Methodology Result&Discussion Reference

Chapter 2: Experimental Procedures
Apparatus
Control Panel
Temperature
Indicator
Temperature Selector
Heater Power
Indicator
Heater Power
Regulator
Temperature Sensor
Connectors
Figure 1: Unit Assembly for Heat Conduction Study Bench Model HE105
Radial
Module
Interchangeable
Section
Linear Module
Figure 2: Unit Assembly for Heat Conduction Study Bench Model HE105
Procedures
Experiment A: Fouriers Law for the Linear Conduction of Heat along a

Homogeneous Bar
1. Apparatus is set up as shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2.
2. The main switch is checked to make sure that it is off. A brass section of
25mm diameter is inserted into the linear module as intermediate section and
clamped together.
3. A thermal conductivity compound is applied on both side of connecting
surfaces to improve the thermal contact between the metals.
4. The temperature sensors are installed to the linear test module according to the
numbers. The temperature sensor is then connected to the panel.
5. The water supply is turned on and the water is made sure to flow from the free
end of the water pipe to drain. This is checked at intervals.
6. The heater wire is made sure to be connected to the back section of the control
panel.
7. The heater power control knob is turned to 0 W position by turning the knob
fully anti-clockwise.
8. The heater is switched on and the heater power indicator is set at
approximately 5 W.
9. The temperature is checked to make sure that the temperature reading
decreases towards the water-cooled end for the entire temperature sensor
before any reading is taken.
10. Temperature at T1 to T9 is taken and recorded in a table.
11. Step 9 and 10 were repeated for heater power of 10 W, 15 W and 20 W.
12. The power heater is reduced to 0 W by turning the knob fully anti-clockwise
and the heater is switched off.
13. The main switch and power supply is switched off. Then, the power supply
cable is unplugged.
14. The water supply is closed. Then, the thermocouple lead is disconnected.
Experiment C: Heat Conductions Subjected to the Types of Material
2. The main switch is checked to make sure that it is off. A brass section of
25mm diameter is inserted into the linear module as intermediate section and
clamped together.
panel.
approximately 5 W.

cable is unplugged.
15. Step 1 to 14 were repeated by using a stainless steel section of 25mm diameter
as intermediate section.
16. Temperature is taken at T1 to T3 and T7 to T9 at each heater power interval
since there is no thermocouple available inside the stainless steel section as
opposed to the brass section.
Experiment D: Fouriers Law for the Radial Conduction of Heat along a Plate
2. The main switch is checked to make sure that it is off.
3. The temperature sensors are installed to the radial module according to the
numbers and then connected to the panel.
panel.
approximately 5 W.
decreases towards the edge of the disk before any reading is taken.
cable is unplugged.
Experiment E: The Influence of Thermal Insulation upon the Conduction of Heat
between Adjacent Metals
2. The main switch is checked to make sure that it is off. A cardboard of 2mm
thickness is inserted into the linear module as intermediate section and
clamped together.
panel.
approximately 5 W.
10. Temperature is taken at T1 to T3 and T7 to T9 and recorded in a table.
cable is unplugged.
CHAPTER 3: Results and Discussion

Section A: Results
Experiment A: Fouriers Law study for the linear conduction of heat along a
homogeneous bar
The data of the experiment and the thermal conductivity, k and overall heat
transfer coefficient, U is recorded, calculated and tabulated in Table 3.1. The graph of
temperature distribution from heater end to the sink end section for brass at different
power, Q is shown in Figure 3.1. The chosen material used in this experiment is brass
with diameter of 0.025m.
Table 3.1: Temperature form T1 to T9 for different power, Q and the calculated value
dT
of thermal gradient, dx , thermal conductivity, k and overall heat transfer
coefficient, U for brass linear module
Q
(W)
5
10
15
20
Distance
from
heater
(m)
T1
(C
T2
(C
T3
(C
30.
6
34.
7
47.
5
54.
4
29.
8
33.
7
45.
4
51.
6
29.
3
33.
3
44.
5
50.
3
0.0
1
0.0
2
0.0
3
T7
(C
T8
(C
27.
0
27.
4
28.
7
29.
2
0.0
8
T4
(C)
T5
(C)
T6
(C)
29.0
28.8
28.6
32.7
32.2
31.8
37.6
37.1
35.8
49.1
48.9
47.3
27.
2
27.
7
29.
7
34.
5
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.0
7
Cross Section Area = D2/4

