ANTENNAS

Antennas are passive devices. Therefore,

the power radiated by a transmitting
antenna cannot be greater than the
power entering from the transmitter. In
fact, it is always less because of losses.
Antennas achieve gain by concentrating
energy.
Antennas are reciprocal devices; that is,
the same design works equally well as a
transmitting or a receiving antenna and
in fact has the same gain. In wireless
communication, often the same antenna
is used for both transmission and
reception.
The task of a transmitting antenna is to
convert the electrical energy travelling
along
a
transmission
line
into
electromagnetic waves in space.
The energy in the transmission line is
contained in the electric field between
the conductors and in the magnetic field
surrounding them.
At the receiving antenna, the electric and
magnetic fields in space cause current to
flow in the conductors that make up the
antenna.

A lossless half-wave dipole does not

dissipate power either, but it does
radiate power into space. The effect on
the feedpoint impedance is the same as
if a loss had taken place. The half-wave
dipole looks like a resistance of about 70
at its feedpoint.
Radiation resistance - The portion of an
antennas input impedance that is due to
power radiated into space.
A real antenna, of course, has losses in
the conductor and therefore has an
efficiency less than one. This efficiency
can be defined as

where
Pr=radiated power
Pt =total power supplied the antenna
2

Recalling that P=I R , we have

SIMPLE ANTENNAS
1. Isotropic - it has zero size, is perfectly
efficient, and radiates power equally in all
directions. Even though this antenna cannot be
built and tested, its characteristics are simple
and easy to derive.
2. Half-wave dipole - is a simple, practical
antenna which is in common use. Actually, in
practice its length should be slightly less than
one-half the free-space wavelength to allow for
capacitive effects. A half-wave dipole is
sometimes called a Hertz antenna. It is used in
the calculation of antenna radiation patterns.

Length of a Half wave dipole ,

( 0.95 )( 0.5 ) (c)
=
2
f

Pr
Pt

I 2 Rr
= 2
I Rt

Rr
Rt

where
Rr =radiationresistance , as seen the feedpoint
Rt =total resistance , as seen the feedpoint

Unlike the isotropic radiator, the halfwave dipole does not radiate uniformly in
all directions. The field strength is at its
maximum along a line at a right angle to
the antenna and is zero off the ends of
the antenna.
ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS
Antennas differ in the amount of
radiation they emit in various directions.
1. Radiation Pattern

For Far-field region - an observer must be far

enough away from the antenna that any local
capacitive or inductive coupling is negligible.

where

D=directivity as a ratio ( notdB )

G=gain , as a ratio ( notdB )

=efficiency

dist. radius from a point of source is >>

To find the gain of a real (lossy) dipole, it is
necessary first to convert the decibel
directivity to a power ratio, then to multiply
by the efficiency.

2
The space close to the antenna is called the
near-field region and does not have the same
directional characteristics.
dist. radius from a point of source is <<

2. Gain and Directivity

The gain of an antenna may be expressed in
decibels with respect to a halfwave dipole, or
dBd for short. Since the gain of a dipole is 2.14
dBi, the gain of any antenna in dBd is 2.14 dB
less than the gain of the same antenna
expressed in dBi. That is,

3. Beamwidth - The width of this beam is

defined as the angle between its half-power
points. These are also the points at which the
power density is 3 dB less than it is at its
maximum point. Half-wave dipole has a
beamwidth of about 78 in one plane and 360
in the other.

4. Front to Back Ratio - the ratio between the

gains to the front and back. It can be found by
subtracting the gains in dBi or dBd.
the direction of maximum radiation in
the horizontal plane is considered to be
the front of the antenna, and the back
is the direction 180 from the front.

