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Introduction

1.1. Introduction
Artificial insemination (AI) involves the collection of semen from a male,
usually of superior genetic merit, followed by the transfer of that semen into
a sexually receptive female at the time of ovulation, in order to result in
fertilization. It is practised in numerous mammals, including humans, farm
livestock and exotic zoological species. It has a long history, with the first
reputed use being in the 14th century. However, significant development of
the technique did not occur until the end of the 19th century. Research was
largely carried out in horses and dogs, with the first commercial application
being in horses in Russia at the end of the 19th century. Before its use in
horses could be established, the advent of the combustion engine and the
subsequent decline in horse numbers drove AI research towards its use in
other farm livestock. Though some countries continued their interest in and
use of equine AI, usually on a small scale, many countries concentrated their
interests on bovine and then ovine and porcine AI, which had the greater
earning potential. The recent upsurge in interest in equine AI during the last
15 years has been a reflection of the increase in horse numbers along with
the developing leisure interest in horse riding and the realization of the
economic advantages of AI.

1.2. Advantages of Artificial Insemination

There are many advantages in the use of equine AI, including the following.

Facilitation and acceleration of genetic improvement of stock

The use of AI results in an increase in the use of males with superior genetic
merit and accelerates the introduction of new genetic material through
importation of foreign semen. This will increase the incidence of genetically
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advantageous traits within the population and encourage the widespread use
of outstanding stallions and hence worldwide dissemination of valuable
genetic material. This can also be to the advantage of breeding programmes,
allowing accelerated improvement and facilitating progeny testing. However,
care must be taken in defining genetically superior, as this may only be a
result of temporary fashion. Concentration on one trait will be to the exclusion of others, thus limiting the genetic base from which future fashionable
traits may be drawn.

Ensuring routine semen evaluation and monitoring

The collection of semen prior to AI allows evaluation of the sample. This,
plus the associated routine evaluations, allows problems to be detected
quickly so that immediate remedial action can be taken.

Improvement in the reproductive potential of sub-fertile stallions

AI may be used to increase the reproductive potential of stallions with poor
semen quality. Treatment of semen, including concentration and filtration,
may be used to produce a good quality sample from a number of poorer
quality ejaculates. The insemination of this sample into the mare will enhance
the chances of fertilization. Semen extenders can be designed specifically to
contain supportive and protective factors for spermatozoa, which may then
enhance pregnancy rates from sub-fertile stallions.

Allowing the covering of problem mares, precluded from natural service

AI may be used to overcome problems that may preclude a mare from
natural service. Such problems include skeletal abnormalities or weaknesses,
laminitis, navicular, or a highly strung or nervous temperament. It may also
be used on mares that have undergone caslick surgery and removes the need
for the normal episiotomy and resuturing at covering. However, in breeding
from such animals, great care should be taken to ensure that the problem is
not the result of an inherited trait, as there is little advantage in perpetuating
such disadvantageous traits within the population.

Allowing mares with a heightened post-coital immunological response to be

covered
AI may be used in mares that habitually demonstrate a heightened immunological response to spermatozoa post coitum. Such mares will benefit from
covering with smaller doses of spermatozoa than would normally be ejaculated at natural service. Manipulation of oestrus and close monitoring of such
mares prior to insemination should allow a single appropriately timed
insemination to be successful rather than the normally practised several
natural coverings per ovulation.

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Permitting mares who suffer severe post-coital endometritis to be covered

AI may be used to decrease the severity of post-coital endometritis. All mares
demonstrate some degree of post-coital endometritis, as a natural response to
the immunological challenge presented by an ejaculate. Some mares are
unable to respond appropriately to this challenge and habitually display acute
endometritis post coitum. Such a severe inflammatory response may compromise the ability of the uterus to support a developing pregnancy. The
insemination of semen extended in antibiotic extender reduces the severity of
the challenge and the response in mares that are particularly susceptible.

Removal of geographical restrictions

One of the main economic advantages of AI is that it enables individuals that
are geographically isolated to be mated without the need for transportation of
animals over long, and often prohibitive, distances. Semen is now chilled and
transported worldwide and, as the success of freezing semen improves,
geographical barriers cease to exist. Such transportation allows the widespread distribution of an array of genetic traits, allowing their introduction
into different populations and increasing the scope for genetic improvement.

Permitting the storage of semen for posterity

The possibility of freezing semen allows the storage of semen for posterity,
with the potential for its use in the distant future after the death of the
stallion. Along with this is the potential to develop a gene bank where
samples from stallions of particularly high merit can be laid down for posterity, with the possibility of reintroducing these genes into the population long
after that stallion has died.

