatih di IPG. Guru
pelatih di Institut Pendidikan Guru Malaysia menyatakan mereka
memiliki kompetensi yang diperlukan untuk melaksanakan
tanggungjawab sebagai pendidik diprasekolah dalam program
latihan perguruan. Walau bagaimanapun mereka menganggap
kekurangan kompetensi dalam pengajaran adalah disebabkan oleh
kekurangan kemahiran pengalaman pengajaran yang sebenar.
Manakala pengalaman bersama kanak-kanak semasa berinteraksi
perlu dapat mempengaruhi kemahiran komunikasi yang dimiliki.
823

RUJUKAN
Bennett, T. (2007). New ways of preparing high-quality
teachers. Young Children 62 (4): 32-33.
Bloom, P. J. (2005). Blueprint for action achieving center - based
change through staff development. Lake Forest, Illinois:
New Horizons.
Bredekamp, S., & Willer, B. (1992). Ofladders and lattices, cores
and cones: conceptualizing an early childhood professional
development system. Young Children, 47(3), 47-50.
Brooke, G. E. (1994). My personal journey toward
professionalism. Young Children, 49(6), 69-71.
Feeney, S., Christensen, D., & Moravick, E. (2005). Who am
I in the lives of children? (Seven Edition ed.). New
York: Merrill Publishing Company.
Jacobs, G., & Crowley, K. (2007). Play, projects, and
preschool standards. CA: Corwin Press
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia. Kurikulum Standard Prasekolah
Kebangsaan. 2010. Bahagian Pembangunan Kurikulum.
Lihanna Borhan (2005). Ke arah pendidikan awal kanak-kanak
yang berkualiti. Pentadbiran dalam pembangunan
pendidikan. : PTS Professional Publishing Sdn. Bhd.
Puckett, M. B., & Diffily, D. (2003). Teaching young children:
introduction to early childhood profession. NY:
Thomson.
Rohaty Mohd Masjud dan Abu Bakar Nordin, (2004) Pendidikan
Prasekolah. Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd.
Wright, K., Stegelin, D. A., & Hartle, L. (2007).
Buildingfamily, school, and community partnershi (3rd
ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson.

824

PENDIDIKAN SWASTA: KE ARAH

PEMBANGUNAN PENDIDIKAN
Mohan Sanyasi & Sanitah Mohd. Yusof

ABSTRAK
Perkembangan pendidikan swasta di negara kita telah wujud sejak
zaman silam melalui pelbagai perkembangan ilmu secara formal
mahupun tidak formal. Permintaan terhadap pendidikan agama
Islam, sekolah mubaligh Kristian serta sekolah swasta Cina
berkembang atas permintaan masyarakat dan galakan penjajah.
Hari ini sekolah pendidikan swasta dengan kurikulum antarabangsa
mendapat sambutan terutamanya masyarakat bandar yang mahukan
kelainan atau kemajuan pendidikan mengikut citarasa ibubapa
selaras dengan perkembangan global. Keyakinan terhadap
kurikulum antarabangsa ini juga didorong oleh faktor kemampuan
masyarakat dengan peningkatan taraf hidup dan faktor
pendemokrasian pendidikan untuk memilih kurikulum yang
dijangka dapat menjamin masa depan anak-anak di peringkat
global. Walaupun perkembangan pendidikan swasta masih
berlandaskan Akta Pendidikan 1996 tetapi kebebasan penentuan
kurikulum tetap ada sehingga membentuk pelbagai kurikulum yang
jauh berbeza dengan kurikulum pendidikan kebangsaan.
Perangkaan seramai 11,278 orang pelajar pada tahun 2012,
dijangka akan melonjak kepada 75,000 orang pada tahun 2020
selaras dengan dasar kerajaan yang menggalakkan penglibatan
pihak swasta dalam Wawasan 2020. Kepentingan pendidikan
swasta dari segi ekonomi dan keterbukaan dasar kerajaan haruslah
dipastikan dengan keseimbangan kurikulum kebangsaan dalam
penghasilan generasi negara agar jurang perbezaan pencapaian
akademik dapat dikurangkan. Malah peranan pendidikan swasta

825

harus dilihat seabagi pelengkap kepada kurikulum kebangsaan dan

bukannya sebagai suatu yang bakal mengugat sistem pendidikan
negara.
Kata Kunci: Pendidikan Swasta

PENGENALAN
Matlamat pendidikan di Malaysia bertujuan untuk menggalakkan
perkembangan individu yang seimbang melalui perkembangan
jasmani, mental, emosi, moral dan estetik. Individu yang dilahirkan
dari sistem pendidikan seharusnya stabil dari segi jasmani, cekap
menjalankan tugas serta mempunyai nilai estetik untuk menikmati
keindahan alam semula jadi . (Abdul Rahim, 2010). Samada
institusi pendidikan itu formal ataupun tidak, proses pengajaran
dan pembelajaran tetap akan berlaku. Institusi pendidikan
berperanan merancang kurikulum pendidikan yang bersesuai
dengan kehendak masyrakatnya dalam usaha membentuk
masyarakat yang berilmu pengetahuan dengan penekanan kepada
pelbagai
matapelajaran
berteraskan
keagamaan,
sains,
falsafah,jasmaniah, kemahiran, tatabahasa, astronomi,matematik,
gimnastik dan sebagainya.Perkara ini jelas sekiranya kita mengkaji
tamadun-tamadun awal dunia seperti Mesopotamia, Mesir, India
dan China. Malah di zaman-zaman peningkatannya juga jelas ia
bertambah luas cabang ilmunya sehingga menghasilkan tokohtokoh terkemuka dunia yang masih disebut-sebut sumbangan
mereka seperti Plato, Aristotle, Phythagoras , Ibn Khaldun, alKhawarizmi dan ramai lagi. Sehubungan itu peranan institusi
pendidikan dalam membentuk kurikulum yang bersesuaian
menjadi penentu kepada kemajuan dan pencapaian sesebuah
tamadun dan bukti jelas dengan lahirnya pelbagai tokoh ilmuan
yang telah memberi sumbangan besar dalam pencapaian kemajuan
dunia hari ini. Sementara Ibrahim (1990) menegaskan bahawa
sekolah adalah ejen sosialis atau pemasyarakatan yang paling
mustahak dalam konteks negara ini.
Seiring dengan hasrat kerajaan untuk menyediakan peluang
826

pendidikan untuk semua, sektor swasta turut sama menyumbang

kepada usaha tersebut. Banyak institusi pendidikan swasta atau
ringkasnya IPS, beroperasi di seluruh negara bagi menyediakan
peluang pendidikan kepada warganegara Malaysia dan juga
warganegara antarabangsa. Pendidikan swasta adalah pendidikan
yang disediakan kepada pelajar oleh institusi pendidikan swasta.
Institusi pendidikan swasta adalah institusi bukan bantuan kerajaan
dan ia dibiayai sepenuhnya oleh sektor swasta. Penubuhan,
pengurusan dan pengoperasian institusi pendidikan swasta adalah
tertakluk di bawah Akta Pendidikan 1996 dan peraturan-peraturan
yang dibuat di bawahnya. Pendidikan swasta terus berkembang
pada sekitar tahun 1950-an dan 60-an banyak sekolah pondok
didirikan untuk mengajar pelajar-pelajar sebagai persediaan untuk
menyambung pelajaran di luar negeri khususnya dalam bidang
agama. Pada awal 1970an, perkembangan semasa peranan dan
fungsi sistem pendidikan telah mewujudkan sekolah swasta bagi
menampung pelajar-pelajar untuk meneruskan pelajaran di
peringkat menengah. Tahun 1980an telah menyaksikan suatu
perubahan yang penting di mana pendidikan swasta turut sama
menyediakan peluang pendidikan di peringkat pendidikan tinggi
sebagai alternatif kepada mereka yang tidak terpilih memasuki
institusi-institusi pendidikan tinggi awam (IPTA). Pada hari ini
pendidikan swasta di Malaysia telah berkembang dengan begitu
pesat dengan penubuhan lebih banyak Institusi Pendidikan Tinggi
Swasta (IPTS) dan IPTS.

KATEGORI INSTITUSI SWASTA

Institusi pendidikan swasta secara amnya terdiri dari dua kategori
utama yang dibahagikan mengikut peringkat pendidikan yang
ditawarkan. Institusi Pendidikan Swasta seperti sekolah swasta,
sekolah antarabangsa, tadika swasta, pusat-pusat kemahiran
termasuk pusat bahasa, pusat tuisyen, pusat latihan komputer, pusat
kemahiran teknikal dan pusat perdagangan adalah di bawah seliaan
dan tanggungjawab Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia. Operasi
827

institusi pendidikan swasta dibiayai sepenuhnya oleh sektor swasta.

Walau bagaimanapun proses penubuhan dan pendaftaran,
pengurusan dan operasi sesebuah IPS adalah tertakluk di bawah
Akta Pendidikan 1996.Kategori kedua merupakan institusi
pendidikan tinggi swasta yang terdiri dari institusi pendidikan
bertaraf kolej, kolej universiti dan universiti yang terletak di bawah
kawalan Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia. Ringkasnya dua
kategori utama institusi tersebut adalah terdiri daripada Institusi
Pendidikan Swasta yang di bawah seliaan KPM, dan Institusi
Pendidikan Tinggi Swasta (IPTS) yang di bawah seliaan KPTM.
Kesemua institusi pendidikan berkenaan perlu berdaftar dengan
kementerian berkaitan terlebih dahulu sebelum dibenar beroperasi.
Institusi pendidikan yang tergolong dalam kategori ini
menawarkan pendidikan dariperingkat pra sekolah, sekolah rendah
hinggalah ke peringkat menengah & pengajian tinggi. Jenis-jenis
institusi pendidikan swasta dalam kategori yang perlu didaftarkan
dengan Kementerian Pelajaran termasuklah Tadika swasta yang
mengikuti Kurikulum Kebangsaan Prasekolah Kementerian
Pelajaran Malaysia, Sekolah rendah dan menengah swasta yang
mengikuti Kurikulum Kebangsaan dan penilaian yang
dicadangkan, Sekolah rendah dan menengah agama swasta yang
mengikuti Kurikulum Kebangsaan, Sekolah persendirian Cina yang
mengikuti garis panduan Kementerian Pelajaran, Sekolah
Ekspatriat, Sekolah Antarabangsa, Pusat tuisyen yang menyediakan
bantuan pelajaran kepada para pelajar mengikut Kurikulum
Kebangsaan dan Pusat bahasa, pusat latihan komputer, pusat
kemahiran/ perdagangan, sekolah gaya pos dan lain-lain.
Pendidikan swasta ialah pendidikan yang dimiliki, ditadbir dan
dibiayai oleh pihak swasta. Institusi pendidikan swasta perlu
berdaftar terlebih dahulu dengan Jabatan Pendidikan Swasta
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia dan selepas itu berdaftar dengan
Pendaftar Perniagaan atau Pendaftar Syarikat untuk memulakan
operasinya. Penubuhan dan operasi institusi pendidikan swasta
adalah tertakluk di bawah Akta Institusi Pendidikan Swasta 1996.

828

Perkembangan pendidikan swasta di Malaysia pada dekat

90an berkembang dengan pesatnya bukan sahaja dari segi bilangan
pelajar tetapi juga dari segi jenisnya. Ini berlaku disebabkan
permintaan dari ibu bapa utuk memasukkan anaknya ke institusi
swasta semakin bertambah disebabkan ada anggapan bahawa
institusi pendidikan swasta boleh memberikan pendidikan yang
sempurna. Selain itu terdapat ibu bapa yang sibuk dengan tugasnya
dan memerlukan satu institusi pendidikan yang boleh memberikan
pendidikan dan penjagaaan anak mereka semasa bertugas. Faktor
lain yang amat ketara ialah ketidakcukupan tempat di institusi
pengajian tinggi tempatan bagi menampung bilangan pelajar yang
layak untuk memasuki universiti tempatan. Sehubungan dengan itu
terdapatnya permintaan yang tinggi terhadap tenaga kerja
professional dan mahir oleh sektor perindustrian menjelang tahun
2020 apabila Malaysia menjadi negara perindustrian dan sekali gus
menjadi negara maju. Ini merupakan salah satu faktor utama
mengapa pendidikan swasta berkembang dengan pesat. Tambahan
pula terdapat galakan dan gesaan daripada kerajaan agar sektor
swasta melabur di dalam pendidikan dengan menubuhkan institusi
swasta yang menawarkan kursus-kursus yang tidak terdapat di
institusi pendidikan awam.

PERANAN SEKOLAH SWASTA

Peranan sektor swasta dalam pendidikan adalah untuk membantu
usaha kerajaan dalam perkembangan pendidikan. Kini peranannya
bertambah lebih penting lagi. Sektor swasta menyediakan
pendidikan di peringkat prasekolah, rendah, menengah dan Institusi
Pengajian Tinggi. Ia juga menawarkan kursus-kursus professional
dan separa professional. Bagi menjamin mutu pendidikan yang
disediakan, semua institusi pendidikan swasta dikehendaki
berdaftar dengan Kementerian Pendidikan. Institusi prasekolah
swasta menjalankan program dan kegiatan yang berasaskan garis
panduan kurikulum yang diluluskan Kementerian Pendidikan,
tetapi bahasa pengantar yang digunakan adalah bebas. Terdapat

829

juga beberapa buah institusi swasta yang menggunakan kurikulum

kebangsaan. Para pelajarnya menduduki peperiksaan UPSR, PMR
dan SPM.
Pendidikan lepas menengah swasta boleh dikategorikan
sebagai pendidikan vokasional, matrikulasi dan GCE A Level.
Kursus-kursus vokasional menyediakan kemahiran-kemahiran
berkaitan dengan pekerjaan dalam bidang urus niaga, perdagangan,
pengajian computer dan teknikal. Sebahagian daripada kursus ini
membawa kepada penganugerahn sijil dan diploma oleh majlis
Latihan Vokasional Malaysia, LCCI, Pitman Examination Institute,
City and Guilds. Perkara ini juga sama dengan pendapat Ibrahim
(2008) bahawa dewasa ini wujud trend yang berbeza tentang
bentuk baharu pengantarabangsaan dalam pendidikan tinggi, kesan
kewujudan persaingan hebat antara negara dan kewujudan blok
perdagangan yang berdaya saing tinggi. Antara program
matrikulasi yang dijalankan oleh institusi swasta, iaitu program
matrikulasi Australia, program university Amerika dan program
matrikulasi Kanada. Juga merupakan kelayakan yang diterima
untuk masuk ke university di seberang laut. Kursus-kursus baru
yang diperkenalkan oleh institusi swasta terdiri daripada
pengurusan perniagaan, khidmat perdagangan, kejuruteraan dan
teknologi, seni lukis dan rekabentuk, dan pengajian kreatif.
Namun, kursus-kursus berasaskan sains dan teknologi semakin
mendapat keutamaan.
Syarikat-syarikat korporat telah digalakkan untuk mendirikan
institusi pendidikan tinggi. Contohnya, petronas telah menubuhkan
Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Telekom Malaysia mendirikan
Universiti Telekom dan Universiti Multimedia, manakala Tenaga
Nasional telah mengasaskan Universiti Tenaga Nasional. Programprogram kembar juga diadakan antara institusi tempatan dengan
universiti luar negara di Australia, New Zealand, Kanada, United
Kingdom dan Amerika Syarikat. Program kembar membenarkan
pelajar menyempurnakan sebahagaian daripada program pengajian
peringkat ijazah di Malaysia dan sebahagian lagi (mungkin 1
tahun) di universiti di seberang laut. Perkembangan pendidikan

830

swasta terbaharu ialah penubuhan kampus cawangan di Malaysia.

Setakat ini terdapat tiga buah universiti luar negeri telah
menubuhkan kampus cawangan, iaitu Universiti Monash Sunway
di Kolej Sunway, Universiti Curtin, Kampus Miri dan Universiti
Nottingham, Kampus Malaysia. Dengan itu, jelaslah bahawa
peranan sektor swasta dalam pendidikan sama ada di peringkat
prasekolah atau lepas menengah khususnya peringkat pendidikan
tinggi semakin penting.(Ee, 2003)

SEKOLAH SWASTA DARI PERSPEKTIF GLOBAL

Menurut buku Foundations of Education-12 Edition 9 (Ornstein,
Levine, Gutek & Vocke, 2014) Sektor pendidikan swasta sangat
berbeza dari segi saiz dan fungsinya berdasarkan sesebuah negara
dan sangat berkait rapat dilihat dari aspek sejarah, struktur politik,
komposisi agama dan tatacara perundangannya. Di negera seperti
Belanda, lebih separuh dari kemasukan ke sekolah menengah
adalah di sekolah swasta berbanding sekolah kerajaan. Manakala di
negara seperti Cuba, Korea Utara dan beberapa buah negara lain
pula, melarang pembentukan sekolah swasta bagi memastikan tiada
sebarang perbezaan ideologi dalam negara. Sementara di
kebanyakan negara-negara lain, pendaftaran sekolah swasta adalah
kurang dari 10% berbanding sekolah kerajaan. Di sebilangan besar
negara-negara dunia, kemasukan sekolah swasta sangat kecil dan
dipenuhi oleh sebilangan kumpulan elit sahaja sebelum memasuki
sekolah yang berprestasi tinggi, ada juga yang menjadi sample
kepada pencapaian pelajar dan golongan muda negara tersebut. Di
beberapa buah negara lain pula, kebanyakan sekolah swasta
dilaksanakan dengan skala kecil dan menempatkan pelajar yang
miskin atau tercicir terutamanya di kawasan kepadatan tinggi
bandar. Dalam meneliti kepelbagaian senario kewujudan sekolah
swasta, sukar untuk kita memberikan satu definisi yang tepat
berkaitan sekolah swasta. Sehubungan itu, gambaran dan hasil
produktiviti sesebuah sekolah swasta harus dinilai secara unik dan
khusus terhadap sesebuah negara yang nyata berbeza mengikut

831

ideologi yang dipikulnya. ( Ornstein, Levine, Gutek & Vocke,

2014)

SAMBUTAN TERHADAP SEKOLAH SWASTA

Semakin banyak sekolah persendirian dibuka dan semakin ramai
pula ibu bapa yang menghantar anak-anak mereka belajar di
sekolah berkenaan walaupun mahal bayarannya. Ini menunjukkan
bahawa sambutan yang sangat menggalakkan terhadap sekolah
swasta berbanding sekolah-sekolah awam. Ada yang berpendapat
bahawa sekolah awam kurang dari segi standard dan tidak yakin
sekolah awam akan menjamin masa hadapan anak-anak mereka
yang kian mencabar. Mereka merasakan bahawa masa depan anakanak mereka akan lebih cerah sekiranya mereka menghantar
anak-anak mereka ke sekolah swasta. Penyusunan kurikulum dan
kokurikulum yang ditawarkan merupakan elemen yang menarik
minat mereka.
Perbelanjaan untuk menghantar seorang anak ke sekolah
swasta adalah tinggi berbanding perbelanjaan menghantar anak ke
sekolah kerajaan. Tidak kurang dari RM10,000 yang terpaksa
dibelanjakan oleh seorang bapa dalam setahun sekiranya anaknya
berada dalam Darjah 1. Jumlah ini akan berlipat kali apabila
bilangan anak mereka juga bertambah. Namun ibu bapa yang
berada sanggup membelanjakan wang sejumlah itu demi pelajaran
anak-anak. Contohnya apabila pemansuhan PPSMI iaitu
pengajaran matapelajaran Mathematik dan Sains menggunakan
bahasa Inggeris diputuskan, maka ramai juga yang memilih
sekolah swasta sebagai alternatif. Keadaan ini juga ditambah
dengan sikap sesetengah ibubapa yang mahukan anak mereka
dididik dengan menggunakan bahasa penghantar bahasa Inggeris
yang akan memudahkan anak mereka melanjutkan pelajaran ke
luar negara. Dalam masa yang sama sudah ramai juga ibu bapa
yang menghantar anak-anak mereka ke sekolah swasta untuk
mengikuti kursus IGCSE (International General Certificate of
Secondary Education) yang pada keseluruhannya diajar dalam
Bahasa Inggeris dan matlamat akhirnya ialah untuk memudahkan

832

kemasukan ke universiti luar negara. Perkembangan sedemikian

memaparkan kepada kita bahawa kemewahan wang ringgit
memberi pilihan alternatif selain sistem pendidikan nasional.
Apatah lagi apabila sudah ada kurikulum yang benar-benar selari
dengan kurikulum sekolah kerajaan seperti Sejarah (matapelajaran
sejarah yang diajar tidak menekankan tentang sejarah Malaysia).
Tambahan pula bahasa perantaraan yang digunakan ialah bahasa
Inggeris walaupun bahasa Melayu wajib diajarkan sebagai mata
pelajaran.
Ditinjau dari sudut yang lain tentulah kita tidak seharusnya
menyekat ibu bapa yang berada untuk memilih pendidikan yang
terbaik untuk anaknya. Mereka adalah terdiri dari golongan bijak
pandai yang dapat menilai buruk baiknya sistem pendidikan
disesebuah negara itu. Mereka tentunya mahukan anak mereka
mendapat pendidikan yang terbaik bagi anak mereka untuk
menjamin masa hadapan yang cemerlang. Lantas dengan kuasa
wang yang mereka ada, mereka tentulah boleh memilih sekolah
mana dan pendidikan yang bagaimana yang sesuai untuk anak-anak
mereka. Dalam kalangan pemimpin-pemimpin negara kita ramai
juga yang lebih senang menghantar anak mereka untuk belajar di
sekolah swasta sepertimana yang dijelaskan. Lantas tumbuhlah
sekolah-sekolah swasta yang pelbagai versi dengan kepelbagaian
penekanan serta promosinya terutamanya di kawasan Lembah
Kelang. Keadaan yang serupa juga wujud di Pulau Pinang, Ipoh
dan Johor Bahru. Mungkin. Keadaan sebegini tentu sekali tidak
akan wujud sekiranya golongan berada ini menaruh keyakinan
kepada sistem pendidikan dan sekolah yang ditubuhkan oleh
kerajaan. Jika keadaan sedemikian tidak ditangani takut akan
wujud dua kelompok persekolahan di negara ini pada masa akan
datang. Satu kelompok yang merupakan sekolah kerajaan dan satu
lagi merupakan sekolah swasta. Sekolah swasta sememangnya
telah lama wujud, semenjak zaman berzaman. Tetapi tidaklah
seperti yang terdapat pada hari ini. Keghairahan ibu bapa untuk
menghantar anak-anak mereka ke sekolah-sekolah swasta juga
seolah-olah tidak dapat dibendung-bendung lagi. Malah ada yang
melibatkan sebagai penilaian status sosialnya. Kesannya tentulah
akan lahir suasana persekolahan yang agak luar biasa di negara ini.

833

Sekolah awam akan dihuni oleh pelajar-pelajar yang kurang berada

manakala sekolah swasta akan terdiri dari golongan berada yang
terdiri dari pelbagai kaum.
Perbincangan lebih lanjut senario dan landskap negara
ekoran daripada keadaan persekolahan yang sebegini perlu
dilaksanakan bagi meneliti relevannya sekolah swasta kepada
semua rakyat kita tanpa menjejaskan sistem persekolahan yang
sedia ada. Hakikatnya, ramai kalangan anak-anak golongan elit
Melayu, Cina dan India yang berada di sekolah-sekolah swasta ini.
Keadaan ini menjadi ketara apabila terdapatnya sekolah-sekolah
swasta aliran agama yang menarik perha Mount Safa Islamic
International School. Berdasarkan perangkaan 2012 terdapat
seramai 11,278 orang pelajar Malaysia yang belajar di sekolahsekolah swasta. Berasaskan Program Transformasi Ekonomi
kerajaan, disasarkan 40% kuota pelajar di sekolah swasta adalah
terdiri daripada pelajar-pelajar Malaysia. Perlu dijelaskan bahawa,
menjelang 2020, terdapat hampir 94 buah sekolah swasta akan
beroperasi. Ini bermakna, sekaligus akan membawa kepada
peningkatan jumlah pelajar Malaysia di sekolah-sekolah swasta ini.
Dianggarkan jumlah keseluruhan pelajar sekolah swasta akan
melonjak kepada 75,000 orang.
Mengambil kira akan formula 40% kuota adalah diisi oleh
para pelajar Malaysia, bermakna menjelang 2020 terdapat seramai
30,000 orang pelajar Malaysia akan berada di sekolah-sekolah
swasta bagi mengikuti pembelajaran, berasaskan kurikulum United
Kingdom dan kurikulum antarabangsa lainnya, tentunya mereka ini
akan diajar oleh guru-guru English speaking teachers all over the
world. Berkemungkinan secara keseluruhannya, dengan hanya
30,000 pelajar Malaysia di sekolah-sekolah swasta, ia tidak
mempunyai impak yang besar ke atas sistem dan struktur sosial
dalam kerangka pembangunan kependudukan dan pola penggunaan
sumber manusia, berbanding jumlah pelajar yang berada dalam
arus perdana sistem pendidikan (pendidikan kebangsaan),
diunjurkan menjelang 2020 terdapat pertambahan pelajar seramai
835,498 dengan kadar pertambahan 20% setahun, mengambil kira
perangkaan semasa kedudukan pelajar di sekolah-sekolah arus

834

perdana yang berjumlah 417,749. Namun ini bukan bermakna,

pelajar yang berada di sekolah swasta, harus terpisah dengan
tuntutan pemertabatan tamadun bangsa. Lantaran itu, mereka juga
seharusnya didedahkan sepenuhnya dengan keperluan berbahasa
Melayu berdasarkan piawai bahasa Melayu itu sendiri, keadaan ini
akan membolehkan proses pengintegrasian sosial dalam konteks
menghayati nilai dan norma Malaysia dapat disebatikan dalam
acuan yang sama, secara bersama dengan rakyat Malaysia yang
lain.
Sebenarnya keadaan yang berlaku dalam perkembangan
hospital swasta tidak jauh berbeza dengan sekolah swasta.
Pandangan negatif masyarakat pada peringkat awal dengan melihat
kos pendidikan yang jauh berbeza berbanding kos pendidikan di
sekolah awam semakin pudar atau semakin dapat diterima
masyarakat. Dalam hal ini kita tidak dapat menolak bahawa faktor
peningkatan taraf hidup rakyat kita hari ini juga merupakan suatu
dorongan penting. Apabila rakyat semakin mampu di dalam
kehidupan hariannya, maka ia membuka ruang untuk mereka
membuat pilihan yang terbaik dalam semua aspek termasuk
pendidikan anak-anak mereka. Pendedahan terhadap kemudahan,
persekitaran tempat belajar dan kepelbagaian budaya dan
kokurikulum yang menarik seperti aktiviti berenang, memanah dan
menunggang kuda merupakan suatu impak besar yang menjadi
tarikan kepada semua. Tidak dapat dinafikan ramai masyarakat kita
secara sedar atau tidak menaruh minat untuk anak-anak mereka
menguasai bahasa Inggeris sebagai asas survival mereka.
Penggunaan bahasa Inggeris yang meluas dapat memenuhi hasrat
mereka ini. Tambahan bilangan pelajar yang terhad serta terpilih
dari pelbagai aspek menjanjikan unsur kepuasan, keselamatan serta
tarikan kepada ibu bapa yang inginkan sesuatu yang lebih dalam
sistem pendidikan hari ini.
Dunia hari ini yang terbuka luas, membolehkan ramai ibu
bapa mengekses bentuk perkembangan pendidikan yang berlaku di
negara-negara lain dan bagi negara kita kurikulum pendidikan
Singapura sentiasa menjadi tarikan sebilangan masyarakat.
Perbandingan antara beberapa sekolah dari segi kurikulum dan

835

gaya pembelajaran yang kondusif menarik ibu bapa untuk memilih

sekolah swasta ini. Keadaan ini semakin nyata dapat diterima
apabila kerajaan sendiri memberikan pelbagai anugerah kepada
pencapaian sekolah swast sebagaimana penganugerahan kepada
pelajar sekolah swasta Fairview di Pulau Pinang dan Johor Bahru.
Ramai di antara masyarakat kita hari ini tidak sedar bahawa
kerajaan memperuntukan jumlah budget yang begitu besar dalam
menjalankan tanggungjawab sosial seperti penyediaan pendidikan
kepada semua rakyat. Hakikatnya kemasukan dan kemunculan
pendidikan swasta bukan sahaja meringankan beban kerajaan
malah ia membuka ruang atau option kepada masyarakat dalam
meningkatkan status pendidikan negara. Justeru perkembangan
pendidikan swasta tidak harus dilihat sebagai saingan atau gugatan
kepada sistem pendidikan negara, sebaliknya dilihat sebagai
cabang perkembangan institusi pendidikan yang kompetetif seiring
dengan keperluan semasa. Ia juga selaras dengan konsep pasaran
bebas ekonomi yang berasaskan permintaan memenuhi penawaran.
Keadaan ini mejadi lebih kritikal apabila anak-anak yang telah
menamatkan SPM dan STPM ingin melanjutkan pelajaran mereka
tidak tercapai kerana pelbagai kekangan melibatkan faktor
terhadnya peluang yang terdapat di IPT berbanding bilangan
pelajar yang memohon. Kegetiran ini sering berkesudahan dengan
option kedua iaitu merujuk kepada peluang pendidikan di IPTS.
Walaupun ramai di antara pelajar kita sering meletakkan pilihan
utama terhadap IPTA, namun kegagalan untuk mendapatkan
tempat untuk memasuki IPTA dapat dipenuhi dengan peluang yang
ditawarkan di IPTS. Umum mengetahui kos pembelajaran di IPTS
tentu sahaja jauh lebih mahal berbanding IPTA, namun ia dapat
membantu menyelesaikan peluang pembelajaran ramai pelajar
yang gagal memasuki IPTA. Malah pilihan kursus yang pelbagai
membolehkan pelbagai disiplin ilmu dikembangkan dalam
menghasilkan modal insan kelas pertama yang berkualiti serta
pelbagai.
Apa yang mungkin merisaukan kita dalam perkembangan
ini ialah, pelaksanaan sekolah-sekolah swasta wajar dipantau
supaya sentiasa menepati garis panduan Kementerian serta

836

keselarasan dalam memenuhi Falsafah Pendidikan Negara.

Keseimbangan yang terungkai dalam FPN wajib disasarkan selaras
dengan sekolah awam. Malah kurikulum pendidikan yang
dilakarkan wajar berlandaskan kebudayaan nasional serta unsurunsur kebajikan diambil kira. Kita tidak boleh membiarkan
perkembangan sekolah ini jauh tersisih dari apa yang diwarnakan
dalam sistem pendidikan kebangsaan kerana ia dilakar dengan
keseimbangan pembangunan individu. Pendidikan adalah jalan
pengetahuan dan pendidikan yang baik adalah jalan terus kepada
kejayaan. Adalah tidak mengejutkan, bahawa keluarga
berpendapatan sederhana dan tinggi, contohnya di Pulau Pinang
sanggup berbelanja antara RM3, 000 dan RM12, 000 bagi setiap
semester untuk pendidikan anak-anak mereka, mewujudkan
permintaan tinggi untuk sekolah-sekolah swasta di negeri ini
dengan penduduk hanya 1.6 juta. Namun, perbelanjaan yang tinggi
tidak menjejaskan permintaan terhadap sekolah swasta.
Pembatalan dasar Pengajaran Sains dan Matematik dalam Bahasa
Inggeris (PPSMI) pada tahun lepas telah mendorong permintaan
yang tinggi untuk sekolah-sekolah berbahasa pengantar Inggeris
tempatan secara mendadak. Juga, baru-baru ini pemansuhan kuota
40 peratus untuk enrolmen pelajar tempatan ke sekolah-sekolah
swasta meningkatkan lagi permintaan, dengan keluarga
berpendapatan sederhana dan tinggi berebut untuk menghantar
anak-anak mereka ke sekolah swasta.

KESIMPULAN
Tidak dapat dinafikan bahawa kestabilan politik dan ekonomi
negara kita juga menjadi salah satu asas kepada kemajuan
perkembangan sekolah swasta ini. Suplimen kepada scenario ini
juga lebih didorong oleh peningkatkan taraf hidup rakyat kita di
kawasan urban yang membolehkan mereka berkeupayaan untuk
mencari alternatif pendidikan swasta berbanding keupayaan 20
tahun yang lepas, dimana kebanyakan kita dibatasi oleh pendapatan
yang terhad dan kita seolah-olah teracu dengan bentuk pendidikan

837

sekolah kerajaan tanpa adanya ruang sebagai pilihan kedua.

Perubahan dan kemajuan pemikiran masyarakat hari ini untuk
mencari suatu yang lebih atau pilihan, menjadikan kita berupaya
untuk memenuhi pelbagai tawaran bentuk pendidikan terutamanya
dalam kalangan lepasan SPM dan STPM. Perkara ini selaras
dengan dapatan kajian Ahmad Fauzi (1997) menyatakan
sesungguhnya reformasi dalam pendidikan adalah perkara biasa
kerana sistem pendidikan bukanlah sesuatu yang statik. Sistem
pendidikan yang berwibawa dan responsive mestilah bersifat
dinamis iaitu sentiasa berkembang dan beradad di dalam keadaan
terkini selaras dengan peredaran masa dan keperluan zaman.
Dengan lain perkataan, tujuan reformasi adalah untuk memperbaiki
dan meningkatkan lagi kemampuan sistem pendidikan untuk
memenuhi semasa dan cabaran masa muka. Secara positifnya
kerajaan akan memperolehi pelbagai manfaat disamping dapat
meningkatkan sumber pendapatan negara dan mengurangkan kos
penyediaan pendidikan yang begitu besar bagi negara. Meluasnya
sistem pendidikan negara dalam perkembangan sekolah swasta
membolehkan anak-anak golongan expatriate membuat
pertimbangan dalam memilih negara kita sebagai destinasi
pelaburan ekonomi dalam pelbagai bidang. Malah bilangan pelajar
dari luar negara untuk belajar di negara kita juga dapat
ditingkatkan dan mengalih perhatian generasi muda yang sebelum
ini lebih tertumpu ke negara luar seperti Singapura & Taiwan.
Kerjasama dari semua pihak terutama pengusaha sekolah-sekolah
swasta dengan menepati dasar kerajaan dan menjalankan
pelaksanaan kurikulum pendidikan yang seimbang membuktikan
bahawa kerajaan kita begitu positif dengan perkembangan sekolah
swasta walaupun ada pihak yang mencetuskan kebimbangan
dengan mengumpamakan keadaannya tidak ubah seperti cendawan
yang tumbuh selepas hujan. Ini membuktikan bahawa
perkembangan positif ini perlu dipantau dan dikaji dari masa ke
semasa supaya transformasi yang berlaku adalah selaras dengan
keperibadian negara dan tidak jauh terpesong dari kurikulum yang
sedia ada serta tidak berasaskan keuntungan semata-mata.
Perkembangan sekolah swasta ini juga biarlah menekankan aspek
kebajikan, insaniah, moral dan kemanusiaan selain dari
838

matapelajaran duniawi bercirikan sains dan matematik secara

totalnya.

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STPM, Pearson Malaysia Sdn. Bhd:Petaling Jaya.
Mohd Salleh Lebar,1992.Perubahan dan Kemajuan Pendidikan Di
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Khoo Kay Kim & Fadzil Othman (Disusun),1980.Pendidikan Di
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Education( 12th Edition), USA: Wadsworth
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Bahagian Perancangan dan Penyelidikan Dasar Pendidikan

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Ahmad Fauzi Bin Mohamed (1997). Pendemokrasian Pendidikan :
Suatu Pentafsiran Dan Tinjauan Mengenai Pendekatan Serta
Pelaksanaannya Dalam Sistem Pendidikan Di Malaysia.
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Mohamed & Nur Ainna Bte Ali Anuar (2012). Kurikulum
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840

KESAN TEKNIK
HYPNO MIND BOOSTER KE
ATAS MOTIVASI INTRINSIK DAN
EKSTRINSIK PELAJAR
Saiful Lizan Suparman & Mohd Tajudin Ninggal

ABSTRAK
Kajian ini memberi fokus kepada fungsi teknik Hipnoterapi ke atas
perubahan motivasi intrinsik dan ekstrinsik pelajar. Teori yang
digunakan dalam kajian ini ialah REBT (Rasional Emotif
Behaviour Therapy) oleh Albert Ellis. Seramai 30 orang pelajar
terlibat sebagai subjek kawalan dan 30 orang subjek rawatan.
Pengkaji menggunakan modul 'Hypno Mind Booster' di dalam
melaksanakan proses aplikasi hipnoterapi . Didapati bahawa
terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan pada ujian pra dan pos yang
dijalankan.
Kata Kunci: Motivasi

PENGENALAN
Setiap manusia mempunyai tahap motivasi diri yang ada kalanya
tinggi dan ada kalanya rendah. Ia bergantung kepada beberapa
perkara yang menyebabkan ia terjadi seperti factor emosi,
persekitaran dan kecenderungan individu untuk fokus secara lebih
konsisten terhadap satu-satu perkara seperti pekerjaan ataupun
aktiviti. Pelajar yang berjaya di dalam akademik mempunyai tahap

841

motivasi diri yang baik. Maka dengan ini , teknik Hypno Mind
Booster dikenal pasti satu teknik yang dapat meningkatkan tahap
motivasi intrinsik pelajar agar dapat menumpukan perhatian
kepada pelajaran dengan lebih konsisten lagi.

KEDUDUKAN SEBELUM INOVASI DIJALANKAN

1) Pelajar menghadapi masalah fokus yang kurang semasa
sesi kuliahpada musim tugasan berbanding pada hari
kuliah biasa
2) Pelajar mencuba pelbagai alternatif untuk meningkatkan
tahap motivasi diri namun masih belum menemui kaedah
yang paling berkesan.
3) Tahap keberkesanan pensyarah di dalam menyampaikan
kuliah bergantung tahap kesediaan mental yang benar-benar
fokus oleh pelajar dan ini tidak berlaku ketika pelajar
kurang bermotivasi.

MASALAH-MASALAH YANG DIHADAPI

1) Berlaku budaya last minute baik dari segi menyiapkan
tugasan, persediaan menghadapi peperiksaan mahupun
pembentangan kuliah.
2) Mindset ke atas konsep kendiri yang tidak dinamik: melihat
kemampuan diri amat terbatas sedangkan ada potensi untuk
pencapaian yang lebih lebih cemerlang.
3) Terlalu atau bergantung kepada mood untuk
melaksanakan tugasan atau mengulangkaji pelajaran.

842

4) Kurang keyakinan diri untuk melibatkan diri atau

mengambil bahagian secara aktif dalam perbincangan kelas.
5) Pelajar kurang mahir meningkatkan tahap motivasi diri
secara kendiri.
6) Kekangan masa yang menuntut agar kerja kursus disiapkan
pada masa ditetapkan memberi tekanan kepada pelajar.

INOVASI YANG TELAH DIJALANKAN

1) Buku Panduan HypnoMind Booster dicipta.
2) Pelajar diberi taklimat berkenaan garis panduan
menggunakan buku HMB. (Tatacara penggunaan
dinyatakan dalam buku HMB)
3) Pelajar memberi fokus kepada satu masalah yang paling
dominan yang hendak diatasi (contoh: suka bertangguh)
4) Proses hipnosis secara kendiri self hypnosis dijalankan
menggunakan teknik PIDSA.

TEKNIK PIDSA
1) Pre talk: bermonolog/ fikirkan satu masalah yang dominan
2) Induction: Menyediakan diri daripada consious mind
kepada sub-concious mind melalui teknik 3 layers deep
breath
3) Deepening: Memasuki trans state longgaran seluruh sendi
agar pelajar berada dalam keadaan benar-benar relaks.

843

4) Suggestion: Kata ulang saranan positif yang dikehendaki.

5) Awakening: Bangkit daripada trans state kepada normal
state melalui teknik 3 layers deep breath

DAPATAN KAJIAN KE ATAS PELAJAR YANG

MENGGUNAKAN TEKNIK HYPNO MIND BOOSTER

844

FAEDAH-FAEDAH DARIPADA INOVASI YANG TELAH

DIPERKENALKAN
1) Pengurangan Kos Operasi Buku Panduan yang murah
berbanding Buku Panduan Motivasi yang terdapat di
pasaran.
2) Penjimatan Masa Tidak perlu menghadiri kursus motivasi
yang melibatkan jangka masa yang panjang.
3) Peningkatan Hasil Kerja Meningkatkan mutu hasil kerja
pelajar sama ada dalam peperiksaan mahupun kerja kursus
mahupun aktiviti kelas
4) Fokus / tumpuan yang meningkat:Fokus terhadap sesi
kuliah di dalam kelas dapat ditingkatkan.
5) Pilihan teknik terkini:Pelajar mempunyai pilihan terkini di
dalam meningkatkan motivasi diri.