= 0.000491 m2
For Q = 5W
Thermal gradient, dT/dx = (T4-T6)/dx
= (29+273 28.6+273) / (0.06-0.04)
= 20 K/m
Thermal Conductivity, k = Q/A(dT/dX)
= 5 / [(0.000491)(20)]
= 509.16 W/m.K
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U = Q/A(dT)
= 5 / [(0.000491)(0.4)]
= 25458.25 W/m2K
The calculation is repeated with Q=10W, 15W and 20W.
T9
(C
dT
dX
(K/m)
k
(W/mK)
(W
26.7
20
509.16
254
26.9
55
452.59
226
27.7
90
339.44
169
28.0
150
271.55
135
0.09
Average thermal conductivity:

kavg = (509.16+452.59+339.44+271.55)/4
= 393.19 W/m.K
Average overall heat transfer coefficient:
Uavg = (25458.25+22629.55+16972.17+13577.73)/4
= 19659.43 W/m2.K
Graph of Temperature Distribution against Distance from Heater End to Heat Sink Section (Brass)
60
50
40
Temperature(C) 30
20
10
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Distance from T1, x(m)

5W
10 W
15 W
20 W
Figure 3.1: Graph of Temperature distribution against distance from heater end to heat
sink section (Brass)
From the table and graph above, the heating power increases as the
temperature increases. Based on the Fouriers Law, the rate of heat transfer through a
material is proportional to the magnitude of temperature gradient and opposite sign to
it (Leinhard IV & Lienhard V, 2016). The equation of Fouriers Law is given by
dT
Q = -kA dX
Q = rate of heat conduction (W)
A = cross sectional area normal to the direction of heat flow (W/m.K)
dT
dX = temperature gradient (K/m)
dx = distance between two sources of heat transfer
Williams (2014) states that thermal conduction is the transfer of heat that occurs
at the molecular level, where heat is transferred from a more energetic atom to its
adjacent less energetic particles which means the heat is transferred from a region of
higher temperature to a region of lower temperature. This statement has proven in this
experiment as the temperature decreases as it passes along the homogenous bar from
T1 to T9.
The thermal conductivity, k in this experiment decreases with an increase
power supplied. When the power supplied increases, the temperature of the system
increases as the system gains energy. The thermal conductivity is mainly a function of
the motion of free electrons. As the temperature increases, the molecular vibrations
increase which in turn decreasing the mean free path of molecules. Therefore, they
obstruct the flow of free electrons, thus reducing the conductivity (Tritt, 2004).
Experiment C: To study of heat conduction subjected to the types of materials

used
The data of the experiment and the thermal conductivity, k and overall heat
transfer coefficient, U is recorded, calculated and tabulated in Table 3.2 and the graph
of temperature distribution from heater end to the sink end section for brass at
different power, Q is shown in Figure 3.2. The chosen material used in this
experiment is stainless steel with diameter of 0.025m.
Table 3.2: Temperature form T1 to T3, Th, Tc and T7 to T9 for different power, Q and
dT
the calculated value of thermal gradient, dx , thermal conductivity, k and overall
heat transfer coefficient, U for stainless steel linear module.
Q(W)
T1
(C
)
5
10
15
34.9
42.4
51.0
20
74.6
Distance
from heater
(m)
0.01
T2
(C
)
34.
4
41.
5
49.
3
72.
1
0.0
2
T3
(C
)
Th
Tc
(C)
(C)
T7
(C
)
28.8
27.
7
27.
9
28.
0
28.
5
0.03 0.035 0.065
0.0
7
34.2
40.7
49.0
70.8
34.1
41.1
48.9
70.2
27.9
28.1
28.2
Cross Sectional Area = D2/4

= 0.000491 m2
For Q = 5W
Hot Temperature, Th = T3 [(T2-T3)/(2)]
= 34.2 - [(34.4-34.2)/2]
= 34.1 C
Cold Temperature, Tc = T7 + [(T7-T8)/2)]
T8
(C
)
T9
(C
)
27.9
27.
2
27.
3
27.
3
27.
4
0.08
0.0
9
27.4
27.6
27.6
dT
dx
(K/m)
k
(W/m.K)
U
(W/m2.K
1642.47
206.67
49.27
1566.66
433.33
47.00
1475.84
690.00
44.28
983.89
1380.00
29.52
= 27.7 + [(27.7-27.4)/2]
= 27.9 C
Thermal gradient,
dT
dx
= (Th-Tc)/dx
= (34.1 -27.9)/(0.065-0.035)
= 206.67 K/m

= 5 / [(0.000491)(206.67)]
= 49.27 W/m.K
= 5 / [(0.000491)(6.2)]
= 1642.47 W/m2.K
kavg = (49.27+47.00+44.28+29.52)/4
= 42.52 W/m.K
Uavg = (1642.47+1566.66+1475.84+983.89)/4
= 1417.22 W/m2.K
Graph of Temperature Distribution against Distance from Heater End to Heat Sink Section (Stainless Steel)
80
60
Temperature,(C) 40
20
0
0 0.01 0.020.030.040.050.06 0.070.080.09 0.1

