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Sample Designs and Sampling

Procedures

Problem
discovery

Problem Discovery
and Definition

Sampling

Selection of
exploratory research
technique

Secondary
(historical)
data

Experience
survey

Probability

Pilot
study

Case
study

Data
Gathering
Data
Processing
and
Analysis

Problem definition
(statement of
research objectives)

Experiment
Laboratory

Conclusions
and Report

Survey
Field

Interview

Nonprobability

Collection of
data
(fieldwork)
Editing and
coding
data
Data
processing

Selection of
basic research
method

Research Design

Selection of
exploratory research
technique

Questionnaire

Observation

Secondary
Data Study

Interpretation
of
findings

Report

Sampling Terminology





Sample A representative part of population


Population or universe- A complete group
Population element A unit of population
Census Analysis of all elements

Stages in the
Selection
of a Sample

Define the target population

Select a sampling frame

Determine if a probability or nonprobability


sampling method will be chosen
Plan procedure
for selecting sampling units

Determine sample size

Select actual sampling units

Conduct fieldwork

Target Population Target group on which


survey needs to be done

Sampling Frame A list of elements from


which the sample may be drawn

Sampling Units Group selected for the


sample

Random Sampling Error




The difference between the sample results


and the result of a census conducted using
identical procedures
Statistical fluctuation due to chance variations

Systematic Errors





Nonsampling errors
Unrepresentative sample results
Not due to chance
Due to study design or imperfections in
execution

Errors Associated with Sampling






Sampling frame error


Random sampling error
Nonresponse error

Two Major Categories of Sampling




Probability sampling


Known, nonzero probability for every element

No probability sampling


Probability of selecting any particular member


is unknown

Nonprobability Sampling





Convenience Ease of availability


Judgment Gut Feel/ Rational Feel
Quota Proportional Sample
Snowball eg. Reference.

Probability Sampling




Simple random sample


Systematic sample Every regular Intervals
Stratified sample Small Variation in group and wide
variation between groups

Cluster sample - Wide Variation in group and Small


variation between groups

Multistage area sample The sample is selected


progressively. (Refer Page 391)

Quota Sampling


Ensures that the various subgroups in a


population are represented on pertinent
sample characteristics
To the exact extent that the investigators
desire
It should not be confused with stratified
sampling.

Comparison of various sampling




Page 393.

What is the
Appropriate Sample Design?







Degree of accuracy
Resources
Time
Advanced knowledge of the population
National versus local Scope of study
Need for statistical analysis Final Analysis
Method

Fieldwork

Fieldworker

Who Conducts Fieldwork?

FIELD INTERVIEWING
SERVICE
FIELDFIELDWORKERS
IN-HOUSE
ININTERVIEWERS
BRIEFING SESSIONS

In-House Training

RECORDING
RESPONSES

MAKING INITIAL
CONTACT
PROBING

ASKING
QUESTIONS

TERMINATING
INTERVIEWS

Making Initial Contact


and Securing the Interview




Good afternoon, my name is


Foot-in-the-door
Door-in-the-face

Asking the Questions








Exactly as worded
Read slowly
Questions in the proper order
Ask every question
Repeat questions that are not understood

Probing


Verbal attempts made by a field-worker when


the respondent must be motivated to
communicate his or her answers more fully
Probes enlarge and clarify

Probing Tactics

SILENT
PROBE
REPEAT QUESTION

NEUTRAL
QUESTION

REPEAT REPLY

Recording the Response

Terminating the Interview




How to close interview and exit household is


important
Reinterviewing may be required

Fieldwork Management





Select
Train
Supervise
Control

Interviewer Cheating



Filling in fake answers or falsifying interviews


Verification by reinterview

Determination of Sample Size

What does Statistics Mean?




Descriptive statistics.


Detailed Information about a population.

Inferential statistics.


Make an inference about a population from a


sample.

