Precast Concrete Pavements and Results of Accelerated Traffic Load Test

Erwin Kohler1
Louw du Plessis2
Peter J. Smith3
John Harvey4
Tom Pyle5

ABSTRACT
Precast slabs are considered an advantageous repair method for extending the service
life of distressed concrete pavement. Benefits include long life expectancy of concrete
slabs cast in factory-controlled conditions and the fact that fully cured precast slabs can
potentially be put into use almost immediately upon installation, making them attractive
for use on heavily traveled highways where work windows for full-depth repairs are
short. These benefits can only be realized if precast slabs are constructed and installed
with proper materials and adequate supervision, as there are many factors that can
affect the structural and functional life of this increasingly popular type of pavement.
This paper describes the evolution of precast concrete pavements in various countries
and, in particular, in the United States. The design, construction, and installation of a
particular system of precast slabs called Super-Slab, is explained, and an overview of
the results of accelerated load testing with a heavy vehicle simulator (HVS) recently
performed in California are presented. The general conclusion is that the use of precast
slabs for concrete pavement rehabilitation is being seriously evaluated in the United
States at various levels, and it is being considered favorably by the Federal Highway
Administration, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
and various State and other highway agencies. There is also growing interest in this
technology in other countries.
The HVS results indicate that 1) the evaluated system of precast slabs can be safely
opened to traffic in the ungrouted condition, so that the panels can be installed in
consecutive nights rather than completing the entire installation at one time; 2) the life
1

Erwin Kohler, Ph.D., Project Scientist, University of California Pavement Research Center, CEE One Shields
Avenue, Davis, CA 95616. ekohler@ucdavis.edu
2

Louw du Plessis, P.E., Research Group Leader, Accelerated Pavement Testing, CSIR-Built Environment,
Meiring Naude Str, Pretoria, South Africa; lplessis@csir.co.za

Peter J. Smith, P.E., Vice President, Market Development and Product Engineering, The Fort Miller Co. Inc.,
Schuylerville, NY 12871; psmith@fmgroup.com

John Harvey, Ph.D., P.E., Associate Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University
of California Davis; jthavey@ucdavis.edu

Tom Pyle, P.E., Chief, Office of Rigid Pavement Materials and Structural Concrete, Caltrans Division of
Engineering Services, Sacramento, CA; tom_pyle@dot.ca.gov

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of this system of precast slabs, when used as detailed for this test, is estimated to be
between 142 and 242 million equivalent single-axle loads, equivalent to 25 to 37 years
of service; and 3) the failure mechanism was no different than failure in cast-in-place
jointed concrete pavements.

INTRODUCTION
Precast concrete has a proven track record as a durable high-performance product for bridge
and commercial building construction (1), mostly as the result of a high level of quality control
that can be achieved at a precast fabrication plant. For roadways, precast concrete also has an
advantage in terms of how fast a facility can be opened or reopened to traffic since precast
slabs are fully cured before they are shipped to the job site. Conventional cast-in-place
pavement requires several days of curing time after the concrete is placed before it is strong
enough to withstand traffic loads without risking premature consumption of fatigue life. Fast
setting concrete used for patching and even hot-mixed asphalt requires some cure time before
traffic loads may be applied.
Early opening to traffic reduces the costs to drivers that are directly attributable to congestion
caused by construction activities. These user delay costs include increased fuel consumption,
lost work time, and the social costs of increased air pollution. The savings in user delay costs
achieved through restricting construction to only off-peak travel times (at night or over a
weekend) can be significant (1).
The primary application of precast concrete pavement is on rehabilitation of high-traffic
highways, ramps, intersections, and urban arteries. Rehabilitation needs range from intermittent
slab replacement, which is a patching type repair, to full-scale continuous replacement on
sometimes complex geometries, such as curved alignment encompassing varying widths and
super-elevations. Full-depth replacement is especially necessary under many bridges where it is
unacceptable to overlay existing pavement. Many intersections and ramps, to which there are
no reasonable alternate routes, are too busy to permit any shutdowns during peak traffic hours.
While some entire roadways may be shut down for brief periods of time for round-the clock
work, many locations are restricted to 8-hour or even 5-hour closures. In all of these cases,
high-quality materials and methods for installing them rapidly are desperately needed. Clearly,
fully cured, high-performance precast slabs meet those needs (2).
Precast fabrication plants produce quality concrete mixtures, with low water-to-cementitiousmaterials ratio and a high level of uniformity. According to reference (1),
At most plants concrete batching and quality control is done on-site and the concrete is
transported only a short distance from the batch plant to the forms, minimizing changes
in concrete properties between the mixing and placing operations. Precast fabrication
plants offer tremendous control over the curing operation. Precast concrete elements can
be fabricated indoors, they can be wet-mat cured, steam cured, and curing can be
maintained as long as necessary after casting. Problems that can affect cast-in-place
pavement construction such as surface strength loss, built-in curling, inadequate air
entrainment, and finishing, can all be eliminated with precast concrete.