G ( dBd ) =G ( dBi )2.14 dB where

G ( dBd ) =gain of antennadecibels WRT a half wave dipole

5. Major and Minor Lobes - The dipole antenna

of Figure 8.4 viewed in the horizontal plane has
G ( dBi )=gain of the same antennadecibels WRT an isotropic
radiator
two equal lobes of radiation. The more complex
antenna of Figure 8.6, however, has one major
Obviously, when comparing antennas, it is
lobe and a number of minor ones. Each of
important to know which reference antenna
these lobes has a gain and beamwidth which
was used in gain calculations.
can be found separately using the diagram.
Remember that for antennas, power gain
in one direction is at the expense of
losses in others.
Sometimes the term directivity is used.
This is not quite the same as gain.
Directivity is the gain calculated
assuming a lossless antenna. Real
antennas have losses, and gain is simply
the
directivity
multiplied
by
the
efficiency of the antenna, that is:

G=D

6. Effective Isotropic Radiated Power

Effective Radiated Power (EIRP and ERP)

and

EIRP - which is simply the actual power

going into the antenna multiplied by its
gain with respect to an isotropic radiator.

EIRP=Pt Gt =P At
ERP - which represents the power input
multiplied by the antenna gain measured
with respect to a half-wave dipole. Since
an ideal half-wave dipole has a gain of
2.14 dBi, the EIRP is 2.14 dB greater than

the ERP for the same antennatransmitter combination. That is,

OTHER SIMPLE ANTENNAS

1. Folded Dipole - It is the same length as a

standard half-wave dipole, but it is made with
two parallel conductors, joined at both ends
where
and separated by a distance that is short
compared with the length of the antenna. One
EIRP=effective isotropic radiated power for a given transmitterantenna
of the conductors is broken in the center and
connected to a balanced feedline.
ERP=effective radiated power for the same transmitterantenna

EIRP=ERP +2.14 dB

Convert the power to dBm or dBW first, if it is

not already expressed in such units.

7. Impedance
The impedance is completely resistive
at resonance, which occurs when the
length of the antenna is about 95% of
the
calculated
free-space
halfwavelength value.
If the frequency is above resonance, the
feedpoint impedance has an inductive
component; if the frequency is lower
than resonance, the antenna impedance
is capacitive.
A center-fed dipole is a balanced device,
and should be used with a balanced
feedline. If coaxial cable is used, a balun
(balanced-to-unbalanced)
transformer
should be connected between the cable
and the antenna.
Delta match - It is possible to feed the
antenna at some distance from the
center in both directions. Allows the
impedance to be adjusted to match a
transmission line.
8. Polarization - the polarization of a radio wave
is the orientation of its electric field
vector. A horizontal antenna produces
horizontally polarized waves, and a vertical
antenna gives vertical polarization.
It is important that the polarization be
the
same
at
both
ends
of
a
communication path.
9. Ground Effects participation of earth.

It has a wider bandwidth than an

ordinary half-wave dipole. For this
reason, it is often usedalone or with
other elementsfor television and FM
broadcast receiving antennas.
It also has approximately four times
the feedpoint impedance of an
ordinary dipole. This accounts for the
extensive use of 300- balanced line,
known as twin lead, in TV and FM
receiving installations.

2. Monopole Antenna (vertical quarter wave) It is mounted on a ground plane, which can be
the actual ground or an artificial ground such as
the body of a vehicle. The monopole is fed at
the lower end with coaxial cable.
This antenna has a power gain of two (or
3 dB) over a dipole in free space.
Inductors used to increase the effective
length of antennas are called loading
coils.
3. The Five-Eighths Wavelength Antenna - This
antenna is often used vertically as either a
mobile or base antenna in VHF and UHF
systems.
It has a higher feedpoint impedance
and therefore does not require as
good a ground, because the current
at the feedpoint is less. The
impedance is typically lowered to
match that of a 50- feedline by the
use
of
an
impedance-matching
section.
4. The Discone Antenna - It is characterized by
very wide bandwidth, covering approximately a
ten-to-one
frequency
range,
and
an

omnidirectional pattern in the horizontal plane.