5W
10 W
15 W
20 W
sink section (Stainless Steel) in linear module.
Th and Tc which represents the boundary temperature of stainless steel are

calculated from the data obtained in the experiment. From the Experiment A and
Experiment C, the thermal conductivity, k of stainless steel is smaller than the thermal
conductivity of brass. This is because brass and stainless steel have different crystal
structure. Brass has a face centered cubic (FCC) structure whereas stainless steel has a
body centered cubic (BCC) structure in arrangement of atoms.
The atoms are closely packed in FCC structure compares to BCC as there are
more atoms per unit crystal in FCC. Therefore, the energy will be easier to transfer in
FCC structure than BCC structure. It has been proven that the flow acceleration in
FCC structure is stronger than that in BCC structure and thus enhance the heat
transfer capability of FCC structure (Yuh & Lin, 2013).
Experiment D: Fouriers Law for the radial conduction of heat along a Brass
plate
Table 3.3 shows the recorded data of the experiment, the calculated thermal
conductivity, k and overall heat transfer coefficient, U. Figure 3.3 shows the
temperature distribution along the brass disc from the center of the disc at various
power, Q. The material used in this experiment is Brass with diameter of 0.11m.
Table 3.3: Temperature form T1 to T6 for different power, Q and the calculated value
of thermal gradient, thermal conductivity and overall heat transfer coefficient for
brass in radial module.
Q(W)
5.0
10.0
15
20.0
Distance
from heater
end, x(m)
T1(C
T2(C
T3(C
T4(C
T5(C
T6(C
27.8
30.2
36.2
40.7
0
27.6
28.5
31.3
33.4
0.01
27.5
27.6
28.8
29.8
0.02
27.3
27.5
28.3
28.9
0.03
27.2
27.4
28.1
28.5
0.04
27.1
27.3
27.5
27.7
0.05
For radial heat transfer;

Length, l = 0.003m
r 1 = 0.01m and r 2 = 0.04 m
Q=
2 kl T 2 kl(T 2T 5 )
=
r2
r
ln ( )
ln ( 2 )
r1
r1
For Q = 5W,
k
(W/m.K)
919.32
668.59
344.74
300.18
U
(W/m2.K)
663.15
482.29
248.68
216.54
r2
0.04 m
)
5W ln (
)
r1
0.01 m
k=
=
=229.82875 W /mK
2 l (T 2T 5) 2 (0.003 m)(27.627.2)
Q ln (
U =
Q
5W
=
=663.15W /m2 K
2 l(T 2T 5 ) 2 (0.003 m)( 27.627.2)

kavg = (919.32+668.59+344.74+300.18)/4
= 558.21 W/m.K
Uavg = (663.15+482.29+248.68+216.54)/4
= 402.67 W/m2.K
Graph of Temperature Distribution against Distance from Heater End to Heat Sink Section in Radial Module (Brass)
45
40
35
30
25
Temperature(C)
20
15
10
5
0

5W
10 W
15 W
20 W
sink section (Brass) in radial module.
Thermal conductivity, k value for each power is calculated using formula:

r2
)
r1
k=
2 L T
Qln(
The k value for heat to transfer from T2 to T5 is calculated. By comparing the k

values of experiment C (radial conduction module) and experiment A (linear
conduction module), average k value of radial conduction is higher than that of linear
conduction. This is because disc (cylinder) has higher conductivity as the surface area
exposed as Q A according to Fouriers law (Subramanian, n.d.).
Experiment E: Influence of thermal insulation upon the conduction of heat