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In the last 20 years or more the transportation industry has witnessed a near explosive growth in
the use of precast products such as concrete pipe, bridge elements, highway barriers, curbs,
retaining walls, and even traffic calming devices and street furniture. This can be attributed to the
need for high-quality concrete structures, as discussed above, rapid installation, and the desire for
special materials, colors, and craftsmanship best achieved in a precast facility. Increased use has
also been facilitated by the evolution of high-capacity hauling and setting equipment and by the
fact that most of the referenced products require minimal field preparation and are easily
integrated to make up structures of greater magnitude. Bridge elements, for example, are typically
set on two or four bearings and are typically joined together with cast-in-place concrete.
Similarly, retaining walls are placed on narrow strip footings, typically requiring no additional
connection, and highway barriers require careful grading of only a narrow supporting bed of
material and are not connected at all. Pavement slabs, on the other hand, occupy large contact
areas that must be graded or otherwise altered to provide full and uniform bedding support to the
slabs. In addition, all slabs must be structurally interlocked to form the larger expanse of concrete
pavement such that joint widths and surface uniformity fall within acceptable industry limits.
While an examination of the literature reveals that successful techniques to meet all of these
challenges have been slow to evolve, recent projects in the Netherlands, France, and particularly
in the United States show real progress in meeting these requirements.
HISTORICAL EXPERIENCE WITH PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENT
AROUND THE WORLD
A very limited amount of information existed even 10 years ago about precast concrete
pavements. Apparently, one of the first precast projects occurred in the United States in 1960,
when the South Dakota Highway Department developed a precast pavement with an asphaltic
concrete overlay (3). The pavement consisted of pre-stressed panels, with a thickness of
11.4 cm (4.5 in.), placed on a sand bedding layer over a granular base. Once all the panels were
set in place, they were overlaid with asphalt concrete. After initial trials, a 300-m (1,000-ft)
section was constructed on US highway 14, which is believed to still be in place (4).
Precast concrete pavements were used in the early 1970s in Japan in container yards and airports,
but it was not until 1991 that researchers examined the use of precast concrete panels for roadway
pavements. One of the first test pavements consisted of panels of three different sizes: 1 m by 2 m
(3.3 ft by 6.6 ft), 2 m x 2 m (6.6 ft by 6.6 ft), and 3 m by 2 m (9.8 ft by 6.6 ft). According to
Merritt et al. (4), all of the panels were approximately 15 cm (5.9 in.) thick. The panels were
placed on stabilized subbase and were not prestressed either transversely or longitudinally. In
addition, there were no load transfer devices at the joints between the panels. Another project in
Japan investigated a method for prestressing the joints of precast concrete pavements. No
information was found regarding long-term performance, but slabs and joints behaved adequately
for at least the first 13 years (see Table 1). The use of precast concrete pavement increased in
Japan when a special load transfer system, called the horn joint, was developed. There are a
large number of tunnels in the Japanese highway network, and concrete pavements are usually
used in tunnels because of their light color and durability. Precast slabs are considered an
appropriate material for rapid rehabilitation of existing concrete pavements in tunnels (5).
In the Netherlands, a precast concrete pavement concept was developed as part of the Roads to
the Future contest organized by the Dutch federal highway administration in year 2000. The
product consists of prefabricated concrete slabs with added features such as a porous-concrete
Precast Concrete Pavements and Results of Accelerated Traffic Load Test

265

top layer to reduce traffic noise, tube-banks for temperature-control, and space to install
instrumentation such as weighing modules or vehicles counters. A pilot section was constructed
on a foundation of piles in the access to a rest area on the A50 motorway in the Netherlands
(Figure 1). Very good performance was observed after 1.5 years in place (6). There were some
unexpected problems with smoothness, which necessitated changes in the production process,
and there were problems with raveling (surface deterioration due to aggregate loss) and
polishing of the porous concrete wearing course (7). Another 100-m section was built in the
summer of 2006 spanning two lanes and the shoulder on the A12 motorway, which reported
considerable reduction on tirepavement noise levels (8).
Structural evaluation of the ModieSlab concept took place at an accelerated pavement testing
facility located in Delft, called the LinTrack (Figure 2). A set of four precast slabs were
installed and loaded with 250,000 wheel repetitions in the main wheelpath and 10,000 in the
slabs edge at a load level of 75 kN (16,860 lbf). A thinner slab replaced one of the original
panels, and 130,000 more repetitions were applied to further investigate structural capacity.
Accelerated load test results, combined with finite element modeling, indicated that the
ModieSlab concept would be free of any fatigue deterioration by traffic. Details on the
accelerated testing of the ModieSlab are available elsewhere (7, 9, 10). More research is being
conducted in the Netherlands regarding the use of precast pavements for bridges and
roundabouts (Figure 3).
Table 1. Design and Performance of Precast Concrete Pavement in Japan (after Hara et al. (5))