845

6) Kesan bersifat tekal:Kesan perubahan tingkah laku yang

dikehendaki (tingkahlaku positif) pada jangka masa yang
lama (terakam secara semulajadi di dalam permenant
memory box pelajar.
7) Consumer Satisfaction:Peningkatan Tahap Kepuasan Hati
Pelanggan diniali menggunakan soal-selidik.
8) Kecerdasan Minda: Menjana pemikiran yang cergas, cerdas
dan dinamik.
9) Faedah-faedah lain:Sebagai alternatif sesi kaunseling
individu.
10) Pelajar lebih yakin dan bebas berkreativiti kerana terapi
dilakukan secara kendiri.

RUJUKAN
Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development.
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 7-10.
Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology
journal articles. Journal of Comparative and Physiological
Psychology, 55, 893-896.
Scruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of listening. The New Criterion,
15(30), 5-13.
Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood management across
affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis. Journal
of Personality & Social Psychology, 66, 1034-1048.

846

KONSEP ISLAH DALAM

MEMBENTUK AKHLAK
PELAJAR YANG MEMPUNYAI
MASALAH DISIPLIN KRITIKAL
Faizah Abd. Ghani & Mohd Azhar Ab. Rahman

ABSTRAK
Peningkatan masalah disiplin kritikal dalam kalangan pelajar
bukan sahaja berlaku kepada pelajar sekolah menengah sahaja
tetapi fenomena ini juga berlaku kepada pelajar sekolah rendah.
Banyak masalah-masalah disiplin yang terpapar di media-media
perdana tentang masalah disiplin yang berlaku di peringkat sekolah
rendah lagi. Antaranya kes buli, ponteng sekolah, pergaduhan,
cabul, seks, merokok dan sebagainya yang amat membimbangkan
kita. Justeru, kertas kerja konsep ini akan menerangkan tentang
konsep Islah dalam membentuk akhlak pelajar yang terlibat dengan
masalah disiplin kritikal di sekolah iaitu masalah buli dan masalah
seksual. Kertas kerja juga membincangkan tentang konsep Islah
dari segi definisi Islah dari sudut bahasa dan Islah menurut alQuran, isu dan rasional konsep ini diaplikasikan dan pendekatanpendekatan Islah dari sudut pandangan Imam al-Ghazali melalui
kitab Ihya Ulumudddin dan Imam Ahmad bin Qudamah al-Maqdisi
melalui kitabnya Mukhtasar Minhajul Qasidin.
Kata kunci: Masalah Disiplin Kritikal, Pelajar, Seksual, Buli

847

PENGENALAN
Pembentukan modal insan adalah elemen utama pembentukan
negara maju selaras dengan sasaran Malaysia mencapai status
negara maju pada tahun 2020. Kejayaan masa hadapan bergantung
kepada mutu modal insan yang dimiliki, bukan sahaja dari segi
intelek tetapi juga keperibadian (Unit Perancang Ekonomi, 2006).
Modal insan merupakan pelaburan terpenting bagi pembangunan
sesebuah negara dan menjadi teras kepada inovasi dan ekonomi
sberpendapatan tinggi yang produktif (Mohd Safaai, 2008).
Menurut mantan Perdana Menteri Malaysia, Tun Abdullah bin
Ahmad Badawi (2008), menyatakan bahawa hasrat kerajaan adalah
tinggi dalam melahirkan generasi pelapis yang berkualiti dalam
menerajui negara ke arah kemajuan yang bakal dicapai terutamanya
dalam menghadapi Wawasan 2020. Apabila harapan kerajaan ini
difokuskan kepada generasi pelapis, sudah tentu mereka ini adalah
golongan yang sedang berada di universiti dan sekolah pada masa
sekarang. Pelajar dan remaja di zaman inilah yang akan jadi
pemimpin, pengurus, penggerak pembangunan negara seterusnya
merekalah yang akan menjadi golongan yang akan berusaha
memajukan negara di samping menikmati apa juga kejayaan yang
telah diusahakan oleh generasi terdahulu. Oleh yang demikian,
modal insan yang terdiri daripada pelajar-pelajar sekolah adalah
merupakan aset yang terpenting buat negara (Jabatan Penerangan
Malaysia, 2008).
ISU DAN RASIONAL PENGAPLIKASIAN KONSEP ISLAH
Remaja adalah aset penting kepada negara dalam menjayakan
wawasan 2020. Rosaknya remaja pada hari ini akan membantutkan
usaha-usaha pembangunan negara pada masa akan datang. Sejarah
Islam menukilkan nama-nama agung seperti Saidina Ali bin Abi
Talib, Sultan Muhammad Al-Fateh, Imam Syafie, Salahuddin AlAyubi dan ramai lagi yang terkenal di usia remajanya membantu

848

perjuangan menegakkan agama Islam hingga sampai ke hari ini.

Apa yang sangat mendukacitakan kita, remaja-remaja
negara kita yang menjadi
tunjang dalam meneruskan
pembangunan negara dibelenggu dengan pelbagai masalah sosial
seperti masalah seksual, buli, pergaduhan, rogol, dadah,
gengstrisme dan sebagainya. Laporan kes-kes jenayah atau
masalah disiplin seperti masalah seksual dan buli di kalangan
remaja atau pelajar dari media massa dan agensi-agensi yang
berkaitan menunjukkan peningkatan dari tahun ke tahun. Inilah
yang membimbangkan negara kerana tidak selari dengan cabaran
ke empat dalam wawasan 2020 iaitu mewujudkan masyarakat yang
bermoral, beretika, warga negara yang kukuh nilai agamanya dan
kejiwaan serta etika yang paling tinggi (Nazri Muslim &
Nasruddin Yunus, 2006). Pembangunan modal insan perlu
dirancang dengan rapi agar dapat meningkatkan bina upaya
generasi muda Malaysia ke arah melahirkan guna tenaga yang
terlatih dan berdaya saing, sepadan dan mencukupi dengan
keperluan negara pada tahun 2020 (Bahagian Perancangan dan
Penyelidikan Dasar Pendidikan, KPM, 2006).
Fenomena berkaitan isu disiplin dalam kalangan pelajar
pada masa kini sangat menghantui pelbagai pihak. Saban hari
pelbagai berita dan cerita yang dipaparkan di media tempatan
tentang masalah disiplin yang melanda pelajar-pelajar di sekolah
sama ada pelajar sekolah rendah atau pelajar sekolah menengah.
Menurut Yayasan Pencegahan Jenayah Malaysia (2014), tahap
disiplin dan penglibatan pelajar dalam kes-kes disiplin dan jenayah
sangat membimbangkan yang memerlukan penyelesaian yang
terbaik dan tuntas dalam menanganinya.
Menurut Mahazad (2011), tingkah laku golongan pelajar
dan remaja khususnya semakin mencabar dengan pelbagai masalah
di dalam negara seperti perlakuan seks bebas, kehamilan luar
nikah, pembuangan bayi, kesalahan juvana, kes buli, penagihan
dadah, pembakaran sekolah dan sebagainya semakin meningkat.
Kadar penglibatan remaja dalam masalah sosial juga boleh dilihat
pada Laporan Kajian Tingkah laku Remaja Johor yang telah

849

dijalankan oleh Jabatan Pentadbiran dan Keadilan Sosial, Fakulti

Sastera dan Sains Sosial, Universiti Malaya (2000). Begitu juga
dengan laporan yang dikeluarkan oleh Bahagian Disiplin Jabatan
Pelajaran Negeri Johor
(JPNJ) pada tahun 2013 yang
menunjukkan peningkatan yang ketara kes-kes melibatkan masalah
disiplin dikalangan pelajar negeri Johor antaranya kes seksual dan
buli dikalangan pelajar. Hal ini dibuktikan dalam jadual 1 dan
jadual 2 yang menunujukkan statistik rogol dan buli di sekolah.
Jadual 1: Statistik Kes Rogol Yang Melibatkan Remaja Bawah 16
Tahun Pada Tahun 2012-2013
Bangsa

Bilangan Kes
2012
1243
73
45
189
1550

Melayu
Cina
India
Lain-lain
Jumlah

2013
1147
62
32
183
1424

Jadual 2: Kes Buli Yang Melibatkan Pelajar Sekolah Rendah Dan

Menengah Pada Tahun 2012.
Kes

Sekolah Rendah

Sekolah Menengah
Jumlah

Buli

Jumlah
Terlibat

Peratus

Jumlah
terlibat

Peratus

2005

48.20 %

2154

51.80 %

4159

Persoalannya, apakah yang telah berlaku terhadap identiti

pelajar kita pada hari ini? apakah profil pelajar kita sekarang
sehingga menjadikan perlakuan seks dan buli sebagai satu budaya
mereka? apakah faktor-faktor yang menyebabkan pelajar sekarang
terlibat dengan perlakuan seks dan buli? apakah hala tuju dan
matlamat pelajar sekarang? adakah tiada satu mekanisme yang

850

dapat menangani permasalahan ini? Sayangnya kita sering melihat

sebilangan pihak hanya bertindak dengan menuding jari mencari
siapa yang bersalah tanpa mengembeling tenaga dan usaha bagi
mencari formula dan tindakan untuk menyelesaikan masalah ini.
Ada yang menyalahkan ibu bapa kerana dianggap cuai mendidik
anak-anak mereka di rumah.
Sering kali pula guru-guru
dipersalahkan kerana tidak dapat mendisiplinkan pelajar mereka di
sekolah.
Justeru itulah, dengan senario masalah disiplin kritikal yang
bincangkan di atas, konsep Islah yang akan dibincangkan ini amat
sesuai diutarakan dalam kerangka untuk mengatasi masalah
disiplin kritikal ini yang dari semasa ke semasa menunjukkan
peningkatannya. Melalui kertas kerja ini, pengkaji akan
menfokuskan kepada konsep Islah iaitu konsep atau panduan
dalam melihat penyelesaiannya dari pandangan agama Islam.
Kertas kerja ini akan membincangkan tentang definisi Islah,
rasional pelaksanaan konsep Islah dan pendekatan Islah oleh
sarjana Islam dalam membentuk akhlak remaja yang bermasalah
disiplin kritikal. Konsep yang dibincangkan ini akan melihat
pendekatan Islam dalam menangani masalah disiplin kritikal ini
seterusnya membantu pihak-pihak yang berkaitan dalam membina
generasi remaja akan datang.

DEFINISI ISLAH
Makna Islah Menurut Bahasa
Perkataan Islah berasal daripada aslaha kata kerja transitif
atau mutaaddi bagi kata dasar salaha dan salahu yang
bermaksud hilang kerosakan atau menjadi lebih baik Manakala
Menurut Kamus Dewan Edisi yang keempat (2005), perkataan
Islah merujuk kepada usaha untuk mengembalikan sesuatu
keadaan kepada suatu keadaan yang betul, tepat dan sesuai atau
membawa maksud penyelesaian perbalahan dengan jalan baik atau

851

dengan jalan damai. Menurut al-mujam al- Arab al- Muyassar

(1991). Islah menurut al- Quran merujuk kepada usaha-usaha
memperbaiki dan mengelokkan prestasi amal individu, hubungan
kemanusiaan dan kualiti hidup individu serta masyarakat dengan
cara dan pendekatan yang tertentu (Ahmad Puad Abd. Rahman,
2004).
Sementara aslaha menurut Ibnu Manzur membawa maksud
meluruskan, memperbaiki atau mengelokkan. Namun begitu,
kalimah ini boleh membawa beberapa makna yang berlainan dan
lebih khusus bergantung kepada struktur ayat.
i) Penggunaan dalam frasa aslaha bayna seerti dengan
waffaqa yang membawa maksu mendamaikan atau
membetulkan, menjernihkan dan memulihkan hubungan atau
keadaan antara dua pihak.
ii) Aslaha ila membawa maksud berbuat baik kepada
seseorang, meletakkan pada tempat atau kedudukan yang
sesuai dan baik, menjaga dengan baik atau memberi
perhatian yang sebaiknya.
iii) Adapun aslaha menurut kamus arabic English boleh
diterjemahkan dengan maksud made or rendered it
incorrupt, righteous, virtuours or honest (menjadikan
sesuatu tidak curang, betul, suci, jujur).
Berdasarkan makna-makna tersebut, boleh dirumuskan
bahawa perkataan aslaha dan islah mengandungi maksud
berbuat baik, mengelokkan, pembaikan, pemulihan, peningkatan
mutu, mendamaikan antara dua pihak, menyusun dan menguruskan
dengan baik dan menjadikan sesuatu tidak menyeleweng atau
menyimpang.

852

Maksud Islah Dalam Al-Quran

Penyelidik ingin meninjau maksudnya menurut huraian para
mufassirin ke atas ayat-ayat yang mengandungi kalimah tersebut.
Di samping itu, beberapa pandangan atau huraian sarjana atau
ulama lain juga dikemukakan sebagai sokongan.
Islah Amal Dan Sikap Individu
Antara skop islah yang diketengahkan oleh al-Quran ialah
pembaikan dan peningkatan prestasi amal serta perubahan daripada
maksiat kepada mentaati Allah. Terdapat beberapa ayat yang secara
jelas merujuk kepada maksud tersebut:
Firman Allah swt:
Dan tiadalah kami utuskan rasul-rasul itu melainkan
sebagai pembawa berita gembira dan pembawa berita amaran,
kemuliaan sesiapa yang beriman dan beramal soleh serta tidak
ada kebimbangan (dari berlakunya kejadian yang tidak baik)
terhadap mereka dan mereka tidak akan berdukacita.
Surah al-anam (6):48
Dalam konteks ayat ini, al- Tabari menerangkan maksud
aslaha ialah melakukan amal soleh setelah mereka beriman. AlQasimi pula menafsirkan dengan maksud membaiki atau
memperelokkan amal dan akhlak. Ini bermakna, berita gembira
yang dijanjikan Allah dalam ayat tersebut adalah bagi sesiapa yang
beriman, menerima seruan dan ajaran para Rasul a.s, beramal soleh
serta memperbaiki amal dan akhlaknya. Kenyataan yang serupa
diungkapkan semula oleh Allah swt dalam ayat berikut:
Firman Allah swt yang bermaksud:
Wahai anak Adam, jika datang kepada kamu Rasul-rasul

853

dari kalangan kamu yang menceritakan kepada kamu ayat-ayat

(perintahku), maka sesiapa yang bertaqwa dan memperbaiki
amalannya tidaklah ada kebimbangan (dari berlakunya kejadian
yang tidak baik) terhadap mereka dan mereka pula tidak akan
berdukacita.
al-Araf: 7

PEMBANGUNAN AKHLAK REMAJA

Rasulullah SAW membangunkan sahsiah umatnya dengan
komponen asas Islam, iaitu akidah, syariah, dan akhlak. Ini
menunjukkan kedudukan akhlak amat penting sebagai salah satu
daripada tunjang Islam itu sendiri (Akram Dahaman, 2009).
Menurut Imam al-Ghazali, akhlak adalah sifat yang tertanam dalam
jiwa dan tanpa memerlukan sebarang pertimbangan, sifat tersebut
mendorong ke arah pelbagai perbuatan yang baik dan yang buruk
(al-Ghazali, 2003). Pembangunan akhlak yang dilaksanakan
menurut perspektif Islam tumbuh dan berkembang dalam rangka
syariat Allah SWT berasaskan akidah, dikawal oleh syariat, dan
dihiasi dengan adab sopan dan akhlak. Hanya kemajuan dan
pembangunan yang menepati syariat Ilahi sahaja yang mampu
membawa manusia mencapai kesejateraan di dunia dan di akhirat.
Jika sebaliknya, pasti akan mengundang keruntuhan dan
kecelakaan di dunia dan akhirat (Awang, 2003). Sempurnanya
kejadian manusia itu kerana manusia mempunyai roh dan jasad.
Seterusnya, menurut ahli psikologi Islam, manusia merupakan
insan sempurna dan mulia kerana dibekalkan rohani, jasmani, hati,
dan akal. Oleh itu, jelas bahawa penciptaan manusia meliputi aspek
rohani dan jasmani. Implikasinya, apabila manusia itu hendak
dididik dan dibangunkan, maka tidak dapat tidak kedua-dua
elemen ini perlu diambil kira dan diberi perhatian agar sempurna
dan berjaya (Suhid, 2009). Ini kerana kejayaan dan kebahagiaan
hakiki kehidupan adalah berpunca daripada tingkah-laku moral dan
akhlak yang mulia dan sebaliknya.

854

Menurut kajian Imam al-Ghazali, akhlak yang paling utama

(ummahatul fadhail) dibahagikan kepada empat, iaitu:
(1) Al-hikmah atau kebijaksanaan dalam mengendalikan diri
seseorang daripada hawa nafsu. Hidupnya akan sentiasa
terkawal dan memiliki motivasi yang kuat untuk
memperolehi kejayaan dan kebahagiaan dalam hidup.
(2) Al-Adlu atau jiwa yang dapat mencegah kemarahan dan
hawa nafsu untuk mencapai hikmah. Sifat ini dapat
membimbing ke arah keselamatan, ketenteraman, dan
kebahagiaan
(3) Al-Sajaah atau keberanian, iaitu teguh hati dalam membela
dan mempertahankan kebenaran, tidak berundur apabila
dicela, dan tidak meninggi diri apabila dipuji. Sifat ini
mampu membuatkan manusia tekun bekerja dengan penuh
keikhlasan, tanpa rasa bosan atau malas.
(4) AlIffah atau menjaga diri daripada perbuatan maksiat dan
menjauhi diri dari perbuatan tidak baik (dipetik oleh Said
ibn Qasim, 1995). Ini bermaksud bahawa keluhuran budi
pekerti berpunca dari kesederhanaan dalam kekuatan akal
fikiran, kesempurnaan kebijaksanaan, pertengahan dalam
kekuatan marah, dan keinginan syahwat dalam keadaan
kedua-duanya patuh dan tunduk kepada pertimbangan akal
fikiran dan batasan syara (Said ibn Qasim, 1995).

KAEDAH PENGISLAHAN AKHLAK REMAJA MENURUT

IMAM AL-GHAZALI
Imam al-Ghazali pula meletakkan lima faktor yang boleh
mempengaruhi pembangunan akhlak seseorang, iaitu:
Tazkiyyah Al-Nafs Atau Pembersihan Jiwa.
Dari sudut bahasa, tazkiyyah bermaksud penyucian, pembersihan,
dan penyuburan diri serta penyingkiran segala bentuk

855

perkembangan yang tidak dikehendaki dan segala perkara yang

tidak baik (Ansari, 1983). Dari segi istilah, tazkiyyah mengandungi
makna suatu usaha gigih dan bersungguh-sungguh untuk
membersih dan menyucikan diri seseorang manusia dari sifat-sifat
buruk dan keji (mazmumah) yang menjadi penghalang kepada
penyuburan akhlak mulia (mahmudah) seseorang insan (Ansari,
1983). Seterusnya, penyucian diri itu diikuti dengan usaha
pengisian dan perhiasan diri supaya proses tersebut menjadi lebih
sempurna (Zarrina Saari, 2007). Justeru, dapat difahami bahawa
tazkiyyah melibatkan proses usaha dan kesungguhan seseorang
insan dalam menyelesaikan konflik antara baik dan buruk yang
wujud dalam jiwanya atau nafs (Zarrina Saari, 2007). Jiwa atau
nafs dalam bahasa arab dan dalam bahasa Inggeris disebut sebagai
soul, secara umumnya boleh difahami sebagai suatu jirim halus
yang bergerak memberi kekuatan kepada kehidupan dan
pkehendak yang ada pada diri manusia (Al-Jurjani, 2000).
Firman Allah SWT:
Ketahuilah! Sesungguhnya Allah mengetahui apa yang terdapat
di dalam jiwa kamu (anfusikum), maka hendaklah kamu berhatihati (dipetik oleh al-Ghazali, 2003).
[Surah al-Baqarah; 2)
Nafs atau jiwa ini merupakan suatu hasrat yang
mencetuskan nilai-nilai kekuatan pada diri seseorang insan bagi
mencapai naluri kemahuannya. Setiap yang dihasilkan melalui
amal perbuatan merupakan lukisan kehidupan yang bermula dari
suatu perasaan yang mengalir dalam jiwa untuk diterjemahkan
menjadi kenyataan melalui perbuatan, kerana perbuatan manusia
biasanya menurut acuan hasil dari perasaan jiwa yang terpendam di
dalam hati atau dengan kata lain, jiwa ialah suatu bentuk ukiran
pemikiran dan cita-cita, sama ada yang baik mahupun buruk
terkandung di dalam hati. Al-Quran al-Karim banyak

856

memberikaan inspirasi kepada manusia berkenaan nafsu ini

(Zarrina Saari, 2007). Menurut Imam al-Ghazali (2003), ada 3
faktor utama yang boleh mempengaruhi personaliti seseorang, iaitu
nafsu, hati, dan akal. Mengenai nafsu-nafsu ini yang membentuk
personaliti berbeza:
(1) Nafsu amarah: Individu yang melakukan sifat-sifat yang jahat
dan rosak.
(2) Nafsu mutmainnah: Dapat menahan keinginan nafsu syahwat
dan mencapai ketenangan
(3) Nafsu mardiah: Individu yang lemah lembut dalam tutur kata,
menerima kehendak dan ketentuan Allah SWT dan bersyukur,
serta merasa puas dengan apa yang ada.
(4) Nafsu kamilah: Hanya diperoleh oleh para Rasul yang
mempunyai sifat kesempurnaan.
Terdapat tiga jenis hati yang membentuk personaliti yang berbeza:
(1) Hati qalbun: Belum kukuh dengan tuntutan agama dan
memerlukan akal untuk memandu ia bertindak.
(2) Hati faadun: Hati individu yang sudah ada keyakinan terhadap
risalah Allah SWT.
(3) Hati lubbun: Hati yang kukuh dapat melahirkan cetusan hati
yang rasional dan ikhlas untuk membimbing akal.
Manakala mengenai akal, ianya merupakan anugerah Allah SWT
kepada manusia, kerana keupayaan intelek yang membolehkan
manusia berfikir secara rasional. Terdapat tiga jenis akal yang
membentuk personaliti berbeza:
(1) Akal biasa: Percaya pada apa yang dilihat dan menolak perkara
yang abstrak.
(2) Akal taakul: Menganalisis berdasarkan sebab-musabab, jenis
akal yang sederhana.
(3) Akal tadabbur: Berfikir secara ikhlas dan rasional berpandukan
kekuatan iman dan akal.
Kesimpulannya, interaksi antara hati, nafsu, dan akal amat

857

penting dalam melakukan sesuatu perkara. Apabila akal tadabbur

bercampur dengan hati lubbun dan nafsu mardiah, maka akan dapat
melahirkan persoanaliti remaja unggul. Tetapi, jika manusia
mempunyai akal taakul, hati faadun, dan nafsu mutmainnah, maka
ia akan mewujudkan personaliti seimbang. Manakala insan yang
mempunyai akal biasa, hati qalbun, dan nafsu ammarah ditimpa
personaliti yang bercelaru (Zainal & Wan Hasan, 2009). Oleh
kerana itu, Tazkiyyah al-Nafs adalah proses pembersihan jiwa yang
merupakan kunci utama dalam pembentukan akhlak yang baik.
Hati manusia ibarat raja di dalam badan dan anggota lain, umpama
tentera yang bersedia menerima arahan untuk bertindak. Jika hati
manusia bersih, maka sudah tentu arahan yang baik sahaja
dikeluarkan. Jika tidak, pasti arahan tersebut akan dikuasai unsur
negatif, maka bertindaklah anggota untuk melakukan keburukan
dan kejahatan (al-Ghazali, 2003).
Oleh itu, Imam al-Ghazali memandang amat serius kepada
perlunya hati dan jiwa dibersihkan dahulu supaya segala unsur
negatif seperti marah, syahwat, dan emosi dapat dikekang dan
dikawal berdasarkan petunjuk Ilahi. Di samping itu juga, hati perlu
disuburkan dengan sifat mahmudah seperti sifat sabar, taubat,
amanah, bertanggung jawab, berfikiran luas, hikmah, tawadhuk,
ikhlas, cintakan Allah SWT, dan sebagainya (al-Ghazali, 2003).
Taklif suruhan seperti solat, puasa, tilawah al-Quran, zikir,
tafakur, mengingati mati, koreksi diri (muhasabah), mendekatkan
diri kepada Allah SWT (muraqabah), melawan hawa nafsu
(mujahadah), menyuruh kebaikan (amar makruf) dan mencegah
kemungkaran (nahi mungkar), serta tawadhuk dan rendah diri juga
dapat memberi kesan secara langsung kepada usaha pembersihan
jiwa ini. Taklif larangan pula melibatkan proses pencegahan yang
bersangkutan dengan tujuh anggota lahir manusia, iaitu mata,
telinga, lidah, perut, organ seks, tangan, dan kaki. Ia perlulah
dibersihkan daripada perlakuan yang bertentangan dengan syariat
Islam (al-Ghazali, 2003).

858

Mujahadah Atau Melawan Hawa Nafsu.

Mujahadah adalah melawan hawa nafsu semaksima mungkin sifat
mazmumah (buruk dan keji) agar ia menjadi stabil dan dapat
diarahkan kepada pembinaan peribadi yang luhur. Imam al-Ghazali
memberi perhatian yang sangat mendalam untuk melakukan
mujahadah yang berterusan berteraskan kekuatan jiwa yang jitu
untuk menghadapi sifat mazmumah tersebut berdasarkan keluasan
ilmu pengetahuan dan pengendalian yang berhikmah serta tahap
kesabaran yang tinggi (al-Ghazali, 2003).

Melazimi Amalan Kebaikan.

Membentuk keperibadian insan adalah melakukan amal kebaikan
secara konsisten dan berterusan. Setelah melakukan mujahadah, ia
perlu disusuli dengan melakukan kebaikan secara berterusan agar
ia membentuk suatu kebiasaan yang akhirnya menjadi tabiat
kehidupannya. Asas kepada aspek ini adalah melakukan ibadah
khusus seperti solat, puasa, zakat, dan haji; di samping melakukan
kebaikan terhadap sesama manusia, alam, dan haiwan (al-Ghazali,
2003). Solat mampu menyediakan diri secara teratur dalam tempoh
tertentu untuk ditunaikan. Puasa melahirkan jiwa yang luhur, yang
dibentuk dan dilentur sepanjang sebulan bagi menghadapi cabaran
bulan-bulan seterusnya. Haji pula adalah klimaks kepada
pembentukan rohani danpengorbanan manifestasi kepada ibadah
yang dilakukan secara kekal (al-Ghazali, 2003).
Imam al-Ghazali menegaskan bahawa langkah utama dalam
menggerakkan potensi ini adalah menanamkan kecintaan kepada
Allah SWT dalam jiwa manusia. Dengan erti kata lain,
keghairahan untuk melakukan kebaikan adalah atas dorongan dan
rangsangan, kerana ingin mendapatkan keredaan Allah SWT
semata-mata. Justeru, setiap insan akan sentiasa bermotivasi untuk
melakukan kebaikan, sama ada amalan zahir atau sembunyi. Ia
meyakini dan menghayati bahawa Allah SWT memiliki sifat-sifat

859

kesempurnaan yang sentiasa mengawasi pergerakan dan perlakuan

semua makhluk-Nya (al-Ghazali, 2003).

Membuat Sesuatu Yang Bertentangan Dengan Akhlak Yang

Buruk.

Membuat sesuatu yang bertentangan dengan akhlak yang buruk.

Membuat sesuatu yang bertentangan dengan akhlak yang buruk
adalah seperti bersikap sabar daripada sifat marah, amanah
daripada khianat, syukur daripada sombong, pemurah daripada
kedekut, bodoh daripada belajar, malas daripada rajin, dan lain-lain
lagi (al-Ghazali, 2003).

Muraqabatullah Atau Pengawasan Diri Terhadap Allah SWT.

Imam al-Ghazali menyatakan bahawa muraqabatullah adalah
merasakan diri diawasi oleh zat yang menjaga dirinya dan
menumpukan perhatian yang bersungguh-sungguh kepada-Nya (alGhazali 2003). Muraqabatullah memberi kesan yang positif kepada
pembangunan akhlak. Ini kerana ia adalah salah satu cara yang
efektif untuk seseorang individu sentiasa mengingati Allah SWT
dalam setiap perkara, sama ada bersifat fizikal, cara berfikir,
perasaan, atau jiwa. Ia merangsang jiwa agar sentiasa waspada
kerana Allah Maha Memerhati, Maha Melihat, dan Maha
Mengetahui segala rahsia yang tidak dapat dijangkau oleh
pandangan kasar manusia atau bisikan hati yang tersimpan dalam
dada manusia (al-Ghazali, 2003).

860

PENGISLAHAN DIRI MENGIKUT IMAM AHMAD BIN

QUDAMAH AL-MAQDISI
Selain Imam al-Ghazali, Imam Ahmad bin Qudamah al-Maqdisi
juga telah membahaskan tentang pendidikan Awal kanak-kanak
dalam mengatasi masalah akhlak anak-anak apabila dewasa kelak.
Mengikut Imam Ahmad anak-anak adalah amanah kepada ibu
bapa. Hatinya adalah permata yang tidak bercorak yang boleh
menerima sebarang bentuk ukiran. Sekiranya diasuh dengan
kebaikan maka anak-anak akan membesar dalam aturan yang baik.
Sekiranya diasuh dengan kejahatan , maka anak-anak akan
membesar diatas prinsip yang jahat dan dosa akan ditanggung oleh
orang yang menjaganya.
Oleh kerana itu, anak-anak hendaklah dijaga, diasuh dan
dididik dengan akhlak yang baik. Anak-anak hendaklah dijauhkan
dari kawan-kawan yang jahat dan tidak boleh membiasakan dirinya
dengan bermacam keseronokan. Begitu juga jangan diajar dengan
kemewahan kerana dewasa, anak-anak akan menghabiskan
umurnya dengan mencari perkara-perkara sedemikian.

Langkah-Langkah Pendidikan Awal Kanak-Kanak

1. Carilah pengasuh dan ibu susu (jika perlu) dari kalangan wanita
yang solehah yang beramal dengan ajaran agama dan
mengambil berat tentang makanan (yang hanya memakan
makanan halal) kerana susu yang terhasil dari sumber yang
haram tiada keberkatan. Apabila ada tanda-tanda kematangan
(mumayyiz) iaitu dimulai dengan adanya perasaan malu, maka
itulah tanda kecerdasan yang memberi berita baik tentang
kesempurnaan akalnya ketika baligh nanti. Perasaan malu ini
memainkan peranan penting dalam proses pendidikannya.
2. Sifat pertama yang mula menguasai kanak-kanak ialah
mempunyai selera makan yang terlalu tinggi. Oleh itu, anakanak mestilah diajar dengan adab-adab makan.

861

3. Kanak-kanak juga hendaklah digalakkan memakai pakaian

putih, bukan yang kotor dan tercemar atau pakaian sutera (jika
anak lelaki). Hendaklah ditanam dalam hatinya bahawa
pakaian sutera adalah kebiasaan kaum wanita atau khunsa.
4. Kanak-kanak juga hendaklah dilarang bergaul bebas dengan
rakan-rakan sebaya yang telah diasuh dengan sikap suka
bermewah-mewah atau berseronok-seronok. Hendaklah diajar
kepadanya al-Quran, hadis dan juga kisah-kisah orang yang
baik agar tertanam di dalam hatinya perasaan kasih sayang
kepada orang-orang yang soleh. Janganlah mengajarnya
menghafal rangkap-rangkap puisi tentang cinta yang
mengasyikkan.
5. Apabila kanak-kanak tersebut menunjukkan akhlak dan
perbuatan yang terpuji, hendaklah anak-anak dimuliakan dan
diberikan penghargaan dengan memberikan sesuatu yang
menggembirakannya serta diberi pujian didepan orang lain.
Sekiranya anak-anak lalai dan melakukan kesalahan dalam
keadaan tertentu, hendaklah kamu lupakan kesalahannya itu
dan janganlah sesekali diungkit atau didedahkan. Namun
sekiranya dia mengulangi kelalaian dan kesalahannya itu,
hendaklah ditegur secara bersendirian dan menakutkannya.
6. Kanak-kanak hendaklah dilarang mengambil sesuatu dari rakan
sebaya yang lain dan anak-anak hendaklah diajar bahawa
tangan yang memberi lebih baik dari tangan menerimanya.
7. Kanak-kanak juga mestilah dilarang dari bercakap keji atau
bergaul dengan orang yang melakukannya. Asas utama untuk
menjaga anak-anak (dari terlibat dengan sesuatu perkara yang
tidak diingini) ialah menghindarkan mereka dari bergaul
dengan kawan-kawan yang jahat.

SYARAT-SYARAT PENGISLAHAN JIWA

Mengikut Imam Ahmad syarat yang perlu dipenuhi untuk
pengislahan jiwa ialah dengan membuang segala halangan dengan

862

cara meninggalkan segala dosa. Tempat rujukan pula ialah guru

yang memandunya ke jalan yang betul agar anak-anak tidak
disambar oleh syaitan yang akan membawanya ke jalan-jalan yang
lain. Manakala bentengnya ialah sentiasa mengabdikan diri dengan
Allah swt, melawan hawa nafsu, banyak mengingati Allah dan
bersederhana dalam wirid-wirid (seperti sembahyang sunat,
berpuasa, membaca al-quran, berzikir dan sebagainya).

PENUTUP
Kesimpulannya, konsep islah yang di utarakan oleh Imam alGhazali dan Imam Ahmad bin Qudamah al-Maqdisi adalah proses
pembentukkan akhlak anak-anak pada bermula usia kecil dan
diteruskan sehingga ke usia remaja. Ia amat penting bagi
menyediakan mereka dengan tugas menggalas tanggung jawab
sebagai khalifah di muka bumi ini. Isu pendidikan akhlak amat
penting dan tidak boleh dipandang remeh. Islam telah
menggariskan kaedah-kaedah tertentu untuk mendidik anak,
bermula dari pemilihan calon isteri dengan ditetapkan kriteriakriteria atau pakej tertentu untuk menjadikannya isteri, sekaligus
bakal ibu yang solehah. Ulamak terdahulu pula telah memudahkan
lagi dengan menggariskan dasar dan kaedah pendidikan dalam
kitab-kitab muktabarmereka yang boleh dijadikan rujukan sehingga
ke hari ini. Sepatutnya ibu bapa dan guru perlu bersatu-padu dalam
dunia pendidikan. Gandingan pendidikan ibu bapa di rumah dan
guru di sekolah serta kuliah para alim ulama di masjid dan surau
pasti akan melahirkan anak yang mantap dan teguh, sama ada
dalam hal iman, fizikal, intelektual, emosi, mahupun mentalnya.
Ibu bapa juga perlu memperkasakan diri dengan ilmu keibubapaan,
kerana tugas mendidik anak bukan sekadar memberinya makan,
minum, pakaian, dan pelajaran, malah lebih dari itu.

863

RUJUKAN
Abdullah Nasih Ulwan, (2005). Pendidikan Anak-Anak Dalam
Islam. Singapura: Pustaka Nasional Pte. Ltd.
Ahmad bin Qudamah al-Maqdisi, (2005). Jalan Mereka Yang
Menuju Allah. Kuala Lumpur. Pustaka Salam Sdn. Bhd
Al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid Muhamad bin Muhamad Imam (2003).
Ihya Ulum Addin. Jilid 2 dan 4, Kaherah: Maktabah Assafa, Cetakan 1 (baru)
Amir Awang (1984). Pengantar Bimbingan dan Kaunseling di
Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur : Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Azizi Yahaya & Jaafar Sidek Latif (2005). Membentuk Identiti
Remaja. Bentong : PTS Publications & Distributors Sdn.
Bhd.
Azlina Abu Bakar (2002). Psikologi Personaliti Individu. Shah
Alam: Karisma Publications Sdn. Bhd.
Habibah Elias dan Noran Fauziah Yaakub (1997). Psikologi
Pendidikan . Kuala Lumpur : Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Hairunnaja Najmuddin (2003). Memahami dan Membimbing
Remaja Nakal. Bentong : PTS Publications & Distributors
Sdn. Bhd.
Ibrahim Mamat (1997). Memimpin Remaja Sekolah. Kuala Lumpur
: Kumpulan Budiman Sdn.
Imam Ahmad (2010). Mukhtasar Minhajul Qasidin. Kumpulan.
Pustaka Salam Sdn. Bhd.
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Remaja. Ampang : Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
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Pustaka.
Maizatul Akmam (2005). Perkaitan hubungan keluarga, rakan
sebaya dan kecerdasan emosi dengan tingkahlaku
delinkuen Pelajar. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Tesis
Sarjana Pendidikan.
Mustafa Hj. Daud (1997). Institut Kekeluargaan Islam. Kuala
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Tengku Ismadi, (2008). Teknik Memotivasikan Anak Cara Positif.

PTS Publications & Distributors Sdn. Bhd.
Zuraidah Abdul Rahman (April, 2002). Sistem Pendidikan Negara,
Menghadapi Cabaran Limpahan Tenaga Kerja. Fokus,
m.s.32.

865

INTERFERENCE OF L1 IN
PRONUNCIATION TEACHING
AND LEARNING IN MALAYSIAN
ESL SETTINGS
Nur Aqilah Mohd Norain & Mohd Hilmi Hamzah

ABSTRACT
This study explores the interference of L1 in pronunciation
teaching and learning in Malaysian setting. Therefore, this
conceptual paper attempts to emulate previous studies to highlight
the issues pertaining pronunciation and prospect of its
implementation in Malaysia. As Malaysia is known as a multicultural country, interference of L1 is a much debated issue
amongst language researchers and educators alike.
Keywords: Pronunciationa, Malaysia, ESL

INTRODUCTION
Issues in Pronunciation
Pronunciation among ESL learners is deemed as an important
aspect in English as there are constant issues pertaining the
interference of the L1 (first language) in the teaching of
pronunciation and learning in ESL (English as Second Language)
which had been raised and controversially debated for years among

866

linguists and educationists (Hamzah & Hisham, 2012). As

Malaysia consists of multi-racial races (Malay, Chinese, and
Indians etc.) with a diverse background of the first language, to
deem the ability to speak like a native speaker seems too farfetched. Factors such as biological factors, attitude of learners
towards the language, sociocultural factors, influence from the first
language and pedagogical factors need to be taken into
consideration (Hamzah & Hisham, 2012). English is vastly used in
Malaysia as a second language not only in the education system but
in their daily lives (work, communication, etc.).
It is said that similarities in the structure between the L1
and L2 (English) makes it easier for the speaker to have a precise
pronunciation as the native speakers. But it would not be the case if
there are differences in the overall structure between both
languages of the speaker. (Hamzah & Hisham, 2012). Native like
pronunciation seemed unlikely in this situation due to the
differences of sound patterns and structure of both L1 and L2. This
issue will be discussed thoroughly in the following sections of the
literature review.
In Baljit Bhelas Native Language Interference with Target
Language Usage Language Interference in Learning a Second
Language: Exploratory Case Studies of Native Language
Interference with Target Language Usage, he stated that
Beardsmore (1982) claimed that second language learners are most
likely encounter difficulties with the phonology, vocabulary and
grammar when encountering English. This is due to interference
from learners L1 as both languages mostly differ in the structures.
As stated in Sukatan Pelajaran Kurikulum Bersepadu
Sekolah Menengah (2000), learners are required to speak in
internationally intelligible English with the correct pronunciation
and intonation in English Language in parallel with Syllabus for
Secondary Schools in Malaysia catered especially for these L2
learners. Despite the importance pertaining the issue being
highlighted on how L1 greatly impacts the learning process of L2
in Malaysia, research conducted in the area of teaching and

867

learning pronunciation is lacking.

The dire state of research of this aspect is a clear evident
that pronunciation is granted the least of attention (Abbas & Reza,
2011) despite the importance of it in language (English) itself. The
reason being due to the inability of teachers, who are non-native
speakers (NNS) themselves to teach the linguistic features of
English and also their linguistic influence/ preferences to be taken
into consideration.
Learners are seen to change the conceptual L1 pattern they
are more familiar with and try to integrate into the L2 (English)
deemed fit resulting to constant mispronunciation due to
indifferences of the structure in both languages (Abbas & Reza,
2011).

