SAMRAT ASHOK TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, VIDISHA

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Subject : Electronics Workshop, EC-1137

Faculty Name: Prof. Abhishek Jain

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Experiment
To study all types of resistors and their color code chart
To study all types of capacitors and their color codes
To study the various types of Inductance.
To study various types of Semiconductor Diodes
To study the operational features of Multimeter.
To study and check different types of transistors. (NPN PNP)
To study the Analog IC and Digital IC.
To study Thyristor
MINI PROJECT (Separate file is to be submitted)

EXPERIMENT-1
1.

OBJECT : To study all types of resistors and their color code chart

2.

REQUIRED MATERIALS :
Sr.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.

3.

Materials
Various Resistances
Analog Multimeter
Digital Multimeter
Connecting Leads

Range
--------

Qty.
--1
1
2

THEORY : Resistance

is the opposition that a substance offers to the flow of

electric current. It is represented by the uppercase letter R. The standard unit of resistance is the
ohm, sometimes written out as a word, and sometimes symbolized by the uppercase Greek letter
omega. When an electric current of one ampere passes through a component across which a
potential difference (voltage) of one volt exists, then the resistance of that component is one ohm.
In general, when the applied voltage is held constant, the current in a direct-current (DC)
electrical circuit is inversely proportional to the resistance. If the resistance is doubled, the
current is cut in half; if the resistance is halved, the current is doubled. This rule also holds true
for most low-frequency alternating-current (AC) systems, such as household utility circuits. In
some AC circuits, especially at high frequencies, the situation is more complex, because some
components in these systems can store and release energy, as well as dissipating or converting it.
The electrical resistance per unit length, area, or volume of a substance is known as resistivity.
Resistivity figures are often specified for copper and aluminum wire, in ohms per kilometer.
Opposition to AC, but not to DC, is a property known as reactance. In an AC circuit, the
resistance and reactance combine vectorially to yield impedance.
Types of Resistance:
A.
Fixed Resistance
B.
Variable Resistance
The first major categories into which the different types of resistor can be fitted is into whether
they are fixed or variable. These different resistor types are used for different applications:
(i)

Fixed Resistance : Fixed resistors are by far the most widely used type of resistor. They
are used in electronics circuits to set the right conditions in a circuit. Their values are
determined during the design phase of the circuit, and they should never need to be
changed to "adjust" the circuit. There are many different types of resistor which can be
used in different circumstances and these different types of resistor are described in
further detail below.

(ii)

Variable Resistance : These resistors consist of a fixed resistor element and a slider which
taps onto the main resistor element. This gives three connections to the component: two

connected to the fixed element, and the third is the slider. In this way the component acts
as a variable potential divider if all three connections are used. It is possible to connect to
the slider and one end to provide a resistor with variable resistance.
A. Types of Fixed Resistance:
Carbon composition: These types were once very common, but are now seldom used. They are
formed by mixing carbon granules with a binder which was then made into a small rod. This type
of resistor was large by today's standards and suffered from a large negative temperature
coefficient. The resistors also suffered from a large and erratic irreversible changes in resistance as
a result of heat or age. In addition to this the granular nature of the carbon and binder lead to high
levels of noise being generated when current flowed.

Carbon film: This resistor type is formed by "cracking" a hydrocarbon onto a ceramic former.
The resulting deposited film had its resistance set by cutting a helix into the film. This made these
resistors highly inductive and of little use for many RF applications. They exhibited a temperature
coefficient of between -100 and -900 ppm / Celcius. The carbon film is protected either by a
conformal epoxy coating or a ceramic tube