Age
(yr)

Traffic
(veh/day/
lane)

Slab
Thickness
(mm)

343

13

> 3,000

170

1.75x7.0
Horn

Fair

Partially overlaid or patched

due to raveling by studded
tires and joint faulting

1,193

13

> 3,000

200

1.95x8.5
Horn

Good

Partially overlaid or patched

due to raveling by studded
tires and joint faulting

Inage
intersection

990

12

> 3,000

170

2.25
3.0x10.0
Horn

Good

Partially patched.
Reconstruction of under seal

Kayatsugi
Tunnel

900

11

1,000
3,000

170

1.4x7.0
Horn

Good

Overlaid on wheelpaths with

a thin asphalt layer due to
raveling by studded tires

Takao
intersection

498

11

> 3,000

170

2.5
3.0x11.0
Dowel

Very good

Although small spalling at

joints are observed, slabs are
sound

Shinamagatsuji
Tunnel

289

10

250
1,000

170

2.53.0x4.04.65
Dowel

Good

3,618

> 3,000

170

1.67 x10.0
Dowel

Very good

Location
Wanatsu,
National Hwy,
Route 14
Kotsunagi
Tunnel

Higashiyama
Tunnel

Area
(m2)

Slab Size
(m) / Joint
Type

Performance
Rating

Remarks

It is required to repair joints.

Slabs are sound

Quite sound

1 m2 = 10.764 ft2; 1 mm = 0.039 in.; 1 m = 3.28 ft

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Figure 1. The ModieSlab test section along motorway A50.

Figure 2. Construction of the ModieSlab test section for accelerated pavement

testing and the LinTrack facility (9).

Figure 3. Precast concrete elements in a roundabout and panel lifting

test in the Netherlands (12).

In France, in the pursuit for removable urban pavements, researchers at the Pont et Chausses
laboratories (LCPC) (13) are evaluating the option of precast concrete slabs. A hexagonal
shape, as opposed to a more typical rectangular shape, is being evaluated. As part of the
concept, the slabs have to be mechanically independent in order to be easily lifted during
maintenance operations, and therefore only a soft polymeric water-proof joint is cast in the

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267

joints. The slabs are installed over a granular bed. The base course has a structural function, so
research continues to find an easy-to-dig material, yet strong enough to resist long-term traffic
loadings. The slabs are 200 mm (8 in.) thick and have an equivalent diameter of 1,540 mm
(60 in.). Accelerated pavement testing has been carried out successfully at the fatigue-carrousel
at LCPC. A second type of slabs was evaluated with smaller panels and keyed joint to provide
some level of load transfer (13).

Figure 4. Accelerated pavement testing of hexagonal slabs and installation

of keyed slabs in France (13).

In 2004, the Ministry of Transportation, Ontario, Canada, carried out a trial project to evaluate
construction techniques for precast concrete slab repairs in concrete pavement (11). The trial
was carried out on Highway 427, a heavily trafficked freeway in Toronto. The trial project
required demonstrations of three precast repair methods that differ in how the base is prepared
and how the precast slab is installed and dowelled to the existing concrete pavement. The
overall assessment was positive. The precast slabs did not crack, spall, or rock. The minimum
requirement of 70 percent load transfer efficiency was met, and other than workmanship issues,
the work was carried out within the required timeframes and was showing acceptable
performance after a year in service.
EXPERIENCE IN THE UNITED STATES
A more concerted effort has taken place in the last few years to implement the use of precast
concrete slabs in roadways in the United States. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
has been providing engineering support and funding to State agencies in a series of
demonstration projects to advance the use of precast pre-stressed concrete pavement (PPCP) for
pavement construction and rehabilitation. To date, projects in the States of Texas, California,
Missouri, and Iowa have occurred (Figure 5). Each project has required different design
elements, demonstrating the flexibility of the PPCP concept (14, 15).
The use of precast paving for full-depth repairs of jointed concrete pavements was demonstrated
in Michigan in 2003, as part of FHWAs Concrete Pavement Technology Program. Eight precast
panels plus one conventional full-depth repair were installed along highway I-675. Twelve more
precast panels were installed in highway M-25. Some joint failures were observed at the end of
the dowel bars due to thermal movement of the pavement (16).

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Figure 5. Precast slab projects in Texas, California, Missouri, and Iowa

sponsored by the Federal Highway Administration (1).