FINDINGS IN PREVIOUS STUDY

Based on Contrastive Analysis Method, it is said that the
production and/or reception of as second language learner depends
heavily on the learners native language/ first language. If there are
vast differences in terms of structures and phonetics, more error
would most likely occur by the learner as he/ she would tend to
most likely fit both language structures as one in order to see the
connections (Hamzah et. al, 2012). As learners tend to closely
imitate and adheres to instructors/ teachers actions, these
educators pose as real life models in presenting the English
language. Not only must they must have an ample knowledge and
sufficient in both reading and writing aspect, they must speak
English using the Standard English pronunciation to showcase
good examples for the learners (Hamzah et. al, 2012). Thus, doing
so would motivate these learners to use the language more often
with correct pronunciations.
According to A Study of Pronunciation Problems of
English Learners in China by Zhang & Yin (2009), learners of
English these days rather learn English as a whole rather than

868

pronunciation itself. But this could backfire as they would most

likely unable to perform/ have difficulties during oral
communication. They highlighted that the ability of speaking
English is deemed befitting when learner emphasizes on
correctness of pronunciation and intonation thus affecting and
gives an impact in the conversation as a whole during appropriate
communication (formal communication). This clearly indicates
how proper pronunciation does play a vital role in oral
communication as it affects both speaker and listener. Thus, more
attention should be given in the teaching and learning process by
the educators.
Zhang & Yin (2009) firmly believed that instructional
method used during the teaching and learning process are closely
linked to the pronunciation instruction. For instance, during the
conduct of the audio-lingual method where learners repeat
combination of sounds for hours to practice the correct
pronunciation is one of the many ways to promote better
pronunciation of second language learners.
As Malaysia consists of diverse races with multiple first
language users, the study conducted in China by Zhang & Yin
(2009) could be applied in Malaysia. For example, the China
students face difficulties with English sounds as they were greatly
influenced by similar Chinese sounds that they have very great
difficulty in finding/ producing substitute sounds that do not exist
in their native language, thus, mispronounced sounds were
produced instead. This concept of study could be related with
Malaysias own Chinese learners who speak Mandarin as their
native language or any non-native speakers. Although in China,
English is considered as a foreign language, unlike in Malaysia
where it is a second language, the concept is applicable in general.
Furthermore, according to the study by Akram & Abrar
(2012) that was conducted among English teachers in Pakistan on
their perception on the importance of learning problems in English
pronunciation, 82 participants from the 100 strongly agreed that
pronunciation plays an important role in the teaching and learning

869

process of English. The study was conducted quantitatively.

As to why leaners tend to have difficulties in obtaining the
proper Standard English pronunciation it is evident that learners
learn the native language in a less threatening natural environment
(home, etc.) unlike second language where language is learned in
an artificial environment (school, etc.) and in an unfamiliar manner
(Akram & Abrar, 2012). Speech habits and pronunciation from the
native language/ mother tongue would overlap or superimposed
on the speech habits and pronunciation of the target language
(English) which they are more familiar with.
The lack of emphasis and focus on the pronunciation
development was constantly highlighted in by Abbas & Reza
(2011). They mentioned that the lack of interest among SLA
researchers is evident as not much study is conducted as
pronunciation is treated as not entirely important unlike other skills
(reading, writing, listening, speaking). It is often regarded with
little importance where fluency is the main concern rather than
accuracy (pronunciation). Thus, mispronounced words by nonnative speakers reflect indirectly the influence of the rules, stress
and sounds of the native language. Therefore, learners need ample
opportunities and chances to compare and contrast in real-life their
own speech and amongst fellow learners to identify the similarities
and differences of their pronunciation (Abbas & Reza, 2011).
This strongly supports the notion that was debunked by
Fraser (2000) that pronunciation is an inborn talent that simply
cannot be taught. With proper pronunciation development
approaches, implementation and ample opportunities provided
would enable learners to grasp the key concept of the language thus
enabling them to learn the language accordingly.
A recent study conducted by Mina & Miki (2011) amongst
the Malaysian students attitudes towards pronunciation revealed
that Malaysian students regards comprehension as being the most
important aspect in English rather than having the perfect
pronunciation. As long as the message is successfully being
conveyed to the other party, communication is considered

870

successful.

PROSPECT AND CHALLENGES OF STUDY

In order to promote the implementation of proper pronunciation in
English, we need to identify the prospect and challenges of this
step in order to fully utilize suggested methods in the future as
follows. There are two aspect that would be mentioned
accordingly; the prospect and challenges in executing the
pronunciation features into the education system. Prospect would
feature more on the potential of practicing pronunciation in
Malaysias education system. Whereas the challenges would
discuss on the drawbacks and difficulties that would most likely be
encountered during the implementation of the Standard English
pronunciation.
a) Prospect of Implementation of Pronunciation in Malaysias
Education System
The implementation of teaching English pronunciation as an aspect
on its own similar to teaching grammar and reading comprehension
is seen as a good effort to be implemented in Malaysias education
system that is more towards exam oriented. For instance, students
in secondary level are required to sit for graded oral exams that are
based on efficient elaboration on a given topic.
The aspects that are taken into consideration during the oral
exams are from given appropriate answers, able to converse
fluently with correct and proper pronunciation, speaking with
sufficient vocabulary related to the context being given and the
correct usage of grammar (Kamalashne & Stefanie, 2011). By
learning the correct pronunciation, students are able to express
their opinions and thoughts openly without worrying on the correct
pronunciation and proper accuracy thus boosting their level of

871

confidence unconsciously.
Furthermore, not only that, learners might need sufficient
knowledge in order to identify and correct their mistakes if
teachers are not available to be consulted. (Kamalashne & Stefanie,
2011). Thus, the implementation of teaching pronunciation in the
classroom would be useful for them thus enabling them to become
autonomous learners that could learn independently. For this to
happen, teachers and learners need to work closely together to
ensure the teaching and learning process of pronunciation could be
well planned and executed.
b) Challenges of Implementation of Pronunciation in Malaysias
Education System
As this study highlights mainly on the interference of L1 amongst
ESL learners, this paper focuses more towards learning English
pronunciation in the ESL settings in Malaysian context.
According to the study done by Kamalashne & Stefanie
(2011) in a local school in Malaysia, it was discovered that the
process of learning pronunciation was not done regularly in
classroom as the teacher was more engaging in other English
components (writing, literature etc.) that are more inclined towards
being exam oriented. This is to ensure the best performance would
be obtained by the students and the school itself.
Although students seemed to excel in their studies, these
students felt pronunciation should be taught in class thus
incorporated into the education system. Teachers themselves felt
that it would be impossible to have a lesson catered on teaching
pronunciation alone as most of the activities related to
pronunciation are time consuming (e.g. role plays, discussion etc.).
Teachers are more attentive to cover other aspects of the language
to ensure these students would obtain good grades for their exams
(Kamalashne & Stefanie, 2011).
Another challenge faced by the teachers during the teaching

872

and learning process is that learners is not considered to be

learning appropriately by merely watching and hearing a speech
diagram of articulation (Abbas & Reza, 2011). These learners need
to fully comprehend the feature of the sounds in order to produce it
themselves. If the learners only imitate the sounds and not fully
understand its sound components (e.g. stress, intonation etc.), they
would encounter difficulties later on when they are faced with
identical sound features.
Learners tend to transfer the idea (Abbas & Reza, 2011)
by using their knowledge of the first language and adapt it to the
target language. This method could only be useful if the learner
knows well of its limitation as some of the sound features of L1
and L2 are entirely different all together.
Teachers constantly felt challenged in teaching proper
English pronunciation as they are insecure in their own
pronunciation being not good enough. Good here refers to good
intonation and enunciation of the target language which is English
(Kamalashne & Stefanie, 2011). Some teachers/ educators tend to
evade as much as possible in teaching pronunciation in the
classroom as they are not confident enough to teach it in depth as
they are non-native speakers themselves.
Considered a delicate matter, teachers constantly debate
when it comes to teaching pronunciation by using the correct way
of rigid adherence according to the prescribed method or
approaches (Joanne, 2006). Often contemplating either to adhere
between a native speaker model or standard pronunciation model.
Abbas & Reza (2011) also mentioned that the most common
challenges faced by learners is when there is absent of particular
sounds of target language resulting learners unable to produce and
perceive certain sounds. Not only that, learners would face
difficulties when faced with rules of combining sounds that are
entirely different if not only little similarity with of the native
language of learner.

873

FUTURE SUGGESTIONS
This section deals with possible suggestions that could be
implemented in the future to empower the process of teaching and
learning English pronunciation of ESL learners in Malaysia. The
methods mostly implemented in the future suggestions are based
from the Direct Approach which uses no use of the target language
and CLL (Communication Language Learning) where learners and
teachers/ educators engage in communicative activities in the
classroom.
The first suggestion would be on the implementation of
sound drillings incorporated in the syllabus (Akram & Abrar,
2012). Learners need ample of repetition and drilling opportunities
to ensure that they have sufficient practice in the pronunciation and
enunciation of the target language (English). This method is seen
more beneficial in the long run as it deals with real time
communication used outside the classroom. The old fashioned
chants and tongue twister are seen only appropriate as far as it is
and is not deemed suitable for the long run. Providing ample and
continuous opportunity in pronunciation enables them to be more
corrective particularly in the area of segmental phonology
(Rajadurai, 2001).
Next, the use of audio visual aids can actually aid learners
in learning the correct English pronunciation (Akram & Abrar,
2012). Teachers/ Educators can use visual aids such as videos that
show both graphic and audio in assisting the learning process. Not
only it would be more interactive among both parties
(teacher/educator and learners), it is more pleasing and enjoyable
for the learners as well. This would also motivate the learners to be
more attentive in class and motivated to learn among their fellow
friends.
Another method of improving pronunciation is by reading
aloud pronunciation and drills (Akram & Abrar, 2012). This is
done by the teacher/ educator to the learners in a clear, loud voice.
This is seen essential as leaners would first imitate and pronounce

874

the correct pronunciation or drills. To ensure optimum results,

learners need to repeat the words being taught numerous times
aloud in order to obtain the correct pronunciation.
Thus, in order to implement the teaching and learning of
the English pronunciation, the syllabus and curriculum needs to be
redesigned (Abbas & Reza, 2011) to cater the need of the learners
in actually learning this forgotten aspect. The curriculum and
designed syllabus need to establish not only lessons that integrate
the pronunciation aspects and long term communication oral goal.
Appropriate training for teachers/ educators on proper
methods and techniques in teaching correct English pronunciation
should be taken into consideration as they are the backbone of the
education system (Abbas & Reza, 2011). Coordinated approach is
needed in order for them to execute the curriculum and syllabus
that had been redesigned to meet the need of leaners of the English
language here in Malaysia. To ensure maximum effect in the
system, additional and provisional materials and courseware for
teachers/ educators (Abbas & Reza, 2011) are always welcomed to
be of some guidance and aid to them during the teaching and
learning process in the classroom.

REFERENCES
Abbas, P., & Reza, M. (2011). Why is Pronunciation So Difficult
to Learn?, 4(3), 10. Retrieved from www.ccsenet.org/elt
Akram, M., & Abrar, H. (2012). Problems in Learning and
Teaching English Pronunciation in Pakistan, 1(4), 6.
Bhela, B. (1999). Native language interference in learning a
second language: Exploratory case studies of native
language interference with target language usage,1(1),
10. Retrieved from http://iej.cjb.net
Fraser, H. (2000). Coordinating improvements in pronunciation
teaching for adult learners of English as a second
language. Canberra: DETYA (Australia National Training

875

Authority Adult Literacy Project) Retrieved from

http://wwwpersonal.une.edu.au/~hfraser/docs/HF_ANTA_RE
PORT.pdf
Rajadurai, J. (2006). Pronunciation Issues In Non-Native
Contexts: A Malaysian Case Study. Malaysian Journal Of
ELT Research, Vol. 2, pp. 42-59. www.melta.org.my
Kamaleshne, J., & Stefanie, P. (2011). The State of Teaching and
Learning English Pronunciation in Malaysia: A
Preliminary Study , 7(2), 19.
Mina, T., & Miki, S. (2011). Asian varieties of English: Attitudes
towards pronunciation,30(3), 18. doi:10.1111/j.1467971X.2011.01710.x
Hamzah Md.Omar, S. B. Hisham Jamil A. A. Ab Azizi
(2013). Debunking the Notion of Nativization in the
Pronunciation Variation at Segmental level among NonNative ESL Teachers in Sabah, Malaysia, 1(10), 10.
Rajadurai, J. (2001). An Investigation of the Effectiveness of
Teaching Pronunciation to Malaysian TESL Students.
English Forum (Vol 39, No.3, pp10-15).
Zhang, F., & Yin, P. (2009). A Study of Pronunciation Problems
of English Learners in China, 5(6), 6.

876

DEVELOPING A MODEL OF
MARITAL INTIMACY FOR
IRANIAN COUPLES IN
MALAYSIA
Zoleikha Kamali & Syed Mohamed Shafeq Syed Mansor

ABSTRACT
The main purpose of this study is to develop a marital intimacy
model among Iranian couples. For aim of this study, mixed method
approach will be selected in order to developing the strengths of
both quantitative and qualitative research. For implementing
quantitative part of the study, Iranian couple respondents will be
requested to fill in , Marital Intimacy questionnaire to get the most
high score in marital intimacy level among the Iranian couples. For
fulfilling qualitative part of research 10 Iranian couples that get
high scores of intimacy questionnaire will be selected based on
purposive sampling. Because, this method enables the researcher to
collect data to describe and explain the key themes that can be
detected. Couples with first marriage, more than 5 years marital
experience, varies education and income level will be qualify as the
sample of this study. For fulfilling qualitative part of research,
grounded theory will be used for analyzing data gathered by
interview. Next, by utilizing interview and categorizing the theme
and factors by data coding , suitable factors will be selected for
Iranian couples context. Lastly, by triangulation data, a model for
Iranian context will be developed. This model will provide a
framework for understanding significant factors in marital intimacy
for couples. Last of all, by using findings from this research design,

877

some recommendations can be made for offering to counselors in

Iranian counseling centers and authorities related to marriage field.
Keywords:
Intimacy Factors

Marital

Intimacy,

Grounded

Theory,

Introduction
Since past decade amount of Iranian immigrant to Malaysia has
been increased (Madanian et al., 2012). Based on the Iranian
Embassy report in Malaysia, about 14,000 Iranian has been
studying in Malaysia in 2011. For example, 1,500 out of 2,594
international students in Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM)
were Iranian. There are little studies were examined marital life of
this society in Malaysia (Madanian & Mansor, 2013).
One of the significant relationships that individuals build in
their lives is marital relationship. Marriage is one of the most
important and fateful choices of both men and women (Brown,
2009).Hall (2006) demonstrated that these days couples are less
happy with their marriages compared to many years ago.
Furthermore, maintaining of a marital relationship is a difficult
task for many couples in all cultures and societies (Tomic et al.,
2006; Baker, 2009; Amato, 2000).
Currently researchers reminded that about 50% of couples
resolves their own marital unhappiness over divorce. Although the
separation and divorce rate has fairly dropped in the last decade
(Wilcox et al., 2009).also statistics in Iran show that out of every
one thousand marriages registered in Iran roughly 200 end up in
divorce (Zarei and Younesi, 2009).
Divorce as being a social occurrence leads to considerable
problems among families which enable it to have a distressing
impact including excessive sense of damage, anger, depressive
signs, social isolation, and lack of time at their job function(Amato,
2004).

878

Researchers agree that intimacy is an essential aspect of

many interpersonal relationships such as marital relationships
(Bartholo mew, 1990; Clark and Reis, 1988; McAdams and
Constantian, 1983; Prager, 1995; Reis, 1990; Sullivan, 1953;
Waring, 1984; Heller & Wood, 2000; Sanderson & Cantor, 2001;
Patrick, Sells, Giordano, & Tollerud, 2007; Jordan,
2010;McAllister, Thornock, Hammond, Holmes, & Hill,
2012;Dandurand, 2013).
Moreover, a greater understanding of the process that
underlies intimacy can assist in identifying what is going awry
when couples complain of loss of intimate and loving feelings
(Huston, Caughlin, Houts, Smith, and George, 2001).
Therefore, The current study sought to explore the possible
factors contribute to intimacy among Iranian couples to increase
understanding about the potential influence of intimacy role on
marital stability. Also the study will be exploring differences
between genders and across attachment styles in low and high level
of Intimacy. Finally, the research attempted to answer the question,
does length of marriage within a relationship show differences over
time about which factors and level of marital intimacy correlate?
There is a lack of basic research on factors processes of
intimacy in marriage. There are little researches that focus on
exploring new factors and levels of intimacy. On the other hand ,it
is difficult to find treatment program based on intimacy factors to
increase couples intimacy level .also there is too little study related
to Eastern cultures, and , there is no adequate study among Muslim
contexts particularly Iranian society.

Literature Review
Intimacy has been shown as important factors in marital life. There
are many different kind of definition and concept of intimacy as the
researcher will mention in the fallowing paragraphs:
Currently researchers interested in to discover more about

879

marital intimacy and the real effect of intimacy on marital life. For
this aim of knowledge they conceptualized intimacy as a process
which begins with self-disclosure Reis and Shaver, 1988;Chelune,
Waring, Vosk, Sultan, & Ogden, 1984; Greeff & Malherbe, 2001
Sparrevohn & Rapee, 2009;Elaine, 1982;Laurenceau, Barrett, &
Pietromonaco, 1998; Bauminger, Finzi-Dottan, Chason, & HarEven, 2008;Heller & Wood, 1998;Dunham, 2008; Jordan, 2010;
Murphy, 2011;(Dandurand, 2013).
Although researchers agree that intimacy is important factor
for stability in marriage, nevertheless there is no agreed upon
definition for intimacy otherwise theory in intimacy. The classic
conceptualization for intimacy is as a sense of closeness to their
partner that contains a allocation of inner self for another person
and typically contains self-disclosure (Coner-Edwards, 1988;
Drigotas & Rusbult, 1992; McAdams, 1988, 1989; McAdams &
Vaillant, 1982; Prager, 1995; Reis & Shaver, 1988; Thompson &
Walker, 1989). Accordingly, Thompson and Walker (1989)
describe emotional intimacy equally sharing one anothers private
life; communicating and listening to an others feelings, opinions,
needs, worries, joys, and doubts; appearing to, understanding, and
tolerant each other true self (p. 846).
Johnsons (1994) demonstrate that, Intimacy can be the
capacity of being defenseless and consent the weakness of a
partner. Weakness is the appearance of need for the intimate
connection among two persons and is an essential part of intimacy
(Dandeneau & Johnson, 1994).
However, it is not just the ability to be vulnerable that creates
intimacy; it is also the response of the partner Therefore, intimacy
is a relational event involving both vulnerability and a response
from a partner.. (Cordova & Scott, 2001, Cordova, Gee, & Warren,
2005; Dandeneau & Johnson, 1994; Dorian & Cordova, 2004;
Mirgain & Cordova, 2007; Wynne & Wynne, 1984; Dunham,
2008).
Dandeneu and Johnson (1994) establish that sympathetic and
being capable to prompt the distress causal interactional procedures

880

assists intimacy. Nevertheless, little researchers have essentially

operationalized intimacy, the exact skills required to express
weakness and gently react, or the theoretical method through of
these all impact marital satisfaction.
Researchers have concentrated on the correlation between
openness, understanding, intimacy, emotional communication,
protection, and marital satisfaction. They absorbed on more than
self- disclosure, considering that self-disclosure in of itself does
not create intimate actions, intimate relationships, or elicit intimacy
feelings (Cordova & Scott, 2001; Johnson 2004; Gee, & Warren,
2005; Dorian & Cordova, 2004; Mirgain & Cordova, 2007; Olsen,
2006; Dunham, 2008).

Significant of Study
The findings of this study are implacable for other Iranian couples
in Iran and overseas. In addition, this model may produce new and
surprising finding to marriage counselors, marital therapists in
international universities in Malaysia.

Theoretical Framework
Regarding to the target of this study, the researcher utilized a
combination of Attachment Theory (Bowlby, 1969), Triangular
theory of love (Stenberg,1986) ,Emotional focused therapy (EFT )
Theory (Hill, 1949) and Grounded theory By combining these
theories, the researcher tried to better understand the Marital
intimacy among Married Iranian couples in Malaysia.
here is a linkage between these four theories. Married
Iranian students by coming to a new context, encounter new
stresses that will have impact on their marital life. In this line,
resources and perceptions that they have towards new stresses
influence their quality of marital life. This study considers

881

attachment styles as resources and Emotional focused couple

therapy and triangular of love . Thus role of attachment styles and
emotion and love will be highlighted. Furthermore this three
theories can access to better understanding by utilizing Grounded
theory on the other words, they can be linked together for better
understanding of intimacy model.
Material and Methods
The design will be used for this study is mixed methods research
.Creswell and Piano Clark (2007) define mixed methods research
as a philosophical assumption "that guides the direction of the
collection and analysis of data and the mixture of qualitative and
quantitative approaches in many phases in the research process"

Figure 1 sequential Explainatory design .Cresswell,et al(2006)

Sample of The Study

In this study Stratified random sampling will be use for collecting
quantitative data. researcher will distribute the modified
questionnaire amongst about 200 Iranian couples for measuring
Marital Intimacy among them. The data gathered from these

882

respondents will be analyzed for finding relationship between

demographic specifications and determining of low and high level
intimacy couples.
Purposive sampling will be used for collecting of qualitative
data. Creswell (2007) states that in qualitative research, purposive
sampling is used to provide an understanding of the research
problem and the central phenomenon in a research study.
Researcher by using saturation sampling will terminate sample size
interviews among participants when it will be find there is no new
data coming .in this regard, Patton (2002) note that for sample size
of qualitative approach there is no any considered rules.
Instruments
The instruments for gathering of data are includes:
- demographic questionnaire
- Personal Assessment of Intimacy in Relationships (PAIR)
- Interview

Data collection
Sections of collecting data in this study are including quantitative
and qualitative data collection.
Quantitative Data Collection
Distribution of Intimacy questionnaire for finding low and high
level of intimacy score and demographic data (such as gender ,
education, previous marriage or years of marriage , parents
married situation and number of child) among Iranian couples in
Malaysia.

883

Qualitative Data Collection

The researcher will use interview for about an hour. The sample
size will be depends of
reaching to saturation point.
Triangulation of multiple sources within data collection and
analysis will be used to increase the trust worthiness of this
grounded theory study.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study is exploring new factors and model for
marital intimacy .The findings of this study are implacable for
other Iranian couples in Iran and overseas. In addition, this model
may produce new and surprising finding to marriage counselors,
couple therapists in international universities in Malaysia. Also
The findings of this study will help to develop romantic
relationship between couples. Also, for those who are suffering
from marital conflicts and prefer to have stable marriage.
Furthermore, findings of this study contribute the body of literature
in marital intimacy in general and particularly Iranian couples
marriage.

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888

PERKAITAN KEPIMPINAN
DISTRIBUTIF GURU BESAR
DENGAN KEPERCAYAAN
DAN KEPIMPINAN GURU
Asmia Ayu Binti Alias & Khadijah Daud

ABSTRAK
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti perkaitan antara
kepimpinan distributif guru besar dan kepercayaan guru terhadap
guru besar dan kepimpinan guru berdasarkan pandangan guru-guru
di sekolah yang terlibat. Kajian ini juga ingin mengenalpasti sama
ada kepercayaan guru boleh bertindak sebagai pemboleh ubah
penengah bagi pengaruh faktor kepimpinan distributif terhadap
kepimpinan guru. Akhirnya, kajian ini bertujuan untuk membentuk
satu model perkaitan antara kepimpinan distributif guru besar,
kepercayaan guru dan kepimpinan guru. Dalam kajian ini,
kepimpinan distributif guru besar bertindak sebagai pemboleh ubah
bebas dengan menggunakan model kepimpinan distributif Elmore
(2000) manakala kepercayaan guru bertindak sebagai faktor
penengah dengan menggunakan model kepercayaan oleh Hoy dan
Tschannen Moran (2003) Seterusnya, kepimpinan guru pula
bertindak sebagai pemboleh ubah bersandar dengan menggunakan
model kepimpinan guru oleh Marilyn Katzenmeyer dan Gayle
Moller (2009).
Kata Kunci: Kepimpinan distributif, Guru besar, Kepercayaan guru,
Kepimpinan guru

889

PENGENALAN
Dasar Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia kini dilihat adalah berubah
ke arah pengurusan berasaskan sekolah. Pelan Pembangunan
Pendidikan Malaysia 2013 2025, memberikan lebih pengupayaan
kepada pemimpin sekolah selaras dengan perubahan ke arah
pengurusan berasaskan sekolah (Kementerian Pendidikan
Malaysia, 2013). Gelombang 1 (2013-2015) menumpukan kepada
peningkatan standard dan penambahbaikan proses pemilihan dan
penyediaan pengetua/guru besar baharu, serta penyediaan asas
pembangunan bagi mewujudkan sekumpulan besar pemimpin
sekolah yang kompeten di Malaysia. Gelombang 2 (2016-2020)
pula menyediakan skim bagi menambahbaik pemilihan dan
mengukuhkan proses lantikan pengetua/guru besar memfokuskan
kepada amalan kepimpinan distributif dalam kalangan pemimpin
sekolah. Sementara Gelombang 3, (2021-2025) pula memberikan
lebih pengupayaan kepada semua pemimpin sekolah selaras
dengan perubahan ke arah pengurusan berasaskan sekolah.
Pengetua dan guru besar tidak lagi memikul tanggungjawab
sepenuhnya sebagai seorang pemimpin sekolah yang utama, kerana
beliau mempunyai tugas-tugas lain yang lebih kompleks dan perlu
memberi perhatian kepada satu budaya pembelajaran serta
membangunkan keupayaan kepimpinan di sekolah. (Harris, 2002 ;
Lashway, 2003).
Cabaran-cabaran tersebut dilihat mampu ditangani oleh
kepemimpinan distributif dalam kalangan pengetua/guru besar dan
kepemimpinan dalam kalangan guru. Kepemimpinan distributif
adalah melaksanakan tugas kepemimpinan secara bersama dan
saling bertanggungjawab ke arah satu matlamat bersama atau
matlamat untuk menambahbaik sesebuah organisasi. (Elmore,
2000: Ishak, 2009). Kepemimpinan distributif secara konsepnya
boleh dikatakan sebagai kesediaan pemimpin untuk berkongsi
kepemimpinan dengan orang bawahan secara sukarela
membangunkan kapasiti setiap individu di dalam organisasi.
Kepemimpinan distributif ini lebih merupakan kepada amalan

890

pemimpin yang bersedia menyebarluaskan dan mengagihkan

tugasan, membuat keputusan, tanggungjawab dan akauntabiliti.
Oduro (2004) menyatakan proses distribusi / pengagihan
kepimpinan di sekolah boleh difahami sebagai :
i. Inisiatif pengetua berkongsi tanggungjawab dengan guruguru lain
ii. Membina persekitaran yang membolehkan guru-guru
berasa bebas untuk melakukan sebarang inisiatif serta
merasai / mengalami tanggungjawab kepemimpinan secara
individu
iii. Cara bagaimana pengetua, guru-guru serta murid-murid
berhubung antara satu dengan lain dalam rangka
merealisasi dan menghayati konsep kepemimpinan yang
lebih luas.

LATAR BELAKANG MASALAH

Pada tahun 2009, Seminar Nasional Kepemimpinan dan
Pengurusan Ke-16 anjuran Institut Aminuddin Baki ( adalah
bertemakan Distributed Leadership. Istilah Distributed
Leadership atau Distributive Leadership telah digunakan dan
istilah ini membawa maksud yang sama. Pembentang kertas kerja
dalam seminar tersebut telah cuba menterjemahkan istilah tersebut
sebagai kepemimpinan teragih atau kepemimpinan distributif.
Terjemahan ini bertepatan dengan pengertian distributif yang
Konsep Distributed Leadership boleh dikatakan sebagai kesediaan
pemimpin untuk berkongsi kepemimpinan dengan orang bawahan
secara sukarela untuk membangunkan kapasiti setiap individu di
dalam organisasi.
Dalam Perancangan Strategik Jabatan Pendidikan Johor
(2012-2015) iaitu bidang keberhasilan utama (KRA), dinyatakan
bahawa KRA 1 menumpukan kepada barisan kepimpinan yang
berintegriti iaitu sebanyak 90% pengetua dan guru besar
melaksanakan amalan kepimpian teragih di sekolah. Begitu juga

891

dengan Pelan Tindakan Sektor Pengurusan Sekolah menggariskan

amalan kepimpinan teragih. Melalui Program Pembangunan
Organisasi Sekolah Johor (Pose-J) yang menjadi inisiatif tuan
pengarah untuk digerakkan sepenuhnya pada tahun 2013. Pose-J
merangkumi beberapa teori penting dalam pengurusan pendidikan
seperti Kepimpinan Instruksional, Kepimpinan Transformasional
dan Kepimpinan Teragih serta penekanan kepada halatuju
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (KPM) dan Jabatan Pelajaran
Negeri (JPN). (JPNJ, 2014).
Mengikut penelitian dan kajian (Angelle, 2010 ; Timperley,
2008), kepimpinan distributif bukan merujuk kepada
empowerment, iaitu bukan semata-mata penyerahan tugas atau
penurunan kuasa, tetapi lebih kepada perluasan serta penyebaran
dan pengagihan kuasa kepada orang bawahannya. Hal ini bermakna
kepemimpinan distributif ini lebih merupakan kepada amalan
pemimpin yang bersedia menyebarluaskan dan mengagihkan
tugasan, membuat keputusan, tanggungjawab dan akauntabiliti.
Lantaran itu, aspek saling mempercayai antara pemimpin dan
orang-orang bawahan merupakan unsur yang sangat penting dalam
kepimpinan distributif. Kuasa yang disebarluas kepada orang
bawahan digunakan untuk meningkatkan tanggungjawab mengurus
guru-guru dan pelajar-pelajar dengan berpandukan matlamat, visi
dan misi yang sama. Selain itu, menyebarluaskan kuasa juga
termasuk usaha untuk mencari penyelesaian pintar jika ada apa-apa
masalah yang mungkin timbul dalam sesebuah organisasi.
Justeru itu, pada masa kini kepimpinan distributif amat
wajar diimplementasikan di institusi sekolah untuk memastikan
guru mengaplikasikan kepimpinannya di sekolah. Menurut
Katzenmeyer dan Moller (2009) kepimpinan guru dilihat sebagai
pemimpin di dalam dan di luar bilik darjah; mengenal pasti dan
menyumbang kepada komuniti guru danpemimpin; mempengaruhi
orang lain untuk meningkatkan amalan pendidikan; dan menerima
tanggungjawab sebagai pemimpin untuk mencapai kejayaan. Guru
yang berkepimpinan ini bersedia menjalankan tanggungjawab dan
tugas tanpa menunggu arahan dari pengetua, sebaliknya beliau tahu

892

akan apa yang harus dilakukan dan bertindak mengikut matlamat

yang hendak dicapai dengan sendirinya. Justeru dapat disimpulkan
bahawa kepimpinan guru merupakan satu proses keupayaan
kepimpinan dalam kalangan guru yang diterjemahkan melalui
amalan dan tingkah laku samada di dalam dan di luar sekolah yang
memberi manfaat kepada organisasi, pelajar, guru dan rakan
sekerja tanpa paksaan dalam mencapai matlamat demi kejayaan
sesebuah sekolah.

PENYATAAN MASALAH
Pada hari ini, di sekolah dengan segala kompleksiti yang wujud,
maka pendekatan kepimpinan bersinergi yang menggabungkan
seluruh potensi warganya amat diperlukan, sebagaimana penyataan
berikut:
We no longer believe that one administrator can serve as
instructional leaders for the entire school without the substantial
participation of other educators.
(Elmore, 2000; Lambert, 1998; Lambert et.al.,1995)
Oleh itu, kajian ini ini bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti tahap
kepimpinan distributif guru besar. Selain itu, kajian ini juga
bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti pengaruh faktor kepimpinan
distributif dan kepercayaan guru terhadap kepimpinan guru. Kajian
ini juga ingin mengenalpasti sama ada kepercayaan guru boleh
bertindak sebagai pemboleh ubah penengah bagi pengaruh faktor
kepimpinan distributif terhadap kepimpinan guru. Akhirnya, kajian
ini bertujuan untuk membentuk satu model perkaitan antara
kepimpinan distributif guru besar, kepercayaan guru dan
kepimpinan guru.

OBJEKTIF KAJIAN

893

1. Mengenal pasti tahap kepimpinan distributif guru besar.

2. Mengenal pasti kepimpinan distributif
yang paling
dominan diamalkan oleh guru besar.
3. Mengenal pasti pengaruh faktor peramal kepimpinan
distributif guru besar dan kepercayaan guru terhadap
kepimpinan guru.
4. Mengenal pasti sama ada kepercayaan guru dapat bertindak
sebagai pembolehubah penengah bagi faktor kepimpinan
distributif terhadap kepimpinan guru.
5. Membentuk satu model perkaitan antara kepimpinan
distributif guru besar, kepercayaan guru dan kepimpinan
guru.

PERSOALAN KAJIAN
1. Apakah tahap kepimpinan distributif guru besar?
2. Apakah kepimpinan distributif yang paling dominan
diamalkan oleh guru besar?
3. Adakah pengaruh kepimpinan distributif guru besar dan
kepercayaan guru merupakan faktor peramal terhadap
kepimpinan guru?
4. Adakah
kepercayan guru dapat bertindak sebagai
pembolehubah penengah bagi faktor kepimpinan distributif
terhadap kepimpinan guru?

HIPOTESIS KAJIAN
Ho1: Faktor kepimpinan distributif bukan peramal yang signifikan
terhadap kepimpinan guru.
Ho1A: Faktor penetapan dan perkongsian misi, visi dan
matlamat bukan peramal yang signifikan terhadap kepimpinan
guru.

894

Ho1B: Faktor budaya sekolah bukan peramal yang signifikan

terhadap kepimpinan guru.
Ho1C: Faktor perkongsian tanggungjawab bukan peramal
yang signifikan terhadap kepimpinan guru.
Ho1D: Faktor amalan kepimpinan bukan peramal yang
signifikan terhadap kepimpinan guru.
Ho2: Faktor kepimpinan distributif bukan peramal yang signifikan
terhadap kepercayaan guru.
Ho2A: Faktor penetapan dan perkongsian misi, visi dan
matlamat bukan peramal yang signifikan terhadap kepercayaan
guru.
Ho2B: Faktor budaya sekolah bukan peramal yang signifikan
terhadap kepercayaan guru
Ho2C: Faktor perkongsian tanggungjawab bukan peramal
yang signifikan terhadap kepercayaan guru.
Ho2D: Faktor amalan kepimpinan bukan peramal yang
signifikan terhadap kepercayaan guru.
Ho3: Faktor kepercayaan guru bukan peramal yang signifikan
terhadap kepimpinan guru.
Ho4: Faktor kepercayaan guru bukan faktor penengah bagi faktor
kepimpinan distributif guru besar terhadap kepimpinan guru.

KERANGKA TEORI KAJIAN

895

Kajian ini secara umumnya akan menggunakan tiga model utama

iaitu model kepimpinan distributif oleh Elmore (2000), model
kepercayaan oleh Hoy dan Tschannen Moran (2003) dan model
kepimpinan guru oleh Marilyn Katzenmeyer dan Gayle Moller
(2009).
Model Kepimpinan Distributif oleh Elmore (2000)
KEPIMPINAN DISTRIBUTIF
Penetapan
dan
perkongsia
n misi, visi
dan
matlamat
sekolah

Budaya
sekolah

1. Kerjasama
2. Kolaborasi
3. Komuniti
Pembelajaran
Sosial

Perkongsian
Tanggungjawab

1. Membuat
Keputusan Secara
Kolaboratif
2. Penilaian Prestasi
3. Pembangunan
Profesional

Amalan
Kepimpin
an
1. Pengetua
/ Guru
Besar
2. Pemimpi
n
Pertenga
han

Rajah 1 Model Kepimpinan Distributif Elmore (2000)

Terdapat empat dimensi yang menjadi fokus dalam

kepimpinan tersebar iaitu (1) penetapan dan perkongsian misi, visi
dan matlamat sekolah, (2) budaya sekolah dengan berfokus kepada
kerjasama, kolaborasi serta profesional learning community, (3)
perkongsian tanggungjawab menjurus kepada membuat keputusan
secara kolaboratif, penilaian prestasi serta pembangunan
profesional dan (4) amalan kepimpinan yang terdiri daripada
amalan kepimpinan dalam kalangan guru besar atau pengetua dan
amalan kepimpinan dalam kalangan pemimpin pertengahan.

896

Model Kepercayaan Guru oleh Hoy dan Tschannen Moran

(2003)
KEPERCAYAAN GURU

Kepercayaan kepada
Pengetua/ Guru Besar

Kepercayaan kepada
Rakan Sekerja

Kepercayaan
kepada Pelanggan
(pelajar dan Ibu
Bapa)

Rajah 2 Model Kepercayaan Guru oleh Hoy dan Tschannen Moran

(2003

Dalam kajian ini, konsep kepercayaan yang digunakan

adalah berdasarkan kepada konsep kepercayaan Hoy dan
Tschannen-Moran (1998; 2003). Untuk mengukur kepercayaan
guru terhadap sekolah, skala kepercayaan (Trust-Scale - Trust in
Principal) yang telah dibina oleh Tschannen dan Hoy pada tahun
1998 dan diperkemaskan semula oleh Tschannen-Moran pada
tahun 2003 telah digunakan dalam kajian ini.
Dalam mengukur tahap kepercayaan, Hoy dan TschannenMoran (1998; 2003) telah membina tiga instrumen yang mampu
mengukur kepercayaan dalam organisasi iaitu kepercayaan kepada
pengetua, kepercayaan kepada rakan sekerja, dan juga kepercayaan
kepada pelanggan (pelajar dan ibu bapa).
Secara teoritikal, model kepercayaan Tschannen-Moran
mengandungi lima dimensi yang yang digunakan untuk menilai
dan mengukur kepercayaan dalam bidang pendidikan iaitu dimensi
baik hati (benevolence) iaitu berkeyakinan bahawa pentadbir dapat
bertindak tanduk sesuai dengan kemahuan dan akan melindungi
guru, tidak akan melukakan hati atau perasaan guru (Cummings
dan Bromily, 1996; Dirks, 2000). Ia merangkumi aspek percaya

897

bahawa pemimpin akan menjaga hal dan kebajikan guru-guru.

Dimensi kedua ialah dimensi bergantungan (reliability) iaitu
ukuran sejauhmana guru dapat bergantung kepada pemimpin iaitu
pengetua atau guru besar untuk melindungi jika berlaku sesuatu
masalah. Dimensi yang ketiga ialah dimensi kompetensi atau
kecekapan (competence) iaitu kepercayaan bahawa pihak pengetua
merupakan pemimpin yang cekap dan percaya bahawa pengetua
mampu melaksanakan tugasan seperti yang dikehendaki
berdasarkan kepada piawaian yang ditetapkan.
Seterusnya, dimensi kejujuran (honesty) yang merangkumi
perwatakan, integriti dan ketulenan tingkah laku pemimpin yang
menjadi asas kepada kepercayaan oleh pihak guru merujuk kepada
sejauhmana guru boleh mempercayai pengetua untuk melakukan
tindakan dengan adil akan melindunginya semasa tertekan.
Dimensi yang terakhir ialah keterbukaan (openness) iaitu
menerangkan bagaimana pemimpin bersikap terbuka dan dapat
berkongsi maklumat dengan guru. Dalam menjelaskan modelnya,
Tschannen-Moran (1999, 2003) berpandangan bahawa tahap
kepercayaan guru amat berkait rapat dengan implikasi kepimpinan
di sekolah iaitu strategi kepimpinan pengetua dilihat sebagai antara
indikator penting dalam mengukur sejauhmana guru dapat
mempercayai pemimpin sekolah. Rajah di bawah menunjukkan
kelima-lima dimensi dalam kerangka kepercayaan oleh TschannenMoran (2003).
Kejujuran
(honesty)

Dimensi
Kepercayaan

Kompetensi
(competence)

Keterbukaan
(openness)
Baik hati
(benevolence)

Kebergantungan
(reliability)
Rajah 3 Dimensi dalam kerangka kepercayaan oleh Tschannen-Moran

Model Kepimpinan Guru oleh Marilyn Katzenmeyer dan

898

Gayle Moller (2009)

KEPIMPINAN GURU
Penilaian Peribadi
Mengubah Sekolah
Strategi untuk Mempengaruhi
Pelan Tindakan
Rajah 4 Model kepimpinan guru oleh marilyn katzenmeyer dan gayle
moller (2009)

Model kepimpinan guru yang akan digunakan dalam kajian ini

adalah Model Pembangunan Kepimpinan Guru atau Leadership
Development For Teachers Model (LDT) yang telah dibina oleh
Marilyn Katzenmeyer dan Gayle Moller (2009). LDT dibina
bertujuan untuk menyediakan satu rangka kerja untuk
pembelajaran profesional bagi mengembangkan potensi guru
sebagai pemimpin, berkolaborasi dengan rakan sebaya dahulu,
kemudian rakan sekerja dan akhir sekali dengan sekolah. Menurut
Katzenmeyer dan Moller (2009), untuk menguasai kemahiran
sebagai guru pemimpin, mereka mestilah mengamalkan kemahiran
mereka dalam persekitaran kerja mereka.
Model LDT ini terdiri daripada empat komponen utama
iaitu i) penilaian peribadi, ii)mengubah sekolah, iii) strategi untuk
mempengaruhi dan iv) pelan tindakan. (Syed Ismail & Ahmad
Subki, 2010). Penilaian peribadi merujuk kepada tindakan guru
menguji kepercayaan mereka sendiri melalui persoalan Siapa
saya? dalam konteks pekerjaan pendidikan mereka. Melalui
komponen ini, guru dapat mengetahui tahap kemahiran profesional
dan memikirkan cara bagaimana untuk menyokong atau mendapat
sokongan dari guru lain. Setelah guru benar-benar mengenali
potensi diri mereka, mereka akan merasa lebih selesa apabila

899

menerima maklumbalas bagaimana penerimaan rakan sekerja yang

lain terhadap mereka.
Dalam komponen mengubah sekolah, kebanyakan guru
berpendapat bahawa peranan
kepimpinan hanya berkisar dalam bilik darjah, tingkatan (grade
level) atau hanya pada matapelajaran yang diajar. Persoalan yang
perlu dipertimbangkan oleh guru pemimpin ialah Dimana saya
berada?. Guru akan mendapat faedah apabila guru melihat
semula dan membuat analisa mengenai budaya sekolah mereka
dimana guru perlu meneroka dan membuat definisi sendiri tentang
kepimpinan guru dan memikirkan bagaimana kepimpinan guru
diperlukan dalam membuat penambahbaikan dan perubahan di
sekolah.
Dalam komponen strategi untuk mempengaruhi orang lain,
guru perlu mengembangkan kemahiran untuk mempengaruhi orang
lain. Melalui persoalan Bagaimana saya memimpin orang lain?
memberi kesedaran kepada guru pemimpin yang mereka boleh
memperolehi satu set strategi yang mantap dan kemahiran yang
digunakan melalui peranan harian mereka.
Komponen pelan tindakan merupakan peringkat di mana
guru menggunakan kemahiran kemahiran pembangunan
kepimpinan yang baru dipelajari melalui persoalan Apa yang
boleh saya lakukan? terhadap sekolah mereka. Peringkat ini
penting kerana memperlihatkan penggunaan ilmu yang baru,
kemahiran dan sikap yang merupakan perkembangan pengalaman
guru pemimpin.

