Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibrations

- Vibratory response of machine/spindle/tool/workpiece critical to

machining stability in HSM
- Application of mechanical vibrations to characterizing dynamics
Topics:
Background concepts
SDOF free vibration
SDOF forced vibration
FRF
Experimental parameter estimation

2DOF free vibration

Modal analysis basics

2DOF forced vibration

Direct/cross FRFs

Modeling physical systems

1) Free vibration
Initial conditions applied to
body (possessing mass/
elasticity) leads to exponential
decay of periodic vibration at
damped natural frequency.

x(t)

Types of Mechanical Vibrations

t (sec)
Resonance
Magnitude

2) Forced vibration
Continuing periodic force excites
system. Steady-state response
matches forcing function
frequency with magnitude and
phase governed by system
characteristics. Describe
behavior using FRF.

3) Self-excited vibration
Steady input force is
modulated into vibration at the
system natural frequency.

x(t)

Types of Mechanical Vibrations

t (sec)
Examples include:
whistle - steady air flow produces acoustic vibration
violin - bow across string produces vibration at frequency that
depends on string length
chatter in machining - steady excitation of teeth impacting work
leads to large tool vibrations at system natural frequency

Modeling Vibrating Systems

Elastic bodies possess infinite DOFs (i.e, number of independent
coordinates to completely describe motion).
We model a finite number of DOFs (within BW of interest) and accept
degradation in accuracy.
Ex. Cantilever beam

1(x)

2(x)

Model free-end response:

k
m

n =
where,

3(x)

4(x)

k=
etc.

3EI
L3

m = 0.24 mbeam

Periodic Motion
Important concept in mechanical vibrations is periodic motion.

x(t)

x (t + ) = x (t )

t (sec)

Simplest form of periodic motion is harmonic motion (sines/cosines).

Periodic curves resolved into series of sine/cosine functions (Fourier).
Ex. Signal above may be expressed as:

x (t ) = X 1 sin (t ) + X 2 sin (2t )

Periodic Motion
Consider the harmonic motion:
where,

(rad/s)

+X

1
f =
= (cycle/s or Hz)
2

x(t)

x (t ) = X sin (t )

X - magnitude

-X

t (sec)

Velocity

dx

v(t ) =
= X cos (t ) = X sin t +
dt
2

Acceleration

dv
a (t ) =
= 2 X sin (t ) = 2 X sin (t + )
dt

SDOF Free Vibration

Consider only damped systems (structural, sliding friction, viscous).
Model by lumped parameters.
Equation of motion from
free body diagram.

F = m&x& + cx& + kx = 0
Assume harmonic solution:

x (t ) = Xe st
This solution introduces Laplace notation in the variable s = i. The
Laplace transform allows us to map from the time to frequency
domain by:

Laplace of

( f (t )) = F (s ) = e st f (t )dt
0

SDOF Free Vibration

Substitution of the assume solution in the EOM gives the
characteristic equation:

ms 2 Xe st + csXe st + kXe st = ms 2 + cs + k Xe st = 0

(s = i )

ms 2 + cs + k = 0

Trivial solution
(no motion)

Characteristic equation is quadratic in Laplace variable s.

s2 +

c
k
s+ =0
m
m
Determines system behavior;
underdamped if:

Roots:
2

s1,2

c
k
c
=


2m
m
2m

k
c

<0
m
2m

Underdamped SDOF Free Vibration

1
1

Time domain solution:

c 2 k 2
c 2 k 2

c

t
t
t
2m m
2m m
s1t
s2t

m
2
+ Be
x (t ) = Ae + Be = e

Ae

damping envelope

oscillatory part

Rewrite in more familiar form:

x (t ) = e

n t

[Ae

i d t

+ Be

i d t

where; =
2 km

Equivalent forms:

d = n 1 2

x (t ) = Ce n t cos ( d t + c )
x (t ) = Ce n t sin ( d t + s )

n =

k
m

where; A,B - complex conjugates

C,D,E - real

x (t ) = e n t (D cos ( d t ) + E sin ( d t ))

Underdamped SDOF Free Vibration

Numerical Example: m = 1 kg, k = 1x107 N/m, c = 126.5 N-s/m,
x0 = 100 m, x&0 = 0
Calculate:

1 107
rad
n =
= 3162
1
s
c
126.5
=
=
= 0.02
2 km 2 1 107 1

d = n 1

rad
= 3162 1 0.02 = 3161 .6
s
2

Select form for time-domain solution:

x (t ) = Ce n t sin ( d t + s )
where C and s are determined from initial conditions

Underdamped SDOF Free Vibration

Numerical Example:

x (t ) = Ce n t sin ( d t + s )

s = tan 1

x0 d
x&0 + n x0

x0
C=
sin s

x0 d
100 3161 .6
1
s = tan
= tan
= 0.87 rad
x&0 + n x0
0 + 0.02 3162 100
x0
100
C=
=
= 130.6 m
sin s sin (0.87 )
1

x (t ) = 130.6e 63.2t sin (3161 .6t + 0.87 )m

Oscillates at damped natural frequency

SDOF Forced Vibration

Consider only damped systems. Model by lumped parameters.
External force excites system at frequency (rad/s).

F = m&x& + cx& + kx = Feit

Total solution = homogeneous + particular
SS solution has same form as excitation;
substituting x (t ) = Xe it gives:

( m

+ ic + k Xe it = Fe it

Rearrange to obtain Frequency

Response Function (FRF):

1
X
( ) =
F
m 2 + ic + k

FRF describes complex displacement/force ratio as function of .

SDOF Forced Vibration

n
X
1

Im ( ) =
2
2
2
F
k
1 + 2

n n

n
Imag (X/F)

X
1
n

Re ( ) =
2
2
2
F
k

1 + 2

n n

Real (X/F)

Rewrite FRF as Real/Imaginary vs. frequency

SDOF Forced Vibration

May also write FRF as Magnitude/Phase vs. frequency

n
( ) = tan 1
2
F

Phase (deg)

1
1
X

( ) =
2
2
F
k
2
1 + 2

n n

Magnitude (X/F)

1
2

n
-90

-180

SDOF Forced Vibration

Alternately, can combine Real and Imaginary parts to obtain
Nyquist diagram -- contains Re/Im/Mag/ information.

Imag (X/F)

n(1+)

n(1-)
n

Real (X/F)

SDOF Forced Vibration

In general, we do no know parameters for model of system
Rather, we have an experimental FRF. Simple fitting algorithm
may be used to extract SDOF n, k, and .

3
2

f (Hz)

Imag (X/F)

Real (X/F)

f (Hz)

a) Identify three frequencies, one amplitude.

b) Point 1 frequency is fn.
c) Difference between points 2 and 3 frequencies gives .
f3 - f2 = fn(1+ ) - fn(1- ) = 2 fn
d) Amplitude at point 1 gives k: A1 = (-2k )-1

SDOF Forced Vibration

Numerical example -- identify n, k, and .

1038.1
958.2

Imag [X/F] (m/N)

Real [X/F] (m/N)

998.2

f (Hz)

b) fn = 998.2 Hz.

1038 .1 958.2
= 0.04 = 4%
2 998.2
1
6
N/m
=
=

k
5
.
9
10
d)
6
2.119 10 (2 )0.04
c) =

-2.119x10
f (Hz)

-6

SDOF Forced Vibration

Numerical example: For identified system, determine
displacement amplitude if 100 N force is exciting at resonance

m=

n2

5.9 106

(998.2 2 )

= 0.15kg

N s
c = 2 km = 2(0.04 ) 5.9 10 0.15 = 75.3
m
6

FRF magnitude at resonance:

X
( = n ) = 1
F
2 k
Displacement amplitude at resonance:

X =

F
2 k

100
6

2 5.9 10 0.04

= 0.21mm

2DOF Free Vibration

Again consider only damped, lumped parameter system -- 2DOF.
Use modal analysis to uncouple local (physical) coordinates.
Modal analysis algorithm:
1) Write equations of motion in local coordinates.
2) For proportional damping, neglect damping and write characteristic
equation for system
2

det [m ]s + [k ] = 0

2
2
s
=

3) Calculate eigenvalues from roots of characteristic equation i

n ,i

4) Use one equation of motion to determine eigenvectors. Normalize

to coordinate of interest.
5) Assemble modal matrix (P) from eigenvectors (i) P = 1 2 ...