Independently from the FHWA efforts, a project in the State of Virginia (17) evaluated the use
of precast concrete patches for repairing jointed concrete pavement. Six panels were placed,
three with dowels cast into them during fabrication and three with dowels inserted in place
(dowel bar retrofit). After 1.5 years there were no distresses on the replaced slabs except for a
few hairline cracks; however, there were failures in the joint area, mainly because of dowels,
which were attributed to poor construction practices (Figure 6). A project in Colorado was
carried out in 2003 where 157 distressed concrete slabs were rehabilitated with precast concrete
panels at 18 separate locations. The panel thicknesses ranged from 140 to 184 mm (5.5 to
7.25 in.) and panel lengths varied from 3.7 to 6.1 m (12 to 20 ft). The repair clusters consisted
of 28 slabs connected by fiberglass ties. High-density polyurethane foam was used to stabilize
and slab jack the panels to match elevations. Evaluation a year after construction revealed
cracks in approximately 20 percent of the precast panels, with the majority of these cracks in
the vicinity of the fiberglass stitches. Probable causes include nonuniform support in the
vicinity of the stitches resulting in tensile stresses at the top fibers of the panel; longer effective
slab lengths due to joint ties; and inadequate slab thickness to carry the axle loads (18).

Figure 6. Precast concrete panels for experimental slab replacement in

Virginia (17) and in Colorado (18).
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A very auspicious approach comes from proprietary precast pavement systems that do not
involve concrete pre-stressing or post-tensioning. Among these, the Super-Slab system is the
one with the greater number of built projects. Another system of more recent appearance in the
market is called the Kwik Slab system (patent pending). Both systems consist of concrete
panels that are cast and cured off site and transported to the job site when needed. These types
of systems are marketed by companies that use patented technologies.
The remaining portion of this article explains the Super-Slab system of precast concrete
pavements, its main characteristics, and the evaluation under accelerated pavement loading
performed by the University of California Pavement Research Center for the California
Department of Transportation (Caltrans).
THE SUPER-SLAB SYSTEM
The Super-Slab system is a slab-on-grade precast concrete pavement system developed in the
State of New York. It was used for the first time to replace the pavement at a bridge toll plaza
in that State in 2001. The patented Super-Slab system is an assemblage of specially designed
precast slabs, methods for installing them, and materials for interlocking them together to
create an integrated pavement structure. The system is specifically comprised of the following:
1. Constant-thickness precast slabs that are fabricated to length, width, and thickness as
required to a tolerance of +/- 3 mm (0.12 in.).
2. Techniques for precisely grading fully compacted bedding material, to a similar
tolerance, to provide near complete subbase support for the precast slabs. To facilitate
the grading process, the system utilizes a thin layer of finely graded bedding material
placed over the existing subbase.
3. Interlocking dowels, tie bars, and matching slots cast into the bottom of adjacent slabs.
4. A method of installing nonshrink structural grout from the top of the slabs into the
slots below.
5. A method of positively filling voids under the slabs by means of a bedding grout
distribution system cast into the bottom of each slab.
Standard load transfer dowels are cast at one end of each slab at locations that match the
location of dovetail-shaped slots cast in the bottom of each adjacent slab as seen in Figure 7.
Similarly, standard tie bars (or the female half of a standard tie bar) are cast at one side of each
slab matching the location of slots cast in the adjacent slab. Figure 7 is a closeup view of how
dowels and slots align during the placement process.
Two grout ports are cast in the slab over the top each slot to make it accessible for grouting after
the slab has been placed. Grout is pumped into one port until it exudes from the other, completing
the structural load transfer connection from slab to slab. Fully grouted slabs are essentially the
equivalent of cast-in-place pavement slabs and perform the same way. Dowel slots cast on the
bottom of the slabs provide two benefits. First, they keep dowel grout on the bottom, protecting it
from deicing chemicals and degradation from freezethaw activity. Secondly, they keep dowel
grout out of sight, maintaining a uniform-looking, high-performance pavement surface. Figure 7
shows a core taken from a dovetail slot/dowel bar connection.

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Kohler, du Plessis, Smith, Harvey, and Pyle

Figure 7. Doweled joint and core showing dovetail slot/dowel bar connection.