The signal is vertically polarized and the gain is
comparable to that of a dipole.
impedance of free space, which is
377
The wide bandwidth of the discone
makes it a very popular antenna for
general reception in the VHF and UHF
ranges. It is a favorite for use with
scanners.
5. Helical Antennas - is a spiral, usually several
wavelengths long.
produce circularly polarized waves
whose sense is the same as that of the
helix.
can be used to receive circularly
polarized waves with the same sense
and can also receive plane polarized
waves with the polarization in any
direction.
are often used with VHF and UHF
satellite transmissions.
It is mounted on a ground plane made up
of either solid metal or a metal screen
that resembles chicken wire.
The gain of a helical antenna is proportional to
the number of turns. An approximate
expression for the gain, as a power ratio with
respect to an isotropic radiator is:
2

15 NS
G=

For the major lobe, the 3 dB beamwidth (in

degrees) is approximately

52
D NS

where

=beamwidthdegrees
There are two modes of propagation,
Normal mode EM radiation is in a direction at
right angles to the axis of the helix.
Axial mode radiation is in the axial direction
and
produces
a
broadband,
relatively
directional pattern.

6. Slot Antenna - Its radiation pattern and gain

are similar to those of a dipole with a plane
reflector behind it. It therefore has much less
gain than, for instance, a horn antenna. The
length of the slot is generally one-half
wavelength.

7. Horn Antenna - can be viewed as impedance

transformers
that
match
waveguide
impedances to that of free space. The gain and
directivity of horn antennas depend on the type
of horn and its dimensions.

8. Patch Antenna - A patch antenna consists of

a thin metallic patch placed a small fraction of
a wavelength above a conducting ground
where
plane. The patch and ground plane are
separated by a dielectric.
G=gain ( as a ratio , notdB ) , with respect an isotropic radiator Patch antennas are low in cost, compact
at
N=number of turnsthehelix , N > 3
UHF and microwave frequencies, and have gain
on the order of 6 dBi.

S=turn spacingmeters , S / 4
D=diameter of the helixmeters , D /

=wavelengthmeters

9. Ground Plane Antenna used at VHF and

above. Often used at CB base stations.
10. Loop Antenna usually used at AM and FM
receivers. It is simply a single turn coil of wire
that
is
significantly shorter
than
one
wavelength and carries RF current.

ANTENNA ARRAYS
Arrays can be classified as broadside or endfire, according to their direction of maximum
radiation.
If the maximum radiation is along
the main axis of the antenna (which
may or may not coincide with the axis of
its individual elements), the antenna is
an end-fire array. T-lines is not
crisscrossed.
If the maximum radiation is at right
angles to this axis, the array has a
broadside configuration.
Antenna arrays can also be classified according
to the way in which the elements are
connected.
A phased array has all its elements
connected to the feedline. There may be
phase-shifting,
power-splitting,
and
impedance matching arrangements for
individual elements, but all receive
power from the feedline (assuming a
transmitting antenna). It is a group of
antenna arrays that when connected
together, function as a single antenna.
They eliminate the need for mechanically
rotating antenna elements. Its radiation
pattern can be electronically adjusted.
Collinear Array - one type of broadside
array using half wave dipoles. This is
called a collinear array because the axes
of the elements are all along the same
line.
Turnstile - The turnstile is a simple
combination of two dipoles designed to
give omnidirectional performance in the
horizontal
plane,
with
horizontal
polarization. Turnstile antennas are often
used for FM broadcast reception, where
they give reasonable performance in all
directions without the need for a rotor.
Formed by placing two dipoles at right
angles to each other.
Log-Periodic Dipole Array - The logperiodic array derives its name from the
fact that the feedpoint impedance is a
periodic function of the operating

frequency. The most popular antenna for

television reception.
Since the transmitter can be said to drive
each element by supplying power, these
are also called driven arrays.
On the other hand, in some arrays only
one element is connected to the
feedline. The others work by absorbing
and reradiating power radiated from the
driven element. These are called
parasitic elements, and the antennas are
known as parasitic arrays.
The Yagi-Uda array is the most popular
type of parasitic array. It has one driven
element, one reflector behind the driven
element, and one or more directors in
front of the driven element.
The spacing between elements varies,
but is typically about 0.2 wavelength.
The Yagi-Uda antenna is often called just
the Yagi array.
- is a unidirectional end-fire array
with a single main lobe in the direction