Population Parameter Versus


Sample Statistics

Making Data Usable






Frequency distributions
Proportions
Central tendency




Mean
Median
Mode

Measures of dispersion

Frequency Distribution of Deposits

Amount
less than $3,000
$3,000 - $4,999
$5,000 - $9,999
$10,000 - $14,999
$15,000 or more

Frequency (number of
people making deposits
in each range)
499
530
562
718
811
3,120

Percentage Distribution of Amounts


of Deposits
Amount
less than $3,000
$3,000 - $4,999
$5,000 - $9,999
$10,000 - $14,999
$15,000 or more

Percent
16
17
18
23
26
100

Probability Distribution of Amounts


of Deposits
Amount
less than $3,000
$3,000 - $4,999
$5,000 - $9,999
$10,000 - $14,999
$15,000 or more

Probability
.16
.17
.18
.23
.26
1.00

Measures of Central Tendency




Mean - arithmetic average







, Population;

, sample

X of the distribution
Median - midpoint
Mode - the value that occurs most often

Population Mean

X
=
N

Sample Mean

Xi
X=
n

Measures of Dispersion
or Spread





Range
Mean absolute deviation
Variance
Standard deviation

The Range
as a Measure of Spread


The range is the distance between the


smallest and the largest value in the set.

Range = largest value smallest value

Deviation Scores


The differences between each observation


value and the mean:

d x x
i =

Average Deviation

(X i X)
=0
n

Mean Squared Deviation

(Xi X)
n

The Variance

Population

Sample
S

Variance

( X X )
S =
n 1
2

Variance



The variance is given in squared units


The standard deviation is the square root of
variance:

Sample Standard Deviation

2
( Xi X )
=
n1

Population Standard Deviation

Sample Standard Deviation

S= S

The Normal Distribution






Normal curve
Bell shaped
Almost all of its values are within plus or
minus 3 standard deviations

Normal Distribution

MEAN

Normal Distribution
68.26%

27.18%

13.59%
2.14%

34.13%

34.13%

13.59%

4.28%
2.14%

Standardized Normal Distribution







Symetrical about its mean


Mean identifies highest point
Infinite number of cases - a continuous distribution
Area under curve has a probability density = 1.0

Standard Normal Curve





The curve is bell-shaped or symmetrical


About 68% of the observations will fall within
1 standard deviation of the mean
About 95% of the observations will fall within
approximately 2 (1.96) standard deviations
of the mean
Almost all of the observations will fall within 3
standard deviations of the mean

A Standardized Normal Curve

-2

-1

Standardized Values


Used to compare an individual value to the


population mean in units of the standard
deviation

z=

Population distribution
Sample distribution
Sampling distribution

Population Distribution

Sample Distribution

Sampling Distribution

SX

Central Limit Theorem

Standard Error of the Mean


: Standard deviation of the sampling
distribution

Sx =

Notations
Distribution

Mean

Population

Sample

SX

Sampling

Standard
Deviation

Parameter Estimates



Point estimates
Confidence interval estimates

Confidence Interval

= X a small sampling error

SMALL SAMPLING ERROR = Z cl S X

=X E

Estimating the Standard Error of


the Mean

S
n

= X Z cl

S
n

Random Sampling Error and


Sample Size are Related

Sample Size





Variance (standard
deviation)
Magnitude of error
Confidence level

Sample Size Formula

zs

n=
E

Sample Size Formula - Example

zs
n =
E

(1.96)(29.00)
=

2.00

56.84
2
=
(
)
=
28
.
42

2.00

= 808

Sample Size Formula - Example

zs
(1.96)(29.00)
n = =

4.00
E

56.84
2
=
(
)
=
14
.
21

4.00

= 202

Calculating Sample Size


99% Confidence

(
2
.
57
)(
29
)
n=

74.53
=

2
2
= [37.265]
=1389

(
2
.
57
)(
29
)
n=

74.53
=

4
2
= [18.6325]
= 347

Standard Error of the Proportion

or
p (1 p )
n

pq
n

Confidence Interval for a Proportion

pZ S
cl

Sample Size for a Proportion

Z pq
n=
E
2

z 2pq
n=
2
E
Where:
n = Number of items in samples
Z2 = The square of the confidence interval
in standard error units.
p = Estimated proportion of success
q = (1-p) or estimated the proportion of failures
E2 = The square of the maximum allowance for error
between the true proportion and sample proportion
or zsp squared.