Two grout ports are cast in the slab over the top each slot to make it accessible for grouting after
the slab has been placed. Grout is pumped into one port until it exudes from the other, completing
the structural load transfer connection from slab to slab. Fully grouted slabs are essentially the
equivalent of cast-in-place pavement slabs and perform the same way. Dowel slots cast on the
bottom of the slabs provide two benefits. First, they keep dowel grout on the bottom, protecting it
from deicing chemicals and degradation from freezethaw activity. Secondly, they keep dowel
grout out of sight, maintaining a uniform-looking, high-performance pavement surface. Figure 7
shows a core taken from a dovetail slot/dowel bar connection.
While precast slabs can be cast to any thickness, length, and width required, a number of
factors must be considered when establishing slab dimensions. Freight costs are minimized
when full legal loads are shipped (214-kN [48,000-lbf] load in New York State). Another factor
to consider is that repetition of sizes help keep fabrication costs to a minimum.
While single-plane slabs are appropriate for many locations, it is often necessary to provide
warped-plane slabs, such as that schematically shown in Figure 8, to accommodate the varying
three-dimensional geometry of the highway. The Super-Slab system includes the technology
for manufacturing slabs to the exact three-dimensional geometry of the location on the highway
they will occupy.

Figure 8. Warped precast slabs.

In addition to superelevation transitions, it is sometimes necessary to provide slabs for curved

alignments. Slabs for curves are fabricated as slabs with chorded sides, the dimensions of
which are determined from the detailed slab layout drawing. It is important to recognize that
such slabs can also be warped as well, depending upon the radius and grade of the profile line.
Other configurations and alignments may also be required as, for example, highway
intersections. The Super-Slab system can accommodate any three-dimensional geometry
Precast Concrete Pavements and Results of Accelerated Traffic Load Test

271

The bedding grout distribution system, visible on the bottom of the slab in Figure 9, is
comprised of a series of half-round channels cast in the bottom of the slab that extend across
the slab to distribute bedding grout to all of the slab contact area. They are accessed from the
top of the slab through grout ports cast in at each end of each channel (dots in Figure 7). Also
visible in Figure 9 are black foam gaskets glued to the bottom edges (and between half- round
channels) of each slab to create discrete, sealed, bedding grout chambers.

Figure 9. Bedding grout channels and gaskets.

While the Super-Slab system has been designed to emulate unreinforced, cast-in-place
concrete pavement, slabs are reinforced for handling and shipment to the jobsite and to resist
the temperature and shrinkage stresses they will be subjected to during curing and storage at the
precast facility. The reinforcement also provides the added benefits of enhancing the strength of
the slabs to bridge over small voids until the slabs are fully bedded and of keeping cracks
tightly closed should they occur at a later time.
Two distinctly different grouts are used in the installation of the Super-Slab system. First,
rapid-setting, high-strength dowel grout, pumped into the dowel slots, completes the structural
connection between individual slabs. Since this grout must reach a minimum compressive
strength of 17 MPa (2,465 lbf/in2) before the slabs are opened to traffic, it is important that it be
installed in strict accordance with the grout manufacturers directions. Secondly, and only after
the dowel grout has been installed, a bedding grout mixture of portland cement, water and
fluidifying admixture is pumped into the bedding grout distribution system described above. It
is important that bedding grout be fluid enough to flow into and effectively fill small voids that
may exist between the slab and the subbase surface to provide complete support to the concrete
slab. The strength requirement for the bedding grout is 4 MPa (580 lbf/in2) since it functions as
only a part of the previously placed bedding material.
Table 2 presents the list of projects completed between 2001 and 2006 with the Super-Slab
system. One of the projects in New York State was selected by the Technology Implementation
Group (TIG) of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) as one of three focus technologies (out of a field of about 25 that were nominated)
in 2006 to be promoted by the AASHTO/TIG Program throughout the country. Ultimately, the
TIG elected to promote all current precast slab technologies under the general heading of
Precast Slabs (19).

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Table 2. List of Super-Slab Projects 20022006

Project Name

State/
Province

Type of Project

Type of
Slabs

Area
(m2)

Completed

Tappan Zee Plaza

New York

Continuous

Plane

14,679

2002

Virginia

Intermittent

Warped

325

2002

New York

Continuous

Warped

1,463

2003

Lincoln Tunnel West Approach New Jersey

Continuous

Single Plane

753

2003

Belt Parkway, Jamaica

New York

Continuous

Warped

1,489

2003

Korean Parkway Staten Island

New York

Intermittent

Single Plane

822

2003

Port Jefferson

New York

Intermittent Cross Walks

Single Plane

246

2003

I-90, Albany

New York

Intermittent

Single Plane

5,240

2005

Highway 427

Ontario

Intermittent, Continuous

Single Plane

133

2004

San Bernardino

California

Test Slabs

Single Plane

181

2005

Minneapolis

Minnesota

Continuous

Single Plane

241

2005

Marine Parkway

New York

Continuous

Warped

637

2005

Fordham Rd. Bronx

New York

Continuous

S & W Plane

358

2006

Rt. 7 Crosstown Schenectady

New York

Continuous, Intersection

S & W Plane

2,470

2006

High Speed EZ Pass Slabs

New York

Special Instrumented

S & Crowned

54

2006

Dulles International Airport

9A Ramp, Tarrytown

1 m = 10.764 ft

ACCELERATED TESTING OF THE SUPER-SLAB SYSTEM

The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans), through the University of California
(UC) Pavement Research Center, evaluated the use of the Super-Slab system as a long-life
rehabilitation strategy for concrete pavements. A test site was constructed that consisted of
10 slabs in a 2 by 5 arrangement. The details of the test slab installation were developed to
mirror the pavement details of a potential specific project in Caltrans District 8. There were
four main components of the installation (20):

A 100-mm (4-in.) cement-treated base (CTB) course placed upon the original
ground at the test site.