Metal oxide film: This type of resistor is now one of the most widely used form of resistor along
with the metal film type. Rather than using a carbon film, this resistor type uses a metal oxide film
deposited on a ceramic rod. Metals oxide such as tin oxide are deposited onto the ceramic rod. The
resistance of the component is adjusted in two ways. First the thickness of the deposited layer is
controlled during the initial manufacturing stages. Then it can be more accurately adjusted by
cutting a helical grove in the film. Again the film is protected using a conformal epoxy coating.
This type of resistor has a temperature coefficient of around 15 parts per million / K, giving it a
far superior performance to that of any carbon based resistor. Additionally this type of resistor can

be supplied to a much closer tolerance, 5%, 2% being standard, and with 1% versions
available. They also exhibit a much lower noise level than carbon types of resistor.
Metal film: The metal film resistors is very similar to the metal oxide film resistor in terms of
visual appearance and performance. Instead of using a metal oxide film, this type of resistor uses a
metal film. Metals such as nickel alloy may be used.
Wire wound: This resistor type is generally reserved for high power applications. These resistors
are made by winding wire with a higher than normal resistance (resistance wire) on a former. The
more expensive varieties are wound on a ceramic former and they may be covered by a vitreous or
silicone enamel. This resistor type is suited to high powers and exhibits a high level of reliability at
high powers along with a comparatively low level of temperature coefficient, although this will
depend on a number of factors including the former, wire used, etc..

. Thin film: Thin film technology is used for most of the surface mount types of resistor. As
hese are used in their billions these days, this makes this form of resistor technology one of the
most widely used.
Leaded and non-leaded resistor types:
One of the key differentiators for resistors, and many other forms of component these days is the
way in which they are connected. As a result of the mass production techniques sued and the
widespread use of printed circuit boards, the form of connection used for components, especially
those to be incorporated into mass produced items changed.
The two main forms of resistor type according to their connection method are:
Leaded resistors: This type of resistor has been used since the very first electronic components
have been in use. Typically components were connected to terminal posts of one form or another
and leads from the resistor element were needed. As time progressed, printed circuit boards were
used, and the leads were inserted through holes in the boards and typically soldered on the reverse
side where the tracks were to be found.

Typical leaded carbon resistor

Surface mount resistors: These resistor types have been used increasingly since the introduction
of surface mount technology. Typically this type of resistor is manufactured using thin film
technology. A full range of values can be obtained.

Typical SMD resistors on a PCB

B. Resistor Colour Code :
There are many different types of Resistor available and that they can be used in both electrical
and electronic circuits to control the flow of current or to produce a voltage in many different ways.
But in order to do this the actual resistor needs to have some form of resistive or resistance
value. Resistors are available in a range of different resistance values from fractions of an Ohm
( ) to millions of Ohms.
Obviously, it would be impractical to have available resistors of every possible value for
example, 1,2, 3, 4 etc, because literally tens of hundreds of thousands, if not tens of millions of
different resistors would need to exist to cover all the possible values. Instead, resistors are manufactured
in what are called preferred values with their resistance value printed onto their body in coloured ink.

4 Coloured Bands
The resistance value, tolerance, and wattage rating are generally printed onto the body of the resistor as
numbers or letters when the resistors body is big enough to read the print, such as large power resistors.
But when the resistor is small such as a 1/4W carbon or film type, these specifications must be shown in
some other manner as the print would be too small to read.

So to overcome this, small resistors use coloured painted bands to indicate both their resistive value and
their tolerance with the physical size of the resistor indicating its wattage rating. These coloured painted
bands produce a system of identification generally known as a Resistors Colour Code.
An international and universally accepted Resistor Colour Code Scheme was developed many years ago
as a simple and quick way of identifying a resistors ohmic value no matter what its size or condition. It
consists of a set of individual coloured rings or bands in spectral order representing each digit of the
resistors value.
The resistor colour code markings are always read one band at a time starting from the left to the right,
with the larger width tolerance band oriented to the right side indicating its tolerance. By matching the
colour of the first band with its associated number in the digit column of the colour chart below the first
digit is identified and this represents the first digit of the resistance value.
Again, by matching the colour of the second band with its associated number in the digit column of the
colour chart we get the second digit of the resistance value and so on. Then the resistor colour code is
read from left to right as illustrated below:
4.