KERANGKA KONSEP KAJIAN

900

Kepimpinan Distributif

Kepimpinan Guru
Penilaian Peribadi
Mengubah Sekolah
Strategi untuk
Mempengaruhi
Pelan Tindakan

Penetapan dan
perkongsian misi, visi dan
matlamat sekolah
Budaya sekolah
Perkongsian
Tanggungjawab
Amalan Kepimpinan

Kepercayaan Guru

Kepercayaan kepada
pengetua/guru besar
-Baik Hati
-Kebergantungan
-Kompetensi/Kecekapan
-Kejujuran
-Keterbukaan

Rajah 5 Kerangka Konsep Kajian

Kerangka konsep dalam kajian ini dibina bagi menentukan

pengaruh antara pemboleh ubah-pemboleh ubah yang dikaji seperti
dalam rajah 5 di atas. Kajian ini menunjukkan pengaruh antara
faktor kepimpinan distributif dan faktor kepercayaan terhadap
kepimpinan guru. Kepimpinan distributif guru besar menjadi
pembolehubah bebas dan kepimpinan guru menjadi pembolehubah
bersandar. Manakala kepercayaan guru bertindak sebagai faktor
penengah di antara kepimpinan distributif guru besar dan
kepimpinan guru.

901

KESIMPULAN
Harris (2008) menyatakan bahawa keberkesanan sebarang bentuk
kepimpinan distributed bergantung kepada beberapa faktor. Faktorfaktor ini termasuk perkembangan sesebuah organisasi,
kesediaannya
untuk
berubah,
budaya
dan
keperluan
pembangunannya. Ia juga bergantung kepada corak penyebaran
(distribution) dan tujuan ia disebar. Selain daripada itu kepimpinan
distributed bergantung kepada hubungan dan saling percaya
mempercayai antara ahli dalam organisasi. Pemimpin yang
mengamalkan perkongsian kepimpinan (distributive leadership)
adalah seorang yang dapat mempengaruhi orang lain untuk
mencapai matlamat, menentukan arah tujuan organisasi dan dapat
memotivasikan guru seterusnya akan menonjolkan kepimpinan
guru di sekolah.

RUJUKAN
Elmore, R. F. (2002). Hard questions about practice. Educational
Leadership, 59(8).
Harris, A. (2002). Building the capacity for school improvement.
Paper presented at The
American Research Association Conference, New Orleans.
Harris, A (2008). Distributed leadership according to the evidence,
Journal of Educational
Adminidtration. Distributed leadership through the looking
glass, .46(2), 172-188
Jabatan Pendidikan Negeri Johor, (2014). Perancangan Strategik
Jabatan Pendidikan Johor.
Johor Bahru.
Katzenmeyer, M., & Moller, G. (2001). Awakening the sleeping
giant: Helping teachers
develop as leaders. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia.(2013). Pelan Pembangunan

902

Pendidikan Malaysia 20132025. Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia.

Lashway, L. (2003). Distributed leadership. ERIC Clearinghouse
on Educational Management, Research Roundup, 19(4).
Oduro G.K.T (2004), Distributed Leadership in schools: What
English head teachers say about the pull and push
factors.
Syed Ismail Syed Mustapa & Ahmad Subki Miskon. (2010). Asas
Kepimpinan dan Perkembangan Profesional. Selangor:
Penerbitan Multimedia Sdn. Bhd.
Tschannen-Moran, M. & W.K. Hoy (1997). Trust in schools: A
conceptual and empirical analysis. Journal of Educational
Administration. Vol.36, No. 4, 334-353.

903

CONCEPT AND MODEL OF

ACADEMIC ADVISING IN
HIGHER EDUCATION
INSTITUTION: COMPARISON
BETWEEN MALAYSIA AND
AMERICA
Nguyen Thuy Van & Hamdan Said

ABSTRACT
Academic advising is a valued academic service and essential
component of higher education process. It is important for
students satisfaction, retention, recruitment, and success. To
successfully establish academic advising in HEIs, advising
programs must be structured purposely and managed effectively.
For the success of academic advising services, concept perception
and approach models must be considered. Concept of academic
advising is a set of guiding principles that affirms the role of
academic advising in higher education. It answers three questions:
what is the role of advisor advice? How advisor work? What are
the expected outcomes attached with academic advising?
Organizational models of academic advising and delivery system
help students and advisors know the pathways in advising system
in HEIs. This paper aims to explain academic advising models in
Malaysian HEIs through websites observation and review of
literature and then to compare it with academic advising in

904

America in order to see the current practices of academic advising

in Malaysian HEIs. Moreover, the paper also attempts to find out
differences about the academic advising models between public
universities and private HEIs in Malaysia. Finally, the results will
be used as a basis for further research about development of
academic advising Standard for Malaysian HEIs.
Keywords:
Comparison

Academic Advising, Standards, Models, Concepts,

INTRODUCTION
Academic advising is a valuable academic service and essential
component of higher education process in assisting students in
their development and success. The main purpose of academic
advising is for students satisfaction, retention, recruitment, and
success (Bruce, 2008; Cooley, 1998; Kapraun, 1982; Kaulisch,
2006). The concept and model of academic advising play an
important role in establishing, restructuring, improving, and
maintaining the quality of education. Recently, with the significant
increase in number of private HEIs as well as the limited budget,
academic advising has undergone enormous changes to promote
students satisfaction, retention, and success.
This paper aims to investigate the academic advising model
employs by HEIs in Malaysia. The investigation will be done
through websites observation and review of literature as well as
making a comparison with academic advising in US in order to get
an overview of academic advising practice in Malaysian. The paper
attempts to find out the differences in academic advising models
employed by public and private universities in Malaysia. At the
end, the results are used as a basis for research for the development
of academic advising standards in Malaysia.

905

LITERATURE REVIEW
According to Cuseo (2003), academic advising is a relationship
that helps students become more self-aware of their distinctive
interests, talents, values and priorities and sharpens their cognitive
skills for making these choices, such as effective problem-solving,
critical thinking, and reflective decision-making (p. 15). Miller,
(2012) found that academic advising is integral to fulfilling the
teaching and learning mission of higher education. In the American
context, academic advising is used to help students learn to become
members of their higher education community, think critically
about their roles and responsibilities as students, and prepare to be
educated citizens of a democratic society and a global community.
The concept of academic advising has appeared in
researches and books in recent years in Malaysia. For example, in
the handbook of Academic advising ensures students success of
university Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), academic advising is
considered
a partnership between the academic advisor and
advisee throughout the period a student spends
completing a program of study at the university.
Academic advising is a process in which academic
advisors assist advisees develop both their academic
and personal potentials. It encompasses the
development and delivery of accurate, up-to-date
information regarding educational programs,
courses, resources, policies, procedures, and career
options to aid students in pursuing their academic
and career goals (p. 3).
While UTM emphasizes the element of student
development in academic advising objectives, UTHM academic
advising focuses on achieving the goals. In UTHMs handbook,
academic advising is defined as a continuous, developmental
process, based on repeated collaboration between a student and
faculty advisor for the purpose of achieving the students

906

academic, career, and personal goals (UTHM, 2011, p.2) There

is an obvious link between developing a personal relationship with
an academic advisor and students satisfaction, success, and
persistence (Hale, Graham, & Johnson, 2009; Schnell, 1988;
Winston & Sandor, 1984).

CONCEPT OF ACADEMIC ADVISING IN US AND

MALAYSIA
In America, academic advising is carried out by a vast array of
individuals, including faculty and staff members. Regardless of the
various HEIs organizational structures, academic advising has
three components: curriculum (what advising deals with),
pedagogy (how advising does what it), and student learning
outcomes (the result of academic advising) (NACADA, 2005).
Curriculum is the principle document that provides guidelines to
advisors and advisees in the campus map for students success. It is
related to the institutions mission, culture and expectations and
plays the main role to assist students in retention and satisfaction
(Finn & Voelkl, 1993; Hemwall & Trachte, 2005; Hunter & White,
2004; Kuh & Love, 2000).
Crooket (1988) indicated that academic advising program
needs to focus on eight goals (1) to assist students in selfunderstanding
and
self-acceptance
(value
clarification,
understanding abilities, interests, and limitations); (2) to assist
students in their consideration of life goals by relating interests,
skills, abilities, and values to careers, the world of work, and the
nature and purpose of higher education; (3) to assist students in
developing an educational plan consistent with life goals and
objectives (alternative courses of action, alternate career
considerations, and selection of courses); (4) to assist students in
developing decision-making skills; (5) to provide an accurate
information about institutional policies, procedures, resources, and
programs; (6) to make referrals to other institutional or community

907

support services; (7) to assist students in evaluation or reevaluation

of progress toward established goals and educational plans; and (8)
to provide information about students to the university, college,
and/or academic department. Basically, these goals of academic
advising have been used in several universities (Dickson, 2014).
Pedagogy emphases the academic advising like as teaching
and learning (Appleby, 2008) and need the high quality academic
advisors in methodology in advising process. Although the specific
methods, strategies, and techniques may vary, the relationship
between academic advisors and students is fundamental and is
characterized by mutual respect, trust, and ethical behavior
(NACADA, 2005). According to Habley (1994), academic
advising is the only structured activity on the campus in which all
students have the opportunity for one-to-one interaction with a
concerned representative of the institution. Academic advisors are
interpreters who help students navigate their new world. As such,
academic advisors have to make connections (King, 1995).
Learning and development outcomes articulate what
students will demonstrate, know, value, and do as a result of
participating in academic advising. Each institution has its own set
of student learning outcomes and the instruments to assess them.
According to Aiken-Wisniewski et al. (2010), the student learning
outcomes of the advising experience include what students should
know (cognitive outcomes); what students should be able to do
(behavioral outcomes); and what students should value or
appreciate as a result of participating in academic advising
(affective outcomes). NACADA (2006) provided the following
examples of student learning outcomes for academic advising: craft
a coherent educational plan based on assessment of abilities,
aspirations, interests, and values; use complex information from
various sources to set goals, reach decisions, and achieve those
goals; assume responsibility for meeting academic program
requirements; articulate the meaning of higher education and the
intent of the institutions curriculum; cultivate the intellectual
habits that lead to a lifetime of learning; behave as citizens who

908

engage in the wider world around them.

In Malaysia HEIs, academic advising has been seen
indirectly as part of the undergraduate program. Despite of that,
academic advising is an important part of the undergraduate
experience at the universities for ensuring the students journey in
completing their studies successfully. Most universities in
Malaysia assigned the role of academic advising to be lecturers or
academic staff of the faculty. These staff frequently lack of
knowledge and skills in advising (Nor, Zaini, & Zahid, 2013; Tan,
2011).
The concept of academic advising is described only in
number of studies and there is no definite word to describe
academic advising in Malaysia HEIs system. For example, the term
academic advising or academic counseling or academic
support is often used in universitys website, books and research
reports in UTM, IIUM and UTHM as provided below.

UTHM
UTM
IIUM
However, the same terms do not appear in some other
universitys websites or books or research reports.

Curiculum: Academic advisors are generally play the

following roles (1) teach students about various courses of study;
(2) advice students in developing strategies for selecting an
appropriate major, course selection, requirements, educational
plans and goals, and graduation requirements; (3) introduce

909

students to services at their institutions designed to help them be

successful; and (4) as a referral agent (Young, 2008, (Nor et al.,
2013). However, in Malaysia, there is a controversial issue related
to the role of academic advising played by academic advisors.
Beside of studies approval for the benefits of academic advising
related to retention rate and students satisfaction (Alavi & Mansor,
2011; Latif, Bahroom, & Mohamad, 2006; Tan, 2011), some
studies indicated that mentoring practices in Malaysian universities
are informal and unstructured due to heavy workloads among
academic advisors particularly in teaching, research and
administrative works (AATF, 2001).
Another study by Nor (2013), the disappointment of the
academic advising might come from three players including
institution, knowledgeable of academic advisors, and students. In
this regard, the academic advisors are held mostly by lecturers,
who are already overwhelmed by their main scope of works, who
main responsibilities are giving lectures, tutorials, evaluating of
assignment and examination, doing, research as well as the
administration posts assigned to them from time to time. It is the
reason they do not mention the large number of students for whom
they are responsible.
Pedagogy: In Malaysian HEIs, most of academic advisors
are lecturers from respective faculty. They take advising like an
extra job beside additional workload of lectures. In many cases,
they are lack of guidelines and training in academic advising. This
posts problem to academic advisors, particularly the newly
appointed.
In terms of administrative support, academic advisors need
details of appropriate contacts for addressing a variety of issues.
For example, it is known that generally academic staff requires
staff development programs for personal and professional
development. Staff development programs are needed in order for
students to benefit from an enhanced learning environment,
especially integrating between academic advisors and students.
Research suggests that advising pedagogy should be trained

910

for academic advisors regularly in both theories and practices. In

some cases, some of the skills required of academic advising may
be best taught by means of peer teaching, pairing potential
academic advisors with experienced colleagues to sit in on their
scheduled session with their students, followed by a discussion of
the process afterwards. Therefore, academic advisors training to
improve quality of academic advisors as well as provide more and
more material guideline of academic advising is necessary for
Malaysian HEIs.
The main point to stress here is the responsibilities of the
academic staff in different periods of advising. The academic staff
will accommodate students with different levels of assistance
depending on their levels of studies. For example, the focus of
advising for the first year students is on survival while for the final
year students the focus is more programs related to employability.
Regardless of the year of study, students play the most important
role in the developmental academic advising. The students are
expected to devote an appropriate amount of time and energy
towards achieving academic excellence and earning degree. For the
academic advisors, they are expected play a bigger role such as to
be familiar with the regulations and policies concerning
graduation, controlling of time and other demands imposed on
academic staff. The understanding of both roles and
responsibilities ensures high quality communication result that is
very much valued by both parties. This understanding can be
reached when they meet, prepare questions and answers, and are
confident in presenting their ideas to each other.
Student learning outcomes: In Malaysian HEIs, academic
advising are intended to achieve the following goals:1) to assist
students in understanding institutional policies, procedures and
regulations; 2) to provide information on academic programs,
institutional support services and resources, 3) to assist students in
planning, monitoring and evaluating their educational plans; 4) to
assist students towards degree completion and developing
decision-making skills; 5) to assist students in determining their

911

career goals; and 6) to assist students in developing their

intellectual, personal, and social development (UTM, 2010).
However, lack of assessment to evaluate the effectiveness of
academic advising programs make the outcomes of this activity
less attractive and less concerted efforts by the HEIs.
Currently, as the demand of society changes, the role of
academic advisors also changes. This time the academic advisors
are needed to help students in setting career and life goals, building
self-insight and esteem, broadening interests, establishing
meaningful interpersonal relationships, clarifying personal values
and styles of life, and enhancing critical thinking and reasoning
(Creamer & Creamer, 1994; Hamdan, 2012).

ACADEMIC ADVISING MODEL

There are seven academic advising organizational models. These
models have been applied in inter-institutional level. The seven
models of academic advising are faculty-only model,
supplementary advising model, split advising model, dual advising,
total intake model, satellite model, and self-contained model.
These academic advising organizational models can be divided into
three organizational patterns: decentralized, centralized, and shared
(Pardee, 2000).
Group 1: Decentralized Models
Faculty-Only Model
In the faculty-only model (Figure 1), all students are exclusively
advised by lecturers. Pardee (2000) defined this model as the only
model that defines those who deliver advising (p. 194).
Historically, this model has been the primary model for delivery of
academic advising (Carstenson & Silberhom, 1979). In this model,
individual students are assigned to a specific lecturer as academic

912

advisor.
Student
Lecturer

Figure 1. Faculty-Only Model.

Satellite Model
This satellite model features advising offices that are maintained
and controlled within the academic subunits on the campus.
Satellite advising offices provide academic advising for all students
whose majors are within a particular faculty. In addition, satellite
models are located in close proximity to the academic subunits
they represent.

Student A
Office
Student B

Subunit

Subunit

Advising

Advising Office

Figure 2. Satellite Model.

Group 2: Centralized models
Self-Contained Model
Students are advised right from orientation to graduation with this
model. This model usually is supervised by a dean or director of
academic advising activities (Habley, 1983; Habley & McCauley,
1987).

913

Student A
Advising Office
Student B
Figure 3. Self-Contained Model.

Group3: Shared Models

Supplementary Advising Model
The supplementary advising model (Habley, 1988a) uses academic
staff as academic advisors for all students in the institution.
However, this model features an academic advising office that
serves as both clearinghouse for advising information and as a
source of referral to advising as well as other support services on
campus.
Advising Office
Student
Faculty
Figure 4: Supplementary Model

Split Advising Model

In the split advising model (Habley, 1988a), initial academic
advising of students is split between staff member in academic
subunits and the staff of an advising office. The most common
application of the split advising model is that the academic
advisors are responsible for advising students with declared majors
while advising office staffs are responsible for advising undecided
students.

914

Student A

Student B

Advising office

Academic Subunit

Academic Subunit
Figure 5. Split Advising Model.

Dual Advising Model

This model can be characterized by shared responsibility for
advising each student, who directly related to the students
discipline or choice major; and the advising office provides
advising related to the general education requirements, institutional
academic policies, and registration procedures.

d
Advising Office

Advising Office
Figure 6. Dual Advising Model
Total Intake Model
The total intake model (Habley, 1988a) vests initial responsibility
for all students in an advising office. The advising office has
original jurisdiction for the approval of all advising
communications until a set of institutionally predetermined
conditions has been met.

915

Stud
ent

Advising
office

Figure 7. Total Intake Model.

Facul
ty

Academic advising In Malaysia In public universities

All 20 public universities in Malaysia employ a systematic
approach of academic advising to promote students success.
However, there are no established academic advising standards
used by all universities. Each university has own academic
advising model. Academic advising has been managed by faculty.
In this model, each student is assigned a faculty advisor who is
usually the lecturer of student in class. This is shown clearly in the
websites of the universities. In these public universities, academic
advising is not separated into a separate office, but it is under the
management of each faculty. Figure 1. Faculty-Only Model.
Academic advising system in public Malaysian HEIs has
been experiencing several development phases with regard to the
role of the academic advisors. When students receive good
academic advising at all stages of their studies, the quality of
education that students receive is greatly enhanced. Given the
diversity of students' needs, each higher institution must determine
the best way to provide academic advising to students. Each higher
institution prepared a document to students and academic staff that
describe the institution's view on good advising practice. To help
academic staff or lecturers performing their advising tasks
effectively, each higher institution have it own policy on how
academic advising is assessed and rewarded. This policy ensures
that good advising becomes a cooperative activity that students and
academic staff must work together to achieve.

916

In Private universities
Private Higher Learning Institutions (PHLI) are concerned about
student attrition because the cost related to the delivery of
education is very much sensitive to the student enrolment
(Annamalai, 2012). While it is a useful approach for attrition
control, such systems are often not well established in PHLI due to
high turnover of lecturers who play the role of academic advisors
and are also attributed to weak institutional follow through. In
some private HEIs, the Centre for Student Affairs (CSA) has been
entrusted to play a major role in coordinating student retention
programs, for example in Open University Malaysia (OUM). In
OUM, the interventions are carried out according to the following
principles: (i) they should be executed with consistency; (ii) they
should be pro-active in nature in that they require early detection of
symptoms and identification of the root causes of problems; and
(iii) they should be concerted and cross departmental to address the
social, emotional and academic needs of students. Thus far, CSA
has incorporated the elements of academic advising in the
following programs: (i) learning skills workshops for new learners;
(ii) academic advising and counseling of at risk learners; (iii)
group counseling; (iv) individual counseling via e-mails, telephone
and face-to-face sessions; (v) hands-on training on the use of
digital library; (vi) examination clinics; and (vii) supplementary
face-to-face tutorials ((Latif et al., 2006; Ng, Raghavan, & Hamir,
2012). Split Advising Model in OUM (Figure 5)
In private HEIs, academic advising model show more
flexibility to support students betterment. It depends on the
enhancing quality of education and is related to the retention rate
due to the budget limitations.

917

CONCLUSION
Currently there are seven academic advising models have been
discussed (Habley, 1983, 2004; Habley and McCauley, 1987). In
the public universities of Malaysia, decentralized model of
academic advising is used widely and advising service is provided
by academic staff at faculty at department levels. There are many
factors involved for the reasons to use this model. These are related
the perceptions and attitudes of academic departments about the
value of academic advising, the limits of budget allocated for
academic advising activities, and the number of student population
(King, 2008). In contrast to Malaysia, the trend of organizational
models of academic advising in US has transferred from
decentralized to centralized or share models and academic advisor
training course opening regularly to enhancing quality of advisor
staff. A notable point is that some private universities in Malaysia
use the approach of centralized and share models in academic
advising.
Academic advising is not closed system and cannot be done
in isolation. Effective advising is not a onetime activity. Academic
advising is a carefully developed institutional plan, designed and
implemented with strong commitment to enable students get
maximum academic benefits during their education career. This is
the foundation for development of academic advising standard for
Malaysian HEIs.

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921

ALTERNATION BETWEEN WALK

AND RUN - KINEMATIC
LIMITATION AT STANCE AND
SWING OF THE WALK GAIT
Hafizah Harun & Abd. Hafidz Omar

ABSTRACT
We propose that the transition from walk-to-run was caused by
constraints to the walk mechanics. In theory it is necessary for a
person during a walking step to push upward and forward with the
back foot whilst keeping the front foot (load bearing leg) almost
straight in order to maintain a reasonably smooth gait. Keeping the
front support foot stiffed has other advantages as well because
metabolic energy is conserve since the upper body acts as a
mechanical system, inverted pendulum model hinged to the
ground, during forward motion. Substantial muscular power and
joint torque is conserved during stance and swing of walking since
part of the muscular energy is derived from the pendulum
mechanics. In this study we proposed three mathematical equations
based on this pendulum model; considering firstly the power
needed to push the limb forward at toe-off during stance, the
second and third considered events during the swing phase
muscular power to swing and the torque produced by the ankle
angular motion. Several assumptions were taken when testing our
mathematical models; regardless of gradients, the back foot
remains in contact with the ground until the centre of mass of the
person is over the support leg (kept vertical) throughout the whole
swing event, but constraints to the muscular power and joint torque

922

during swing reduces both step length and frequency. This novel
approach to describe mechanical cause of gait transition involves
using actual data of ten participants in previous experiment to
solve the proposed mathematical equations. The equations
produces a dimensionless number, an index to account for the ratio
of change between the transition speed on gradients with respect to
the flat 0% surface (downhill transition is > 1.00 and smaller for
uphill transition). From the results our assumptions that kinematics
of the front support foot was kept stiff-limbed and vertical
throughout toe-off during stance, and secondly the increased
stresses to produce power and ankle torque to swing the limb could
be use to describe causes of gait transition except on the uphill 8%.
A more compliant front support foot should be accounted in the
equation especially when estimating uphill gaits. In conclusion our
mathematical model demonstrate that mechanical factors of
walking could no longer sustain the fast speed inevitably causes a
gait transition to running. Upon transition the overall and specific
muscular tiredness would decrease because different muscles are
used for running and more importantly the bouncy gait is an energy
saving mechanism for the legged system (spring-mass mechanism
produces elastic energy from compression of the tendons and
ligament that supports forward motion).
Keywords:
Walk-Like Pendulum Mechanics, Stiff-Limbed
Front Support Foot, Extension Of Back Foot At Toe-Off, Ankle
Torque, Muscular Power At Stance And Swing

INTRODUCTION
Basic components of the lower limb segments consist of the
thigh, leg and foot connected to joints of the hip, knee and ankle
respectively. The lower muscles are involved in propulsion and
deceleration of the body during walking and running. Kinematics
of the walk comprises of relatively straight and stiff-limbed

923

segments of the support foot during the single stance phase with
slightly bended knees of the back foot at swing [1]. Distinctively
different, running comprises a single compliant leg at stance and
during simultaneous swing of both feet off the ground [2]. While
the upright and inverted pendulum model best describe walking at
optimal speed as it conserves the most metabolic and mechanical
energy due to gravity allowing exchange between potential (Ep)
and kinetic energy (Ek) [3] and [4]. Inverted pendular as the upper
body (bodys centre of mass) vault over the stance foot, and an
upright pendulum considering the lower limbs as one rigid body
that swings freely hinged at the hip joint [4]. Both models describe
the almost free energy during walking. However, considerable
increase in muscle power output and torque are required both
during stance and swing to move the limbs faster than its natural
frequency when moving at faster speed [5] and [6].
The aim of this study was to examine configurations of the
lower limbs specifically the geometry of the foot during the last
walk speed prior to gait transition on the different gradients (0%,
8%). We modelled the three segments of thigh, leg and foot as a
rigid body in the sagittal plane. Regardless of gradients we
assumed these conditions occurred that determine the transition
from walking to running; firstly constraints to the flexor at the final
stance phase (during toe-off) to propel and raise the body (Eppotential energy phase), and secondly two conditions that the
muscular power and torque during the swing-through phase as the
foot needs to clear-off the ground (Ek-kinetic energy phase) were
compromised. We hypothesized that the soleus and gastrocnemius
muscles responsible for ankle plantar flexion, and tibialis anterior
contractions producing joint power and torque for dorsiflexion
during swing were fatigued and would be relieved when the gait
switches to running.
To test this hypothesis three mathematical equations were
derived to examine the power and torque at the two instances of
propulsion and forward swing of the walk gait just prior to
transition. Inferences were made that the support leg was kept

924

rigid and remain vertical under the bodys c.o.m throughout toe-off
and swing of the back foot. This was to gain maximum exchanges
between the potential and kinetic energies (Ep and Ek) from
pendular momentum minimising the contractions to the extensor
and flexor muscles. Finally, kinematics data from ten subjects
where the 3-D data (x, y, z coordinates) during the last 10 sec of
the walking phase was processed to identify required variables as
used in the model equations. Table 1.0 below show demography of
the subjects chosen. The 3-D coordinates identified the event of
stance and swing and processed to obtain kinematics data of the
angular position, velocity and acceleration of the required joints
throughout the motion capture durations.

THE MODEL
Toe off at stance
In the first model we proposed that gait transition occurred due to
constraints to the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles during foot
extension at toe-off. Kinematics of both front and back limbs (refer
figure 4.4.1 below) is shown in three phases represented using
three colors; in red during double support at mid-stance (foot flat
on the ground), in black where the bodys centre of mass (c.o.m) is
brought forward at the highest point of the arc and the back foot
would have to extend maximally to lift the body weight, and in
green upon completion of swing in the consecutive double support
phase. This model acknowledged that the step length would be
shortened due to constant foot extension () of the back limb
(enlarged picture shown in figure 1.0).

925

v' v.

L
L' 2R sin

(1)

Figure 1.0 Sagittal view diagram of the stiff-limbed in positions of

flat foot at mid-stance (red), at toe-off (black), and consecutive double
support following swing (green). R is the limb length and L is two step
length (equals a stride) between the front and back feet. The circled
area marked foot extension () at toe-off that increases the effective R
of the back foot

The Leg Swing (limitation to power and torque)

In this second criterion we consider the limb that undergoes the
swing phase (refer figure 4.4.3 below). The limb, especially the leg
and foot undergo very high angular acceleration immediately from
toe-off that decelerates to zero at heel-strike. The process requires
muscular power and joint torque in addition to energy recovered
from the pendulum system. As suggested by [7] and [8], we
proposed that the dorsiflexors (tibialis anterior muscles) would be
stressed from increased frequency of swing.

926

Power
Power is required to drive the stiff-limb during swing in addition to
the kinetic energy (Ek) available. Maximum Ek accessible to the
segment at swing through is
Ek

2 L2
.
8I v 2

(i)
This energy must be supplied each step and hence the power
required, P (rate of energy use) is
P

Ek
2 L

.
ts
8I v

(ii)
This formula applies for gradient and flat walking,
consequently assuming that the power remain the same for gradient
we have the change in the transition speed as:
and flat walking
v' v.

Torque

L'
L

(2)

According to [8], one of the more tiring motions when walking fast
is the effort to swing through the lower leg. This swing through
occurs over a larger angle than that of the thigh but needed to be
carried out in less time. If we assume that the acceleration and
deceleration are uniform and that the total angle through which the
foot segment is displaced is max . Then it can be shown that
max

2
.t s
2I

(i)
If torque is the muscle torque required to produce the
angular acceleration, I is the moment of inertia of the limb segment
and ts is the
time durations of a single step. Substituting ts for the
walking speed, v, and re-arranging for torque we find that

2Imax
2

.v 2

(ii)
This formula should be applicable to all gradients examined,
except that the values of max and L will be different. The

927

moment of inertia, I, will depend on the actual leg segment being

used. If we consider the case for gradient walking, L and Q'max
and assuming that torque is the same for both cases, then we find
that the change in the transition speed will be
v' v.

L' max
.
L 'max

(3)

RESULTS

Ten subjects (8 males and 2 females) were chosen as participants

(demography - table 1.0 below). Kinematic data of the lower limb
namely movements of markers placed at the knee, ankle and toe
were processed from the last walk speed (Wfinal) before gait
transition to obtain positions, velocities, accelerations, step length
(L) and the ankle angular displacements ( max ) on all three
gradients (table 2.0).
Table 1.0 Participant
N=10
Mean (+ SD)
Age (years)
29.8 (6.29)
Height (m)
1.81 (0.07)
Weight (kg)
78.2 (1.23)
R (lower limb length 1.04 (0.05)
anterior superior iliac spin to
floor in shoes) (m)
Table 2.0 Data from kinematic analysis (mean SD) for values L
and max with gradients
Variables
/ -8%
0%
+8%
gradients
0.89
0.84
Step Length (m) 0.88
(0.03)
(0.04)
(0.03)
(L and L')
0.47
0.52
Ankle
angular 0.44
(0.03)
(0.02)
(0.01)
displacements
(radians) ( max )

928

Testing the proposed mathematical equations

The ratio of difference which is ( v' ) is a dimensionless number
v

obtained after solving the equations that compares relative change

in transition speeds from the flat 0% treadmill to other gradients
(8%). These number or indicator of transition solved using the
respective equations (equations 1. 2 and 3) should show a unit
larger and smaller than 1.00. Predicted values for gait transition on
the downhill (-8% gradient) should fall within 0.96 ~ 1.08 and
within 0.88 ~ 0.98 for the uphill (+8%).
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that
alternations between walk and run gaits was the consequence of
kinematic limitations during stance and swing of walking. This
occurred due to increased power output and joint torque at the
ankle during plantar flexion (at toe-off) and throughout swing
when walking with a relatively stiff-limbed. The pendulum
model (both upright and inverted) and application of the
dimensionless Froude equation [9] assigned limits that
demonstrate the mechanical basis of selected speed for walking.
The kinematic values calculated for use in this model were
the angular displacements of the ankle throughout the whole
range of motion and step length verified from the calculations of
step frequency. The maximum angle ( max ) representing the
ankle angular motion is theoretically applicable to other joints of
the hip and knee and would be responsive to the proposed
model. Since functions and structures of the human legs are very
complex; we rationalize that by focusing at the ankle we have
kept the number of variables to be optimized manageably small.
[10] stated that... Simplicity is a strength in models designed to
establish basic principles because the simpler the model, the

929

easier it is to show which of its properties are important for its

behavior. Our simple model cannot be expected to give precise
quantitative predictions rather an index of variations from 1.00,
either larger or smaller, reflects the empirical data. Using the
mean values of the actual transition speed for the ten
participants, the ratio of change in PTS ( v ) between downhill
v

and flat ranges between 0.96~1.08 (1.02 0.06). And the index
of ( v ) were smaller than 1.0 for the uphill gradients (0.88~0.98
v

at 0.93 0.05). Comparing these values (0.96~1.08 for downhill

and 0.88~0.98 for uphill) to findings from the three
mathematical equations allowed the researcher to assume that
gait transition occurred due to the proposed constraints.
Based on the principle of dynamics, the thigh leg and
foot are assumed to move as rigid pendulum that rotates through
the same angle at the same time during walking. As speed
increases, walking would no longer be feasible due to constraints
of the rigid limb. Three models that propose constraints
experienced at toe-off during the final phase of stance and during
swing substantiate why transitions to running occurred at
different speeds with regard to gradients. The model applies to
gait transitions on all gradient inclinations (flat, uphill and
downhill).
Even after considering that slower transition speed on the
+8% inclinations was due to decrease in both step length and
frequency (as found by [11]), it was possible that we could not
assume the front foot was kept vertical and stiffen during
throughout contact with the ground and secondly that the trailing
foot produces similar muscular power and joint torque during
toe-off and throughout swing irrespective of gradient
inclinations. In the literature, researchers [11]; [12]; [13];[14]
found that the trajectory or arc was flatter (smaller amplitude of
the rise and fall) of bodys c.o.m caused by a more compliant or
slightly bent knee of the front foot during uphill walking. The
flatter arc resulted in lower trajectory or smaller amplitude of the

930

rise and fall of bodys c.o.m. This would relatively conserve

some energy, as leg motion would require less muscular power
because some of the work could be accomplished by the springmass model as in running (energy from decompression of tendon
and ligament) [3]; [11]; [12]; [15] in combination to derived
energy from the potential and kinetic system similar to a
swinging pendulum.
Henceforth assumptions should also not be made that
muscular power exerted at toe-off during uphill and flat walking
was the same (
), at the same speed muscular power
exerted is greater walking or running uphill compared to the flat.
By inserting a constant k (
) with values between

v
0.84~0.93 the model would yield ( ) that falls between range.
v

Greater muscular power was indeed exerted by the foot during

toe-off during uphill walking.
In conclusion biomechanical constraints experienced
during toe-off and swing on the flat and gradients contributed to
gait transition from walk to run. And this could be shown by the
kinematics of the stiff-limb model of pendular walking gait,
however, future equations should also consider a more compliant
front foot at stance for gait transition on the uphill gradients.

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Cavagna, G. A., Storage and utilization of elastic energy in skeletal
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931

Usherwood JR., Why not walk faster? Biol. Lett.1, 338341, 2005
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Usherwood JR., Inverted pendular running: a novel gait predicted
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NILSSON, J., THORSTENSSON, A. and HALBERTSMA, J.
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Hreljac, A., Determinants of the gait transition speed during human
locomotion: kinematic factors. Journal of Biomechanics, 28,
669-677, 1995.
Alexander, R. McN. Optimization and gaits in the locomotion of
vertebrates. Physiological Reviews, 69, 1199, 1989.
Minetti, A. E. & Alexander, R. A theory of metabolic costs for
bipedal gaits. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 186, 467-476,
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Frederick J. Diedrich, William H. Warren, The Dynamics of Gait
Transitions: Effects of Grade and Load, Journal of Motor
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Vol. 30, Iss. 1, 1998.
Minetti A. E., L. P. Ardig and F. Saibene, The transition between
walking and running in humans: metabolic and mechanical
aspects at different grades. Acta. Physiol. Scand. 150 (3):
315-323, 1994.
Usherwood, James R., and Tatjana Y. Hubel. "Energetically
optimal running requires torques about the centre of
mass." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 9.73 (2012):
2011-2015

932

Usherwood, James R. "Constraints on muscle performance provide

a novel explanation for the scaling of posture in terrestrial
animals." Biology letters 9.4 (2013): 20130414.
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77-95, 1998.

933

THE NEED FOR AND

IMPORTANCE OF PROBLEMBASED LEARNING IN TEACHING
AND LEARNING IN TECHNICAL
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND
TRAINING.
Sada Adamu Maigari, Mohd Zolkifli Abdul Hamid & Adnan
Ahmad

ABSTRACT
This paper discusses briefly the concept, overview, characteristics,
the needs and effectiveness of problem-based learning (PBL)
approach in teaching and learning in technical vocational education
and training (TVET). Based on the literature review, the paper
concludes that, problem-based learning is an essential tool for
instructing learners in technical and vocational trades.
Keywords: Problem-Based Learning, Teaching and Learning,
Technical Vocational Education and Training.

INTRODUCTION
The effectiveness of all education system depends largely on the
quality of teaching and learning in the classroom, workshops,
laboratories and other places where education takes place Lucas,

934

Spencer, and Claxton (2012) Moreover, for effective teaching and

learning to take place, skilful teachers need to use the variety
methods and techniques at their disposal. There is a wide diversity
in teaching methods and techniques, no one method can be
regarded as the best for every teaching situation (Baba, 2007) &
(Okorie, 1979). The decision to apply one method or another
depends on a number of factors, including the teacher, the learner
and the environment. It is the responsibility of the teacher to assess
the situation and decide on which method or methods to use in
order to accomplish the instructional objectives. The success or
failure of teaching and learning depends on the inventiveness,
approach and method employed by the teacher. This could also
depend on an intelligent analysis of the educational purpose, the
learners in the class, the curriculum content and the type of subject
matter being taught.
Research by Okoye (2010) Ogwu (2007), Ogwo and Oranu
(2006) separately reported that no single teaching method can be
said to be the most appropriate in teaching technical and vocational
subjects. Petrina (2004) also has the opinion that, goals cannot be
achieved by a single teaching method, nor can anyone teaching
method accommodate all learning styles at once; for example,
demonstrations or projects are suitable for meeting some goals but
not effective for meeting others. However, in technical vocational
education and training (TVET), most instruction is work-oriented
(Nwachukwu, 2006). For this to be achieved, learners must be
exposed to active teaching approaches such as problem-based
learning (PBL). The participation of learners in instruction in any
technical and vocational trades must be active and direct. Direct
participation exists where the learner is physically involved in the
academic and practical activities in that trade. The learner must be
particularly affected and exhibit positive perceptions and
behaviours that indicate the attainment of the desired goals.
Accordingly, the PBL approach influence the effectiveness
of teaching and the ease of learning in TVET (Okoye, 2010). Based
on this awareness, the paper discusses briefly:-

935

2
3
4
5

The concept and overviews of PBL.

The characteristics of the PBL approach in teaching and
learning in TVET.
The need for PBL in TVET teaching and learning.
The effectiveness of PBL in TVET teaching and learning.

THE CONCEPT AND OVERVIEW OF PBL

PBL has been defined by different writers. For the purpose of this
paper, a few such definitions are cited. Savery (2006) who defined
PBL as an instructional (and curricular) learner-centred approach
that empowers learners to conduct research, integrate theory and
practice, and apply knowledge and skills to develop a viable
solution to a defined problem. PBL is an approach to instruction
that prepares learners for real-world experience and causes them to
learn how to research (Myers, 2008). Mergendoller, Maxwell, and
Bellisimo (2006) explained that, PBL provide a more challenging,
motivating and enjoyable approach to education. Furthermore, PBL
is a subset of the problem-centred learning approach which is
easily identifiable by the use of typically ill-structured problems
which lead to ownership of the learning environment (Greening,
1998). Bansal and Kumar (2010) referred to the PBL package as an
innovative, interesting and corroborated classroom transaction
activities.
PBL has certain definite features as outlined by (Myers,
2008), Boud and Feletti (1997). It is a learner-centred learning
process; learners collaboratively construct their own learning goals
and knowledge base
i.
It is a small-group process
ii.
It is led by a facilitator rather than a teacher
iii.
Problems are set as a starting-point for learning and used as
a tool for learners to build upon shared prior knowledge

936

THE NEED FOR PBL IN TVET TEACHING AND

LEARNING
Increasingly, learners who are being taught using traditional
methods appear to be disconnected from their studies (Eubanks,
2006). The characteristics of the millennium generation include
digital literacy, experiential and engaging learning, interactivity
and collaboration, immediacy and connectivity (Barnes, Marateo,
& Ferris, 2007). Education can no longer be exclusively based on
the teacher disseminating information/knowledge through lectures
and PowerPoint slides (Sherer & Shea, 2011). Shift away from the
teacher-centred learning paradigm means moving to a more
learner-centred constructivist paradigm of education. The learner
now needs to focus on understanding, constructing knowledge,
discovering and active engagement whereby they view the teacher
or lecturer as a mentor or guide (Mergendoller et al., 2006).
Learning is not done in isolation; learners learn by doing
(Skiba & Barton, 2006). They prefer to work in groups and they
embrace collaborative learning (Skiba & Barton, 2006). They
actively participate in the learning process, but more importantly,
they are looking for direction, mentoring, guidance, feedback and
good communication channels (McCrindle, 2006). PBL
incorporates this approach by offering a holistic approach to
teaching and learning and may well provide for greater flexibility
in teaching design. The focus of educators should be on
engagement and discussion, allowing learners to contemplate the
material put forward, as well as to comment and question. PBL
allows educators to do just that. Industry is telling the education
sector they need graduates who are job ready, who are able to be
productive immediately and who have a good understanding of the
business they are about to be employed in. Industry also wants
graduates who can be productive in the workplace from day one, so
there is a clear need for PBL in the TVET sector to ensure that the
needs of industry are fulfilled (Mossuto, 2009).