A thin (8 mm [0.315 in.]) layer of fine bedding material (stone sand).

Precast Super-Slabs, 225 mm (9 in.) thick, placed upon the precisely graded
subbase and grouted as described in the foregoing (shown in Figure 10).

Diamond grinding of the top surface of the slab to meet smoothness

requirements of the project.

It is important to note that the use of a bound bedding material (cement-treated sand) was
discussed prior to the test. The decision to use unbound stone sand (not treated with cement)

Precast Concrete Pavements and Results of Accelerated Traffic Load Test

273

was made, since that was the material most commonly used on previous projects, recognizing it
would likely produce worst case results.

Figure 10. Precise placement of the slab on the sand bedding layer and
hose with fitting for injecting grout.

Two test sections were evaluated between June 2005 and August 2006 using a heavy-vehicle
simulator (HVS), shown in Figure 11. The UC Pavement Research Center operates two of these
machines, and they have been used extensively since 1995 to evaluate various paving
technologies. The evaluation of the Super-Slab system had three main test objectives:

To evaluate whether traffic can be safely allowed on newly placed slabs before
grouting.

To identify how much traffic loading can the system receive, which relates to longtime performance and years of expected service.

To determine failure mechanisms.

Test 1

Test 2

Figure 11. Test sections layout and HVS during load testing.

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Kohler, du Plessis, Smith, Harvey, and Pyle

The instrumentation of the test sections (see Figure 12) consisted of displacement sensors
mounted vertically near the two trafficked joints and at mid-panel on each section. Horizontal
displacement sensors measured joint opening, and multidepth deflectometers recorded vertical
deformation at the various layers of the system directly in the trafficked area. Thermocouple
stacks were used to register temperature through the depth of the slabs.
H15(a)

H13

T2

J1

J2

H16(a)

H14

T3

T1
J3

J4

J5

T4

Slab 2

Slab 4

J6

J7

H16

H15
J6(a)

T5

J7(a)

T6

Slab 7
J8

J9

J10
H15(b)

J11

J12

T9

T7
H17

Slab 9

T8

H16(b)

H18

Figure 12. Location of displacement instrumentation and thermocouples.

Traffic loading was applied to each section to simulate the exposure to traffic from the time of
placement of the slabs to the time of grouting, which would normally occur during the next
nighttime closure. It consisted of approximately 32 hours and 32,000 HVS repetitions with a
60 kN (13,500 lbs) half-axle load, which relates to a total axle load of 120 kN (27,000 lbs).
This amount of loading and repetitions were calculated to be the equivalent of about
86,500 equivalent single-axle loads (ESALs). No changes in response, other than those
attributable to temperature, were observed during the experiment, and therefore in terms of
performance, the ungrouted Super-Slab system was verified to withstand at least this level of
traffic for southern California conditions.
The thermal deformations (with no traffic loads) were compared before and after grouting. The
vertical displacement at an interior corner reduced by grouting from 1.5 to 0.5 mm (0.059
to 0.020 in.) as shown in Figure 13. In the un-grouted condition each slab curled separately,
while after grouting the presence of tie bars and grout in the joint (coming from the tie-bar
grout slots), restrained the movement, reducing self-weight stresses and ensuring better support
conditions. Along the longitudinal direction, on the exterior corners (on what would be adjacent
to the shoulder), the effect of grouting was minimal (see Figure 13).

Precast Concrete Pavements and Results of Accelerated Traffic Load Test

275

Ungrouted 597FDTC: Vertical Thermal Curl

Ungrouted 597FDTC: Vertical Thermal Curl

Slab 3
J2

J3

1.5
1.0
0.5

Night

0.0

Day

-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2000

Slab 3

2.0

J4

Vertical Curl (mm)

Vertical Curl (mm)

2.0

1.5
1.0
0.5

J2

J6

J9

0.0

Day

-1.0
-1.5
-2.0

2000

4000

6000

2000

4000

6000

8000

Transverse position (mm)