PROCEDURE:
1

2
3
4

8
9

The Resistor Colour Code system is all well and good but we need to understand how to apply
t in order to get the correct value of the resistor. The left-hand or the most significant coloured
band is the band which is nearest to a connecting lead with the colour coded bands being read
from left-to-right as follows;
Digit, Digit, Multiplier = Colour, Colour x 10 colour in Ohms (s)
For example, a resistor has the following coloured markings;
Yellow Violet Red = 4 7 2 = 4 7 x 102 = 4700 or 4k7.
The fourth and fifth bands are used to determine the percentage tolerance of the resistor. Resistor
tolerance is a measure of the resistors variation from the specified resistive value and is a
consequence of the manufacturing process and is expressed as a percentage of its nominal or
preferred value.
Typical resistor tolerances for film resistors range from 1% to 10% while carbon resistors have
tolerances up to 20%. Resistors with tolerances lower than 2% are called precision resistors with
the or lower tolerance resistors being more expensive.
Most five band resistors are precision resistors with tolerances of either 1% or 2% while most of
the four band resistors have tolerances of 5%, 10% and 20%. The colour code used to denote the
tolerance rating of a resistor is given as;
7 Brown = 1%, Red = 2%, Gold = 5%, Silver = 10 %
If resistor has no fourth tolerance band then the default tolerance would be at 20%.
It is sometimes easier to remember the resistor colour code by using mnemonics or phrases that
have a separate word in the phrase to represent each of the Ten + Two colours in the code.
However, these sayings are often very crude but never the less effective for remembering the
resistor colours. Here are just a few of the more cleaner versions but many more exist:

The Standard Resistor Colour Code Chart.

The Resistor Colour Code Table.

Colour

Digit

Multiplier

Tolerance

Black

Brown

10

1%

Red

100

2%

Orange

1,000

Yellow

10,000

Green

100,000

0.5%

Blue

1,000,000

0.25%

Violet

10,000,000

0.1%

Grey

White

0.05%

Gold

0.1

5%

Silver

0.01

10%

None
5.

20%

Calculating Resistor Values

The Resistor Colour Code system is all well and good but we need to understand how to apply t in order
to get the correct value of the resistor. The left-hand or the most significant coloured band is the band
which is nearest to a connecting lead with the colour coded bands being read from left-to-right as follows;
Digit, Digit, Multiplier = Colour, Colour x 10 colour in Ohms (s)
For example, a resistor has the following coloured markings;
Yellow Violet Red = 4 7 2 = 4 7 x 102 = 4700 or 4k7.
The fourth and fifth bands are used to determine the percentage tolerance of the resistor. Resistor
tolerance is a measure of the resistors variation from the specified resistive value and is a consequence of
the manufacturing process and is expressed as a percentage of its nominal or preferred value.
Typical resistor tolerances for film resistors range from 1% to 10% while carbon resistors have tolerances
up to 20%. Resistors with tolerances lower than 2% are called precision resistors with the or lower
tolerance resistors being more expensive.
Most five band resistors are precision resistors with tolerances of either 1% or 2% while most of the four
band resistors have tolerances of 5%, 10% and 20%. The colour code used to denote the tolerance rating
of a resistor is given as;
Brown = 1%, Red = 2%, Gold = 5%, Silver = 10 %

If resistor has no fourth tolerance band then the default tolerance would be at 20%.

6.

OBSERVATION TABLE

Sr.No.