6) Transform local to modal coordinates. Modal matrices are diagonal

and uncoupled.

[mq ] = [P]T [m][P]

[cq ] = [P]T [c][P]

[kq ] = [P]T [k ][P]

2DOF Free Vibration

7) Write equations of motion in modal coordinates.

mq11q&&1 + cq11q&1 + k q11q1 = 0

mq 22 q&&2 + cq 22 q& 2 + k q 22 q2 = 0
8) Transform initial conditions into modal coordinates.

{q0 } = [P ]1{xo }
{q&0 } = [P ]1{x&o }
9) Determine solutions to uncoupled (SDOF) equations of motion.
10) Transform from modal to local coordinates.

{x} = [P ]{q}

2DOF Free Vibration

Consider 2DOF chain-type lumped parameter model.
Coupled equations of motion are:

m1&x&1 + (c1 + c2 )x&1 + (k1 + k 2 )x1 c2 x&2 k 2 x2 = 0

m2 &x&2 + c2 x&2 + k 2 x2 c2 x&1 k 2 x1 = 0
In matrix form:

m1 0 &x&1 c1 + c2
&& +

0 m2 x2 c2
k1 + k2

k2

c2 x&1
& +
c2 x2
k 2 x1 0
=
k 2 x2 0

2DOF system has 2 natural frequencies/2 mode shapes.

In general, complex mode shapes (ratio of amplitudes and phase
between X1 and X2 in each mode).

2DOF Free Vibration

For light damping, phase shift is small -- so we choose to solve eigenproblem assuming no damping or proportional damping.

[c ] = [m] + [k ]
As in SDOF case, assume harmonic solution and substitute:

x (t ) = Xe st

[[m]s

Trivial solution

+ [k ] {X }e st = {0}

For non-trivial solution to exist, determinant of LHS must be

zero -- leads to characteristic equation:

det [m ]s 2 + [k ] = 0

m1m2 s 4 + ((k1 + k 2 )m2 + m1k 2 )s 2 + (k1 + k 2 )k 2 (k 2 )2 = 0

Quadratic in s2 - roots are eigenvalues.

2DOF Free Vibration

Eigenvalues give natural frequencies:

s12 = n21

s22 = n22

( n1 < n 2 )

Either EOM gives eigenvectors upon substitution of eigenvalues:

(m s
1

+ (k1 + k 2 ) X 1 k 2 X 2 = 0

X1
k2
=
X 2 m1s 2 + (k1 + k 2 )

X1

1 = X 2
1 1

X 1

2 = X 2
1 2

Evaluate at s12, s22

X2
=1
X2

Normalized to
coordinate 2.

P = [ 1 2 ]

In general, system vibrates in linear combination of mode shapes.

2DOF Free Vibration

Transform to modal coordinates (diagonalize m, c, and k matrices).

[mq ]

mq11
= [P ] [m ][P ] =
0
T

mq 22

[cq ] = [P ] [c][P ] = [mq ]+ [kq ]

T

[kq ]

k q11
= [P ] [k ][P ] =
0
T

0
cq11
=

0
c
q 22

Uncoupled equations of motion (in modal coordinates).

mq11q&&1 + cq11q&1 + k q11q1 = 0

mq 22 q&&2 + cq 22 q& 2 + k q 22 q2 = 0
We may write solutions of the form:

qi (t ) = e

qi ni t

(Di cos ( dit ) + Ei sin( dit ))

i = 1, 2

k q 22

2DOF Free Vibration

Parameters for solution of decoupled modal equations:

Di = q0i

qi =

Ei =

cqii
2 kqii mqii

q01
1 x01
= [P ]
x02
q02

q&0i + qi ni q0i

di

i = 1, 2

di = ni 1 qi2
q&01
1 x&01
& = [P ] &
x02
q02

Finally, transform back into local coordinates.

x1 (t )
q1 (t )

= [P ]

(
)
(
)
x
t
q
t
2
2
Sum of modal responses

x1 (t ) = p11q1 (t ) + p22 q2 (t )
x2 (t ) = q1 (t ) + q2 (t )