937

EFFECTIVENESS OF PBL IN TECHING AND LEARNING

IN TVET
The PBL approach has proven to be effective in the teaching and
learning of technical and vocational trades. PBL has been claimed
to encourage deep learning in learners (Cowan, 2001); (Coles,
1985) & (Newble & Clarke, 1986). PBL leads to the increased use
of meaningful deep approaches by learners in relating to the
material and the decreased use of reproductive shallow
approaches. PBL also offers opportunities for learners to learn in
teams, develop presentation skills, learn negotiation abilities and
develop research skills and many other abilities (Cowan, 2001).
Furthermore, in an environment of an increased number of learners
decreased resources and overextended teachers, PBL is seen as an
alternative approach to teaching a larger number of learners using
less face- to- face contact (Cowan, 2001). Robbs and Meredith
(1994) list a number of advantages that are associated with PBL
modes of learning as an alternative to traditional methods:
An increased retention of information;
The development of an integrated (rather than disciplinebound) knowledge base;
An encouragement towards lifelong learning;
A greater exposure to expert experience and at an earlier
stage in the curriculum;
An increased learner-teacher liaison; and
An increase in overall motivation.
According to Force (2010) and Gravells (2010), PBL is the
most effective active learning method known to make a positive
impact on the learners experience. PBL is particularly effective in
supporting learning, helping learners to move from surface learning
to deep and profound understanding. This approach is generic and
be applicable to all technical and vocational trades.

938

CONCLUSION
Using the PBL approach in teaching and learning in TVET will
accelerate the learners high level skills in communication and
information retrieval that, in turn enable individuals to gain and
apply new knowledge and skills as needed. Adapting PBL as
teaching approach, will help learners to develop the ability to arrive
at informed judgments by effectively defining problems, gathering
and evaluating information related to those problems, and
developing solutions; the ability to function in a global community;
adaptability; ease with diversity; motivation and persistence (for
example being a self-starter); ethical and civil behaviour; creativity
and resourcefulness; technical competence; and the ability to work
with others, especially in team settings. Lastly, learners will
demonstrate the ability to deploy all of the previous skills to
address specific problems in complex, real-world settings, in which
the development of workable solutions is required. Given this set
of opportunities from using the PBL approach in teaching and
learning in TVET and the apparent success of the PBL approach at
producing graduates with these characteristics, it is hoped that the
use of PBL in TVET teaching and learning will continue to receive
support.

REFERENCES
Baba, Nasir M. (2007). Basc Principles and methods of Teaching.
51-60.
Bansal, Vikram, & Kumar, Raj. (2010). ACTIVITY BASED
LEARNING NEW METHOD OF LEARNING:-A CASE
STUDY OF TEACH-NEXT.
Barnes, Kassandra, Marateo, Raymond, & Ferris, S. (2007).
Teaching and learning with the net generation: Innovate.
Boud, David, & Feletti, Grahame. (1997). Changing problembased learning: Introduction to the second edition. The
challenge of problem-based learning, 1-14.

939

Coles, Colin R. (1985). Differences between conventional and

problembased curricula in their students' approaches to
studying. Medical education, 19(4), 308-309.
Cowan, John. (2001). Maggi Savin-Baden 2000. Problem-Based
Learning in Higher Education: Untold Stories. Higher
Education, 42(1), 139-140.
Eubanks, Steve. (2006). MillennialsThemes in Current Literature.
Retrieved July, 23, 2010.
Force, Careers Profession Task. (2010). Towards a strong careers
profession. Department for Education, London.
Gravells, Ann. (2010). Delivering employability skills in the
lifelong learning sector: SAGE.
Greening, Tony. (1998). Scaffolding for success in problem-based
learning. Medical Education Online, 3.
Lucas, Bill, Spencer, Ellen, & Claxton, Guy. (2012). How to teach
vocational education.
McCrindle, Mark. (2006). New generations at work: Attracting,
recruiting, retaining and training Generation Y: The ABC
of XYZ.
Mergendoller, John R, Maxwell, Nan L, & Bellisimo, Yolanda.
(2006). The effectiveness of problem-based instruction: A
comparative study of instructional methods and student
characteristics. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based
Learning, 1(2), 5.
Mossuto, Mark. (2009). Problem-Based Learning: Student
Engagement, Learning and Contextualized ProblemSolving. Occasional Paper. National Centre for Vocational
Education Research (NCVER).
Myers, Steven C. (2008). Problem Based Learning in an Applied
Econometric Curriculum. Paper presented at the Poster
Session, Teaching Ideas and Projects, Allied Social Science
Association Meetings, New Orleans.
Newble, DI, & Clarke, RM. (1986). The approaches to learning of
students in a traditional and in an innovative problembased
medical school. Medical education, 20(4), 267-273.

940

Nwachukwu, Chris Ezechiyere. (2006). Designing Appropriate

Methodology in Vocational and Technical Education for
Nigeria., 141-142.
Ogwo, BA, & Oranu, RN. (2006). Methodology in Formal and
Non-formal Technical/Vocational Education. Uwani
Enugu: Ijejas printer and publishers company.
Ogwu, MD. (2007). THE ROLES OF TEACHERS IN
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT M. D OGWU. Kubanni
Journal of Arts and Social Sciences(2), 14.
Okorie, John U. (1979). Fundamental of Teaching Practice. Book,
152-163.
Okoye, KRE. (2010). Enhancing Quality in Educational Practice
and Instructional Delivery by Teachers of Technology and
Vocational Education in Nigeria. African Research Review,
4(2).
Petrina, Stephen. (2004). Curriculum and instruction for
technology teachers. Online: http://www. cust. educ. ubc.
ca/programs/tsed/research/books.
Robbs, J, & Meredith, S. (1994). The problem-based learning
curriculum at Southern Illinois University School of
Medicine [online] 1994.
Savery, John R. (2006). Overview of problem-based learning:
Denitions and distinctions. Interdisciplinary Journal of
Problem-based Learning, 1(1), 3.
Sherer, Pamela, & Shea, Timothy. (2011). Using online video to
support student learning and engagement. College
Teaching, 59(2), 56-59.
Skiba, Diane J, & Barton, Amy J. (2006). Adapting your teaching
to accommodate the net generation of learners. Online
Journal of Issues in Nursing, 11(2), 15.

941

IDENTIFYING COMPETENCES
NEEDED BY SECONDARY
SCHOOLS TEACHER IN
DESIGNING INSTRUCTION
Haidir Arafah & Ahmad Johari Bin Sihes

ABSTRACT
This paper aims to identify teachers competences needed on
instructional design. The study was conducted in south sulawesi
province using mix methodology approach. Eight respondent
consists of school supervisor and teacher trainer to be interviewed
then analyzed through thematic analysis. The result showed that
there found major competencies needed by teacher to design their
instructional, such as subject matter, pedagogical, curriculum, and
technological competence.
Keywords:

Competence, Instructional Design

Introduction
The effectiveness of teaching is influenced by many aspects,
teacher planning is regarding one of them. Effective teaching is
determined by a good planning (Stein, Carnine, & Dixon, 1998 ).
Instructional design is the description of the teaching and learning
which will be conducted in classroom. Instructional design will
facilitate the students needs and their achivement (R.NacinoBrown, Oke, & Brown, 1982; Wette, 2010), social and cultural

942

aspects around the school (Kurt D. Squire, James G. Makinster,

Michael Barnett, April Lynn Luehmann, & Barab, 2003). On the
other words that, a well instructional planning will perform
interesting and effectively teaching through considering the learner
charateristics and their environment on it.
Mostly, the literature experresed that teacher is the main
element in formulating and organizing the effective teaching.
Regarding to the study of professor Jhon hattie cited by World
Bank found that teacher influences the students achivement
around 30 percent (Chang, 2010). Further, effective teacher affects
the student achivement significantly (Hill, Rowan, & Ball, 2005;
Rockoff, 2004; Stronge, Ward, & Grant, 2011). It signs that teacher
is the core of the teaching and learning through instructional
design.
Previously, teacher accustomed to teach the provided
material, involved textbook. Teacher has long time depend on the
textbook as their guidance in teaching (Freeman & Porter, 1989;
Sosniak & Perlman, 1990; Stodolsky, 1989). So that, instructional
goes based on what the author wants in his textbook. The
literatures above expressed the lack of teachers competence in
designing intruction. They dont have enough knowledge, skill, and
orientation to develop their instructions (Zais, 1976).
Instructional design not only for student purposes, but also
provides a chance for adult people who teach them (Ball & Cohen,
1996; Davis & Krajick, 2005). Thus , it is important to identify the
knowledge and skill needed to perform the interesting intsructional
design. Through this identification might be as a recomendation for
teacher professional development, particularly in designing
instruction.

Competences in Designing Instructional

Performing the effective instruction needs a well curriculum
planning and development. It will be more valuable if adapted with

943

local context to fulfil students needs and their charateristics

(Parkay, Anctil, & hass, 2006; Zais, 1976). Likewise, in context of
planning and development of the classroom curriculum belongs to
the teachers responsible (Ho, 2010).
Instructional design is the description of the teaching
process including several aspects. As stated by Rio Sumarni
Shariffuddin (2007) that instructional design is the systematic
organization on interpreting teaching and learning theories in
planning teaching material and activities. The sequence of
instructional material, the effective use of instructional material
regarding to the students need and characteristics (Witzel dan
Riccomini, 2007). Thus, instructional design should refers to the
theory of instructional design, models and theories in instruction,
material selection which fix to the learners needs and
characteristics.
In order to perform the well intsructional designed as
described above, teacher should have competencies that related to
it. Regarding to the several studies which were found four
competencies related to the instructional design, as follows:

Pedagogical Competence
Pop & Mazilescu (2012) conducted a study on the ability of
English teacher in designing instruction, found that the importance
of pedagogical competence for teacher. Because its regarding to the
instructional material and content, such as topic selection, stucture,
content, activities and source of teaching.
In line with, (Ho, 2010) conducted his study on teachers
decision-making in developing curriculum and instruction, found
that decision-making is important on capturing and understanding
the whole aspects related student development on instructional
design.

944

Subject Matter Competence

According to Wette (2009) that there are several competencies
needed in designing instructional, such as social competence, skill
and extensive knowledge to translate curriculum into instructional
planning, to find out the obstacles and sources on instruction and
relating to the studentsneed and interest.
In addition, Holiday-Goodman, Black, & Powers (2010),
Echeverri et al. (2010), cultural competence also needed to design
the instruction in order to develop multicultural issues. Integrating
local context to meet the needs of student, teacher, local culture,
and teachers pedagogical values (Kurt D. Squire, et al., 2003;
Rhodes & Roux, 2004). Through, teachers cultural competences
would enrich the instructional planning with local values.

1.

Curriculum Competence

Curriculum competences consist of the ability to synchronize the

demands of curriculum and the needs of educational stakeholder in
an instructional design. As stated by (Drake, Land, & Tyminski,
2014) stated that the focus of curriculum change to encourage
teachers capability to develop curriculum materials through
reading, mastering, and adapt the curriculum materials to meet the
students needs in their classroom and fit to the objective intended.

2.

Technological Competence

According to (Fullan, 2007) stated integrating ICT into school

activities support and motivate teacher on their work to overcome
the lack of resources, isolation, wasting time, and other
encountering obstacles. In addition, teachers used ICT in a wide
range for teaching, administration, professional development and
personal use (Mwalongo, 2011). These are the benefits for teacher

945

toward the integration of the ICT in classroom activities

On the student side, Law (2010) conducted a study on
integrating Information Communication and Technology (ICT) and
pedagogical in 22 countries, found that teachers perception on
integrating ICT in teaching and its planning plays significant
influence toward the students motivation and achievement.
Attracting students attention, facilitating students learning
process, helping to improve students vocabulary knowledge and
promoting meaningful learning (Yunus, Nordin, Salehi, Sun, &
Embi, 2013). Improvement the clarity of information provided to
students and more chance to the students involvent at in front of
the class activities (Beauchamp & Kennewell, 2008). Therefore,
the implementation of the ICT into the instruction and its planning
gives much advatages for the students motivation and
achievement.

Problem Statement
A well instructional planning will perform the effective teaching. It
consists of various activities that regarding to the students needs
and characteristics, beside it the selection of teaching material with
the suitable teaching method and includes the interesting media
will fulfill the well instructional planning. However, in fact mostly
instructional planning is made just to fulfill the administrative
requirement when teacher is supervised. It is not designed to be a
guidance of the instructional process. As a result, most of the
teachers are taken the simple way by "copy and paste" it form their
friends. Therefore, the study aims to identify the competencies that
required in designing instruction.

Methodology
The study designed on mixed methodology with explaratory

946

sequential design, where data collection and analysis were carried

out on two stages, starting from the first phase of qualitative data
collection and analysis which will be used to formulate
questionnaire, and then second phase was quantitative data
collection and analysis (Creswell, 2010). The sampling selection
using identifying competency models by Spencer and Spencer
(1993) and Marelli et al (2005). They added that the qualitative
data was derived from interviews for the schools supervisor and
teacher trainer. While the quantitative data obtained from
questionnaire distributed to teachers in schools.
The study involved 8 respondents to be interviewed. This
study used snowball sampling. To ensure the confidentiality of the
identity of the respondents, the researcher used coding like P/L/01
to the respondents and P/L/01 to interview respondents. P is a
school supervisor code, GI is the teacher trainer code, and L is
Laki-laki or sex. While 01 refers to the respondent. To analyze
the data, researcher used thematic analysis. This study will perform
the qualitative data only which will be used in formulating
questionnaire.

Finding and Discussion

The study found four categories of competence, such as:
pedagogical competence, subject matter competence, curriculum
competence, and technological competence. Those categories
depeloved from the analysis of the interviews both schoool
supervisor and teacher trainer.

Pedagogical Competence
P/L/01 said that there are many aspects should be mastered in
designing the instruction. He added that the whole of the cycle of
the learning process. P/L/01 opinion was supported to by GI/W/03.

947

G/I/W/03 claimed that instructional design consist of the

implementation of the teaching and learning theories. GI/W/03
mentioned that:
.....planning a good intrsutional design will give an
interesting teaching environment and positive impact to
students..through a weel instructional planning, teacher will be
easier to arrange the teaching method and material... .in selecting
the teaching method and material, teacher should consider the
learner characterics.. (GI/W/03)
P/L/02 complete the GI/W/03 opinion in more detail
explanation. He expressed that instructional design is the pocess of
thinking toward how the efective teaching will be taking place.
P/L/02 said that:
..........planning is a process or the way we are thinking to reach the
result the we expected before. In addition, it becomes an
anticipation and approximation toward the process that will be
apllied during the teaching, to acquire the the learning objectives.
Therefore we should implement the teaching principles throuh
teaching activities, planning it self, implementation, and evaluation
in order to achieved the learning objectives that we had been
decided before.. (P/L/02)

Subject Matter Competence

P/W/03 stated that teacher should posed the a lot of knowledge in
order to enrich their instructional design. P/L/04 added that the
more knowledge or information of the teacher owned the better
planning will be produced. P/L/04 stated that:
......as a teacher profession...we have to know more than our
students...we have to know a lot things which can be derived from
many sources, such newspaper, television and internet. to increase
our knowledge...and ithink it will support in my teaching and its
planning.. (P/L/04)
GI/L/02 stated that instrudtional planning should be

948

contextually. It means that teacher plans the instruction based on

their local context. P/W/03 exlored more elements that related to
the local context. P/W/03 expressed that:
......on the latest curriculum recommends teacher to integrate the
local content into the instructional planning. Because, our country
has a lot of culture, every tribe have their own culture, language,
and local wisdom. These are uniques things, that could not be
found in other countries. Therefore, this curriculum provides a
space for local content integration. For example, im english
teacher...i can use the folklore related to my tribe which is familiar
for the my students, then i presented in english as reading
material... (P/W/03)

Curriculum Competence
Curriculum competences include the ability to synergize the target
of curriculum and the needs of education stakeholders in
instructional design. GI/L/02 noted the importance of the
curriculum competence as follows:
........as teachers , we have to know before learning begins
... we must create the instructional planning which consists of
Program Tahunan that contains annual teaching planning, then
Program Semester teaching preparation for one semester and
lesson plan... ee .. The instructional design refers to the syllabus
and fit to the academic calendar, the schedule of subjects and
facilities available at the school. Subsequently, sir, ...instructional
planning is the factor that supports the learning conditions in the
classroom that contains a series of learning events conducted by a
group of students. (GI / L / 02)
Based on the interview (GI / L/ 02) informed that
curriculum competence has a broad of aspects. Planning consists of
various elements of learning which begun from annual program
that contains one year teaching planning regarding to the
curriculum. Then semester program is the teaching planning to be

949

run in a single semester. Next, the lesson plan is the planning for
teaching on each day refers to units, topics, and themes of learning
that are tailored to the syllabus. GI / W / 04 add on the importance
of the curriculum knowledge, as follows:
....... that the things need to be prepared by teacher is to
analyze the existing syllabus, so according me that national
education goals is first step, because it is main core of the
education target is to achieve national education goals, so the first
thing to note is the national education goals. Then ... eeee..teacher
elaborating national education goals into learning objectives....so
teachers must be able to understand the objectives of the national
education goals. (GI / W / 04)
The interview (GI / W / 04) above discussed aspects of
curriculum knowledge includes teacher's ability to understand the
goals of national education. Because the objective of teaching is to
achieve national education goals. Onwards, the national education
goals developed into learning objectives, thus teaching activities
should reflect the value of national education goals.

Technological Competence
Technological competence becomes important skill for teachers
today. It is caused by the flow of information technology
development is very fast and it affects all aspects of human life,
including the aspect of education. P / L / 01 point about the
importance of knowledge technologies (ICT) as follows:
....... the advantages of computers and the internet is
helping teachers in a variety of tasks, such as designing
instruction, making lesson plans, making teaching materials,
create instructional media, and design the evaluation
.....eee...so...it is not difficult thing, like in the past, it used to be
handwritten on planning the instruction.. (P / L / 01)
According to the interview by (P / L / 01) above that
technological devices can assist teachers in doing his work, such as

950

planning, implementation, and evaluation of learning. In terms of

planning, such as making lesson plan. Teachers may search their
materials from the internet, from the implementation, they can
design their interesting media using computer, then in terms of
evaluation, they can create such online test. In addition, the P / L /
04 added the advantages technology, as follows:
...... the varied of teaching methods will avoid student
bored to learn ....... diversity of learning methods can be obtained
from such technological media, such as you tube. (P / L / 04)
Based on the results of the interview P / L / 04 above that
mastering the technology, teacher can enrich learning with variety
of activities, such as finding an interesting method of teaching. It
can be obtained from the internet for example you tube. Through
you tube we can see a lot of teaching method videos that uploaded
to the internet, so it is easy to implement in the classroom. It can be
concluded from the interviews that ability on technology is helpful
for teachers in designing their instruction more interactively with a
variety of learning activities, varied methods, interesting media and
the effectiveness and interesting on the material presentation.
The tables below is the result of the interview analysis
using thematic analysis.
No
1

Concept
Pedagogy

Theme
Analyzing

Sub Theme
- Mastering
- Connecting
- Providing

951

Code
Ability to design
learning
Determine the
interesting topics
Determine the
students
preferred material
The method
suitable to
characteristics of
students
Ability to use
teaching methods
Determine the

 Local culture
Local Wisdom

2 Local Context

Local
content

Planning
Analyzing
and design Interpretation

Curriculum
Competence

952

instructional media
Assessment based
on the students
ability
Assessment based
on material that has
been taught
Provide teaching
source
Select the
teaching materials
Creative and
innovative
Understanding the
psychology of
children
Utilize the
environment
Very close to the
student
Easily understood
students
Often some
students
Folklore
Local wisdom
Local language
Proverb local area
Values legacy
Habits
educational area
Something
Unique
Existing
curriculum
Look at Syllabus
Academic
Calendar
Objective of the
national education
Elaboration of
national education

Learner
characteristi
cs

Individual Students
differences Background

Technologic
al
competence

Using ICT Effective

efficient

goals
Deciding the
specific objective
Lesson Plan
Special purpose
Basic Competency
(KD)
Competency
Standards (SK)
Indicators
Students
characteristics
Psychology of
children
Level of
Knowledge
Family
Background
Level of material
comprehension
Level of emotions
Culture
Background
Religion
Background
Interests
Using ICT
devices
Accessing
Internet
Designing
material by ICT
Performing
material by LCD

Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study, it is found that the pedagogical,
extensive knowledge, and technological competence as the most
needed and supporting competence on designing the instruction.
953

Majority of the respondents believes that those competence will

guide teacher in formulating a well designed intruction. Therefore,
a well instructional designed will guide teacher toward the
suscessful teaching by reaching their teaching aims effectively and
efficient.
The identification of the competences that needed in
designing instruction will be suggested toward the teacher
preparation program to highlight the competences in instructional
design to their programs.

REFERENCES
Ball, D. L., Thames, M. H., & Phelps, G. (2008). Content
Knowledge for Teaching: What Makes It Special? Journal
of Teacher Education, vol. 59, pp. 389-407.
Beauchamp, G., & Kennewell, S. (2008). The Influence of ICT on
the Interactivity of Teaching. Educational Information
Technology, 13, 305-315.
Drake, C., Land, T. J., & Tyminski, A. M. (2014). Using Educative
Curriculum Materials to Support the Development of
Prospective Teachers' Knowledge. Educational Researcher,
43.
Freeman, D. J., & Porter, A. C. (1989). Do The Textbook
Determine the Content of Math Instruction in Elementary
Schools? American Educational Research journal, 26, 403421.
Fullan, M. (2007). Leading in culture of change. San Francisco:
Jossey- Bass.
Ho, D. C. W. (2010). Teacher Participation in Curriculum and
Pedagogical Decisions: Insights into Curriculum
Leadership. Educational Management Administration &
Leadership, 38, pp.613624.

954

Kurt D. Squire, James G. Makinster, Michael Barnett, April Lynn

Luehmann, & Barab, S. L. (2003). Designed Curriculum
and Local Culture: Acknowledging the Primacy of
Classroom Culture. Wiley InterScience 87, pp.468 489.
Mwalongo, A. (2011). Teachers perceptions about ICT for
teaching, professional development, administration and
personal use. International Journal of Education and
Development using Information and Communication
Technology, vol.7, pp.36-49.
Parkay, F. W., Anctil, E. J., & hass, G. (2006). Curriculum
Planning: A Contrary Approach (8 ed.). United States:
Pearson Education, Inc.
R.Nacino-Brown, Oke, F. E., & Brown, D. P. (1982). Curriculum
And Instruction: An introduction to methods of teaching.
London: The Macmillan Press Ltd.
Rhodes, B., & Roux, C. (2004). Identifying values and beliefs in an
outcomes-based curriculum. South African Journal of
Education, Vol 24, pp.25 30.
Sosniak, L. A., & Perlman, C. L. (1990). Secondary Education by
the Book. Journal of Currriculum Studies, 22, 427-442.
Stein, M., Carnine, D., & Dixon, R. (1998 ). Intervention in School
and Clinic, 33.
Stodolsky. (1989). The Subject Matters. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Wette, R. (2010). Professional knowledge in Action : How
experienced ESOL teachers respond to feedback from
learners within syllabus and contextual constraints. System,
38, 569-579.
Yunus, M. M., Nordin, N., Salehi, H., Sun, C. H., & Embi, M. A.
(2013). Pros and Cons of Using ICT in Teaching ESL
Reading and Writing. International Education Studies, Vol.
6.
Zais, R. S. (1976). Curriculum : Principles and Foundations. New
York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, Inc.

955

A FRAMEWORK FOR
DETERMINING THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
PERSONALITY TRAITS AND
CAREER DECISION MAKING
PROCESS AMONG
UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS
Monica Obi & Mohd Tajudin Ninggal

ABSTRACT
Personality is simply defined as the individuals similarities and
differences in their way of thinking, feeling and behavior. A large
number of contributions have been reported in the literature on this
area of study; with the general consensus reporting that women are
more neurotic compared to men, while on the other men are more
assertive. However, most of the researchers have excluded the
effects of sex difference in cognition and self- regulation in their
works. This has recently motivated urgent investigations into these
afore-mentioned factors (sex difference, cognition and self regulation). A framework for determining the relationship between
personality traits and career decision making process among
undergraduates is proposed in this article, using TAJMA
Personality Profile (2nd Edition). The acquired data will be
analyzed using T-test method and compared with previous works.

956

Keywords: Personality
Undergraduates,

traits,

Career

decision

Making,

INTRODUCTION
The career selected by a student is one of the most important
decisions in a students life. Career is considered as an occupation
an individual undergone a period of training or education through
out a life process. According to Popoola (2004), career can be
perceived as a job, or profession, in which one undergoes regulated
education and training over a period of time, and what an
individual intends to follow for the whole of ones life. More so, it
determines the core of who the student will be in life-long, the lifestyle, attitude and way of thinking of a person. In all can be related
to career. Thus, this decision has a significant impact on the life of
a student, and a wrong choice of career may lead to an undesirable
quality of life. Career choice is a process of matching individuals
personality with occupations. In order to succeed in a choosing
career, University undergraduate students should enhance their
self-confidence; take advantage of their potentialities and
advantages. Moreover, they should obtain information on
respective enterprises to be able to seize the opportunities in
making the right career choice which matches their personality
traits.
However, several studies conducted on gender difference
have not elaborately emphasized on sex difference in cognition and
self- regulation (Sanz de Acedo, Sanz de Aced & Cardelle Elawar, 2007 cited in Misran et al., 2012). Personality plays an
important role in how one shape a career (Costa, McCrae, &
Holland, 1984) and in decision making-process (Berstein,
Radosevich, Clesca and Masco, 2008). When students decide on a
career, their underlying personality characteristics inevitably
contribute to how they think, feel and behave. Personality has been
dened as psychological qualities that contribute to an individuals

957

enduring and distinctive patterns of feeling, thinking and behaving

(Cervone & Pervin, 2010). In another definition, Personality is a
behaviour that differential one person from another (Beer &
Brooks, 2011) also in comparison to others (Sackett et al., 2002).
According to Mcshane and VonGlinow (2008), personality is
defined as the relatively stable pattern of behaviours and consistent
internal states that explain a persons behavioural tendencies.

PERSONALITY TRAITS AND MODELS

Personality is a critical psychological mechanism that guides
behaviour and is a consistent pattern of thought; feelings and
behaviour expressed by an individual and is the underlying fact of
individual behavioural tendency in actualizing a career goal. There
is no universally acceptable definition of personality traits, as
various researchers provide a number of definitions (Beer &
Brooks, 2011; Kimani et al., 2009; Burger, 2008; Mcshane & Von
Glinow, 2008; Johnson-Pynn et al., 2003; Sackett et al., 2002;
Pervin1990; Shertzer& James, 1979). Personality has been
conceptualized from variety of theoretical perspective, and various
levels of abstraction or breadth (John, Hampson, &Goldberg, 1991;
McAdams, 1995). Genetic and environmental influences determine
the set of psychological characteristics comprising personality
(Schaffer 2005). Each of these levels has made unique contribution
to our understanding of individual difference in behaviour and
experiences. Among many personality theories, trait models
emphasising individual differences in thoughts, feelings, and
behaviours assume that personality consists of several dispositions.
McCrae and Costas NEO Five Factor Model, or Big Five
Model (McCrae & Costa,1987; McCrae & Costa,1990;
John,1989; Goldberg, 1990; Ewen, 1998; Stewart,1998; John &
Srivastava, 1999; Iwasa et al., 2008; Kumar & Bakhshi, 2010) is
the most widely used personality model and it consists of the
following components: neuroticism, extroversion, openness to

958

experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.

Neuroticism
According to McCrae and Costa (1990), neuroticism refers to the
tendency to experience negative feelings such as depression and
anxiety. It includes the tendency to be temperamental and feel
vulnerable. Thus, a high level of neuroticism likely leads to
emotional instability and frustration. The neuroticism dimension
distinguishes those who possess emotional stability (calm,
controlled, and even-tempered) from those who are emotionally
unstable (anxious, hostile, and irritable).

Extroversion
Extroversion refers to the tendency to prefer social interaction.
Extroverted people are socially active, fun-loving, and tend to take
group leadership positions. The extraversion dimension
distinguishes between those who are introverted (unsociable, quiet,
and passive) and those who are extraverted (sociable, outgoing,
and active).

Openness to experience
Openness to experience entails preference and acceptance of new
ideas and experiences. It reflects creativity, imagination, and
liberalism. The openness dimension distinguishes between those
who are open to new experiences (curious, creative, and
imaginative) and those who like the familiar (conventional,
uncreative, and unimaginative).

959

Agreeableness
Agreeableness refers to the tendency to be cooperative,
compassionate, and good-natured. Agreeable people tend to avoid
interpersonal conflict. In contrast, people with low agreeableness
are likely competitive, critical, suspicious, and impatient). The
agreeableness dimension distinguishes between those who are
compassionate (good-natured, unselsh, and forgiving) and those
who tend to antagonize (cynical, rude, and uncooperative).

Conscientiousness
Finally, conscientiousness refers to the tendency to be selfdisciplined, goal-oriented, and ambitious. Conscientious people are
organized and have self-efficacy and persistence. Those without
conscientiousness are easy-going, impulsive, and careless. The
conscientiousness dimension distinguishes those who are
conscientious (organized, punctual, and hardworking) from those
who are lackadaisical (unreliable, lazy, and careless).

METHOD
The materials obtained from the literature were used to
conceptualize the framework on students personality traits based
on gender in career decision making. Gender is a psychological
aspect that affects the decision making process regardless of male
or female. The underlying fact is that, it establishes the fact that
individual difference can be differentiated between male and
female in career decision making process. Consequently, this study
hypothesis that there is no significant difference between male and
female undergraduate students at Universiti Teknologi Malaysa in
each of the five personality traits component.

960

Proposed Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 The Conceptual Framework

Previous studies on Gender and Personality Traits

Recent studies have reported the effect(s) of gender differences on
career decision making process, given same personality traits.
These studies have revealed the importance of gender when
examining the influence of personality on career decision making.
Quantitatively interpreted, how does gender difference affect a
961

chosen career assuming that two individuals of different sexes

share common personality traits? Feingolds (1994) studied five
personality traits in which gender differences were documented,
however some inconsistent results were reported in his findings.
According to Kwon, and Song (2011), higher scores were recorded
for women on neuroticism, agreeableness, and conscientiousness
whereas men scored higher on assertiveness. Costa et al. (2001)
also experimented by replicating gender differences across cultures
in a secondary analysis (using data from 26 cultures). It was
reported that, while women had higher scores on neuroticism and
agreeableness, men scored higher in openness to new ideas.
Moreover, women scored higher on neuroticism, extroversion,
agreeableness, and conscientiousness than men (Schmitt et al.
2008).
On the other hand, t-tests were conducted (Kwon & Song,
2011) in order to examine gender differences in the five of
personality trait subscales, where gender differences were found in
three out of the five subscales. More specifically, female students
scored significantly higher than males students in openness to
experience
(p=.020),
agreeableness
(p=.026),
and
conscientiousness (p=.019). However, no differences were found in
neuroticism and extroversion. Vecchione et al., (2012) investigated
on gender differences in the mean-level change of the Big Five.
Longitudinal self-report data were analysed from 192 males and
211 females, using Multi-group Latent Growth Modelling
(MLGM). Gender differences were observed, as Females scored
signicantly higher on Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and
Openness; while Males scored higher on a measure of Emotional
stability.
Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) found higher mathematical and
spatial abilities in men, while higher levels of language ability and
compliance were observed in women. Other studies on gender
differences can be found in Ludtke et al., (2011), Nieken and
Strmer (2010), Kwon and Song (2010), Blonigen, et al., (2008),
Tellegens (1982), Vecchione et al.,(2012) and Denham, Bassett

962

and Wyatt (2010). Some of the instruments used in these studies

include Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ), Big
Five dimensions and NEO-Five Factor Inventory. It was therefore
concluded that females showed higher inter-individual variability
than males on the trajectories of Conscientiousness and Emotional
stability. It has unanimously been agreed by the general consensus
that, women are stronger in neuroticism and agreeableness than are
men. This clearly indicates gender differences in common
personality traits.
The proposed conceptual framework is shown as figure 1. It
shows the relationships between the independent variables and
dependent variable. The independent variables to be examined are
personality traits such as: Neuroticism, Extraversion, openness,
Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. Gender (male and female)
as the dependent variable.
In this study, five personality traits were used as the
conceptual framework based on previous findings. Researchers
have studied the Big Five for decades. However, there has been
different point of views on the dimensions and definitions of the
personality traits (Goldberg, 1993). A well-accepted personality
dimensions include Emotional Stability, Extraversion, Openness to
Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness (Costa &
McCrae, 1995; Goldberg, 1993; Judge et al., 2002; McCrae&
Costa, 1989; Saucier, 1994). Applying the five personality
dimension as a framework in this study would allow better
understanding on the differences in students personality traits
among Faculties and Departments .More so, to identify which
prominent traits would better predict career decision-making in
different academic areas and disciplines. This association however,
would provide the career counsellors successful knowledge to
realize differences of students learning and performances in
achieving their career goal. Moreover, having an insight into
students behaviours would help students on their educational
achievement. Based on this, it is assumed that personality traits
theory are important concepts in predicting career decision making,

963

equally they played an important role in ones career.

DISCUSSIONS
This research is ongoing and the results obtained from the data will
be compared with the UTM year two Undergraduate students at
faculties of Electrical Engineering and Management. The
underlying assumption is to find out if the same result is applicable
using Tajma Personality Profile 2Edition (Ninggal, 2012) in
measuring students personality traits based on gender. Again, in
finding the difference on students personality traits, we presume
that it may give an insight of the influence on career decisionmaking. Furthermore, it will serve as a valuable addition to
existing literature on careers, education and gender studies.
Tajma personality profile (TPP2) of Ninggal (2012); TPP2
consist of 90 items. Each item describes a personal tendency
toward behaviours, feeling, thoughts and values. This questionnaire
is rated by participants on a Three-point Likert scale as: 1 for
disagree strongly and 3 for agree strongly and reported a very
high reliability alpha coefficient of .90. It measure 12 basic
personality traits. . Each personality traits subscale includes 12
items and is translated into English and Malay version respectively.
These traits are as follows: assertive, analytical, extrovert, selfconfidence, leadership, resiliency, caring, cross-cultural,
achievement, integrity, patriotism, and distortion. The proposed
conceptual framework will be developed using Tajma personality
profile (TPP2) instrument to compare to other previous studies
conducted. As was used by Mohd Tajudin Ninggal and Adibah
Abdul Latif (2014) studied on patriotism and cross-cultural
attitudes among first year undergraduates at a Malaysian Public
University. A total of 2453 students were sample. In addition, data
was analyzed using independent t-test and analysis of regression
equation to compare the mean and predict other four personality
traits (caring, resiliency, extrovert and integrity) as predictors for

964

patriotism and cross-cultural attitude. The results show that there

are differences between patriotism and cross-cultural traits across
ethnicity but not on gender. Alahdada et al (2013) study to identify
major traits of personality that affect life satisfaction among
married participants in Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Random
sampling was used to select 158 married students as the
participants of this study. In order to find the relation, Satisfaction
with Life Scale questionnaire, and Tajma Personality Profile
questionnaire (TPP2) were used. The results show that major traits
such as self-confidence, extrovert, and resiliency have strong effect
on life satisfaction.

CONCLUSION
Based on the literature review, several studies have found gender
difference on age, educational level, culture, gender equality,
learning related competency (e.g. ability and performance). In all,
gender difference reflects the personality distinctive difference.
Therefore matching ones career to ones personality will enhance
job satisfaction and optimal productivity on economic growth. The
role play by personality is undoubtedly important in a student
choice of career. It is believed that regardless of gender, one is
expected to excel more in ones career pursuit if it matches ones
personality.

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Feingold, A.(1994).Gender differences in personality:A metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 429-456.
Goldberg, L. R. (1993). The structure of phenotypic personality
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Goldberg, L. R. (1990). An alternative Description of
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John, O. P. and Srivastava, S. (1999). The Big Five Trait
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Ludtke, O., Roberts, B. W., Trautwein, U., and Nagy, G. (2011). A
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McCrae, R. R., and John, O. P. (1992). An introduction to the fivefactor model and its applications. Journal of Personality,
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McCrae, R. R. (1989). Why I advocate the five-factor model: Joint
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emerging directions (pp. 237-245). New York, NY:
Springer-Verlag.
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (1987). Validation of the five-factor
model of personality across instruments and observers.
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Michele Vecchione, Guido Alessandri, Claudio Barbaranelli, and
Gianvittorio Caprara (2012) Gender differences in the Big
Five personality development: A longitudinal investigation
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and Individual Differences .53, 740746
Mohd Tajudin Ninggal and Adibah Abdul Latif (2014). Patriotism
and Cross-cultural Attitudes among First Year
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Nahyun Kwon and Hana Song (2011). Personality traits, gender,
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Arsad,Hafizah Hussain,Wan Mimi Diyana Wan Zaki and
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Mirzaeib.(2013) Identifying
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differences in Big Five personality traits across 55
cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol.
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Schaffer, David.R.(2005).Social and personality development. CA:
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Stewart, A. J. (1998). Doing Personality Research: How Can
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Tellegen,A.(1982).Brief manual for the Multidimensional
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Unpublished manuscript.