IstColour
Band

IIstColour IIIstColour Band IVth

Band
(Multiply Colour) Colour
Band
Tolerance

Calculated
Value

Measured
Value

Difference

B. Types of Variable Resistors

Variable Resistors are resistors whose resistance values can vary according to some factor applied to
them. For example, potentiometers are variable resistors that changes when a user adjusts the knob.
Photoresistors are variable resistors which change according to the light that strikes its surface.
In this article, we will go over the many various types of variable resistors that exists and explain how
they work and operate in circuits.
Potentiometers:
A potentiometer is a 3-terminal variable resistor. By adjusting the
wiper terminal, it can be used to represent a wide range of resistances
in a circuit from anywhere near 0 to the specified resistance rating of
the potentiometer. Therefore, for example, a 10K potentiometer can
be adjusted to give the resistance range from almost 0 to 10K by
adjusting the potentiometer knob.
Potentiometers are in wide use in circuits for a variety of uses, but their
main fuction remains the same: to increase or decrease the gain of a
signal in a circuit. When the resistance of the potentiometer is
decreased, the gain of the signal increases. When the resistance is
increased, the gain of the signal decreases. This can be used in circuits
to control volume levels such as on speakers or for any adjustable
controls.
7.

Conclusion: Study of all types of resistors and their color code has been done
successfully

EXPERIMENT - 2
1.

OBJECT : To study all types of capacitors and their color codes.

2.

REQUIRED MATERIALS :
Sr.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.

3.

Materials
Various Capacitor
Analog Multimeter
Digital Multimeter
Connecting Leads

Range
--------

Qty.
--1
1
2

THEORY: Although all capacitors work in essentially the same way, key differences in
the construction of different capacitor types makes an enormous difference in their
properties.
The main element of the capacitor that gives rise to the different properties of the different
types of capacitor is the dielectric - the material between the two plates. Its dielectric constant
will alter the level of capacitance that can be achieved within a certain volume.
Some types of capacitor may be polarised, i.e. they only tolerate voltages across them in one
direction. Other capacitor types are non-polarised and can have voltages of either polarity
across them.
Typically the different types of capacitor are named after the type of dielectric they contain.
This gives a good indication of the general properties they will exhibit and for what circuit
functions they can be used.

Types of Capacitor

There are many different types of capacitors and they each vary in their characteristics and
each have their own advantages and disadvantages.

Some types of capacitors can charge up to higher voltages and, thus, can be used in high
voltage applications. Some capacitors can charge up to very high charges, such as aluminum
electrolytic capacitors. Some capacitors have very low leakage low leakage rates and others
have very high leakage rates. All of these factors determine how and in what application each
of the capacitors will be used in circuits.
Below is a list of the various types of capacitors, as we go over the characteristics that make
them up:

Aluminum Capacitors
Aluminum Capacitors are capacitors that are composed of two
rolled up strips of aluminum foil with a strip of absorbent paper
between them which is soaked in an electrolyte solution- all this
being sealed in a can.
Electrolytic capacitors cover the capacitance range of 0.1F to
500,000F, making them one of the largest capacitors in terms of
capacitance storage. This is one of their main advantages, that
they store such a high value of charge. Working voltages range
from 10V to 100V. The disadvantages of aluminum electrolytic capacitors is that they have
leakage rates, so they tend to leak out a lot of DC current, which makes them bad in
applications for high-frequency AC coupling. They also have a wide tolerance range, usually
20% or more. This makes them poor in applications where precise values are needed, such
as in timing or filtering circuits. Thus, they generally are not used in these applications.
Tantalum Capacitors
Tantalum Capacitors are capacitors that are made of tantalum pentoxide.
Tantalum capacitors, just like aluminum, are electrolytic capacitors, which means
they are polarized. Their main advantages (especially over aluminum capacitors)
is that they are smaller, lighter, and more stable. They have lower leakage rates
and less inductance between leads. However, their disadvantags are they have a
lower maximum capacitance storage and lower maximum working voltage. They
are also more prone to damage from high current spikes. For the last reason,
tantalum capacitors are used mostly in analog signal systems that lack high
current-spike noise.
Ceramic Capacitors
Ceramic capacitors are capacitors that are composed of materials such as titanium acid
barium as its dielectric. Together with electrolytics, they are the most widely used capacitor
around.
Ceramic capacitors have high capacitance values for their size. They are made in the range of
1pF to 220nF. They come with a working voltage of up to 50V and are manufactured with a
wide range of tolerance values. One main advantage of ceramic capacitors are, internally,
they are not constructed as a coil, so they have low inductance and are well suited for higherfrequency applications. They are widely used for many purposes, including decoupling.
A NPO ceramic capacitor is one which is an ultrastable or temperature compensating
capacitor. It is one of the most highly stable capacitors. It has very predictable temperature
coefficients (TCs) and, in general, does not age with time. Being so, it is highly suitable for
tuning circuits and filter applications.
Polyester Capacitors
Polyester capacitors are capacitors composed of metal plates with polyester film
between them, or a metallised film is deposited on the insulator.
Polyester capacitors are available in the range of 1nF to 15F, and with working
voltages from 50V to 1500V. They come with the tolerance ranges of 5%, 10%, and
20%. They have a high temperature coefficient. They have high isolation resistance,
so they are good choice capacitors for coupling and/or storage applications.
Compared with most other types, polyester capacitors have high capacitance per unit