REFLECTORS
The antennas and arrays described in the
preceding section can often be used with
reflecting
surfaces
to
improve
their
performance. A reflector may consist of one or
more planes, or it may be parabolic in shape.
1. Plane and Corner Reflectors - A plane
reflector acts in a similar way to an ordinary
mirror. Reflection changes the phase angle of a
signal by 180. It is possible to use a plane
reflector with almost any antenna. Base
antennas for cellular radio systems are often of
this type.
The corner reflector creates two images for a
somewhat sharper pattern. Corner reflectors
are often combined with Yagi arrays in UHF
television antennas.
2. Parabolic Reflector - have the useful property
that any ray originating at a point called the
focus and striking the reflecting surface will be
reflected parallel to the axis of the parabola.
That is, a collimated beam of radiation will be
produced. The parabolic dish antenna,

familiar from backyard satellite receiver

installations, consists of a small antenna at the
focus of a large parabolic reflector, which
focuses the signal in the same way as the
reflector of a searchlight focuses a light beam.
Ideally the antenna at the feedpoint should
illuminate the entire surface of the dish with
the same intensity of radiation and should not
spill any radiation off the edges of the dish or
in other directions. If that were the case, the
gain and beamwidth of the antenna could
easily be calculated.
The equation for beamwidth is,

70
D

where
=beamwidthdegrees at the 3 dB points

=freespace wavelengthm
D=diameter of the dishm

For gain, the equation is

G=

2 D2
2

where

CELLULAR AND PCS ANTENNAS

This section considers antennas for 800-MHz
cellular radio and 1900-MHz PCS systems. The
requirements are similar, though of course the
PCS antennas are physically smaller. Dual-band
antennas also exist, both for base and portable
units.
Cell-Site Antennas - There is a need
for omnidirectional antennas and for
antennas with beamwidths of 120 and
less for sectorized cells. Narrower
beamwidths are also useful for filling in
dead spots. Typical cellular antennas use
variations of the collinear antenna
described earlier for omnidirectional
patterns and either collinear antennas
backed by reflectors or log-periodic
antennas for directional patterns.
Cellular and PCS base-station receiving
antennas are usually mounted in such a
way as to obtain space diversity.

Mobile and Portable Antennas - The

portable and mobile antennas used with
cellular and PCS systems have to be
omnidirectional and small, especially in
the case of portable phones. The latter
requirement is, of course, easier to
achieve at 1900 MHz than at 800 MHz.
Many PCS phones must double as 800MHz cell phones, however, so they need
an antenna that works well at 800 MHz.

G=gain with respect an isotropic antenna, as a power ratio (not dB)

The simplest suitable antenna is a
D=diameter of the dishm

quarter-wave monopole, and these are

the usual antennas supplied with
portable phones.

=the freespace wavelengthm

=theantenna efficiency
for atypical antenna is between 0.5 and 0.7.

Any type of antenna can be used with a

parabolic reflector.

ANTENNAS by Tomasi
Waveguide is a special type of
transmission line that consists of a
conducting metallic tube through which
high-frequency electromagnetic energy
is propagated. It is used to efficiently
interconnect high-frequency EM waves
between an antenna and a transceiver.

 Radio waves - are electrical energy

that has escaped into free space in the
form of transverse EM waves.
Wavefront the plane parallel to the
mutually perpendicular lines of the
electric and magnetic fields.
The size of an antenna is inversely
proportional to frequency.
Radiation efficiency is the ratio of
radiated to reflected energy. To radiate
more
energy,
simply
spread
the
conductors farther apart.