between adjacent metals
Table 3.4 shows the recorded data of the experiment, the calculated thermal
conductivity, k and overall heat transfer coefficient, U. Figure 3.4 shows the
temperature distribution from heater end to the sink end section for brass with a
thermal insulation in between at different power, Q. The thermal insulation material
used in this experiment is cardboard with thickness of 0.002m.
Table 3.4: Temperature form T1 to T3, Th, Tc and T7 to T9 for different power, Q and
the calculated value of thermal gradient, thermal conductivity and overall heat transfer
coefficient for stainless steel linear module.
Q(W)
5
10
15
20
Distance
from
heater
(m)
T1
(C)
36.8
45.7
51.3
62.9
T2
(C)
36.3
44.7
50.1
61.1
T3
(C)
36.1
44.5
49.9
60.7
Th
(C)
36.0
44.4
49.8
60.5
Tc
(C)
28.4
28.5
28.6
28.8
T7
(C)
28.2
28.3
28.4
28.6
T8
(C)
27.9
28.0
28.1
28.2
T9
(C)
27.6
27.6
27.7
27.9
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.035
0.037
0.042
0.052
0.062
Cross Sectional Area = 0.000491 m2
dT
dx
(K/m)
3800
7950
10600
15850
k
(W/m.K)
2.68
2.56
2.88
2.57
(W/
13
12
14
12
For Q = 5W
Hot Temperature, Th = T3 [(T2-T3)/(2)]
=36.1 - [(36.3-36.1)/2]
=36 C
Cold Temperature, Tc = T7 + [(T7-T8)/2)]
=28.2 + [(28.2-27.9)/2]
=28.4 C
Thermal gradient, dT/dx = (Th-Tc)/dx
=(36 -28.4)/(0.037-0.035)
= 3800 K/m
= 5 / [(0.000491)(3800)]
=2.68 W/m.K
= 5 / [(0.000491)(7.6)]
= 1339.91 W/m2.K
kavg = (2.68+2.56+2.88+2.57)/4
= 10.69 W/m.K
Uavg = (1339.91+1280.92+1441.03+1284.96)/4
= 1336.71 W/m2.K
Graph of Temperature Distribution against Distance from Heater End to Heat Sink Section with an Insulation Material
70
60
50
40
Temperature,(C) 30
20
10
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07

5W
10 W
15 W
20 W
sink section with an insulation material
Based on the tabulated result and graph, the thermal conductivity of cardboard
is lower compares to brass and stainless steel. In this experiment, cardboard acts as a
heat insulator. The poor heat conductivity ability of paper causes a significant drop of
temperature between hot section and cold section as heat is insulated and prevented
from reaching cold section. This is because cardboard doesnt have the metallic bonds
with free moving electrons which exist in brass and stainless steel. The cardboard
atoms are bonded together with covalent bonds and its electron are not moving freely.
Munley (n.d.) states that the speed of heat conduction in metals is also determined by
the number of free electrons present and how fast they move along the lattice.
Section B. Error Source and Recommendation

Error:
Sensitivity of the equipment
The heater power of the control panel is difficult to adjust and it is very sensitive to
the movement of surrounding air. This slows down the data record process thus
affects the accuracy of the data.
Recommendation:
In order to get more accurate result, the average value of k and overall heat transfer
coefficient, U are taken for each of the experiment. The sample of calculation (for
experiment A) is as shown below:
= 5 / [(0.000491)(20)]
= 509.16 W/m.K
= 5 / [(0.000491)(0.4)]
= 25458.25 W/m2K
The calculation is repeated for experiment C,D and E in appendix.
Reference
Lienhard IV, J.H. & Lienhard V, J.H. (2016). Model of Heat Transfer. A Heat
Transfer Textbook (4th Eds). Phlogiston Press: Cambridge.
Munley,F.(N.D). Relationship between electrical conductivity and thermal
conductivity.Physlink. Retrieved from
http://www.physlink.com/education/askexperts/ae432.cfm
Subramanian R. S. (n.d.). Conduction in the Cylindrical Geometry. Department of
Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering Clarkson University.
Tritt, Terry M. (2004). Thermal Conductivity. Theory, Properties, and Applications.
Yuh, M.F., & Lin, K-Y. (2013). Investigating effects of BCC and FCC arrangements
on flow and heat transfer characteristics in pebbles through CFD
methodology. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 258, 66-75.

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Chapter 2: Experimental Procedures

Experiment A: Fouriers Law for the Linear Conduction of Heat along a

11. Step 9 and 10 were repeated for heater power of 10 W, 15 W and 20 W.

CHAPTER 3: Results and Discussion

Cross Section Area = D2/4

Average thermal conductivity:

Distance from T1, x(m)

Experiment C: To study of heat conduction subjected to the types of materials

0.03 0.035 0.065

Cross Sectional Area = D2/4

Thermal Conductivity, k = Q/A(dT/dX)

0 0.01 0.020.030.040.050.06 0.070.080.09 0.1

Distance from T1, x(m)

Th and Tc which represents the boundary temperature of stainless steel are

For radial heat transfer;

The calculation is repeated with Q=10W, 15W and 20W.

Distance from T1, x(m)

Thermal conductivity, k value for each power is calculated using formula:

The k value for heat to transfer from T2 to T5 is calculated. By comparing the k

Experiment E: Influence of thermal insulation upon the conduction of heat

Cross Sectional Area = 0.000491 m2

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07

Distance from T1, x(m)

Section B. Error Source and Recommendation

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Methodology Result&Discussion Reference

Methodology Result&Discussion Reference