Calculating Sample Size


at the 95% Confidence Level
p = .6
q = .4

(1. 96 )2(. 6)(. 4 )


n=
( . 035 )2
(3. 8416)(. 24)
001225
. 922
=
. 001225
= 753
=

Editing and Coding

Stages of Data Analysis


EDITING

CODING

DATA ENTRY

DATA ANALYSIS

ERROR
CHECKING
AND
VERIFICATION

Editing


The process of checking and


adjusting the data




for omissions
for legibility
for consistency

And readying them for coding


and storage

Birth Year Recorded by Interviewer





1873?
1973 more likely

Coding


The process of identifying and assigning a


numerical score or other character symbol to
previously edited data

Editing
FIELD
EDITING

IN-HOUSE
EDITING

Reasons for Editing

CONSISTENCY

COMPLETENESS

QUESTIONS
ANSWERED
OUT OF ORDER

I Dont Know




Legitimate dont know


Reluctant dont know
Confused dont know

Codes


The rules for interpreting, classifying, and


recording data in the coding process
The actual numerical or other character
symbols

1a. How many years have you been playing tennis on a regular basis?
Number of years: __________
b. What is your level of play?
Novice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lower Intermediate . . . . .
Upper Intermediate . . . . .

-1
-2
-3

Advanced . . . . . . .
Expert . . . . . . . . .
Teaching Pro . . . .

-4
-5
-6

c. In the last 12 months, has your level of play improved, remained the
same or decreased?
Improved. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Remained the same . . . . .

-1
-2

Decreased. . . . . . .

-3

2a. Do you belong to a club with tennis facilities?

Yes . . . . . . .
No . . . . . . .

b. How many people in your household - including yourself - play tennis?


Number who play tennis ___________
3a. Why do you play tennis? (Please X all that apply.)
To have fun . . . . . . . . . .
To stay fit. . . . . . . . . . . .
To be with friends. . . . . .
To improve my game . . .
To compete. . . . . . . . . . .
To win. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6

b. In the past 12 months, have you purchased any tennis instructional


books or video tapes?
Yes . . . . . . .
-1
No . . . . . . .
-2

-1
-2

4. Please rate each of the following with regard to this flight, if applicable.
Excellent Good
Courtesy and Treatment from the:
Skycap at airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Airport Ticket Counter Agent . . . . .
Boarding Point (Gate) Agent . . . . .
Flight Attendants . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Your Meal or Snack. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Beverage Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Seat Comfort. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carry-On Stowage Space. . . . . . . .
Cabin Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Video/Stereo Entertainment . . . . . .
On-Time Departure . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fair

Poor

I believe that people judge your success by


the kind of car you drive.
Strongly agree
Mildly agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
Mildly agree
Strongly disagree

1
2
3
4
5

Strongly agree
Mildly agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
Mildly agree
Strongly disagree

+1
+2
0
-1
-2

Rules for Coding





Categories should be exhaustive


Categories should be mutually exclusive and
independent

Coding Open-Ended Responses

Code Book




Identifies each variable


Provides a variables description
Identifies each code name and position on
storage medium

Data Entry


The process of transforming data from the


research project to computers.
Optical scanning systems


Marked-sensed questionnaires

Recode


Recoding is the process of using a computer


to convert original cods used for raw data to
codes that are more suitable for analysis.
Var1 = 8 - Var1

Error Checking and Verification




Data cleaning

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