968

PERBANDINGAN KESAN
MOTIVASI BELAJAR KE ATAS
MODEL TGFU DAN MODEL
INQUIRY DALAM KECERGASAN
FIZIKAL BAGI PELAJAR
SEKOLAH RENDAH (SR) DI
KABUPATEN PADANG
PARIAMAN
Syamsuar & Zainal Abidin Zainuddin

ABSTRAK
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti model pengajaran di
sekolah rendah (SR) dalam pengajaran pendidikan fizikal.
Pendidikan fizikal merupakan motivasi sebagai satu keperluan
hidup untuk meningkatkan pencapaian tujuan dalam mengekalkan
keaadaan badan yang sihat untuk memberi kesan kepada semua
aspek kehidupan harian atau peribadi. Berdasarkan rekod, ramai
pelajar didapati tidak hadir dalam sesi pendidikan fizikal. Ini
mungkin disebabkan oleh kekurangan motivasi belajar dengan
pendekatan sedia ada. Keadaan ini menyukarkan pihak sekolah
untuk melaksanakan sesi pendidikan fizikal di sekolah.Kajian ini
meneliti kesesusain model pembelajaran Teaching Games For
Understanding (TGFU) dan INQUIRI untuk meningkatkan

969

motivasi pembelajaran dan pengajaran serta meningkatkan

kecergasan fizikal bagi pelajar di sekolah rendah (SR).Hasilan
akhir kajian ini adalah membangunkan model pembelajaran
gabungan dari model pembelajaran Teaching Games For
Understanding (TGFU) dan INQUIRI dalam meningkatkan
motivasi kearah melakukan kecergasan fizikal dalam kalangan
pelajar. 3 sekolah rendah dari Kabupaten Padang Pariaman telah
dipilih untuk menjalani pemerhatian perlaksanaan model. Analisis
dilakukan menggunakan matriks pengukuran tahap kecergasan
fizikal Ujian Kecergasan Fizikal Indonesia (UKFI) bagi untuk
menilai tahap kesesuaian digunakan (Angket) berdasarkan alat
pengukur berkesan dan kognitif.Analisis deskriptif dan infrensial
dengan analisis covarians dan uji t sebelum pemprosesan data
analisis digunakan untuk menguji uji normal, uji homogenitas, uji
normal digunakan lilieforts, bagi ujian kehomogenan varian
menggunakan ujian bartlet. Kajian ini masih di perlaksanaan dan
keputusan ujian masih belum dikenal pasti.
Kata Kunci: Motivasi belajar, tgfu, Inquiri, Sekolah rendah

1.1

PENGENALAN

Dalam undang-undang no 20 tahun 2003 tentang sistim pendidikan

nasional, dikemukakan bahwa kurikulum dasar dan menengah
wajib memuat pendidikan fizikal olahraga dan kesehatan
(penjasorkes). Penjasorkes sebagai suatu disiplin ilmu merupakan
sub-sistem dari pendidikan dari pendidikan nasional dituntut
tampil dalam pengembangan sumber daya manusia (SDM) yaitu
manusia yang memiliki kemampuan ketrampilan dan kepribadian
sesuai dengan tuntutan pembangunan. Ilmu ini mengembangkan
fisik untuk membangun keutuhan manusia, melalui fisik aspek
metal dan emosional turut dikembangkan sehingga menyebabkan
perbaikan untuk mempengaruhi semua kehidupan manusia.
Pendekatan holistik tubuh dan jiwa menjadi domain. Menurut

970

Robert Ctensemer (2001) pendidikan fizikal merupakan proses

menciptakan tubuh yang baik bagi tempat pikiran dan jiwa harus
ditumbuh kembang melalui pendidikan dasar, kerena sedang
berada dalam fase tubuh dan berkembang.
Pentingnya pendidikan jasamani sebagai salah satu
kebutuhan hidup seperti yang dikumandangkan dalam lagu
indonesia raya bangunlah jiwanya bangunlah badannya untuk
indonesia raya. Dalam penjelasan diatas pendidikan jasamani bagi
masyarakat indonesia belum begitu baik. Berbagai indikator
performanya antara lain seperti rendahnya indeks pembangunan
olahraga di Indonesia (Sport Development Index-SDI) yakni, Sport
Development Indeks 0.280, meliputi indeks dimensi partisipasi
0.422, indeks ruang terbuka terbuka 0.266, indeks SDM 0.099 dan
indeks kebugaran fizikal 0.335 (Mothohir, 2007). Khusus indeks
kebugaran fizikal anak-anak disekolah rendah (SR) meliputi
tingkat kesegaran fizikal yang rendah.
Apa yang disampaikan oleh Gusril (2000) mengemukakan
bahwa dibeberapa sekolah rendah di kota madya Padang guru
kurang memperhatikan pola pengajaran serta motivasi belajar
siswa, sehingga motivasi pelajar rendah untuk mengikuti
pelajaraan pendidikan fizikal. Hal ini dapat ditandai dengan
kehadiran pelajar melalui absensi disekolah. Pelajar tidak dapat
mengunakan waktu proses belajar mengajar yang tersedia secara
efektif seperti banyaknya siswa menanti giliran dalam melakukan
pembelajaran. Dalam antrian yang lebih banyak untuk proses
belajar mengajar digunakaan guru untuk kegiatan pasif yaitu main
waktu, bergerak siswa 20 menit dari waktu tersedia 80 menit.
Berarti waktu jam pelajaran pendidikan fizikal yang tidak tersedia
tidak berperan sehingga motivasi belajar pelajar berkurang.
Disampaikan oleh kiram (2001), bahwa guru pendidikan
fizikal disekolah rendah berupa mengarahkan pelajaran pendidikan
fizikal ke arah teknik ketrampilan. Bahkan kita lihat guru lebih
otoriter memakasakan kehendak pembelajaran tanpa melihat situasi
yang berkembang dengan pelajar. Sehingga yang terjadi pada
pelajar adalah pelajaran pendidikan fizikal sesuatu yang tidak

971

menarik dan membosankan sehingga para pelajar tidak termotivasi

dalam pelajaran pendidikan fizikal disekolah.
Berdasarkan huraian diatas sebagai penyelesaian diperlukan
corak atau kaedah permohonan pembelajaran untuk memupuk
motivasi pelajar pendidikan fizikal. Sebagai penyelesaian boleh
digunakan model pembelajaran untuk meningkatkan kualiti
kecergasan fizikal pelajar disekolah rendah (SR). Akan
memerlukan model-model pembelajaran, penulis ingin mengkaji
cara dimana pengajaran yang berkesan melalui modal
pembelajaran yang boleh memberikan motivasi kepada pelajar
untuk belajar. Apa yang telah diperhatikan secara langsung dalam
kecergasan fizikal pelajar supaya dapat dokongan kepada
pencapaian matlamat yang disasarkan bagi pencapaian nilai
pembelajaran fizikal. Penulis menyatakan hasrat untuk memeriksa
dalam kertas saintifik mengunakan model pembelajaran Teaching
Games For Understanding (TGFU) dan model Inquiri model dalam
kecergasan fizikal untuk peningkatan keatas kecergasan fizikal
pelajar sekolah rendah.

RUMUSAN MASALAH
Berdasarkan latar masalah yang dinyatakan diatas, dalam kajian ini
adalah seperti berikut :
Pertama : Pencapaian pendidikan negara masih tidak
memenuhi jangkaan, apatah lagi untuk dapat bersaing secara
kompetitif dengan perkembangan pendidikan di peringkat global.
Keadaan ini boleh diperhatikan, bahawa dasar pendidikan negara
berorientasikan kepada pencapaian sasaran yang tertentu, seperti
kurikulum sedia ada pada gilirannya mengabaikan proses
pembelajaran yang berkesan dan menyokong pelajar yang
berpotensi.
Kedua : Kaedah pengajaran bilik darjah melanggar banyak
teori perkembangan kanak-kanak. Ia membawa kepada pelajar
kurang bermotivasi boleh akibatnya kerja kurang mahir.

972

Ketiga : Pembelajaran pendidikan fizikal adalah tidak

optimum kerana pelajar tidak mahu mengikut proses pembelajaran
pendidikan fizikal kerana guru tidak memberikan motivasi
langsung pada pelajar sekolah rendah.
Keempat : Menjelaskan kurikulum pendidikan fizikal
kurang diarahkan ke bentuk permainan, penekanan hanya kebentuk
kegembiraan, keseronokan dan perhatian kepada aspek-aspek
sosial, koperasi, koqnitif, motorik. Di mana guru-guru ke arah
kanak-kanak lebih sombong dan kadang-kadang takut untuk
melakukannya. Guru tidak merancang dan menyediakan peranti
pembelajaran mengikut kurikulum unit pendidikan, jadi standard
kompetensi asas yang dinyatakan dalam kurikulum kurang sukar
mengikut apa yang diajar.
Kelima : Sesetengah guru pendidikan fizikal mengajar
kurang merubah, kaedah kurang maju, strategi dan model
pembelajaran tidak relevan, guru pendidikan fizikal menyediakan
keupayaan teknikal pelbagai sukan dan tidak membangunkan
kemahiran motor asas melalui bermain .
Keenam : Pembelajaran pendidikan fizikal tidak optimum
meningkatkan kecergasan fizikal, status kecergasan fizikal pelajar
kebanyakannya masih rendah.

TUJUAN PENELITIAN
Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk mencapai model pembelajaran
fizikal yang berkesan melalui motivasi belajar untuk meningkatkan
kualiti kecergasan fizikal di sekolah rendah (SR) di Kabupaten
Padang Pariaman.

KAJIAN TEORI
Motivasi boleh dikatakan sebagai penggerak dalam keseluruhan
diri pelajar yang membawa kepada aktiviti pembelajaran, yang

973

memastikan
kesinambungan
aktiviti
pembelajaran
dan
menyediakan hala tuju kepada aktiviti pembelajaran supaya
matlamat yang diingini dapat dicapai dengan mengkaji subjek
(Sardiman, 2000). Jika pelajar mempunyai motivasi yang tinggi
untuk belajar, maka keseluruhan proses akan diikuti dengan
pembelajaran yang baik yang terdiri daripada rasa ingin tahu,
keamatan dalam penjelasan pembelajaran, bahan bacaan di atas
mencari strategi yang paling sesuai untuk mencapai pencapaian
akademik yang tinggi bagi dirinya. Slavin berkata (2009) bahawa
pelajar bermotivasi untuk mudah diarahkan, telah diberi tugasan,
cenderung untuk mempunyai rasa ingin tahu yang besar, aktif
dalam mencari maklumat mengenai bahan yang diterangkan oleh
guru dan penggunaan proses kognitif yang lebih tinggi untuk
pembelajaran dan menyerap pelajaran yang diberikan.
Menurut Maslow (1989) mencadangkan keperluan untuk
teori motivasi berdasarkan teori yang diperolehi deduktif, teori ini
bermula dari tiga andaian asas, iaitu: (1) manusia adalah makhluk
hidup yang sentiasa berkeinginan, keinginan tidak selalu
memenuhi semua daripada mereka, (2) keperluan atau keinginan
sudah tepenuhi tidak akan memandu, (3) keperluan manusia
disusun mengikut tahap hierarki. Menurut Ngalim Kiah (1997),
matlamat motivasi ialah untuk bergerak atau memberi inspirasi
kepada keinginan dan kesanggupan seseorang untuk melakukan
sesuatu bagi mendapatkan hasil tertentu atau matlamat tertentu
dalam pendidikan fizikal. Sehingga motivasi pelajar sekolah pada
pembelajaran pendidikan fizikal meningkat.
Kecergasan fizikal adalah proses pendidikan yang
mengunakan aktiviti fizikal yang dirancang secara pistimati
bermanfaat untuk mengunakan dan meningkatkan individu secara
organik, neoromuskuler, persepsi dan emosi dalam rangka sistem
pendidikan negara. Ikhsan (1988) mengatakan bahwa kecergasan
fisikal adalah keupayaan seseorang yang menjalankan tugas-tugas
setiap hari dengan kesungguhan dan tanggungjawab sepenuhnya
tanpa sebarang perasaan keletihan dan minat untuk menikmati
penggunaan masa lapang dan menghadapi kemungkinan pelbagai

974

bahaya yang datang tidak teduga, kecergasan fizikal mempunyai

kes menjejaskan motif dan senaman fizikal seseorang.
Muthoir (2002) mengatakan bahwa pendidikan fizikal
merupakan salah satu elemen penting dalam peningkatan sumber
daya manusia dan pendidikan fizikal di Indonesia diarahkan
kepada peningkatan kecergasan fizikal kepada pelajar sekolah
rendah. Agus Mahendra (2003) dalam tujuan pendidikan fizikal
memberi peluang kepada pelajar untuk belajar pelbagai aktiviti
yang mewujudkan dan membangunkan potensi diri baik dari segi
fizikal, mental, sosial, emosi dan asas pendidikan fizikal seperti
mora yang bertujuan untuk membangunkan potensi setiap pelajar.
Dalam bentuk pelbagai matlamat pendidikan fizikal termasuk 3
domain sebagai bentuk bentuk yang bersatu seperti berikut :
Pembelajarann

Psikomotor
Psikomotor
Kognitif
1.
Gerak
dan
1. Gerak
dan
1. Konsep
kemahiran
kemahiran
gerak
2. Kemampuan
2.
Kemampuan
2. Erti
fizikal dan
fizikal dan motor
sihat
motor
3. Perbaikan fungsi
3. Memec
3.
Perbaikan fungsi
organ tubuh
ahkan 1.
organ tubuh
2.
masala
3.
h
4. Kritis, Carta 1. Perpaduan Pembelajaran
cerdas
Misi pendidikan
fizikal dalam domain pembelajaran termasuk
kognitif, afektif dan psikomotor

Nelson dan Tolferman (2000), model adalah persembahan

gambar yang abstrak reakistik, bagaimana sesuatu yang sepatutnya,
direka untuk menjelaskan salah satu aspek dari skop masalah atau

975

isu dan boleh menjelaskan aspek-aspek penting dalam aspek

hubungan. Well berkata bahwa defenisi model pembelajaran
sebagai pelan atau corak yang boleh digunakan dalam jangka masa
panjang untuk mereka bentuk bahan pelajaran dan mencampurkan
pengajaran dalam bilik darjah. Disini dapat dijelaskan bahawa
model ialah gambar yang boleh menjelaskan hubungan antara
unsur-unsur yang sedia ada. Pembelajaran sebagai salah satu sistem
memerlukan satu model yang boleh memberi sedikit kejelasan
hubungan dikalangan semua komponen atau unsur-unsur sistem.
Menurut Ketuanan Sudrajat (2008) berkata model pembelajaran
adalah balut atau bingkai : (1) Pendekatan pembelajaran, (2)
strategi pengajaran, (3) kaedah pengajaran , (4) teknik
pembelajaran , (5) taktik pembelajaran. Oleh kerana itu terdapat
pengaruh teknologi dan maklumat. Bersama-sama dalam
pelaksanaan pembelajaran bahasa model boleh ditentukan dengan
maklumat strategi pembelajaran untuk semuanya boleh dilihat
dalam carta dibawah ini :
Berdasarkan matlumat diatas menunjukan kepada kita
bahwa model pengajaran adalah untuk mencapai aktiviti
pengajaran dan matlamat pengajaran.

Model Pembelajaran

976

Strategi pembelajaran
(exsposition-discovery
learning or groupindividual learning)

Model Pembelajaran

Model Pembelajaran

Pendekatan
Pembelajaran
(student or teacher
centered)

Metode pembelajaran
(ceramah, diskusi,
sinolasi,dsb)

Tenik dan taktik

pembelajaran (spesifik,
individual, unik)

Berdasarkan matlumat diatas menunjukan kepada kita

bahwa model pengajaran adalah untuk mencapai aktiviti
pengajaran dan matlamat pengajaran.

1.

METODOLOGi

Metode penelitian ini yang digunakan adalah penelitian

eksperimen lapangan diguanakan atas dasar pertimbangan bahwa
sifat penelitian eksperimen lapangan yaitu mencobakan sesuatu
untuk membangun model dan pengaruh akibat dari suatu perlakuan
(treatmen) Arikunto (2002). Sedangkan jenis penelitian adalah

977

deskriptif meneliti kesesuaian model pembelajaran Teaching

Games For Understanding (TGFU) dan model inquiri untuk
meningkatkan motivasi pembelajaran dan pengajaran serta
meningkatkan kecergasan fizikal bagi pelaajar di sekolah rendah.
Pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan menggunakan
instrumen dalam bentuk soal selidik yang disusun berdasarkan
pertanyaan

2.

PAPARAN KAJIAN DAN PERBINCANGAN

Dalam pelaksanaan persampelan dimana teknik

persampelan adalah diambil secara rawak dari enam (6) sekolah
rendah menjadi 3 sekolah yang mewakili persampelan. Untuk lebih
jelasnya sekolah rendah sebagai sampel kajian hal sebagai berikut:
Jadual I
Nama sekolah rendah
Sekolah Rendah Negeri
1 Lubuk Alung
Sekolah Rendah Negeri
1 Palembayan
Sekolah Rendah Negeri
1 Pasar Usang

Status SR
SR
Cemerlang
SR
Cemerlang
SR Biasa

Kelas

Responden Peserta
Didik
Pria

Putri

Jumlah

18

15

33

10

16

44

17

16

33

Penerangan:
KPSU = kumpulan rawatan sekolah cemerlang
KPSB = biasa kumpulan rawatan sekolah bias
Berdasarkan pertimbangan alat pengukur berkesan dan
kognitif motivasi pembelajaran yang dinyatakan diatas,
pembangunan instrumen perlu menggunakan instrumen matrik.
Untuk menentukan tahap kecergasan fizikal disekolah rendah (SR)
harus diukur dengan ujian kecergasan fizikal. Menurut mentri
978

pengajaran (1990) ujian kecergasan fizikal indonesia (UKFI)

adalah alat pengukur untuk kualiti kecergasan fizikal.

3.

ANALISIS DATA

Data dan maklumat yang diperolehi telah diproses dan dianalisis

dengan statistik deskriptif dan infrensial, dengan analisis covarians
(anacova) dan ujian t. Sebelum keperluan pemprosesan analisis
data yang digunakan untuk menguji ujian normal dan ujian
kehomogenan varians. Ujian kenormalan data bertujuan untuk
menentukan sama ada taburan normal hasil penyelidikan. Teknik
Ujian Normal yang digunakan adalah lilieforts, ujian homegenitas
bertujuan untuk menentukan bahawa kumpulan itu datang dari
kumpulan bangsa yang sama. ujian kehomogenan varians bagi data
kumpulan menggunakan ujian Bartlet.

4.

KESIMPULAN

Berdasarkan dapatan pada kajian observasi lapangan dapat

disimpulkan bahwa tingkat kecergasan fizikal sekolah rendah (SR)
adalah rendah.

RUJUKAN
Agus Mahendra (2000), DEPDIKBUD: azasa dan falsafah
pendidikan fizikal, bandung
Arikunto. (2007). Manajemen Penelitian. Jakarta : Rinera Cipta
Departemen Pendidikan Nasional (2003). Standar Kompetensi
Mata Pelajaran Pendidikan Fizikal SR dan MI Jakarta :
Pusat Kurikulum Balitbang Depdiknas
Departemen Pendidikan Nasional. (1999), Tes Kecergasan Fizikal
Indonesia, Untuk Anak Umur 10-12 tahun : Jakarta Pusat :

979

Kecergasan Fizikal Dan Rekreasi

Gusril. H. 2000. Evaluasi proses belajar mengajar pendidikan
fizikal dan kesehaatan di kodya padang. Jurnal IPTEK dan
olahraga volume 2 nomor 3 juli 2000
Ichsan, M. (1998). Pendidikan kesehatan dan olahraga. Bandung :
percetakan advent indonesia
Maslow, A. H. (1989) motivasi dan personality newyork. Harper &
row puliser
Purwanto, M. Ngalim (1995). Psikologi pendidikan. Bandung :
Remaja Rosdakarya
Singer, robert. N. (1998). Motor learning and human performance
and application to motor skill and movement behavior.
Newyork mac milan publishing co.inc
Sardiman. A.M., (2007). Interaksi dan Motivasi Belajar Mengajar.
Jakarta : Rajawali Press
Toho cholik muthoir dan gusril. (2004). Perkembangan moral pada
masa anak, jakarta : direktorat jendral olahraga departeman
pendidikan fizikal

980

STORY TELLING TECHNIQUES

IN ENHANCING THE
COMPREHENSION SKILL IN
BAHASA MALAYSIA:
A CASE STUDY OF PRIMARY
TAMIL SCHOOLS IN JOHOR
BAHRU DISTRICT, MALAYSIA
Meena A/P Ayaoo & Shafeq Hussain Vazhathodi

ABSTRACT
Storytelling techniques is an important element in teaching and
learning process. In this research, the storytelling techniques in
enhancing comprehension skill for Bahasa Malaysia for in primary
Tamil School in Johor Bahru District is analyzed. The storytelling
method brings a lot of advantages to the students learning process
and this thesis has analyzed the skills that students can enhance
through the storytelling method. Comprehension skills have
improved through this story telling techniques. The study shows
that the students are able to understand the passage and answer the
questions based on the story that coveys by researcher. This study
used quantitative method as a experiment method. The research
was conducted among sixty pupils from year five students in
primary Tamil school in Johor Bahru District. A pre-test and post
test were given to the students to collect the findings. ANOVA
summary is applied to test the significant of the storytelling
method. The descriptive analyze for all the four schools, SJK(T)
Jalan Yahya Awal, SJK(T) Taman Tun Aminah, SJK(T) Rini and

981

SJK(T) Gelang Patah are measured. The mean for pre-test for all
the school is 3.0333. After researcher conveys the story, the mean
for post test is 3.6833. It has shows the improvement in mean
score. . P value for all the schools are < 0.0001. In general, the
result of studies shows that storytelling techniques playing a vital
role for teaching comprehension skill in Bahasa Malaysia for
primary Tamil schools in Johor Bahru District.
Keywords: Story telling techniques, Bahasa Malaysia

Introduction
Stories are narratives of a series of events of the past, or of
imaginary future and they have been a part of human culture since
humans existed. People create stories based on incidents that
happen in their daily lives. Stories easily influence peoples lives
because they carry the memories of the past to them and to future
generation. They have been playing key roles in human thinking
and communication (Schank, 1995). The effect of stories in
language and literacy skills is well established in the literature
(Egan, 1986; Nelson, 1989; Morrow 2001; Raines & Isbell 1994;
Isbell, 2002). This is so true about young children. When young
children are recited stories, they not only listen to them, but also
actively participate in building language skills during the process
(Isbell, 2002). Through the use of storytelling, children can be
helped to build vocabulary, use more complex sentences and
expressive language, improve comprehension (Isbell, 2002). Storytelling help children enhance their dictation and story writing
(Nelson, 1989).
Storytelling is an art. It conveys information on past
histories, values, life situation, general knowledge to the audiences.
The magnetic quality of the story is the universal power to
remember, entertain, teach, inspire, create, and know (Raines &
Isbell 1994, as cited in Isbell, 2002, p. 26). Therefore, even today,

982

storytelling is utilized as the main medium in the language learning

and to acquaint children with new vocabularies and other language
related skills of speaking, comprehension, reading and listening.
Students realize the beauty of the language from tales (Norhayati et
al, 2000). Egan (1986) for example supports the use of stories as a
way of organizing curriculum for children.

Background of the study

Education is a powerful tool for the success of the country. In
Malaysia, the government always has done continuous updates of
the education system. In the immediate post-independence period,
Malaysian national school system went through many reforms
following various governmental policy reports. The main aim of
such reforms were provision of a uniform national curriculum to
promote a unified character and personality national unity. One
effort aiming the purpose was introduction of Bahasa Malaysia,
then known as Malay, as the medium of instruction.
The choice of a national language by Tunku Abdul Rahman, the
first Prime Minister, was a rightful one. In his speech at the
University of Singapore on 9th December 1964, he said: If the
National Language is not introduced, our country will be devoid of
a unified character and personality as I would put it, a nation
without a soul and without a life (as cited by Abdullah Hassan,
2005, p. 4).

Statement of problem
Language is the soul of a nation. The language of the nation plays
role as a symbol of dignity for that nation. In Malaysia, Bahasa
Malaysia (BM) is the national language. As the common linguafranca of Malaysia, through BM, the government aims to unite the
people of the nation, who are multi-ethnic, multi-religious and

983

multi-cultural. This significant role of BM is thus evident in

various national educational policies in Malaysia. Bahasa Malaysia
taught as a compulsory subject in primary and secondary schools
since 1957.
In 1970, Bahasa Malaysia taught as a medium of instruction
for standard one student. The primary school students were given
priority to learn the language from their beginning schooling
period. This visionary planning of the government was the first
step to enhancing the Bahasa Malaysia in our national education
system. To uphold the priority and dignity for Bahasa Malaysia, the
government converted all the English primary schools into national
primary schools on 1975. In following year onwards, Bahasa
Malaysia was turned into medium of instruction in secondary
schools education system.

Purpose of the study

In general, the overall purpose of the study is to analyse the
effectiveness of storytelling technique for enhancing
comprehension skill in teaching Bahasa Malaysia for primary
Tamil school in Johor Bahru District. The specific purposes of the
study are as following:
a. To analyze the Bahasa Malaysia comprehension skills of
students in primary Tamil schools in Johor Bahru District.
b. To analyze the role of storytelling technique in enhancing the
Bahasa Malaysia comprehension skills of students in primary
Tamil schools in Johor Bahru District.

Research questions
a) To what extent do students in primary Tamil schools differ in
the Bahasa Malaysia comprehension skills?
b) To what extent does storytelling enhance the Bahasa Malaysia
comprehension skills of students in primary Tamil schools?

984

Significance of the study

This study will help to identify whether the storytelling technique
is enhancing the comprehension skill to teach Bahasa Malaysia for
the primary Tamil school students. The findings of the study will
help teachers to be improve in teaching language especially Bahasa
Malaysia for Tamil Students in Primary Level. It also will help
them to identify the weakness of the students and they can
overcome the problem. Teachers also will find that teaching for
primary level students are fun and very interesting when they
implement these types of teaching method.
This also will help teachers to find out the interest of
students and they can identify each students capability. Here also
they get chance to improve their teaching skills and method. There
also can discovered new method and stories to introduce a new
topic.

Methods of Research and Data Analysis

The main objective of the study was to find out the role of
storytelling on enhancing comprehension skill in Bahasa Malaysia
among primary Tamil schools in Johor Bahru District. The data
was collected from Sixty students in in four primary Tamil schools
in Johor Bahru District. They are: (1) SJK(T) Jalan Yahya Awal;
(2) SJK(T) Taman Tun Aminah; (3)SJK(T) Rini and (4) SJK(T)
Gelang Patah. The data collected from each school was treated
separately. Fifteen students represent each school. Students were
selected from three levels; high level, medium level and lower
level of achievement in the BM.
Hence, first the study analyzed the present condition of
students in their comprehension of the Bahasa Malaysia, through
pre-tests. Five questions are given to Year Five students based on
the passage of a story that they had to read before answer
questions. Second, in the treatment stage, the story was conveyed

985

verbally by the researcher to the students, whereupon the students

listened to the story. Then they read the story in the passage and
were asked to answer questions on the story. The total score on
which each student is assessed is five.

Data Analysis
Research Question 1: To what extent do students in primary
Tamil schools differ in the Bahasa Malaysia comprehension
skills?
The mean of high, medium and low achievers for individual
schools
The mean for high achievers in SJK(T) Jalan Yahya Awal is 3.6
and 3.0 for medium achievers and 2.4 for low achievers. There is a
decrease in mean score for each level, which clearly shows that
these students are really belong to the respective levels.
In SJK(T) Taman Tun Aminah, the mean for high achievers
is 3.8, for medium achievers is 2.8 and 2.4 for low achievers. This
also indicated that these students are belonging to the respective
level. There is a decrease in mean score for each level, which
clearly shows that these students are really belong to the respective
levels.
The mean for high achievers in SJK(T) Rini is 3.4, medium
achievers is 3.0 and low achievers is 2.4. This clearly shows that
these students are belonging to the respective level in SJK(T) Rini.
There is a decrease in mean score for each level, which clearly
shows that these students are really belong to the respective levels.
At last, the mean for high achievers in SJK(T) Gelang Patah is 4.4,
the medium achievers is 3.2 and low achievers is 2.4. This confirm
that these students are belongs to the respective level in SJK(T)
Gelang Patah. There is a decrease in mean score for each level,
which clearly shows that these students are really belong to the

986

respective levels.
The mean of high, medium and low achievers among all
schools
In the mean of high achieving students, medium achieving students
and low achieving students among all the four schools in Johor
Bahru district, the highest was for higher achievers of SJK(T)
Gelang Patah where the mean is 4.4. The same school also holding
the highest mean score among medium achievers where the score
is 3.2. Meanwhile, the lowest mean score among higher achievers
goes to SJK(T) Rini and the mean is 3.4. While the lowest mean
score among medium achievers goes to SJK(T) Taman Tun
Aminah where the score is 2.8. On the other hand, all the schools
produce same mean for all the three level of achievers where the
mean is 2.4. Here we can concluded that there is a decrease in
mean score for each level, which clearly shows that these students
are really belong to the respective level for each schools.
Research Question 2: To what extent does storytelling enhance
the Bahasa Malaysia comprehension skills of students in primary
Tamil schools?
This research question looks into the comprehension skills of
primary Tamil schools in Johor Bahru District if Bahasa Malaysia
is taught through storytelling techniques for four schools
individually.

Pre and Post tests scores for SJK(T) Jalan Yahya Awal
The scores for pre-test and post test for SJK(T) Jalan Yahya Awal
did not show much difference for higher level students. For
example, student one to three scored 4 for the both test. This shows

987

that storytelling technique did not improve their comprehension

skill. While, the scores for pre-test and post test is slightly
increased for student four and five in higher level.
For medium achieving students SJK(T) Jalan Yahya Awal,
in the pre test, all five students scored 3. Meanwhile in post-test,
student one score 3 and student two and three score 4. The score
for student four and five is 3 in their post-test. It is noted that the
scores of student two and three in the post-test have improved.
This has shown that the comprehension skill has improved slightly
for medium achieving students in the school.
For low achieving students of SJK(T) Jalan Yahya Awal,
the pre-test scores for student one and two is 3 while student three,
four and five scored 2. After the intervention for the experimental
group, the scores for student one, two and three is 3 while for
student four and five scored 2. There was no significant changes
observed in pre-test and post-test for the first, second, fourth and
fifth students. But for the third student, there is a changes in the
score where the score for pre-test was 2 and the post test was 3.
This has shown that the comprehension skill did not significantly
improve for SJK(T) Jalan Yahya Awal through storytelling
technique for low achieving students.
Table 1.1 shows the overall analysis for SJK(T) Jalan
Yahya Awal. The mean for pre-test is 3.000. After the intervention
for the experimental group took place, the result moderately
improved. The mean for post-test is 3.33. It shows the
improvement in the mean score in post-test. Overall, the obtained
mean indicated that comprehension skill in Bahasa Malaysia has
slightly improved through the storytelling technique in SJK(T)
Jalan Yahya Awal.

988

Table 1.1 Overall Mean Score, Variance and Standard Deviation for SJK(T)
Jalan Yahya Awal

Test
Pre test

Post test

15

15

x
Mean
Variance
Std. Deviance

45
3.0000
0.4286
0.6547

50
3.3333
0.5238
0.7237

Pre and Post Tests scores for SJK(T) Taman Tun Aminah
The pre and post tests scores for SJK(T) Taman Tun Aminah for
high achieving students, for student one, two, three, and five is 4
and student four is 3. After the treatment, student one, two and
three scored 5 and student four and five scored 4. This shows that
comprehension skill has significantly improved through the
storytelling technique in Bahasa Malaysia for most of the high
achieving students for this school.
The pre and post tests scores for SJK(T) Taman Tun
Aminah for medium achieving students, for students one, two,
three, and five scored 3 in the pre-test. While student four scored 2.
In post-test, students one, two and three scored 4 and student four
and five score 3. Here, it is noted that students one to four have
improved significantly after the intervention was given to the
experimental group. This shows that comprehension skill has
improved through the storytelling technique in Bahasa Malaysia for
medium achieving students.
For low achieving students of SJK(T) Taman Tun Aminah,
in the pre-test, students one and two scored 3 while students three,
four and five scored 2. After the treatment, students one, two and
five scored 3 while students three and four scored 2. Only one
student has improved after the treatment. This shows that
comprehension skill did not improved much through the
989

storytelling technique in Bahasa Malaysia for low achieving

students.
Table 1.2 shows the overall result for SJK(T) Taman Tun
Aminah. The mean for the pre-test is 3.000. The result indicated a
significant improvement due to the effect of the intervention given
to the experimental group. The mean for post-test is 3.6000. It
shows the improvement in the mean of post-test. Overall, the
analysis for mean indicated that comprehension skill in Bahasa
Malaysia has improved through the storytelling technique in
SJK(T) Taman Tun Aminah.
Table 1.2 Overall Mean Score, Variance and Standard Deviation for SJK(T)
TamanTun Aminah

Test
N
x
Mean
Variance
Std. Deviance

Pre test

Post -test

15
43
3.0000
0.6952
0.8338

15
54
3.6000
1.2571
1.1212

Pre and Post -Tests scores for SJK(T) Rini

For SJK(T) Rini for high achieving students, in the pre-test,
student one scored 5 and students two to five scored 3. After the
treatment, students one, three and four scored 5 and students two
and five scored 4. There are no any changes for the first student
during pre-test and post - test where the total score for both test is
5. But for the second to fifth students, the scores are increased
during post-test. This shows that comprehension skill has much
improved through the storytelling technique in Bahasa Malaysia for
most of the high achieving students in SJK(T) Rini.
In the same school for pre and post- tests scores for SJK(T)
Rini for medium achieving students. In the pre-test, student one
scored 4 and student two scored 2. While students three, four and

990

five scored 3. After the treatment, students one, two and four score
4 while students three and five scored 3.There is no any change for
the first, third and fifth students during pre-test and post test. But
for the second and forth students, the scores have increased during
post-test. This shows that comprehension skill has not much
improved through the storytelling technique in Bahasa Malaysia for
medium achieving students in this school.
For low achieving students of the school, for the first and
forth students, there is no changes during pre-test and post test
where their score is 3 for both test. For the second, third and fifth
students, the scores have increased during post-test. They scored 2
for pre-test and 3 for post test. This shows that comprehension skill
slightly improved through the storytelling technique in Bahasa
Malaysia for lower achieving students in SJK(T) Rini.
Table 1.3 shows the overall result for SJK(T) Rini. The
mean for pre-test is 2.9333. After the intervention was given to the
experimental group, the result has significantly improved. The
mean for post- test is 3.7333. It shows the improvement in the
mean of post-test. Overall, the analysis for mean in SJK(T) Gelang
Rini indicated that comprehension skill in Bahasa Malaysia has
improved through the storytelling technique. Table 4.17 presented
the detail.
Table 1.3 Overall Mean Score, Variance and Standard Deviation for SJK(T)
Rini

Test
N
x
Mean
Variance
Std. Deviance

Pre test

Post- test

15
44
2.9333
0.781
0.8837

15
56
3.7333
0.6381
0.7988

991

Pre and Post -Tests scores for SJK(T) Gelang Patah

For SJK(T) Gelang Patah for high achiever students, in the pre-test,
students one and four scored 5 while students two, three and five
scored 4. After the treatment, students one to five scored 5. This
shows that comprehension skill has improved through the
storytelling technique in Bahasa Malaysia for high achiever
students.
For SJK(T) Gelang Patah for medium achieving students,
for the first four students, the scores are increased during post-test.
The total scores in pre-test for students one, two and three are 3,
while in the post-test the scores are 4. The total pre-test score for
the forth student is 4 and in the 5 post- test. There is no any change
for fifth student during pre-test and post-test where the total score
for both tests remained 3. It is worth noting that comprehension
skill has improved through the storytelling technique in Bahasa
Malaysia for medium achieving students in this school.
For low achieving students of the same school, there is no
any change for the first student during pre-test and post-test, where
the total score remained 3 in both tests. But for second to fifth
students, the scores have increased during post- test. The total
score for the second, third and fifth student is 2, while the score in
the post-test is 3. The total score for forth student in pre-test is 3
and post-test is 4. This shows that comprehension skill has much
improved through the storytelling technique in Bahasa Malaysia for
lower achieving students in SJK(T) Gelang Patah.
Table 1.4 shows the overall result for SJK(T) Gelang Patah.
The mean for pre-test is 3.3333. After the intervention took place,
the result is shown in post -test. The mean for post-test is 4.0667. It
shows significant improvement in the mean score of the post-test.
Overall, the analysis for mean in SJK(T) Gelang Patah indicated
that comprehension skill in Bahasa Malaysia has improved through
storytelling technique.

992

Table 1.4 Overall Mean Score, Variance and Standard Deviation for SJK((T)
Gelang Patah

Test
N
x
Mean
Variance
Std. Deviance

Pre test

Post-test

15
50
3.3333
0.5238
0.7237

15
61
4.0667
0.781
0.8837

Variance of means score for all schools

Table 1.5 shows the results for all the four schools, SJK(T) Jalan
Yahya Awal, SJK(T) Taman Tun Aminah, SJK(T) Rini and
SJK(T) Gelang Patah. The mean for pre-test for all schools is
3.0333. After intervention took place for the experimental group,
the result significantly improved. The mean for post-test is 3.6833.
It shows the improvement in the mean of post-test. Overall, the
result for all schools indicated that comprehension skill in Bahasa
Malaysia has improved through the storytelling technique.
Table 1.5 Overall Mean Score, Variance and Standard Deviation
for overall (four schools)

Sample
N
x
Mean
Variance
Std. Deviance

Pre test

Post-test

60
182
3.0333
0.609
0.7804

60
221
3.6833
0.8302
0.9112

Comparison of Mean among the schools

Table 1.6 presents a comparison of result among the four schools;

993

SJK(T) Jalan Yahya Awal, SJK(T) Taman Tun Aminah, SJK(T)

Rini and SJK(T) Gelang Patah. For SJK(T) Yahya Awal, the mean
for the pre-test is 3.0000 and post -test is 3.3333. It shows that the
storytelling technique is effective for teaching Bahasa Malaysia in
this school. For SJK(T) Taman Tun Aminah, the mean for the pretest is 3.0000 and the mean for post-test is 3.6000. This increment
shows that teaching Bahasa Malaysia through storytelling method
is effective for this school. For SJK(T) Rini, the mean for the pretest is 2.9333 and post-test is 3.7333. It shows that the storytelling
technique is effective for teaching Bahasa Malaysia in SJK(T)
Rini. For SJK(T) Gelang Patah, the mean for the pre-test is 3.3333
and post -test is 4.0667. The total mean for pre-test among all the
schools are 12.2666 and post-test is 14.7333. This indicated that
teaching Bahasa Malaysia through storytelling technique for tamil
schools are very effective in Johor Bahru district.
Table 1.6 Comparison of the results among the schools

SJK(T) Jalan Yahya Awal

SJK(T) Taman Tun
Aminah
SJK(T) Rini
SJK(T) Gelang Patah
Total

Pre-test

Post- test

(Mean)

(Mean)

3.0000
3.0000

3.3333
3.6000

2.9333
3.3333
12.2666

3.7333
4.0667
14.7333

Table 1.6 presents ANOVA of the overall result for all the
schools. The p- value for the schools shows 0.0001. Its shows that
there is a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test.
So, the storytelling technique is effective for teaching Bahasa
Malaysia for primary level Tamil school students in Johor Bahru
District.

994

Table 1.7 Analysis of comparison among pre-test and post-test

SS
df
Ms
F
P
between
12.675
3
12.675
18.32
0.0001
within
44.0917
56
0.6919
Total
97.5917
59

Conclusion
This research analyzed the effectiveness of storytelling techniques
in enhancing the comprehension skill in Bahasa Malaysia among
primary Tamil schools in Johor Bahru district, Malaysia. The
results shows that students comprehend the stories well though the
storytelling method. That proves to say that storytelling method is
effective in improving their skills in BM. This is, when they are
attentive to stories, their cognitive minds works effectively. They
comprehend the themes, and learn new words in easier ways. This
facilitates for mastering advanced skills in improving of
vocabulary. That is instead of memorizing the meaning of new
words, they assume meaning to them by being cognitively active.
When stories are told, students are hearing them in in a supportive
context which help them comprehend meaning more easily, thus
supporting the finding of Justice, Meier and Walpole (2005). This
is because the students will identify the meaning of words by
recalling the story that the listened. This in turn helps learning the
language more effectively and thinks in Bahasa Malaysia.
References
Abdullah Hassan. (2005). Language planning in Malaysia: The
first hundread years. Retrieved on 14 July, 2014 from
http://journals.cambridge.org/ENG,
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address:
161.139.220.147 on 14 Jul 2014
Egan, K. 1986. Teaching as storytelling: An alternative approach in
teaching and curriculum in the elementary school. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.

995

Ministry of Education (2012). Malaysia Education Blueprint 20132025. Malaysia: Ministry of Education.
Justice, L. M., Meier, J., Walpole. S. (2005), Learning New Words
From Storybooks: An Efficacy Study With At-Risk
Kindergartners. In Language, Speech, and Hearing
Services In Schools. 36: 1732.
Isbell, R. T. (2002). Telling and Retelling Stories: Learning
Language and Literacy. In Young Children (March, 26-30),
Retrieved on 21st July 2014. www.naeyc.org/ycn .
Morrow (2001). Literacy development in the early years: Helping
children read and write. 4th edition. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Nelson, (1989). Storytelling: Language experience for meaning
making. The Reading Teacher 42 (6):386 90.
Norhayati Abd. Mukhti, H. B. Z., Tengku Mohd Tengku Sembok,
Siew Pei Hwa, Zurina Muda,.(2000). A Pedagogical
Approach to Multimedia Courseware Development to
Motivate Reading Habit.IEEE.
Raines,S. & Isbell,R. (1994). Stories: Childrens literature in early
education. Albany, NY: Delmar.
Schank, R.C. (1995). Tell Me A Story: Narrative and Intelligence.
Northwestern Univ. Press, Evanston,Illinois.