2DOF Free Vibration

Numerical Example: m1 = 1 kg, k1 = 1x107 N/m, m2 = 0.5 kg, k2 =
2x107 N/m, x1(0) = 1 mm, x2(0) = -1 mm, x&1 (0 ) = x&2 (0 ) = 0
Mass and stiffness matrices are:

m1 0 1 0
[m] =
=
kg
0 m2 0 0.5
k 2 3 107
=
k 2 2 107

k1 + k 2
[k ] =
k2

2 107 N
7 m
2 10

Characteristic equation is:

2
7
s
+
3

10
det [m ]s 2 + [k ] =
2 10 7

2 107
=0
2
7
0.5s + 2 10

0.5s 4 + 3.5 107 s 2 + 2 1014 = 0

2DOF Free Vibration

Roots of characteristic equation give eigenvalues:

s12 = 6.28 106 = n21

s22 = 6.37 107 = n22
Eigenvectors (normalized to X2):

rad
n1 = 2506
s
rad
n 2 = 7981
s

X1
2 107
2 107

X = s 2 + 3 107 = 6.28 106 + 3 107 = 0.843

2 1
1

X1
2 107
2 107

X = s 2 + 3 107 = 6.37 107 + 3 107 = 0.593

2 2
2
Mode shapes:

0.843
1 =

Modal matrix:

0.593
2 =

0.843 0.593
P=

1
1

2DOF Free Vibration

Transform to uncoupled modal coordinates using modal matrix:

[ ]

0
1.211
mq = [P ] [m ][P ] =
kg
0.852
0

[kq ]

7.6 10 6
= [P ] [k ][P ] =
0

N
7 m
5.43 10
0

Rewrite equations of motion in modal coordinates:

1.211q&&1 + 7.6 106 q1 = 0

0.852 q&&2 + 5.43 107 q2 = 0
Convert initial conditions to modal coordinates:

q01
1 x01 0.283
mm
= [P ] =
x02 1.283
q02

q&01
1 x&01 0
& = [P ] & =
q02
x02 0

2DOF Free Vibration

Write solution to uncoupled differential equations of motion in
modal coordinates:

q1 (t ) =
q2 (t ) =

q&01

sin ( n1t ) + q01 cos ( n1t ) = 0.283 cos (2506t )

q&02

sin ( n 2t ) + q02 cos ( n 2t ) = 1.283 cos (7981t )

n1
n2

Transform back into local coordinates for final solution:

x1 (t ) = p11q1 (t ) + p22 q2 (t ) = 0.843q1 (t ) 0.593q2 (t )

x2 (t ) = q1 (t ) + q2 (t )

Substitution gives:

x1 (t ) = 0.239 cos (2506t ) + 0.761 cos (7981t )

x2 (t ) = 0.283 cos (2506t ) 1.283 cos (7981t )

2DOF Forced Vibration

Harmonic forcing functions applied to lumped parameter coordinates.
Assuming linear system, may treat separately and apply superposition.
Treat F2 only; equations of motion in
matrix form are:

[m]{&x&} + [c]{x&} + [k ]{x} = {F }e

it

0 i t
= e
F2

Assume proportional damping,

determine eigenvalues/vectors from
homogeneous case.

det [m ]s 2 + [k ] = 0
Obtain uncoupled equations of motion in modal coordinates:

[mq ]{q&&} + [cq ]{q&} + [kq ]{q} = {R}eit

where R is the modal force vector

2DOF Forced Vibration

Modal force vector R is written as:

p11 1 0 F2
{R} = [P ] {F } =
=
p12 1 F2 F2

where the eigenvectors

have been normalized to
force location

The FRFs for the two uncoupled (modal) systems are:

Qi
1
1 (ri )2
Re ( ) =

2
kqii 1 (ri )2 + 2 qi ri
Ri

) (

2 qi ri

Qi
1
Im ( ) =

2
2
R
k
qii 1 (r )

i
+ 2 qi ri
i

) (

where ri = /ni
and i = 1, 2

2DOF Forced Vibration

Finally, transform back into local coordinates.