Increasing the number of mares covered per stallion

AI allows a significant increase in the number of mares a stallion may cover
during one season. Income in studs standing high-priced stallions is generated largely from covering fees or nominations. The greater the number of
nominations, the greater is the income, which is of obvious benefit to stallion
owners; but it may also lead to a reduction in the nomination fee, which is of
advantage to mare owners and often the breed as whole, thus making
valuable stallions accessible to the ordinary mare owner. The use of AI also
reduces the risk of physical overuse of popular stallions while still allowing
widespread access.

Allowing stallions to run concurrent careers as performance horses and

breeding stallions
The use of AI allows stallions to carry out a full competitive career as well as
covering a full book of mares. As part of the daily or weekly routine, semen

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may be collected at a specific time within that routine. It can be processed for
storage and transportation, or even for immediate use on the yard later that
day or as mares are brought in. If collection is carried out early in the
morning and only on a couple of days per week, the stallion is then free for
significant periods to compete, without interfering with his covering duties.
The stallions routine is standardized and the mares can be inseminated as
soon as it is appropriate. Such a system also eases management by
standardizing general yard routine.

Assistance in the preservation of rare breeds

The collection and storage of semen from rare breeds can be used to help to
guarantee their perpetuation. Used with care, semen from such breeds can be
reintroduced at a later date to widen the genetic pool within a restricted
population. The limitation of the genetic pool is one of the major problems
encountered by rare breed survival organizations.

Permitting the use of fixed-time AI and so potentially reducing labour costs

AI should ideally allow the use of fixed-time insemination. Such a system
aims to manipulate the mares oestrus and ovulation to fix the time of ovulation and, therefore, insemination. This, in theory, would remove any need for
teasing (with its accompanying risk of disease transfer or injury) and veterinary
examination. Although this prediction of ovulation and use of fixed-time AI is
very successful in cattle, as yet no means has been identified to time, or even
predict precisely, the timing of ovulation in the mare: too much variation
exists. At present, manipulation of the oestrous cycle along with the monitoring of ovarian activity via rectal palpation or ultrasonography will allow a form
of fixed-time AI to be practised, removing the need at least for animal contact.

Allowing stock to be covered that are isolated on health grounds

AI allows mares and stallions isolated due to health restrictions (for example,
influenza or strangles outbreaks) still to be covered at the planned time, as
no direct contact between stock is required.

Aiding in the control of disease

The use of AI can aid in disease control as semen can be tested prior to
insemination. The addition of antibiotics to semen extenders also reduces the
chances of venereal transmission of bacterial diseases when compared with
the risk with natural service.

Reduction in the risk of injury

The avoidance of direct contact between the mare and the stallion removes
all risk of contact injury. This is of particular advantage to owners of valuable

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stock, as injury would at best result in a temporary withdrawal from the

breeding programme, but may at worst result in permanent physical or
psychological damage, and infertility.

Permitting the use of injured stallions

A stallion with injuries, especially to the hindquarters and pelvic and back
regions, may not be able to mount a mare for natural service. The use of AI
will prolong his breeding career. Care must be taken to ensure that any
damage is the result of an injury, and not an inherited fault which could be
passed on to subsequent generations.

Reinforcement of natural service

AI can be used to reinforce natural service in stallions that fail to cover
naturally due to an inability to achieve full tumescence or penetration.

Encouragement of routine examination of the mares reproductive tract

Invariably, prior to insemination, a mares tract will be examined internally to
ascertain the suitability of that mare for insemination. As a result, problems
that may otherwise have gone unnoticed are identified and others are
diagnosed earlier, thus facilitating more rapid and more successful treatment.

Extension of the breeding season

Semen may be collected and frozen during the non-breeding season and stored
for use during the following breeding season. In essence this allows the breeding season to be extended and increases the total amount of semen available.

1.3. Disadvantages of Artificial Insemination

There are some disadvantages or concerns expressed regarding the use of AI
in horses, including the following.

Reduction of the genetic pool

Fear has been expressed by many people that the use of AI will result in the
domination of breeding lines by a few elite stallions, with a resultant reduction in the genetic pool. This is a possible danger with the uncontrolled use
of AI. However, many countries and breed societies limit the number of
mares that a stallion is allowed to cover per year to a figure not much greater
than what he could cover naturally. With such restrictions no greater reduction in the genetic pool should be evident than that resulting from the
continued use of natural covering.

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Reduction in the potential income from mare keep fees

A considerable amount of money is generated per year on stud farms from
the keep fees charged to mare owners for the keep of their mares on the
stallions stud during their stay for covering. This may be quite a considerable
fee in some of the Thoroughbred and Warmblood studs, where mares are
habitually brought in a few weeks prior to foaling and foaled down on the
stallions stud, remaining there until they are covered and often until a
positive scan has been observed. This stay may be 68 weeks long and
provides a useful addition to the covering fee. The use of AI does not require
the mare to go to the stud. However, many studs could generate significant
income if they took advantage of their skills in foaling mares and offered a
skilled foaling-down service, which would be popular with many mare
owners, especially those with single mares.