996

LESSON STUDY IN MALAYSIA

Wong Wai Yoke & Fatin Aliah Phang

ABSTRACT
Teaching is regarded the most significant activity that influence
student learning, placing teachers professional development at the
central of educational reform issues. Malaysia has advocated
Professional Learning Community (PLC) at school and Lesson
Study (LS) is one of the many strategies to achieve PLC. This
paper aimed at finding out how LS has been investigated in
Malaysian schools, and what are the findings from these studies.
This paper reported that investigation on LS in Malaysia are
conducted as feasibility studies, studying the impact of Lesson LS
on teachers and students, their perception towards LS and LS as a
platform for implementing new teaching and learning innovation.
Studies had found that teachers have strengthened subject and
pedagogical content knowledge, higher collaboration among
teachers, new learning resources using student-centred approaches
and increased interest to learn among students. Main concerns on
implementing LS in Malaysian schools are time constraint and
school administrative support.
Keywords:
Lesson Study, Teacher Professional Development,
Professional Learning Community

INTRODUCTION
Student learning largely depends on teachers instructional practice
where Stigler & Herbert (1999) exerted that teaching is the most
significant activity that influence student learning. While there is
997

continuous reforms in the educational setting, new policies being

put in place, new research findings on teaching approaches and
using technology to enhance teaching and learning process,
teachers despite the number of years in the practice, need to
continuously learn to cope with these constant changes. Stigler &
Herbert (1999) stressed that all education reforms must make its
way to student learning through actual classroom teaching
(teachers practices), thus putting teacher learning the central issue
in educational reform (Lieberman & Mace, 2008; Wallace &
Loughran, 2012). Student-centred learning or contemporary
innovations in education which aims to facilitate students active
learning requires more teacher learning (Vermunt & Endedijk,
2011).
The result of a video study in year 1995 comparing teaching
practices from three countries, the TIMSS has pin-pointed that
teaching is the main reason for student achievement (Stigler &
Herbert, 1999), hence placing teacher professional development the
key component to improve student learning. This is supported by
Postholms (2012) review summarising that teachers developing
their teaching lead to benefits for students learning. In a review of
the impact of professional learning communities (PLCs) on
teaching practices and student learning, Vescio et al. (2008) have
suggested that well-developed PLCs have positive impact on both
teacher teaching practices and student learning.
The Malaysian Ministry of Education has recognised the
importance of teacher professional development in raising
instructional quality and skills. Professional learning community
(PLC) thus have been advocated to achieve this objective. Hord
(2009) has defined PLC as a group of individuals who are
responsible and accountable for giving effective instructional
programmes to students, coming together to interact in meaningful
activities to learn among each other about an identified topic, to
develop shared meaning and identify shared purpose related to the
topic, to enhance their knowledge and skills.
Several strategies to form PLCs in Malaysian schools are

998

recommended, among them are Book Clubs, Study Group, Video

Critiques of Teaching Moments, Learning Walks, Peer Coaching/
Instructional Coaches, Data Analysis and New Teacher Induction/
Mentoring (Halijah, 2014). Lesson Study is one of the many
strategies high-lighted to promote teacher professional
development through the formation of PLC in schools (Halijah,
2014)

TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Teacher professional development refers to teachers learning, their
learning process and the application of their knowledge in practice
to support students learning (Avalos, 2011). Vermunt & Endedijk
(2011) concluded that experienced teachers mainly reported
changes in knowledge and beliefs and in emotions but hardly any
changes in teaching practices. This concurs with the conclusion
drawn by Stigler & Hiebert (1999) that teaching practice is the
central problem in education, thus the emphasis should be on
teaching and what really happens in the classroom.
One of the main focus of educational reform outlined in the
Malaysia Education Development Plan 2013-2025 (Pelan
Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia, PPPM 2013-2025) is on
teachers and their teaching practices. Other than the selection of
potential teacher candidates to enter the training for teacher
profession as well as enhancement on pre-service training, it also
stressed on continuous professional development for in-service
teachers (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2013). The ministry
has planned to increase the percentage of school-based professional
development such as peer observation and teaching plans (lesson
plan) from the current 16%, as previous studies showed that realtime classroom-based practices are more effective than training
programmes conducted outside of the classroom (Kementerian
Pendidikan Malaysia, 2013).

999

This is in line with the findings of Postholm (2012) that

learning in school is the best arena for further development of
teachers (p.405). Avalos (2011) has also concluded that studies on
teacher professional development has moved away from the
traditional in-service teacher training (INSET). INSET in Malaysia
often takes form of teachers attending courses and workshops on
new education innovation, and they are required to train other
teachers when they return to their respective schools (Cheah &
Lim, 2010). While this seems an efficient method to disseminate
new pedagogical knowledge, the issue arises as whether these
newly acquired knowledge is actually transformed into real
classroom practice. However, it must be argued that traditional
INSET or further formal education courses is not to be dismissed
due to these reasons, rather courses that teachers participate in
should be connected to school-based professional development
programme in their schools (Postholm, 2012).
Action Research is one of the more popular on-site
professional development for teachers in Malaysia. Is was first
introduced in 1993 and has been continued to be one of the main
thrust of Ministry of Education Malaysia (MOE) to teacher
promote professional development (Cheah & Lim, 2010).
Although AR has received much attention and promotion at state
and national level achieving some success, it is still not widely
practised by teachers. Cheah & Lim (2010) proposed that Lesson
Study as an alternative approach to strengthen continuous teacher
professional development in Malaysia.
The purpose of this paper is to understand the studies that
have been done on lesson study in Malaysian schools. Hence, this
paper seeks to answer the questions: (i) How has lesson study been
studied/ investigated in Malaysian schools? (ii) What are the
findings of these studies?

1000

LESSON STUDY
Lesson study is a form of school-based teacher professional
development which is conducted in actual classrooms by teachers
(Stigler & Herbert, 1999; Lewis, 2009). Lesson study originated
from Japan and is credited for Japans gradual improvement in
elementary Science and Mathematics education (Lewis, Perry &
Murata, 2006). The term lesson study is a translation of the
Japanese words jugy (lesson) and kenky (research/ study). Jugy
kenky centres on joint study of lessons through observation of
live classroom lessons by a group of teachers who collect data on
teaching and learning and collaboratively analyse it (Lewis et al.,
2006, p.3). It has impact on teacher learning and more important, a
direct impact on student learning. Lesson Study comprises a cycle
of four steps shown in Figure 1.

Share
results

Revise
lesson

1.Study
curriculum &
formulate goals/
define problem
2. Plan research
lesson

4.
Reflect &
document results
3.
Conduct
research lesson &
observation/ data
collection

Figure 1 Lesson study cycle (Stigler & Herbert, 1999; Lewis et al.,
2006)

A Lesson Study cycle often starts by a group of teachers

considering long term goals for student learning and to study the
curriculum to identify topic(s) of interest to be studied. The
teachers would then plan a research lesson collaboratively which

1001

might include the long term goals considered, anticipated student

thinking and response, as well as data collection plan. A teacher
from the group would then conduct the planned research lesson
while other group members will observe and gather evidence of
student learning and happenings during the teaching and learning
session in the classroom. After the research lesson, the teachers
would gather again for a reflection session which includes sharing
and discussing the data collected during the research lesson
observation, using it to illuminate student learning other issues
pertaining to the teaching and learning process, thus improving the
lesson and instruction. The Lesson Study cycle will then be
documented, revision to the research lesson may be made and
raised questions may be forwarded into the subsequent cycles for
better understanding (Stigler & Herbert, 1999; Lewis et al., 2006;
Lewis, 2009). If necessary, a revised research lesson can be taught
by any group member in another class, creating an upward spiral of
continuous understanding of the subject matter, instructional
improvement and issues raised.
Lewis et al. (2006) & Lewis (2009) have grouped the
impact of Lesson Study on teachers into three categories with
several items within each group, as shown in Figure 2.

1002

Teachers
knowledge
Lesson
Study

Knowledge of
subject matter
Knowledge of
instruction
Capacity to
observe
students
Connection of
daily practice
to long term
goals

Teachers
commitment &
community

Learning
resources

Motivation to
improve
Stronger
collegial
connection
Sense of
accountability
to valued
practice
community

Lesson plans
that reveal and
promote
student
thinking
Tools that
support
collegial
learning
during lesson
study

Instructional
improvemen
t

Student
learning

Figure 2
Impact of Lesson Study on teacher professional
development (Lewis et al., 2006; Lewis, 2009)

Lewis et al. (2006) & Lewis (2009) have proposed that these
impacts might be the pathway to instructional improvement.
Using these categories as a conceptual framework, the indings
from Malaysian studies on Lesson Study will be reported. Impact
of Lesson Study on students will also be described along with
challenges teachers faced during the employment of lesson study in
their teaching routine.
As the main focus of this paper is to investigate lesson
studies conducted in the Malaysian context, literature search was
conducted using keywords Lesson Study and Malaysia. Only
investigations on Lesson Study conducted in Malaysia are selected.
Other literature found are used as additional support.

LESSON STUDY IN MALAYSIA

The first reported investigation of Lesson Study in Malaysia was
initiated by researchers from Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM),
Penang in two secondary schools in year 2004 (Lim et al., 2005;
Cheah & Lim, 2010). Following its success in promoting

1003

collaboration among teachers and improving teaching practice, two

lesson study groups were formed in the subsequence year in two
different schools, one primary and one secondary school.
Malaysian Ministry of Education has been implementing
Lesson Study gradually in schools (Zanaton et al., 2014) as one of
the many strategies to form professional learning communities in
school (Halijah, 2014). Johor State Education Department (Jabatan
Pelajaran Negeri Johor, JPNJ) has initiated the Lesson Study
programme with the cooperation with the Johor State Expert
Teacher Council (Majlis Guru Cemerlang Negeri Johor) in year
2011 (Letter from JPNJ dated 1 Jun 2011).
In attempt to answer the questions set forth, findings are
presented in themes, namely research methods employed in the
studies reviewed, impact of lesson study on teachers and students.

Types of investigation on Lesson Study and research methods

employed
Investigation on Pathway leading to instructional improvement
From the literature found, lesson study was studied firstly in
Malaysia as a feasibility study in year 2004 by a group of
researchers in Universiti Sains Malaysia, USM (Chiew & Lim,
2005; Cheah & Lim, 2010). As pointed out by Lewis et al. (2006)
and Lewis (2009), Lesson Study can improve teachers
instructional practice through three paths, namely teachers
knowledge, teachers commitment and learning resources. Chiew
& Lim (2005) had conducted a study to investigate the effect of
Lesson Study on Mathematics teachers content knowledge and
teaching practices (teachers knowledge). Similarly, Ong et al.
(2010) had examined the changes of questioning techniques among
novice and experienced teachers who underwent Lesson Study
process (teachers knowledge).

1004

Investigation on teachers perception

Muzirah & Nurhana (2013) had set forth to investigate teachers
perception towards the effectiveness of teachers teaching and
students learning through Lesson Study as a teacher professional
development programme. Similarly, Matanluk et al. (2013) had
also explored the perception of teachers and students towards
Lesson Study implemented in a rural school as a pilot study.

Investigation on Lesson Study as a platform for teaching and

learning innovation
Other studies conducted includes using Lesson Study as a platform
to introduce new teaching and learning innovation to teachers at
school. Kor & Lim (2009) has examine the effect of Lesson Study
on teachers learning to use a new innovative way, Geometry
Sketchpad (GSP) to teach mathematics. While Zanaton et al.
(2014) has incorporate the concept of Lesson Study in the
implementation of Macro Teaching course of pre-service
Chemistry teachers.
Data from studies on Lesson Study found in Malaysia are
collected through classroom observation, interview (teachers and
students), lesson plans, self-reflection journal writings (Chiew &
Lim, 2005; Ong et al., 2010), journals, filed notes, audio-taped
teachers discussions and video-taped classroom observation
(Chiew & Lim,2005). Several other instruments were used to
measure specific outcomes such as questioning technique in Kor &
Lims (2009) study, as well as questionnaires on measuring
perception of teachers and students towards the implementation of
Lesson Study (Matanluk et al., 2013; Muzirah & Nurhana, 2013).

1005

Impact on Teachers
The impact of Lesson Study on teachers found in the literature of
Lesson Study in Malaysia is categorised by employing Lewis et al.
(2006) and Lewiss (2009) Pathway to instructional improvement
model.

Teacher Knowledge
Cheah & Lim (2010) have found that lesson study has enhanced
teachers mathematical and pedagogical content knowledge and
helped teachers to better prepare student-centred learning activities.
This is similar to findings from international studies (Lewis et al.,
2004; Ylonen & Norwich, 2013).
Teachers questioning technique have also improved
through Lesson Study cycles (Ong et al., 2010). Lim et al. (2005)
found that teachers gained and enhanced subject knowledge and
pedagogical knowledge, and such knowledge among teachers is
shared through peer observation. Findings from Ong et al.s (2010)
study showed that experienced teachers move away from routine
factual questions to probe students thinking.
Chiew & Lim (2005) reported that teachers learned about a
new method to conduct factorization which is not familiar for
them, but they found might be easier for students to comprehend
(common factor method compare to the previously used cross
method). Through discussion of this method, teachers has gain
deeper conceptual knowledge. Other than that, teachers have tried
to employ cooperative learning strategy in their lesson, which was
previously thought to be a waste of time.
Not only that teachers have strengthened their existing
content and pedagogical knowledge, Kor & Lim (2009) has
reported that teachers show more confidence and enthusiasm in
learning to teach using a new approach, which is using the
Geometry Sketchpad (GSP). This is in line with a case study in

1006

Singapore school that lesson study is a viable approach to help

teachers coping with changes in new curriculum in Singapore (Tan
& Nashon, 2013).
Teachers Commitment and Community
Studies found that lesson study has positively promoted
collaborative culture among participating teachers (Lim et al.,
2005; Cheah & Lim, 2010). Kor & Lim (2009) elaborated that
teachers shared the opinion that collaboration and peer support in
lesson study is very much appreciated, especially when facing
problems in planning lessons using new approach. Cheah & Lim
(2010) further discussed that it is through teacher discussion,
teachers share knowledge, exchange ideas and learn new
techniques for teaching. They also reported that teachers realised
the importance and the need for themselves to learn more about
mathematical process in the classroom.Other than that, Lim et al.
(2005) reported that teachers feels more and more comfortable
with peer observation as they realise the focus is on students and
not teachers.

Learning Resources
Kor & Lim (2009) found that teachers are able to generate new
learning materials to replace the typical lesson they have always
conducted. In Chiew & Lims (2005) study, the Lesson Study
group had produced a detailed 80-minutes lesson plan to teach
about factorization which includes a cooperative learning
strategy for group discussion. Lim et al. (2005) concluded that the
learning resources are enriched with hands-on and practical
activities compared to the usual chalk and talk sessions.

1007

Impact on Students
Although there are no studies reporting summative evaluation on
the performance of students taught by teachers undergoing Lesson
Study cycle, Kor & Lim (2009) through their interviews with
students about their perception towards GSP incorporated lessons,
students showed more interests in mathematics and have more
confidence in their mathematics learning. Similarly, Matanluk et
al. (2013) found through questionnaire survey that students
participation in learning activities in classroom has increased
through the implementation of Lesson Study. Students think that
teaching is more attractive compared to previous lessons and easier
to understand.

Teachers and Student Perception

The findings from Matanluk et al. (2013) showed that teachers and
students have positive perception towards the implementation of
Lesson Study. Teachers agreed that Lesson Study can improve
pedagogical skills, is the best strategy for teachers to know
students comprehension, Lesson study can increase content
knowledge and can be used to enhance collaboration and
cooperation among teachers. It provides a new perspective in the
context of pedagogy among teachers. Similarly, Kor & Lim (2009)
also found that students perceived positively towards a new
innovation learning environment (using GSP) where they retain the
knowledge learned and did not find the topic difficult to
understand.

SUMMARY
This article has discussed about how Lesson Study is being studied
in Malaysia, and the impact of Lesson Study on teachers

1008

professional development, namely on teachers knowledge,

teachers commitment and community, and learning resources.
Although it was found that Lesson Study is indeed feasible to be
implemented in Malaysia, several concerns have been raised. The
main challenge reported are time constraint, the need of support
from school administration and teachers attitude and commitment
(Lim et al., 2005; Kor & Lim, 2009; Cheah & Lim, 2010). Similar
concerns were raised by studies in Singapore, Japan and US (Lu &
Lee, 2012; Saito, 2012). This concern is much more stressed in the
Malaysian context as Muzirah & Nurhana (2013) have found that
71% of their survey respondents (teachers from schools in Klang
Valley) involved in conducting Lesson Study in schools are due to
directive from school management.
Lesson Study was first brought to the worlds attention as a
result of video study on the teaching of Mathematics (Stigler &
Hiebert, 1999), and was firstly introduced in Malaysian school for
improving Mathematics instructional practice (Chiew & Lim,
2005; Lim et al., 2005; Kor & Lim, 2009; Ong et al., 2010). It was
also introduced at pre-service teacher training majoring in
Chemistry (Zanaton et al., 2014). In the international platform,
Lesson Study was implemented in several other school subjects
such as Biology (Tan & Nashon, 2013), Science (Tan, 2014) and
English for students with moderate learning difficulties (Ylonen &
Norwich, 2013). However, Lesson study specifically on Physics
has not been reported

CONCLUSION
In-service teachers need continuous improvement to cope with new
policies, innovation and research findings, but the current system
in place (INSET trainings and workshops) (Cheah & Lim, 2010) is
unable to support teachers bringing new innovation and
programme to the classroom, assessing themselves and evaluating
the programme, as well as contributing to the existing knowledge

1009

in actual classroom teaching. Although investigations on lesson

study across the globe has repeatedly reported success of lesson
study in instructional improvement, Lewis et al. (2006) have
cautioned that the specific processes that make lesson study work
are only beginning to be understood, hence it is critical to identify
these tools and processes that make lesson study effective.
As reported lesson studies conducted in Malaysia are
mostly on mathematics, and a typical a lesson study group consists
of four to six teachers. However, given the small numbers of
students enroll in Physics subject, typically a school will consist of
two to three physics teachers. Although it was suggested by Lim et
al. (2005) that smaller group (3 to 4 teachers) allows for better
flexibility, whether lesson study is workable with such small group
is yet to be determined. A study among Physics teachers would
shed some light on the implementation of lesson study in elective
subjects. Seeing MOEs effort in pushing forward professional
learning community (PLC) in Malaysian schools, the need for more
studies on Lesson Study comes in timely.

REFERENCES
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and Teacher Education over ten years. Teaching and
Teacher Education. 27(1), 10-20.
Cheah, U. H. and Lim, C. S. (2010). Disseminating and
popularising lesson study in Malaysia and Southeast Asia.
APEID Hiroshima Seminar Current Status and Issues on
Lesson Study in Asia and the Pacific Regions. 18-21
January. Hiroshima University, 1-9.
Chiew, C. M. & Lim, C. S. (2005). Using lesson study process to
enhance mathematics teachers content knowledge and
teaching practices. International Conference on Science
and Mathematics Education (CoSMED). 6-8 December.
SEAMEO RECSAM, Penang.

1010

Halijah binti Ariffin (2014). Komuniti Pembelajaran Profesional

(Professional Learning Community PLC). JAUHARI. 6,
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Hord, S. M. (2009). Professional learning communities. Journal of
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Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (2013). Pelan Pembangunan
Pendidikan Malaysia 2013-2025. Putrajaya: Kementerian
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Lewis, C. (2002). What are the essential elements of lesson study.
The California Science Project Connection. 2(6), 1-4.
Lewis, C. (2009). What is the nature of knowledge development in
lesson study? Educational Action Research. 17(1), 95-110.
Lewis, C., Perry, R. & Murata, A. (2006). How should research
contribute to instructional improvement? The case of lesson
study. Educational Researcher. 35(3), 3-14
Lieberman, A. & Mace, D. H. P. (2008). Teacher learning: The key
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Lim, C. S, White, A., & Chiew, C. M. (2005). Promoting
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What Can We Learn from Two Countries Experience.
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Education". 25 Nov 1 Dec. Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia, Johor Bahru, 135-139.
Lu, P. C. & Lee, P. Y. (2012). A Singapore Case of Lesson Study.
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Muzirah Ab Mokhti & Nurhana Mohamad Rafiuddin (2013).

Persepsi guru sains yang mengamalkan lesson study
sebagai program pembangunan professional guru terhadap
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the Global Summit on Education 2013. 11-12 March. Kuala
Lumpur, 516-534.
Ong, E. G., Lim, C. S. & Munirah Ghazali (2010). Examining the
changes in novice and experienced mathematics teachers
questioning techniques through the lesson study process.
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Southeast Asia. 33(1), 86-109.
Postholm, M. B. (2012). Teachers professional development: a
theoretical review. Educational Research. 54(4), 405-429.
Saito, E. (2012). Key issues of lesson study in Japan and the
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Stigler, J. W. & Herbert, J. (1999). The teaching gap: Best ideas
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classroom. New York: Free Press.
Tan, Y. S. M. (2014). A researcher-facilitator's reflection:
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Learning and individual differences. 21(3), 294-302.
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Teacher Education. 24(1), 80-91.
Wallace, J. & Loughran, J. (2012). Science teacher learning. In
Fraser, B. J., Tobin, K. & McRobbie, C. J. (Eds.) Second
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1012

Ylonen, A. & Norwich, B. (2013). Professional learning of

teachers through a lesson study process in England:
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Zanaton Hj Iksan, Siti Nor Aishah Mohd Nor, Zanaton Hj Iksan,
Siti Nordiyana Mahmud & Effandi Zakaria, (2014).
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1013

A REVIEW ON CAREER
DECISION-MAKING AND
FACTOR OF CAREER PATHWAY
IN SCHOOL
Mohamed Alfian Harris Bin Omar & Syed Mohamed Shafeq B
Syed Mansor

ABSTRACT
A person who has a career almost definitely has one or more stable
jobs in their life, but a person who has a job may not necessarily
have a career. The following are some of the differences that can
help you tell between a job and career. A career involves planning,
having milestones to overcome and goals to achieve. There is a lot
of development happening at the start, in the middle or nearing the
peak of career, whereas in a job, your first day and your last day is
pretty much the same. It is also easier to find a replacement for you
when you leave. We aimed to systematically review studies that
examine factors of career pathway, especially in the school. There
are many factors that can cause humans to be ambitious. Besides,
we emphasized the identifying skills and weighing values career
decision-making in school. There were at least 38 articles reviewed.
The related journal articles on career decision-making were
downloaded with cut off limit from 2003 to 2014. The articles were
then analyzed and organized according to the definitions of career
decision-making at school, various factor of career pathway in
school and the effectiveness of school-based identifying skills and
weighing values career programs. Finally, with conclusion we then
suggest for future career development study.

1014

Keywords: Career Decision-Making, Career Pathway,Weighing

Value

INTRODUCTION
Schools are a place of information that growth for most youth.
Careers are built by perception for future job.
Career decision-making is a process where an individual
needs to identify his personality, tendencies and abilities that he or
she has.
Previous research on individual differences in career
decision-making processes has often focused on classifying
individuals into a few types of decision-making styles based on the
most dominant trait or characteristic of their approach to the
decision process (e.g., rational, intuitive, dependent) (Gati et al.
2010)
Sidek Mohd Noah (1998) claimed the difficulty for the
teenagers to make career decision-making is barely on incapability
to have some interest in the field joined, lack of personal qualities
over certain career and lack of information about the career they
choose.
A model of decision-making is suggested as a potential tool
for assisting people in the process of career decision-making. The
model is based on the subjective meaning of the values involved in
the decision.(Zakay & Barak, 1984)
This article explores the factors influencing high school
students' career aspirations with a study analyzing 141 high school
students. The Social Cognitive Career Development Model was
utilized to examine the interactive relationships among learning
experiences, career self-efficacy, outcome expectations, career
interests, and career choices. The results of a structural equation
modeling analysis supported the mediating role of career selfefficacy in the career decision-making process, but the specific
paths among the predicting variables to career aspirations were

1015

found to be different for female and male high school

students.(Tang, Pan, & Newmeyer, 2008)
The purpose of this study was to examine the role of career
barriers in social cognitive career theory (R. W. Lent, S. D. Brown,
& G. Hackett, 1994). The participants were 584 high school
students in Taiwan, Republic of China. The gender differences in
perceived career barriers and career self-efficacy were significant.
Results of hierarchical regression analyses indicated that some of
the perceived career barriers were significant in predicting
individuals' career choice behavior after controlling for career selfefficacy in certain career types.(Tien, Wang, & Liu, 2009)
According to Vignoli, Croity-Belz, Chapeland, de Fillipis,
& Garcia, (2005), the aim of the study was to examine the role of
parent-adolescent attachment, adolescent anxiety and parenting
style in the career exploration process and in career satisfaction.
Three kinds of anxiety were considered: general trait anxiety, fear
of failing in one's career and fear of disappointing one's parents.
The participants were 283 French high school students on the
threshold of one of the most important school transitions. The
results varied by gender. For girls, general anxiety and neglectful
style were negatively related to career exploration; secure
attachment and fear of failing were positively related to it. For
boys, fear of disappointing parents was positively related to career
exploration. Attachment to parents, authoritative style, general
anxiety, and fear of failing were related to some career exploration
satisfaction scores, though differently for boys and girls.
We find education, health care, and engineering careers to
have relatively safe streams of labor income; business, sales, and
entertainment careers are more risky. By choosing a college major,
many students make a costly human capital investment that allows
them to enter a specific career.(Saks & Shore, 2005)
The present study aims to examine the relationship of
career decision-making difficulties, dysfunctional career thoughts
and generalized self-efficacy, as factors involved in the decisionmaking process for university students. The study also investigates

1016

the influence of demographics and individual variables, and

examines the predictive power of the Career Decision-making
Difficulties Questionnaire (CDDQ) and the Generalized SelfEfficacy Scale (GSE) over the dimensions assessed by the Career
Thoughts Inventory (CTI). The results revealed statistically
significant positive correlations between CDDQ factors (lack of
information, inconsistent information, and lack of readiness) and
total grade in Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI), decision-making
confusion, commitment difficulty and lack of determination. On
the other hand, the results show statistically significant negative
correlations between all the aforementioned variables and
generalized self-efficacy.(Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, Mylonas,
Argyropoulou, & Tampouri, 2012)
Career decision-making is essential in making sure that the
career choose suits a person. Most of the students may make their
decision without rational cognitive choosing one that suits their
personality, interest and ability.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Material
There were at least 38 articles reviewed. Of 38 articles there were
20 articles on career decision-making in the school. The articles
were empirical and meta-analysis review on the career pathway in
the school and identifying skills and weighing values in school.

Procedure
The articles were mainly downloaded using University Teknologi
Malaysia subscribed data based. Science Direct was the frequently
used. In addition, Google scholar was also employed. The related

1017

journal articles on career decision-making and career pathway in

school downloaded with cut off limit from 2003 to 2014 only. The
downloaded articles were then summarized and organized in the
following sections.

RESULT
First, the downloaded articles were analyzed on definition of career
decision-making in school. Second, they were on various factor of
career pathway in school. Third on identifying skills and weighing
values.

Definitions of career decision-making in school

Encyclopedia Social Sciences (1972), defined career as a
continuous activity carried out by someone to achieve certain target
and personal satisfaction for a higher social status.
Harris- Bowlsbey, Spivak and Lisansky (1983) claimed
three basic steps in career pathway is to get information about
oneself, which includes ones value, talent and decision making.
Understand on the environment where one lives, including
stereotypes over the career and information on the career as well as
integrate information between the world of career and oneself.
Career pathway is a continuous process of development that
happens.
Sidek (2003), claimed career decision making includes
three factors which includes genetic background. Genetic
background gives influence on the interest, talent and individual
personality. Psychic energy deter the career that suits a person as
the silhouette of the childrens happiness and frustration
overshadowing their career decision-making.
Knowing the ability of oneself is important so that the work
choose is within their cup of tea. Many times people may choose

1018

their career without having any thoughts in their mind of their

ability which in the end, the career will becoming a burden to them
(Hairunaja, 2006).

Factor of career pathway

Oxford Collocations dictionary (2013), the word career carries
the meaning of a series of jobs that a person has. Pathway in the
other hands, means a way to across land and a way to achieve
something.
The lack of readiness subfactor was used to account for
those career decision-making difficulties that precede engagement
in the career decision- making process. Gati, Krausz, and Osipow
(1996) identified three theoretical categories of career decisionmaking difficulties that they believed contributed to a lack of
readiness to begin the career decision-making process. These three
categories were: (1) a lack of motivation on the part of the
individual to begin career decision-making, (2) a general
indecisiveness that permeates all types of decision-making for the
individual, and (3) various beliefs in dysfunctional career decisionmaking myths (e.g., career decisions are best made by experts).
The lack of information and inconsistent information
subfactors were used to account for those career decision-making
difficulties that occur during the process of career decision-making.
The lack of information subfactor was divided into four additional
categories of career decision-making difficulties: (4) lack of
information about the career decision-making process (i.e., not
knowing how to make a career decision); (5) lack of information
about the self (e.g., not having knowledge about capabilities,
personality traits, or interests); (6) lack of information about
occupations (e.g., not understanding what work is involved in
specific occupations and not knowing about the wide range of
occupational options available); and (7) lack of information about
ways of obtaining career information (i.e., confusion about how to

1019

begin researching vocational options).

The inconsistent information sub- factor was divided into
three categories of career decision-making difficulties: (8)
inconsistent information due to unreliable information (i.e.,
difficulties related to unreliable or fuzzy information); (9)
inconsistent information due to internal conflicts (e.g., difficulties
related to the evolving personal identity of the individual); and (10)
inconsistent information due to external conflicts (e.g., conflicts
involving significant others). (Morgan & Ness, 2003)
Zaini (2004) claimed, in performing works, human
intervene is obvious since human has their own working culture
which includes technology and the aim of the organization. Career
till be more meaningful for those who has experience, skill and
talent.
Identifying skills and weighing values.
The task of narrowing down option can be intimidating for the
unsure. A good placeby looking at existing skill set and comparing
it to the requirements for the jobs that appeal:
1. Fundamental skills
Comprising essential proficiencies such as reading, mathematics,
comprehension and thinking, fundamental skills are the foundation
for all careers and are transferable to any job. Keep sharpening and
tweaking them as you grow in your career.
2.Soft Skills
The skills that will help to build and maintain a healthy relationship
with your colleagues, supervisors and clients. Many employers use
this in reference to communication (both verbal and written) and
interpersonal skills. However it also encompasses a wide range of

1020

transferable skills such as analytical, cooperation, delegation,

dependability, flexibility, listening, management, leadership, public
speaking and team work skills.
3.Personality Traits
These refer to innate characteristics that define who we are.
Everyone posses a combination of strengths and flaws that make
him or her unique. Though similar to soft skills, the desirability of
various traits tends to be more subjective and often depends on the
company you are working for, the nature of job and the work style
of your direct supervisors. It is important to identify and accentuate
your positive traits while downplaying and unlearning the bad.
Examples of attractive qualities include ambitiousness, creativity,
confidence, honesty, open-mindedness and patience.
4.Work-related skills
The ability to perform well is a key motivating factor at work.
Certain jobs require specific qualifications and technical
knowledge in order to gain employment (e.g accountant, engineer,
pilot, dentist etc). On the other hand, there are other jobs that call
for a strong foundation in a number of fundamental and
transferable skills, and the ability to pick up specialized skills on
the job (e.g advertising, public relations, sales, marketing etc). In
some industries, extensive training is usually provided and it might
be more advantageousfor you to take up an apprenticeship or
intership position to get your foot in the door.
There are two lists of values that people generally fall back
on when deciding on a job. First, the important values for job
search such as work location, job salary, benefits, function and
roles, promotional opportunities, working environments and worklife balance. Income and work-hours were the only control
variables to generate p-values below 0.001. Income was positively
associated with satisfaction. Since we controlled for hours-workedper-week, this suggested a strong positive association between
1021

hourly wage and satisfaction. The two work hour categories for
more than 50 hours per- week were strongly negative in their
associations with satisfaction.(Leigh, Tancredi, & Kravitz, 2009)
Second, the important values for personal satisfaction such
as acknowledgement / credit, adventure / challenges, security and
stability, noble purpose, decision making roles, continuous
development and personal values / causes. Nearly 650 employees
were surveyed in a public sector agency and results indicated that
only a few of the previously identified factors (career-expectations,development, - encouragement; culture fit; mentoring;
relationships; demographics) were significant predictors of career
success in this public sector sample. There were gender differences,
however. Interestingly, the previously identified factors had
stronger predictive relationships to satisfaction with career success
than with the level of success.(Bradley, Brown, & Dower, 2009)
According to (Dietz, 2003), Six criteria for evaluating
environmental decisions are suggested: human and environmental
well-being, competence about facts and values, fairness in process
and outcome, a reliance on human strengths rather than
weaknesses, the opportunity to learn and efficiency.
According to Ballout (2009), white-collar employees from a
diverse set of occupations and organizations in Malaysia were
surveyed. Moderated multiple regression results showed that career
commitment predicted objective career success (i.e. salary level)
only for employees with average to high emotion perception but
not for those with low emotion perception. Emotion perception,
however, did not moderate the effects of career commitment on
subjective career success (i.e. career satisfaction).

CONCLUSION
In conclude, career decision-making is part of the most big
decisions are often the scariest and most difficult once to make. Its
no surprise that may be tempted to postpone choosing a career to

1022

the last minute or let the winds of fate dictate where will to go.
Career decision-making involve skills to guarantee a
successful path of a person. Leadership and communication skills
are some of the basic requirement.
A successfulness in academic doesnt guarantee a
successfulness in the career they choose. An individual success
may depend on their attitude, skills and knowledge. These
properties should be nurtured to the students as they may need it to
propels their way into the career world someday in the future.

SUGGESTION
The first step is to make the career decision-making start begin to
create new programs such as guide to choose a career with school
counselors in school .
Career is about future job that student must believe
someday they will be at the career it self; early information at
school can help student to understand what career do they have in
the future according to their streams. Schools can promote a
supportive environment where career pathway can be post along
the school corridor to give specific information to the students.
Government and non-government office, agencies, school
advisors, and counselors should work together to create an
environment for student to built career decision-making and career
pathway plan that is broad in its aims and perspectives.
In doing so, we can help develop a fundamental career
decision makers school environment. It is hoped that an explicit
discussion of the appropriate criteria for environmental decisions
will lead to better conceptualizations, better tools and ultimately
better decisions.
Acknowledgments:
I would like to thank UTM library and our lecturer PM. Dr.
Mohamed Syed Syafeq bin Syed Mansur.

1023

Table 1. A Summary on Career Decision-Making and Factor of Career

Pathway in School
N
O

Authour
(Year)

Ballout, H. I.
(2009).

Belfield, C.
(2002).

Bradley, L.,
Brown, K., &
Dower, J.
(2009).
Dietz, T.
(2003).

Gati, I. et al.,
2010.
Grier-Reed, T.,
Appleton, J.,
Rodriguez, M.,
Ganuza, Z., &
Reschly, A. L.
(2012)
Gushue, G. V.,
& Whitson, M.
L. (2006)

Source

Type of
Articles

Career
Pathway in
school

Findin
gs

Career
Developme
nt
Internationa
l
High School
Career
Academies. A
Pathway to
Educational
Reform in Urban
School Districts?
Review.
Internationa
l Journal of
Emerging
Sciences
Human
Ecology
Review.

Empiri
cal

Career
development

Support

Empirical

CareerAcademic

Support

Empiri
cal

Public sector

Support

Empiri
cal

Career
criteria

Support

Empiri
cal

Career
decisionmaking
Career
perception

Support

Career
development

Support

Journal of
Vocational
Behavior
Journal of
Educational
and
Developme
ntal
Psychology
Journal of Career
Development.

1024

Empiri
cal

Empirical

Support

10

11

12

13

14

15

Leigh, J. P.,
Tancredi, D. J.,
& Kravitz, R. L.
(2009)
Mei TangWei
PanNewmeyer,
M. D. (2008).
Morgan, T., &
Ness, D. (2003)

Noeth, R. J.,
Engen, H. B., &
Noeth, P. E.
(1984)
Rowland, K. D.
(2004)

Saks, R. E., &

Shore, S. H.
(2005).
SidiropoulouDimakakou, D.,
Mylonas, K.,
Argyropoulou,
K., &
Tampouri, S.
(2012)
Spenner, K. I.,
Brown, D., &
Brooks, L.
(1986).

BMC
Health
Services
Research
Professional
School
Counseling

Empiri
cal

Career
satisfaction

Support

Empirical

Career
aspirations

Support

Empiri
cal

Career
decisionmaking

Support

Empirical

Career
decisionmaking

Support

Empirical

Career
development

Support

Risk and
Career
Choice

Empiri
cal

Decisionmaking

Support

World
Journal of
Education.

Empiri
cal

Career
decisionmaking

Support

Empirical

Career choice

Support

Canadian
Journal of
Career
Developme
nt
Vocational
Guidance
Quarterly
Journal of Career
Development

Career Choice
and
Development.

1025

16

17

18

19
20

Tang, M., Pan,

W., &
Newmeyer, M.
D. (2008).
Tien, H. S.,
Wang, Y., &
Liu, L. (2009)
Vignoli, CroityBelz,
Chapeland, de
Fillipis, &
Garcia, (2005),
Zaini Hussein
(2004)
Zakay, D., &
Barak, A.
(1984)

Factors
influencing high
school students
career aspirations.

Empiri
cal

Career
aspiration

Support

The Career
Development
Quarterly

Empiri
cal

Career
development

Support

Planning Career
Paths for Ph.D.s.
Science.

Empiri
cal

Career path

Support

Bakat & Kerjaya

Di Tempat Kerja

Empiri
cal

Career skills

Support

Journal of
Vocational
Behavior

Empiri
cal

Career
decisionmaking

Support

REFERENCES
A.C., 2003. Bullying in schools and exposure to domestic violence.
Child Abuse and Neglect, 27, pp.713732.
Ballout, H. I. (2009). Career commitment and career success:
moderating role of self-efficacy. Career Development
International. doi:10.1108/13620430911005708
Bradley, L., Brown, K., & Dower, J. (2009). Career progression in
the public sector: gender differences in career success.
International Journal of Emerging Sciences, 17, 102135.
Dietz, T. (2003). What is a good decision? Criteria for
environmental decision making. Human Ecology Review.

1026

Gati, I. et al., 2010. From career decision-making styles to career

decision-making profiles: A multidimensional approach.
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 76, pp.277291.
Grier-Reed, T., Appleton, J., Rodriguez, M., Ganuza, Z., &
Reschly, A. L. (2012). Exploring the Student Engagement
Instrument and Career Perceptions with College Students.
Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology.
doi:10.5539/jedp.v2n2p85
Hairunnaja, N (2006). Membimbing Remaja Memilih Pendidikan
& Kerjaya: PTS Profesional
Leigh, J. P., Tancredi, D. J., & Kravitz, R. L. (2009). Physician
career satisfaction within specialties. BMC Health Services
Research, 9, 166. doi:10.1186/1472-6963-9-166
Morgan, T., & Ness, D. (2003). Career decision-making difficulties
of first-year students. Canadian Journal of Career
Development,
2,
3339.
Retrieved
from
http://www.ceric.ca/cjcd/node/5#2002
Saks, R. E., & Shore, S. H. (2005). Risk and Career Choice.
Advances in Economic Analysis & Policy. doi:10.2202/15380637.1414
Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, D., Mylonas, K., Argyropoulou, K., &
Tampouri, S. (2012). Career Decision-making Difficulties,
Dysfunctional Thinking and Generalized Self-Efficacy of
University Students in Greece. World Journal of Education.
doi:10.5430/wje.v2n1p117
Tang, M., Pan, W., & Newmeyer, M. D. (2008). Factors
influencing high school students career aspirations.
Professional
School
Counseling,
11,
285295.
doi:10.5330/PSC.n.2010-11.285
Tien, H. S., Wang, Y., & Liu, L. (2009). The role of career barriers
in high school students career choice behavior in Taiwan.
The Career Development Quarterly, 57, 274288.
doi:10.1002/j.2161-0045.2009.tb00112.x
Vignoli, Croity-Belz, Chapeland, de Fillipis, & Garcia, (2005),
Austin, J., & Alberts, B. (2012). Planning Career Paths for

1027

Ph.D.s. Science. doi:10.1126/science.1226552

Vignoli, E., Croity-Belz, S., Chapeland, V., de Fillipis, A., &
Garcia, M. (2005). Career exploration in adolescents: The role
of anxiety, attachment, and parenting style. Journal of
Vocational
Behavior,
67,
153168.
doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2004.08.006
Zaini Hussein (2004). Bakat & Kerjaya Di Tempat Kerja: PTS
Publication
Zakay, D., & Barak, A. (1984). Meaning and career decisionmaking. Journal of Vocational Behavior. doi:10.1016/00018791(84)90062-9

1028

READING HABITS AMONG

ADOLESCENCE :
A CONCEPT PAPER
Nur Aida binti Alias & Azlina Mohd Kosnin

ABSTRACT
In this article, the author presents a review on previous researches
about reading habits, the relationship with academic achievement
and social economic background, factors that influenced their
reading habits and gender differences which are mostly discussed.
It also covers the problems which had been identified and
suggestions to overcome it. This article will introduce an intrinsic
reading motivation to students in order to increase their reading
habit. This research will be proposed to be conducted in Malaysian
context. The sample will be Malaysian students from aged 13 to
17. The methods that will be use are adapted reading motivation
questionnaire and interview. The expected result is to identify
whether intrinsic motivation is able to increase reading habit
among adolescence.
Keyword: Reading habit

1.1

INTRODUCTION

It is well known that in order to engage in the learning process,

someone needs to acquire certain important skills like writing and
reading. Reading is an action of a person who is able to understand

1029

the meaning of written or printed words or symbols. This action

will help the person to gain some information or knowledge. This
is where the learning process takes place.
There are many importance of reading. Reading can help us
in self improvement. We also can gain new experiences from other
people. It is also one of tools in communicating. The most
important thing in reading is we can boost our creativity and
imaginary. Reading will help the reader to explore new things and
sometimes the topics covered are beyond our normal ideas.