(a) Longitudinal direction before grouting

(b) Transverse direction before grouting

Grouted 598FDTC: Vertical Thermal Curl

Grouted 598FDTC: Vertical Thermal Curl

Slab 3
J2

Slab 3

J3

1.5
1.0
0.5
Night

0.0

Day

-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2000

Slab 8

2.0

J4

Vertical Curl (mm)

2.0

Night

-0.5

Longitudinal position (mm)

Vertical Curl (mm)

Slab 8

J2

1.5

J6

J9

1.0
0.5

Night

0.0

Day

-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0

2000

4000

6000

Longitudinal position (mm)

(c) Longitudinal direction after grouting

2000

4000

6000

8000

Transverse position (mm)

(d) Transverse direction after grouting

Figure 13. Comparison of the vertical deformations caused by thermal curl of the slabs
before and after grouting, in the transverse and longitudinal directions.

Regarding responses to wheel load, both sides of the joint moved together after grouting, while
they acted independently in the ungrouted condition. Load transfer efficiency changed from
less than 10 percent to nearly 100 percent. The vertical deflection at the transverse joint after
grouting decreased from about 1.0 to 0.25 mm (0.039 to 0.010) under the 60 kN (13,488 lbf)
wheel load. Rocking of the slab was eliminated, as observed by the lack of vertical movement
in a joint when the wheel load was on the opposite side of the slab.
To respond to the second and third objectives, the sections were loaded for extended periods
under different conditions in the sequence shown in Table 3. Section 1 was heavily loaded to
identify failure modes, while section 2 was utilized to determine performance under more
realistic, yet accelerated, loading conditions. The numbers of ESALs shown in Table 3 were
calculated using a 4.2 power of the ratio between the actual half-axle load and a standard 40-kN
(9,000-lbf) load. The climate in southern California has little rainfall. Wet pavement conditions
were simulated by pouring water directly on the slabs at the joints. Approximately 380 L
(100 gal) of water were poured onto the section per week for the duration of the wet test.
Assuming that the water covered the 1 m by 8 m (3.2 ft by 26.3 ft) test area, a total rainfall of
approximately 7 mm per day (0.28 in.) was continuously applied during the wet cycle.

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Table 3. Sequence of Test and Loading Conditions

Section

Duration (months)

Test and Load

Conditions
(pavement / tire type)

Load Repetitions
(millions)

ESALs
(millions)

JuneSeptember 2005)

Dry / Aircraft

1.05

163

(Sept 2005February 2006)

Dry / Truck dual

2.33

99

(FebMay 2006)

Wet / Truck dual

1.13

43

(MayAugust 2006)

Wet / Aircraft

0.54

79

ESAL = equivalent single-axle load

The loading in section 2 consisted of a total of approximately 142.3 million ESALs, applied
with dual truck tires (621 kPa [90 lbf/in2] inflation pressure). No sign of any distress was
observable at the end of the dry test (99.4 million ESALs). The test consisted of two loading
conditions, 243,800 load repetitions at 60 kN (13,488 lbf) and an additional 2.1 million
repetitions at a 100-kN (22,481 lbf) load level. The responses captured by the sensors indicated
a stable condition. Water application at the joints was then initiated and loading continued.
During the wet cycle, loading was applied as follows: 218,600 repetitions at 60 kN (13,489
lbf), 112,000 at 80 kN (17,985 lbf), followed by a final 795,000 repetitions of 100 kN
22,481 lbf).
No distresses were observable at this stage either, despite the fact that considerable pumping of
material from under the slab occurred during the wet trafficking. The pumping of fine sand,
however, did not result in any significant rise in corner deflections. An investigation was
carried out to evaluate the extent of the suspected voids under the slab caused by pumping. It
revealed that the pumped material was comprised of the finer particles from the sand bedding
layer and disintegrated bedding grout. There was no clearly noticeable void in the wheelpath
under the joint, but there were rather widespread marks of washed fines.

Figure 14. Investigation of void under the slab in section 2.

Assuming an AADTT (annual average daily truck traffic) of 7,500 per direction and 3 ESALs
per heavy vehicle, and assuming 60 percent truck traffic in the slow lane, the total ESALs per
day are currently 13,500 on a highway like I-15 in southern California. If it is assumed that this
traffic level exists for approximately 75 percent of the year, the total truck traffic would amount
to 3.7 million ESALS per year per slow lane. Assuming a growth factor of 3 percent, it would