A basic antenna is a passive

reciprocal device that it cannot
actually amplify signals, and reciprocal
that
the
transmit
and
receive
characteristics and performance are
identical.
A special coupling device called a
diplexer can be used to direct the
transmit and receive signals and provide
the necessary isolation.
Active antennas are nonreciprocal.
Absolute radiation pattern in terms of E
field strength
Relative radiation pattern WRT the
value at a reference point
Front lobe major lobe; primary beam
Side lobe minor lobe (lobes adjacent to
the front lobes); secondary beam
Back lobe direction exactly opposite
the front lobe
The line bisecting the major lobe is
called the line of shoot
Near field induction field
Far field radiation field
When
referenced
to
the
current
maximum point, radiation resistance is
sometimes
called
loop
radiation
resistance because a current maximum
is also called a current loop.
Antenna efficiency is the ratio of the
power radiated by an antenna to the
total input power.
Directive gain is the ratio of the
power density radiated in a particular
direction to the power density radiated
to the same point by a reference
antenna.
The maximum directive gain is called
directivity.

Power gain the same as directive gain

except that the total power fed to the
antenna is used.
Captured power density the power
density in space

P=

P At

4 R2

where

P= power density ,

W
m2

P =transmit antennainput power ( watts )

A t =transmit antenna power gain(unitless)
R=distance transmit antenna

The capture area of an antenna is an

effective area. The transmit antenna
radiates an EM wave that has a power
density at the receive antennas location
in W/m2.
The power available at the antennas
output terminals (in watts) is the
captured
power.
It
is
directly
proportional to the received power
density and the effective capture area of
the receive antenna.
Antenna bandwidth is a vaguely
defined as the frequency range over
which
antenna
operation
is
satisfactory.
Feedpoint the point on the antenna
where the transmission line is connected.
The feedpoint presents an AC load to the
transmission line called the antenna
input impedance.
Elementary doublet is an electrically
short dipole and is often referred to
simply as a short dipole, elementary
dipole, or Hertzian dipole.
A Hertz antenna is a resonant antenna.
Another way of artificially improving the
conductivity of the ground area below
the antenna is with a counterpoise. It is
a wire structure placed below the
antenna and erected above the ground.

 With top loading, a metallic array that

resembles a spoked wheel is placed on
top of the antenna.
An antenna array is formed when two
or more antenna elements are combined
to form a single antenna.
Reflector parasitic element longer
than the driven element.
Director parasitic element shorter
than the driven element.
The rhombic antenna is a non-resonant
antenna that is capable of operating
satisfactorily over a relative wide
bandwidth, making it ideally suited for
HF transmission
Microwave antennas ordinarily have halfpower beamwidths on the order of 1 or
less.
Three
important
characteristics
of
microwave antennas are the front-toback ratio, side-to-side coupling, and
back-to-back coupling.
Side-to-side
and
back-to-back
coupling express in dB is the coupling
loss
between
antennas
carrying
transmitter output signals and nearby
antennas carrying receiver input signals.
Parabolic reflector antenna - is the
most common type of antenna used for
microwave transmission and reception.
Provide extremely high gain and
directivity.
Two main parts:
Parabolic reflector the most basic
component. It resembles the shape of a

plate or dish, therefore is sometimes

called parabolic dish antenna.
Feed mechanism houses the primary
antenna which radiates EM waves toward
the reflector.
*Center feed the primary antenna is
placed at the focus.
*Horn feed the primary antenna is a
small horn antenna rather than a simple
dipole or dipole array.
*Cassegrain feed the primary
radiating source is located in or just
behind a small opening at the vertex of
the paraboloid rather than at the focus.
The primary antenna is aimed at a small
secondary reflector located between the
vertex and the focus.
A conical horn antenna consists of a
cone that is truncated in a piece of
circular waveguide
Rectangular
waveguide

most
common form of waveguide.
Circular waveguide used in radar and
microwave applications when it is
necessary or advantageous to propagate
both vertically and horizontally polarized
waves in the same waveguide.
Ridged waveguide is more expensive
to
manufacture
than
a
standard
rectangular waveguide; however, it also
allows operation at lower frequencies for
a given size. More loss per unit length.
Flexible waveguide consists of spiralwound ribbons of brass or copper. Is
used extensively in microwave test
equipment.