1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

The most frequently conducted research in reading is to identify the
gender differences in reading habits. The researchers are also
identified the relationship between reading habits and students
academic achievement, their social-economic background and
factors that influenced their reading habits.
In 2013, the UKs largest reading charity, Booktrust had
conducted a survey of reading habits and attitudes to books
amongst adults in England. From this research, it showed that there
is a significant link between reading history, reading habits and
reading attitudes. Respondents whose parents encouraged them to
read will read more when they grow up as adults. Similarly, those
who enjoyed reading at school read more books now than those
who did not. In addition, 89% of respondents whose parents read to
them as children will read regularly to their own children. From
this result, it showed that encouragement, motivation and good
experience had big influence to cultivate good reading habits.
Another research which had been conducted by Sarah,
Roger and Amy (2012) had showed that childrens intrinsic reading
motivation and reading efficacy correlated with their reading skills
whereas their extrinsic reading motivation did not.
Based on the previous researches, reading habits has
correlated with intrinsic motivation and this theory will be
proposed in the upcoming research, especially in Malaysian

1030

context.

1.2.1

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Based on Result Pyramid which is proposed by Roger Connors and

Tom Simth(2011) in their book Change the Cultiure,Change the
Game, the researcher would like to propose an idea on how to use
intrinsic motivation to our readers according to Malaysian context.

1031

LOW READING HABITS

RESU
LTS

ACTIONS
-NOT READING

BELIEFS
-NO TIME
- NOT RELEVANT
- BORED
EXPERIENCES
-BUSY
- TECHNOLOGY
-READING NEED A SPECIFIC TIME

Existing State

1032

- HIGHER READING HABITS

RESU
LTS

ACTIONS
-READING

BELIEFS
-FIND SOME TIME
- STILL RELEVANT
- EXCITING
EXPERIENCES
-BETTER TIME MANAGEMENT
- USE TECHNOLOGY CORRECTLY
-READING CAN BE ANYWHERE

DESIRED STATE
(AFTER INTRODUCING INTRINSIC MOTIVATION)

1033

1.4

METHODS AND SAMPLING

The methods that will be use in conducting this research are

adapted reading motivation questionnaire and interview. The
sample will be Malaysian students from aged 13 to 17.
The expected result is to identify whether intrinsic
motivation is able to increase reading habit among adolescence or
not.

REFERENCES
Alasdair Gleed. 2013. Booktrust Reading Habits Survey 2013, A
National Survey of Reading Habits and Attitudes to Books
Amongst Adults in England, UK : DJS Research Limited
Ana Taboada & Michelle M.Buehl. 2012. Teachers Conceptions
of Reading Comprehension and Motivation to Read,
Teachers and Teaching,Theory and Practice, 18:1,101-122
Connors, R. and Smith,T. 2011. Change The Culture Change The
Game. USA: Penguin Group
Maya Sugita & Osamu Takeuchi. 2010. What Can Teachers Do To
Motivate Their Students? A Classroom Research on
Motivational Strategy Use In the Japanese EFL Context,
Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 4:1,21-35
Sarah P.McGeown, Roger Norgate & Amy Warhurst. 2012.
Exploring Intrinsic and Extrinsic Reading Motivation
Among Very Good and Very Poor Readers, Educational
Research, 54:3, 309-322
Subashini Annamalai & Balakrishnan Muniandy. 2013. Reading
Habit and Attitude among Malaysian Polytechnic Students,
International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 2013,
5(1), 32-41

1034

EFFECT OF NEUROFEEDBACK
TREATMENT: A CASE STUDY IN
MILD AUTISM SPCETRUM
DISORDER
Wong Siao Yen & Yeo Kee Jiar

ABSTRACT
Autism is a global issue that has been highly studied and
researched, however until today there is no known best method to
improve both their social and engagement abilities. Since Autism
is not a disease, thus no single treatment will work the best. The
best treatment will always be the one that is able to meet all the
areas of need for the individual. This paper aims at identifying the
outcome of Neurofeedback Therapy that can be produced for a 7year-old child, Richard whom has been diagnosed as mild autism
spectrum disorder (ASD) by psychologist displayed a number of
spectrum disorders including repetitive movement, language delay,
poor socialization, poor eye contact, high activity level, poor toilet
training and he exhibited impulsivity and high activity level. He
has been rejected by many educational institutions and just when
the family was able to give up hope, her mother identify
Neurofeedback as one of the last resorts to improve him. After 16
sessions, Richard has been noted with several positive changes in
most of the diagnostic dimensions defining autism in DSM-IV.
Keywords: Neurofeedback, Autism, DSM, Social Skill, Eye
Contact, Toilet Training, Language Delayed, ASD, Therapy

1035

INTRODUCTION
Autism is a neurological disorder characterized by a lack of
appropriate eye contact, facial expression, social interaction,
communication, and restricted repetitive behavior. Autism
Spectrum Disorder represents a group of disorders, including
Autism, PDD-NOS, Retts Disorder, Child Disintegrative Disorder
and Aspergers Disorder (American Psychiatric Association,
1994).
According to DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000), qualitative
impairments in social interaction is one of the defining
characteristics for the diagnosis of Autistic Disorder. Social
impairments can include: lack of use of nonverbal behaviors such
as eye gaze, gestures, body postures and facial expressions; lack of
social-emotional reciprocity; impairment in expression of pleasure
in the happiness of others; and a lack of interaction with peers,
including an absence of symbolic or imaginative play activities
(APA, 2000). This core impairment has led some to identify social
deficits as the heart of Autism Spectrum Disorders (Gutstein,
2005).
The subject of this case study is a 9-year-old boy whom has
been previously diagnosed as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).
According to his parent, Richard has reached most of the
developmental milestones at his appropriate age level, however he
was reported to have speech delay and learning difficulties but no
medical conditions or issues with sight and hearing were reported.

METHODOLOGY
Neurofeedback is another form of therapy that has gained
popularity during the past few years. Research on Autistic
Spectrum Disorder (ASD) shows that neurofeedback (EEG
biofeedback) can remediate anomalies in brain activation, leading

1036

to symptoms reduction and functional improvement (Coben &

Padolsky, 2007).
Neurofeedback is designed to train individuals to enhance
poorly regulated brainwave patterns by using sophisticated
computer technology (Coben et al., 2009). It is the training of EEG
activity through an operant conditioning process by which
individual is trained to increase or reduce the brain production of
electrical activity. For the past 10 years, numbers of researches
have been conducted to identify the effectiveness of
Neurofeedback to children with ASD.

Participant
The participant in this study is a 7-year-old boy Richard, with
autism. He was recruited in HappyLand Special Edu Centre, a
centre which provides therapy and educational intervention to
children with special needs. Richard was previously diagnosed as
mild ASD and currently receiving early intervention in
HappyLand. Richard has attended 6 months of occupational
therapy in the centre, however he was not placed in neurofeedback
therapy yet.
Procedures
A pre-intervention interview was conducted with the parents of
Richard to identify the impairment of Richard and the major
concern of parents. The focus areas were on speech, social
interaction and behavioral issues of Richard. Following the
interview, Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) were
administered to ascertain the current autistic level of Richard. Pretreatment and post-treatment were recorded to measure the changes
of Richard after the intervention.
In this case study, a 16 sessions of Neurofeedback treatment
has been designed with the objective of improving the executive

1037

function of Richard. He will undergo 3 sessions of Neurofeedback

per week and every session lasted about 30 minutes.

Materials
The materials in this study were divided into two parts: assessment
instrument and intervention equipment. The assessment instrument
used was Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS2) and Autism
Treatment Evaluation Checklist (ATEC).
Childhood rating scale is a quantitative rating scale used to
diagnose autism. In addition, it distinguishes mild-to-moderate
from severe autism (Schopler et al., 2010). CARS provides a
comprehensive, quantitative and reliable way to develop diagnostic
hypothesis among individuals of all ages and functional levels.
CARS-ST includes 15 items that required the evaluator to rate an
individual on a scale from 1 to 4 in key areas related to autism
diagnosis. The 15 items include relationship to people, imitation,
emotional response, body use, object use, adaptation to change,
visual response, listening response, taste-smell-touch response and
use, fear and nervousness, verbal communication, non-verbal
communication, activity level, level and consistency of intellectual
response and general impressions. The rating values for the 15
areas are summed to produce a total score. Total CARS scores
range from a 15 to 60, with a minimum score of 30 serving as the
cutoff for a diagnosis of autism on the mild end of the autism
spectrum. Rating values for each of the 15 functional areas range
from 1 to 4. Generally, rating value of 1 indicates that childs
behaviour is within normal limits for his/her age. Value of 2 means
that the childs behaviour is mildly abnormal for his/her current
age. Value of 3 indicates that childs behaviour is moderately
abnormal for his/her age. Value of 4 shows that individuals
behaviour is severely abnormal for that age.
Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist (ATEC) was
developed to identify the effectiveness of the treatment for autism

1038

(Rimland, 2006). The purpose of ATEC is to evaluate the severity

of the core symptoms of autism, this has to be filled by parents or
care-givers. ATEC covered 4 main areas: Speech; social
interaction; sensory and health related question.

Training Protocol
After considering the atypical behaviours and major concern of his
parent, it has been decided that the protocol of training should be
divided into 2 parts. The first 6 sessions of the training focused on
rewarding his Theta (4-8Hz) while inhibiting Beta (16-22Hz) and
Hibeta (23-40Hz). The area of focus will be on C3 (central-left
position of the scalp). The rationale of this protocol is to reduce
the hyperactivity and impulsivity of Richard.
From 7 sessions to 16 sessions, the protocol of training was
diverted to rewarding SMR Beta (sensorimotor Beta) which was at
the frequency of around 12-15 Hz and decreasing his Theta at 4-8
Hz and HiBeta at 15-24Hz. This treatment was using referential
(monopolor) montage as the aim is to identify and train a specific
component of Richards EEG at a particular site. Thus only one
active recording sensor (electrode) was placed on the scalp over an
area of interest, in Richards case, the second part of the therapy
will focus on T3, the left temporal of the scalp. The reason for this
protocol was to focus on attention and executive functioning
ability. In additional to it, Richard has been noted with excessive
verbal repetition, he kept repeating the same word which does not
serves any purpose. Thus, during the second part, Theta was
inhibited in T3 area to stimulate better self-controlling activity to
reduce his non-functional speech.

Modality of feedback
In terms of modality of feedback, audio-visual feedback was

1039

selected. Richard was being exposed to soothing music during the

first 6 sessions of Theta training. From 7th until 16th sessions,
various videos were provided during the training.

FINDINGS
The behaviors exhibited before the treatment and after the
treatment were recorded in this section. Intervention efficacy was
analyzed by comparing the differences between pre-treatment and
post-treatment observation and parents interview.

Patient Assessment
Richard has been diagnosed as Autism by a psychiatrist in
Singapore and a certified speech therapist respectively. He has
been noted with typical autistic characteristic. The following
assessments have been furthered administered to identify symptom
of severity through quantifiable ratings based on direct observation
and to identify the presence and the extent of autistic social
impairment to distinguish autism spectrum disorders from other
childhood psychiatric conditions.
Childhood Rating Scale 2 Standard Test (CARS2-ST)
Richard has been placed in this evaluation prior to the
commencement of Neurofeedback Therapy. Richards CARS2-ST
scores displayed a total raw score of 36, which is well above the
standard clinical cutoff value of 30, and this suggested that he is
likely to have an ASD. The corresponding T-score is valued at 47
and this is consistent with the presence of an average level of
autistic behaviours, relative to children diagnosed with an ASD.
Below is Richards pattern of item rating on CARS2-ST:

1040

RATINGS OF 3.0 OR GREATER

a. Relating to people
b. Imitation
c. Object use
d. Listening response
e. Fear or nervousness
f. Verbal communication
g. Nonverbal communication
h. Activity level
i. General impression
RATINGS OF 2.0 OR 2.5
a. Emotional response
b. Adaptation to change
c. Taste, smell and touch response and use

RATINGS UNDER 2.0

a. Body use
b. Visual response
c. Level and consistency of intellectual response
Richards observed pattern of atypical behavior was
consistent with his parents report of his early development and
current behavior at home. The pattern is also consistent with his
current social-communicative behavior at school. In accordance
with current diagnostic criteria for autism (DSM-IV), Richards
CARS2-ST rating indicate that he has significant impaired social
and communication skill, demonstrates many associated features of
autism. Coupled with his parents report of early developmental
problems, including both verbal and nonverbal language delays,
limited interest in other people, focused and unusual interest and a
failure to develop pretend play skills, thus a clinical diagnosis of
autism was deemed appropriate for Richard.

1041

Pretreatment Behaviour
Richard has been noted with poor awareness towards others in the
surrounding. He was impulsive and he did not seek comfort when
distressed. He did not engage in social play and he did not showed
imitation. His mother reported that he did not vocalize until the age
of three, until now he still need prompts to express himself. He can
only speak about 2 words in a sentence. Verbalizations appeared
quite minimal at the beginning of treatment. He did not make eye
contact, did not look at the person or smile in social approach. He
had a fixed stare in social situations. In summary, pretreatment
behavior included symptoms which meet the diagnostic criteria for
Autistic Disorder listed in the DSM-IV, sections A, B, C and D.

Summary Of Neurofeedback Session

The following table was the summary of the 16 neurofeedback
therapy sessions:
Table 1(a) Summary of 16 sessions of Neurofeedback
No Protocol
Tools
observation
Feeling uneasy with the
electrode attached to his scalp
1
C3
Soothin and ears
Theta
g music Impatient, unable to wait and
sit still
2
3

C3
Theta
C3
Theta

Soothin
g music
Soothin
g music

Same situation as in 1st session

Possesses better ability to sit
still however still very

1042

impulsive
4
C3
Theta

Soothin
g music

Able to use simple word to

describe his need. (take ,
give).
too much of alien talking and
noise

T3 Theta

Soothin
g music

More cooperative

T3 Theta

Chinese
song

Impatient, fidgety
Need prompts

C3 Beta

Video

Unable to concentrate

C3 Beta

Video

Able to look at therapist when

therapist count to 20

10

C3 Beta

Video

Calm and able to sustain longer

patience during the therapy
sessions

C3 Beta

Video

11

12

C3 Beta

Video

C3 Beta

Video

C3 Beta

Video

13

Able to sustain 15 minutes

attention
Emotionally unstable, however
able to request for video and
song

14

Stable and able to sit still

15

High beta was stable, beta was

higher. At the 4-6 periods, his
theta increased.

C3 Beta

Video

1043

16

C3 Beta

Video

C3 Beta

Video

He was very routine and insist

on watching the familiar video
Able to greet others with
clearer pronunciation and he
responds better to instructions.
Sometimes, distracted and
exhibited higher activity level.
However, more controllable.

Post-Treatment Behaviour
The following description of changes since the initiation of
neurofeedback training comes from his mother and uncle, who is
currently staying with them in the same house, and also from our
own observations.
According to the feedback from his mother; Richard was
noted with more functional speech. When his brother hit him, he
will express: brother is naughty (in Mandarin), previously he will
ignored. According to his uncle, the eyes contact of Richard
improved and his social interaction skill improved, he was able to
express verbally regarding his needs. Visible result was also noted
when his speech is getting more appropriate in different scenario.
The self-help skill of Richard improved; he is now able to use
toilet instead of potty; in additional to that, he possesses better
understanding towards his surroundings. Even though Richard
exhibited improvement in different areas, however he is still very
distracted and unable to concentrate. To overcome this, SMR beta
was rewarded at T3 region. At 14th session, his mother feedbacks
that the temperament of Richard has improved, hes much calmer
than before the therapy. In additional to it, the high activity level of
Richard has improved and he is in a better position to control his

1044

behaviour.

Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist (Atec)

ATEC was used to evaluate the effectiveness of neurofeedback
therapy in Richard. According to the ATEC prior to the treatment,
Richard scores a total of 104. The score of 104 indicates that
Richard is at the 90th percentile, and is considered as severely
autistic. After the 16 sessions of neurofeedback therapy, Richard
was retested and an overwhelming result was produced, the test
review a score of 56. This places Richard in the 30-39 percentile
level and indicates that Richard has a good chance of being semidependent and a greater chance to study in mainstream education.

DISCUSSION
The research obtained from the case study has produced significant
positive results. Richard shown improvement in reducing trait
characteristics of autism behavior. Richard has been noted with
better ability in overall development including use of functional
speech, better emotion, self-controlling ability and toileting. Most
of the improvements obtained by Richard are in consistent to the
research done before. In additional to it, this case study has further
identified the effectiveness of neurofeedback in self-help
development, the ability obtained by Richard in this area was the
ability to use toilet instead of potty. This might be directly
attributed to the effectiveness of neurofeedback in improving the
understanding and executive function of individuals. Or, this could
be the reason of continuous training at home, however according to
the mother, Richard did not attend school currently and the mother
did not conduct any teaching at home.

1045

Compared to all the neurofeedback researches, this case

study with only 1 subject might not be able to generalize the
outcome to other children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).
However, this case study has identified that it is an effective
program with long-lasting effect for the improvement of Richard.
Although, it is not appropriate to generalize, however it does prove
the effectiveness of neurofeedback in improving the dysfunctions
of children with ASD. Autism is a global issues where there is no
single treatment available to improve it dysfunctions. The core
impairment of autism is speech delay and such delay can produce a
lot of social interaction implication. Till today, there is no direct
method to improve the speech ability of children with ASD except
going through speech therapy. While, neurofeedback is a proven
and scientific method which has backed by numerous existing
literature and researches on it effectiveness to improve speech
ability (Lubar, 1997; Ibric & Hudspeth, 2003; Coben, R. &
Padolsky, I., 2007; Cohen, Linden, & Myers, 2010), thus this study
has provided a suggestion that neurofeedback can be an effective
treatment to improve the core impairment of autism. It has also
opened up more opportunity for more similar researches and
studies in the near future.

CONCLUSION
Neurofeedback is biofeedback training of EEG activity through an
operant conditioning process by which the individual is trained to
increase or inhibit the brains production of electrical activity in
specific frequency ranges (Jacobs, 2005). The behavioral changes
in this 9-year-old boy with autism are viewed as a positive outcome
of Neurofeedback therapy. These results are suggestive that
Neurofeedback therapy can be an effective treatment for some of
the symptoms of mild autism. There is no clear guideline and
direction on how many session of Neurofeedback therapy should
one receives to optimize the performance. However, it is

1046

significant that Neurofeedback therapy does not produce any

adverse effect; thus it is recommended for Richard to carry on with
Neurofeedback therapy for long term EEG changes.

REFERENCES
American Psychiatric Association, 1994. Diagnostic and
statisticalmanual of mental Disorder. 4th ed. Washington:
Author.
Cohen, R., Linden M., & MyersT.E. (2010). Neurofeedback for
Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Review of Literature.
Applied Psychophysiological and Biofeedback, 83-105.
Coben, R. and Padolsky, I., 2007. Assessment-Guided
Neurofeedback for Autistic Spectrum Disorder. Journal of
Neurotherapy, 11(1), pp.5-23.
FuchsT., BirbaumerN., LutzenbergerW., GruzelierJ.H., & KaiserJ.
(2003). Neurofeedback Treatment For Attentiondeficit/Hyperacivity Disorder in Children: A Comparison
with
Methylphenidate.
Applied Psychology and
Biofeedback, 1-12.
Horowitz, S., 2006. Biofeedback Applications- A Survey of
Clinical Research. Alternative and Complementary
Therapies, pp.275-281.
IbricV.L., & HudspethW. (2003). QEEG and Roshi Use in Autism
Post-Toxic Encephalopathy - A Case Study. 11th Annual
Winter Brain Conference. CA: Palm Springs.
Jacobs, E., 2005. Neurofeedback Treatment of Two Children with
Learning, Attention, Mood, Social and Developmental
Deficits. Journal of Neurotherapy, 9(4), pp.55-70.
LindenM., & Habib & Radojevic, C.T. (1996). A Controlled Study
of the Effects of EEG Biofeedback on Cognition and
Behaviour of Children with Attention Deficit Disorder anad

1047

Learning Disabilities. Biofeedback, 35-50.

LubarJ.F. (1997). Neurobiological Foundation for Neurofeedback
Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADD/HD). Biofeedback, 4-23.
MonastraV.J,, MonstraM.D., & GeorgeS. (2002). The Effects of
Stimulant Therapy, EEG Biofeedback and Parenting Style
on the Primary Symptoms of Attention-deficit/hyperactivity
Disorder. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 231247.
Raymond, J.,Sajid, I., Parkinson, L., and Gruzelier, J.,2005.
Biofeedback and Dance Performance: A Preliminary
Investigation. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback,
30 (1), pp.65-73
RossiterT.R. (2004). The Effectiveness of Neurofeedback and
Stimulants Drug in Treating AD/HD. Applied
Psychophysiological and Biofeedback, 1-8.

Schopler, E., Bourgondien, M.E., Wellman, G.J. & Love, S.R.,

2010. Childhood Autism Rating Scale. 2nd ed. USA: Western
Psychological Services.
ScolnickB. (2005). Effects of Electroencephalogram Biofeedback
with Asperger's Syndrome. International Journal of
Rehabilitation, 159-163.
SichelA.G., FehmiL.G., & GoldsteinD.M. (1995). Positive
Outcome with Neurofeedback Treatment in a case of Mild
Autism. Journal of Neurotherapy, 60-64.
ThompsonL.,&ThompsonM.(1995). Autism/Asperger's/Obnoxious
Child, 3 Case HistoriesHow we get positive results with
complex ADD clients. Annual Conference of the Society
for Neuronal Regulation. AZ: Scottsdale.

1048

MEANINGFUL DICTION
THROUGH TASK BASED
APPROACH
Pia Munusamy & Abdullah Mohd Nawi

ABSTRACT
The current emphasis on using literature in schools as a mean to
improve the standard of English in Malaysia has received positive
feedback from educators, parents and the general public. Yet, what
approach would be sensible, effective and interesting when
teaching literature in a second language classroom? This research
investigates the effectiveness Task Based Approach to promote
meaningful diction to second language learners in a literary
classroom context. Task-based or task-supported teaching has been
advocated as a means of promoting language learning in language
classrooms in different settings and has become prominent a
research focus in the last decade. This study discusses the
integration of Multimedia through task-based approach in a literary
classroom through quasi-experimental approach which is in line
with the seventh paradigm of Malaysian National Blueprint to
promote the usage of ICT in meaningful learning context in literary
classroom, in a semi urban school in Johor.
Keywords: Task Based Approach (TBLT)

1049

INTRODUCTION
The current 21st century education system emphasizes on using
literature in schools as a core to improve the standard of English in
Malaysia has received positive feedback from educators, parents
and the general public. In August 2012, the Ministry of Education
has announced the reintroduction of English Literature subject in
secondary schools, aiming at improving the education system .Aziz
and Nasharudin (2010), revealed that teachers do not know the best
approach to teach literature in order for students to gain both
language and appreciation of the literature itself. This shows
students were often drilled to answer questions to score in exams
and not acquire the language meaningfully. Yunus and Suliman
(2014) conducted a study regarding Literature teaching involving a
sample from the East Malaysia denoted that 94% of the
respondents employed more answering comprehension questions
technique in class. This show that the Ministry of Education aim
that literature would be a great resource for language teaching as it
has authentic and interesting texts chosen has failed as students
were not acquiring the language meaningfully. The pressure of
examination looming over students and teachers, the teaching and
learning literature turned out to be exam-oriented and resulted in a
wash back effect.
Hence, what approach would be sensible, effective and to
ensure meaningful diction takes place when teaching literature in a
Second Language Classroom? This research reports the
effectiveness of Task Based Approach (TBLT) in Teaching and
Learning of a Poem to Lower Secondary Students. According to
Adams (2009), Task-Based language teaching has been practiced at
the nexus of theories including input processing (Van Patten,
1996), information process (Levelt, 1989), the interactionist
approach (Mackey & Gass, 2006), and neo-Vogotskian sociocultural theory (Lantolf, 2000a). By doing so, language teachers
encourage meaningful communication and provide a context for
learners to study the language (Willis, 1996).Therefore, this study

1050

proposes the TBLT approach in a literary classroom to ensure

meaningful diction takes place. It is line with Malaysians National
Blueprint, to allow more customized learning. This plan has been
documented in Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013 2025,
whereby English Literature module will be a compulsory subject in
secondary schools as a means to expose the students to English
language. This will be done by the increase of 15% to 20% of the
exposure to the language. It is proposed that the plan is to be
executed in the second wave of Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013
2025 (2013).
Quasi-experimental mode was used to arrive at the results
of the study. The findings of the research were tabulated and
analyzed to come to a conclusion. The findings showed promising
results in terms of the effectiveness of the proposed method.
Suggestions on implementing meaningful tasks for language
teacher education programs are provided. It would be an eye
opener for teachers in the 21st Century to understand that through
TBLT approach as it shows that teachers are aspired to act as the
catalysts in working towards the improvement of Malaysian
English Education.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Recent studies have reported that students were seen to be passive
and were unable to respond critically and literature lessons were
often too teacher-centred and thus, labeling teachers to be dull and
less creative. (Gurnam Kaur, 2003; Siti Norliana, 2003; Suriya
Kumar, 2004 In many schools throughout in Malaysia, particularly
places where the students language competency is low, much of
the teaching of the literature component has been traditionally been
a teacher-centered process where the students are trained to answer
literature questions in the one way method or better known as the
direct method. The teacher explains thoroughly in the classroom
while the students merely listen and become passengers in the

1051

activities provided. Teacher-centered literature classes eventually

fail to motivate and arouse the interest of the students. The
outcome for students is that they learn to rely on others either in the
form of the teacher or in the form of critiques provided by teachers
and others.
Teaching the literature component in the English Language
subject requires adaptation and creativity on the part of the teacher,
especially when students do not respond to a particular teaching
style or methodology. Literature is merely the means helping to
raise the language proficiency. It encourages the awareness among
learners on how the language works (Muthusamy,
Marimuthu,Michael, Ghazali&Veeravagu, 2010). Literature aids in
developing learners knowledge of syntax, morphology, semantics
and even phonetics whenever learners are taught effectively. This
allows students to indirectly learn the grammatical aspect
meaningfully that will retain long term while trying to enjoy and
appreciate the literary texts. Some teachers are afraid to try out new
teaching approaches in their classrooms as they are afraid of
wasting time or failing. They prefer to employ the traditional
methods of teaching where students are given limited opportunities
to get involved actively in the classroom. All the students are
merely allowed to sit and listen to the teachers input through the
direct method which they must master instead of sharing their
opinions.
Many educationists are of the opinion that learner-centered
approaches such as interactive approaches should be encouraged in
the teaching and learning of the literature component in a second
language classroom. Task Based Teaching and Learning is an
approach to teaching that makes maximum use of cooperative
activities involving pairs and small groups of learners in the
classroom. It also seeks to develop learners critical thinking skills
which are essential and the central to the learning of a language as
stated in our National Blueprint (2012-2016) aim of developing a
child as a whole. It is hoped that through the implementation of
interactive learning methods to teach literature in the classrooms,

1052

students will be motivated to learn the subject and their interest

towards literature will be piqued.
Through observation, traditional methods of teaching and
learning the literature component are still being widely used in
Malaysian schools. Students are often considered passive receivers
of knowledge. This is because they are spoon-fed by teachers in a
structured, step-by-step, teacher-direct method of learning. Worst
is when recently, the traditional method used by teachers have been
challenged as being ineffective and inefficient by learning theorists
from both the cognitive and behavioral schools of thought.
According to Ghosn (2001) and Davis (1992) literature is a good
medium for critical thinking enhancement among language
learners. Siti Norliana (2008) stressed too that literature can bring
about changes in the attitudes of the learners. She highlights that
literature allows students to reflect on their lives, learning, and
language. Vethamani (2003) concludes that literature can open
wider horizons of possibility, allowing students to question,
interpret, connect, and explore. This shows that teachers play
significant roles in developing meaningful teaching and learning
context by selecting the best approach for their classroom context.

AIM OF THE RESEARCH

The main purpose of this research is to investigate the effectiveness
of Task Based Approach ( TBLT) in exploiting literary component
in meaningful context. It is hoped that this method will yield
positive results compared to the direct method which often bore
students and making them merely passive passengers in the
classroom.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
This research intends to meet the following objectives:

1053

i.
ii.

To identify whether TBLT method improve students

comprehension in teaching and learning of Form 1 poetry.
To identify the students perceptions of using TBLT
approach in the teaching and learning of Form 1 poem.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This research uses quasi experimental research methodology. The
instruments that will be used to collect the data are post test and
guided interview. A set of test paper designed for participants for
post test purpose. It has from PBS Level 1 to 6 from word to
sentence level incorporating latest HOTS, critical thinking
questions. There are also guided interview sessions with the
respondents to get more details on their reactions toward the
incorporation of interactive videos in Form 1 poem.

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
The researcher used questionnaires, a pre-test, observational study,
a post-test and interviews as instruments for this study

QUESTIONNAIRES
At the beginning of the research, a set of questionnaires were given
out to the respondents/subjects. The questionnaire (Appendix A),
was divided into two sections. Section A was used to obtain
information on the students profile. Section B was used to gather
information about the students interests, feelings and attitudes
towards learning literature. Another questionnaire (Appendix F)
was given to the English Language teacher who taught the class, to
obtain information on his/her background and his/her opinions
concerning cooperative learning.

1054

OBSERVATIONAL STUDY
An observational study was carried out to find out students
opinions and feelings about exploiting he poem using TBLT
approach. The researcher observed to see if the students were
actively participating and enjoying themselves during the given
activities. Besides that, the researcher also looked at the
development of social skills among the group members, and saw
whether the students were focused on the tasks and accomplished
what they were asked to do. The observation was carried out using
the checklist in the Observational Study Checklist (Appendix C).

PRE-TEST AND POST-TEST

The pre-test and post-test were the primary instruments which
would provide data for this research. The pre-test was given to the
students before conducting the TBLT method. The post-test, which
was similar to the pre-test, was given to the students after exposing
them to the TBLT activities, treatment. The pre-test and post-test
were answered individually by the students. The rationale of using
the same test in both the pre and post-tests was to compare the
students performances before and after the treatment.
This study uses the two groups post test design. A set of
test paper contains the poem Mr. Nobody with some of the words
being deleted. Hence, participants need to fill in the blanks or
missing words after the teaching and learning session or after the
treatment. For control group, the participants attend the test after
the normal teaching and learning session without the interactive
TBLT sessions. Meanwhile, for the experimental group, the
participants attend the test after the teaching and learning session
which incorporates the interactive sessions throughout the lesson.
The poem chosen for this research purpose is Mr.
Nobody. It is one of poems in Form 1 syllabus. The author for this
poem is unknown. The poem is on life which brings in the moral

1055

values such as we must work together to look after our home,

respects others property, discipline whenever and wherever we are.
In short, this poem teaches the students to value and appreciate
things at home and also the person who has clean up for us.

INTERVIEWS
At the end of the study, the researcher interviewed the students
involved concerning TBLT method integrated with videos.The
English teacher was also interviewed regarding the use of TBLT
approaches in exploiting the text in the literature classroom
Five respondents from each group were randomly selected
for the purpose of face to face guided interview sessions. Thus, ten
respondents attended the interview sessions. All the interviews
were conducted one-on-one to make sure the respondents are
comfortable in order to answer the questions without the
interruptions of other respondents opinion. All the questions for
the interview sessions were to provide answers to the second
research question What are the students perceptions of using
TBLT approach in the teaching and learning of Form 1 poem?

PROCEDURE FOR DATA COLLECTION

The permission from the school authorities and class teacher was
sought for the purpose of conducting the study.
Data was collected by the researcher through the use of
questionnaires, a pre-test, observations, a post-test and interviews.
A set of questionnaires were used in this research. The students
were allotted about 30 minutes to respond to the questionnaire.
Another questionnaire was for the English teacher of the
class. A pre and post-test were used and the scores obtained from
both these tests were relied upon to determine the effectiveness of
TBLT in the literature classroom.

1056

Apart from that, interviews were conducted with the

subjects and the English teacher Observations were also recorded
in this research

DATA ANALYSIS
The results of the data in this research were presented through
graphs and in lengthy descriptions. The data gathered from post test
was summarized by using descriptive statistics (Mean frequency).
Meanwhile, the data gathered from the interview sessions were
analyzed, summed up and categorized under few topics.
The actual research was done in a 10 hour phase. Firstly, a
school was selected for the research purpose. Once the approval
from the school was granted, then 20 respondents from one Form 1
class from the school were chosen.
On the day of data collection, the respondents were grouped
into two groups of ten. Then, the two groups of respondents were
gathered at two different classrooms and attended the teaching and
learning session. Control group was at the usual classroom, the
experimental group was brought to self-access learning centre
which is had LCD projector and screen facilities. The time for the
teaching and learning was similar, 1 hour 15 minutes minutes. The
control group teacher (researcher) used mah-jong paper, literature
textbook, whiteboard chalk and talk method to teach the Mr.
Nobody poem to the participants. Meanwhile, the experimental
group teacher (researcher) used literature textbook, whiteboard and
interactive activities of Mr. Nobody to teach the participants. At the
end of the lesson, two groups of respondents attended the post test
which last for 30 minutes. During the test, participants were sitting
far from one another to avoid them copying each other answers.
The test papers were collected after 30 minutes.
After the test, five participants from each group were
selected. Thus, 10 respondents were selected to attend the one to
one interview session. These students were given 20 minutes break

1057

before the interview sessions. Then, the 10 students were divided

into four groups (2-3 students) per group and each group has one
researcher interviewed the participants individually. Hence, four
researchers interviewed the ten respondents separately according to
the prepared questions. The interviews were done in approximately
one hour.

RESEARCH FINDINGS
By monitoring and studying the pre-test and post-test scores of the
respondents (quantitative data), it clearly showed that there was a
marked improvement in scores by the subjects of this study. The
qualitative data too showed that TBLT is well received by the
students and it facilitates better comprehension of the short stories.
Students are motivated to learn the poems through TBLT activities.
Hence, it can be concluded that TBLT does indeed help to improve
students comprehension of poem and the use of such TBLT
activities brought much fun and joy to the students involved in this
particular research endeavor. Their motivation to learn literature
was also piqued. It is hoped that many more teachers will adopt
this mode of teaching so that their students will learn to enjoy
comprehending poems in a meaningful context with their friends.
In the long term, the future generation use the meaning
comprehended in a real context and Malaysia may yet regain its
glory of producing excellent speakers of the English Language.

RESULTS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE

At the beginning of the study, a set of questionnaires was given to
the students to determine their interest towards learning the
literature component in the ESL classroom.
Table below is based on the information gained from the
questionnaire. The students responses have been analysed and

1058

tabulated in frequencies and percentages. The analysis of the

questionnaire is also shown in the form of a bar graph .

Percentages (%)

Percentage of Responses Received from the

Questionnaire
100
80

Yes
No

60
40
20
0
1

Questions

Based on the graph, Question 1 indicates that more than

half of the population surveyed (60%) liked the literature
component that was taught. Question 2 shows that only 35% of the
respondents found the learning environment of the literature
component lesson in their classroom interesting. This could
probably be due to the teaching method employed by the teacher.
As for Question 3, 70% of the total respondents did not participate
actively when learning the literature component. In other words,
the respondents were usually passive during the lesson. For
Question 4, only 40% of the respondents communicated
sufficiently during the literature component lesson. Poor
interaction among respondents during lessons may result in almost
no exchange of ideas with their peers and teacher.
Question 5 shows that only 4 out of the 20 respondents
(20%) experienced being involved in group activities often in their
classrooms. A majority of the respondents
worked individually
and this clearly indicates that they were not exposed to TBLT
learning activities during the literature lessons. The subjects
responses to Question 6 indicate that 40% of the respondents find it
difficult to understand the poems selected for the ESL syllabus for
Form 1. For question 7, only 45% of the total number of

1059

respondents looked forward to their literature in English lessons in

school, which proves that most students dislike the literature
component. Question 8 indicates that only 40% of the respondents
enjoy reading poems in English.
The results of the analysis of the questions in the
questionnaire coincide with the aim of the research, which suggests
that the implementation of TBLT in the teaching and learning of
poems can be an effective tool to be used in the literature
component.

RESULTS OF THE QUANTITATIVE DATA

The frequency of the pre and post test scores
Table below shows the frequency of the pre-test and posttest scores obtained by the respondents of this study.
Raw Scores Obtained (-/50)
0 -9 (Low)
10 19 (Below Average)
20 -39 (Average)
40 50 (High)

Pre-test
0
0
14
6

Post-test
0
0
8
12

Frequency of the pre and post test scores obtained by the

respondents.
Based on the pre-test results, 14 students scored between
20-39 marks, and only 6 students obtained high scores of between
40-50 marks. After conducting group learning in the TBLT
activities, the students were tested again with the post-test. The
results of the post test showed that 8 students obtained an average
score of between 20 39 marks while 12 students obtained high
scores (40 -50 marks). From the results presented, it is clear that
the respondents showed vast improvement in the post-test scores
compared to the pre-test scores after group learning.
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The mean scores for the entire tests.

The mean scores for the pre and post tests are illustrated in table
below.
Pre-test mean
Post-test mean
72.8 %
79.2 %
Mean Scores of the Pre-test and Post-test

Difference
+6.4 %

Based on Table 4.5, the mean score of the pre-test is 72.8

%, while the mean score of the post-test is 79.2 %. The difference
of 6.4 % indicates an improvement of the students overall scores
after undergoing TBLT activities in just three treatment lessons.
This clearly shows that the performance level has increased due to
TBLT intervention.
Results of the subjects interviews
Qualitative data was also collected from respondent interviews.
This allowed the researcher to speak directly to the students to find
out the students opinions on the use of TBLT in the learning of
poems. The interview was conducted on students after the
treatment (TBLT activities). Most of the students who were
interviewed expressed a liking for the teaching method used by the
researcher which involved active participation. The typical
comments adapted from interviews of the students are summarized
by the researcher as follows:
I understood the poem better when group activities were
conducted in the classroom. I prefer to ask my group
members for assistance as I am too shy to ask for help from
my teacher.
I am a shy person, so I hate to voice out ideas in the class. But
I liked to work in groups and felt more comfortable to
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participate and talk while in a group.

I used to daydream and often dozed off during literature
lessons. I can concentrate better during TBLT or active
lessons.
TBLT has motivated me to like learning the literature
component. Now, I look forward to literature lessons.
TBLT is fun because we can work with our group members.
We can talk and act during literature lessons and share ideas.
The presentations by the different groups are fun and
interesting. I can also remember better what I have learnt.
A majority of the students felt comfortable learning in the
TBLT environment as it allowed them freedom to talk and to share
and exchange ideas with their peers. They also said that group
discussions and presentations had helped them in understanding
and remembering the short stories better. They also concentrate
better during TBLT activities than during normal literature lessons.
Most of them said that they enjoyed the TBLT activities compared
to the conventional method of teaching. It can be seen from these
comments from students that they were growing in confidence and
motivation.
Results of the teachers questionnaire/interview
The teachers questionnaire was also distributed to the English
teacher who taught the class the literature component. When asked
how often TBLT was utilized in her literature component lesson,
she responded as follows:
Even though I agree that students enjoy and learn the poem
better through TBLT, I seldom use this method in my
classroom as conducting group activities is time consuming. I
am afraid I may not be able to complete the syllabus.
Although TBLT may not be widely used by most teachers

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due to time constraints or other reasons, it is obviously effective in

the teaching and learning of the literature component. From the
interview, it is evident that TBLT is effective in the teaching and
learning of poetry. Interesting TBLT activities can promote
understanding of the text and motivate students towards learning
the literature component, especially short stories.

Results of the personal observation

The personal observation was carried out to see if the respondents
enjoyed learning the poems using the TBLT method. The
observation was carried out during the three treatment TBLT
lessons, while the students were engrossed in their group tasks. The
researcher used the Observational Study Checklist while
observing the respondents in the TBLT classroom. It was found
that the respondents enjoyed their learning experiences and
participated actively in the literature component lessons. The
TBLT activities also facilitated communication among group
members. Most of the respondents were not nearly as shy to
communicate and cooperate with their peers to accomplish the
tasks given by the researcher. The use of TBLT boosted students
participation and motivation to comprehend the poem
meaningfully.

IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Teachers should design tasks integrating interactive and active
activities through Task Based Approach as it assists in meaningful
learning in an authentic environment. If teachers can capture the
attention of learners during a literature they will not only
accomplish good academic results, but they will most probably
experience less discipline problems in class as well. Teachers
should also get themselves ready in order to carry out this plan.

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With another one and half a year before this proposal commences,
they should be able to prepare themselves to embrace this
reformation. Hence, teachers should be aspired to act as the
catalysts in working towards the improvement of Malaysia English
Education. As highlighted in the Malaysian Education Blueprint
2013 2025, no education system can succeed without the
dedication and commitment of its teachers. In greater emphasis,
this study indicates that the proclamation may succeed only if it is
well-designed and English teachers are fully-prepared to cater to
the needs of Malaysian education system.

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