Precast Concrete Pavements and Results of Accelerated Traffic Load Test

277

take approximately 25 years to apply the same amount of ESALs that were simulated by the
HVS in section 2 during the dry and wet cycle (142 million in total). It should be noted that
testing in section 2 was discontinued at this traffic level, and there were no distresses on the
pavement section.
Loading in section 1 was applied with an aircraft tire (1.45 MPa [210 lbf/in2] inflation
pressure), able to take the higher load levels, and 242 million ESALs were applied. Using
similar calculations as for section 2, it would take 37 years to reach the traffic level simulated
in section 1 (242 million ESALs). This expected life should be used with caution, as it involves
many assumptions in the traffic calculation in addition to the differences between loading with
HVS traffic and with real traffic.
Corner cracks appeared next to one of the two loaded joints in section 1. These structural
corner cracks, on both sides of the joint, were first observed at 0.762 million load repetitions
and were fully developed at 0.845 million load repetitions. HVS trafficking in dry conditions
was stopped when, after the cracks had appeared, the pavement responses were once again
stable. After the wet traffic was initiated, the slabs were able to withstand 79 million ESALs
before traffic had to be stopped, a clear indication of a still sound structural condition of the
cracked slabs.

Figure 15. Fully developed corner cracks at one of the transverse joints of
section 1, when loaded in dry pavement conditions

Failure of the section was reached in the form of a localized collapse in one of the joints and a
more extended corner crack on the other joint. Forensic investigation revealed that the localized
failure happened between dowel bars, exactly where the channelized traffic loaded the
pavement. Even though the failure happened at the location of one of the multi-depth
deflectometer sensors, it was concluded that this had no effect. The combined observations
point toward concrete fatigue under channelized traffic and the loss of support caused by
pumping. The other joint presented a failure that can be considered typical of cast-in-place,
with large concrete cracks. Both failed joints are shown in Figure 16 (as size reference, the
brass sensors caps are 75 mm [2.95 in.] in diameter) (21).

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Kohler, du Plessis, Smith, Harvey, and Pyle

Figure 16. End of life at the two joints of section 1, loaded to failure.

Drill cores obtained from various locations in both test sections indicated very good
performance of the dowel grout. There was no sign of dowel loosening, which means that the
grout was strong enough to sustain the compressive forces of the dowel as the load was
transmitted across the joint. Likewise, there were no signs of bonding issues between the grout
and the surrounding concrete of the slot.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This paper summarizes experiences around the world with the use of precast slabs for pavement
rehabilitation. The results show that the technology is still evolving, but that in the United
States products such as Super-Slab are starting to have a major impact with a number of
practical applications in critical areas. Evaluation of Super-Slab under accelerated loading
provided Caltrans with answers about performance concerns. The general conclusion is that the
use of precast slabs for concrete pavement rehabilitation is being seriously evaluated in the
United States at various levels, and it is being favorably considered by FHWA, AASHTO, and
various State and other highway agencies. There is also growing interest in this technology in
other countries.
The following conclusions are derived from the experiment conducted for Caltrans in which an
HVS was used to test the structural performance of the Super-Slab system under accelerated
conditions:

The Super-Slab system of precast slabs can be safely opened to traffic in the
un-grouted condition, so that the panels can be installed in consecutive nights
rather than completing the entire installation at one time. This allows for the old
slabs to be removed and precast slabs placed in position one night, and for
completing the grouting procedure on the following night.

The life of this system of precast slabs, when used as detailed for this test, is
estimated to be between 142 and 242 million ESALs. These numbers result from
estimated traffic applied in section 2, which did not fail, and in section 1, which
failed under very high load levels. Taking as an example highway I-15 in San
Bernardino County, California, this number of ESALs could be assumed to be
equivalent to more than 25 years of service, perhaps about 37 years, before
reaching failure.

Precast Concrete Pavements and Results of Accelerated Traffic Load Test

279

The failure mechanism in this system of precast slabs was no different than failure
in cast-in-place jointed concrete pavements. Corner cracks, which are the result of
loss of support, created conditions indicative of the end of usable pavement life.

It must be taken into account that accelerated pavement testing differs in some ways from years
of live traffic loading, in particular with regard to wheel load conditions with the HVS and the
effect of the environment. Faster moving trucks could cause more pumping than was observed
in the experiment, especially if joint seals are not maintained and are left to deteriorate over
time.
The second important factor that should be considered is the fact that the concrete panels were
placed on top of a newly constructed CTB. Under actual application, the slab replacement will
be placed on an old, well-trafficked base with the base layer probably in a weaker state than a
newly constructed CTB. The effect of this was not evaluated during HVS testing.
Finally it should be emphasized that this test was conducted on slabs of a specific thickness
reinforced with a unique pattern of reinforcing steel and supported, by choice, upon un-bound
bedding material. Use of a cement-treated or asphalt-emulsiontreated concrete sand bedding
material may have greatly reduced, if not eliminated, the pumping of fines that occurred under
the very severe wetting conditions in the test, potentially altering the results.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This material is based on work supported by the California Department of Transportation
(Caltrans). Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this
publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of Caltrans. The
valuable comments provided by reviewers of the original manuscript are also acknowledged.
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