Presentation of ethical dilemmas

The ethical question as to whether a stallion should be able to reproduce
after his death concerns many individuals and breed societies. Such concerns
should not hamper the adopting of AI for all the other advantages outlined
above. Due to this concern some breed societies place restrictions on the use
of frozen semen and whether it may be used after the stallions death and, if
so, for how long. The potential problem over ownership of the semen in the
future has to be addressed.

Presentation of problems over semen ownership

The sale of a stallion or his death may present the problem of semen ownership, but this can be addressed through regulations and agreements. For
example, in France the sale of any stallion includes the automatic transfer of
all semen stocks to the new owner.

Increasing the opportunity for fraud

Concern is expressed by many that the greater use of AI presents opportunity
for fraud as the actual act of a specific stallion covering a certain mare cannot
be witnessed. It is feared that the opportunity for swapping semen or the
accidental incorrect labelling of samples may lead to problems with the
parentage of offspring. The routine use of compulsory blood typing of all offspring practised by many breed societies prior to registration should allow
such problems to be highlighted before registration. In addition, careful and
regulated semen handling should ensure that such problems are minimized.

Significant variation in the quality of semen available

Significant variation in the quality of semen obtained for inseminating mares
is a present problem in the use of equine AI. Many countries (for example,

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Introduction

Germany, France and The Netherlands) do set quality standards that have to
be met by all stallions used for AI, as do many individual breed societies.
Despite successful evaluation of a semen sample immediately after collection,
significant variation exists in the ability of that semen sample to survive
storage, especially freezing. This, plus the lack of a simple accurate test that
reliably indicates fertility potential in a semen sample, means that the aim of a
quality assurance certificate remains an ideal rather than a practical possibility
at present.

Increasing the risk of disease transfer

The isolation of the mare and the stallion and the treatment of semen prior to
insemination will reduce the risk of venereal and systemic disease transfer.
However, evidence suggests that bacteria and viruses may be isolated in
semen and may still have the potential to be transferred. This possibility
emphasizes the need for strict hygiene and quarantine regulations in order to
avoid the very real risk of the spreading of disease worldwide between
populations that will have no inherent resistance due to their previous
geographical isolation.

Increasing the cost of covering mares

The potential increase in the total costs involved in covering mares by AI
compared with natural covering is another area of concern to many breeders.
This may well prove a problem to small studs running only a few mares of
limited value. In such enterprises, AI may well not be worth the veterinary
costs involved for hormonal therapy for the manipulation of oestrus and the
induction of ovulation, the monitoring of ovulation and the normal double
insemination.

Increases in the rates of returns

When equine AI is compared with bovine AI, it is evident that the number of
repeat inseminations required is much higher in the horse. This is largely due
to the difficulty in precisely timing oestrus and ovulation in the mare by
manipulation of the cycle. As a result, repeat inseminations are not uncommon. This does lead to disappointment and potentially increases the cost if
reinsemination is required.

Responsibility for conception lies with mare owner/manager

Traditionally, with natural service, the responsibility for covering the mare
was left to relatively few stud workers, who were often highly skilled.
However, as mares for insemination are not taken to stud, the responsibility
for ensuring that the mare is correctly detected in oestrus, that the semen is
ordered to arrive at the appropriate time and that insemination coincides with

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ovulation now lies with a much larger group of people. These people include
mare managers and veterinarians who are likely to have less experience in
specifically detecting oestrus and in ascertaining the most appropriate time to
cover a mare. As a result, success rates can be disappointing, through no fault
of the technique but rather due to the inexperience of personnel.

Requirement for an increased degree of knowledge from both the veterinarian

and mare manager
As the responsibility for success of AI lies largely with the mare manager and
her veterinarian, education to improve these individuals knowledge of equine
AI is likely to be required. As with all new techniques, initial disappointing
results may not be the fault of the technique per se but rather of those practising it, a failing that should be rectified with time and experience.

Risks to handlers at semen collection

Some risk does exist to handlers involved in the collecting procedure.
Inexperienced stallions and handlers present the greatest risk to themselves
and each other. Education and experience of both stallions and handlers
should minimize such risks, which in any case should not be significantly
greater than those of natural in-hand covering.

1.4. Conclusion
It is evident that, as with all techniques, there are advantages and disadvantages with the use of AI. It is also evident that in the case of equine AI the
advantages far outweigh any possible disadvantages, and that many of the
latter can be addressed by appropriate regulation and by familiarization with
the technique and the associated management required. The industry is
becoming increasingly aware of the advantages of AI and it is evident that
many of the disadvantages or concerns expressed have been successfully
addressed in some countries and within some breed societies. As a result,
equine AI is becoming more widespread in its acceptance and will hopefully
continue to do so. It is the aim of this book to assist in the widespread
acceptance of equine AI largely via the route of education.