X1
( ) = p11Q1 + p12Q2 = p11 Q1 + p12 Q2
R2
R1
F2
F2

X2
Q1 + Q2 Q1 Q2
( ) =
=
+
F2
F2
R1 R2

Direct FRF - sum of modal FRFs

Well use this in simulation section.
Direct FRF
Q1/R1

p11Q1/R1

p12Q2/R2

Re[X2/F2]

Re[X1/F2]

Cross FRF

Cross FRF - modal

FRFs scaled by mode
shapes

Q2/R2

Modeling Physical Systems

Typically, do not know parameters for model and we must start with
experimental FRF measurements of mechanical structure.
Consider a system that can be adequately modeled by 2DOF
with a measured direct FRF:

n1(1- q1)

n2(1+ q2)

n2(1- q2)

Im[X2/F2]

Re[X2/F2]

n1(1+ q1)

n2

n1

-1
-1

2kq22 q2

2kq11 q1

Use simple fitting procedure to identify modal parameters.

Modeling Physical Systems

Cross FRF provides eigenvectors and modal matrix.

Im[X1/F2]

p12
2kq11 q1

-p11
2kq11 q1

Ratio of cross to direct Imaginary

peaks gives mode shapes.

p12
2 =
1

p11
1 =
1

Force applied to X2.

Mode 1:

p11

X1
p11
Im
2k q11 q1
F2 1
=
=
1
X2
Im

2k q11 q1
F2 1

Mode 2:

p12

p12

2kq 22 q 2
=
1
2kq 22 q 2

X1
Im
F2 2
=
X2
Im

F2 2

Modeling Physical Systems

Determine 2DOF chain-type lumped parameter model.

[m] = [P ]

[mq ][P]

[k ] = [P ]

[c] = [P ]

[kq ][P ]

k1 + k 2
=
k2

k2

k2

[cq ][P]

c1 + c2
=
c2

c2

c2

where

p11
P=
1

m1 0
=

0
m
2

p12

Example: Modeling Physical Systems

Direct/cross FRFs measured on cantilever beam; determine
mode shapes.
Direct:

Cross:

X2 X3 X4 X5
F1 F1 F1 F1

-5

X1/F1 FRF
Imag (m/N)

From direct FRF, we see

three modes within the
measurement bandwidth
(at 100, 300, and 400 Hz),
although an infinite
number actually exist.

x 10

X1
F1

-5
0

100

200

300

f (Hz)

400

500

Example: Determining 1st Mode Shape

5

x 10

-5

x 10

-5

x 10

100

200

300

f (Hz)

X3/F1 FRF

400

500

Imag (m/N)

-5
0

-5

X2/F1 FRF
Imag (m/N)

Imag (m/N)

X1/F1 FRF

x 10

-5
0

100

200

300

f (Hz)

400

-5
0

500

-5

100
x 10

Imag (m/N)

Imag (m/N)
300

f (Hz)

400

500

1(x)

200

400

500

400

500

X5/F1 FRF

100

300

f (Hz)

-5

X4/F1 FRF

-5
0

200

-5
0

100

200

300

f (Hz)

Example: Determining 2nd Mode Shape

5

x 10

-5

x 10

-5

x 10

100

200

300

f (Hz)

X3/F1 FRF

400

-5
0

500

Imag (m/N)

-5
0

-5

X2/F1 FRF
Imag (m/N)

Imag (m/N)

X1/F1 FRF

x 10

100

200

300

f (Hz)

400

-5
0

500

-5

100
x 10

Imag (m/N)

Imag (m/N)
300

f (Hz)

400

500

500

400

500

-5
0

2(x)

200

400

X5/F1 FRF

100

300

f (Hz)

-5

X4/F1 FRF

-5
0

200

100

200

300

f (Hz)

Example: Determining 3rd Mode Shape

5

x 10

-5

x 10

-5

x 10

100

200

300

f (Hz)

X3/F1 FRF

400

500

Imag (m/N)

-5
0

-5

X2/F1 FRF
Imag (m/N)

Imag (m/N)

X1/F1 FRF

x 10

-5
0

100

200

300

f (Hz)

400

-5
0

500

-5

100
x 10

Imag (m/N)

Imag (m/N)
300

f (Hz)

400

500

3(x)

200

400

500

400

500

X5/F1 FRF

100

300

f (Hz)

-5

X4/F1 FRF

-5
0

200

-5
0

100

200

300

f (Hz)