volume. This means more capacitance can fit into a physically smaller capacitor. This
feature, together with their relatively low price makes polyester capacitors a widely used,
popular, and cheap capacitor.
Polypropylene Capacitors
Polypropylene capacitors are capacitors that have a dielectric that is made of polypropylene
film.
Polypropylene capacitors cover the value range of 100pf to 10F. One
of their main and key features is their high working voltage.
Polypropylene types with working voltages up to 3000V are made.
These features make polypropylene capacitors useful in circuits in
which operating voltages are typically high. These include power supply
circuits, power amplifiers, particularly valve amplifiers and TV circuits.
Another great advantage of polypropylene capacitors are their great
tolerance values. Tolerance is about 1 percent, so it's pretty precisely
near their nominal values. Polypropylene capacitors are used when a
better tolerance is needed than what a polyester capacitor can provide.
Polypropylene capacitors also have high isolation resistance, which
makes them a good choice for coupling and/or storage applications.
They exhibit stable capacitance for frequencies below 100KHz.
These capacitors are used for noise suppression, blocking, bypassing, coupling, filtering,
timing, and handling pulses.
Polystyrene Capacitors
Polystyrene capacitors are capacitors that have a dielectric made up of polystyrene.
They come only in low values, usually 10pF
to 47nF. Normally, their tolerance is 5% to
10% but high precision polystyrene
capacitors are also available with tolerances
of 1% and 2%. Working voltages for
polystyrene capacitors are 30V to 630V. Polystyrene capacitors are advantageous in that they
have high isolation resistance, so they are good for use in coupling and storage applications.
The precision types are suitable for timing, tuning and filter circuits.
One of their disadvantages are they are constructed like a coil inside, so they are not suitable
for high-frequency applications. (This is because coils create inductance, and inductance
blocks high-frequency signals from passing through.) Another disadvantage is that
polystyrene capacitors exhibit a permanent change in value should they ever be exposed to
temperatures much over 70C; they do not return to their old value upon cooling.
Polycarbonate Capacitors
Polycarbonate capacitors are capacitors that have a polycarbonate dielectric.
They come in the capacitance value range of 100pF to 10F, and have working
voltages up to 400V DC. They're advantageous in the area that they have fairly
good temperature coefficients, so they don't vary much with changes in
temperature. This makes them preferred to polyester capacitors. They are
disadvantageous in that they have fairly high tolerance levels, 5% and 10%,
making them not so great for high-precision applications.

Silver Mica Capacitors

Silver Mica Capacitors are capacitors that are made from depositing a thin layer of silver on a
mica dielectric.
Silver Mica Capacitors are very stable with respect to time. They are
advantageous in that they have tolerances of 1 percent or less. They also have
a good temperature coefficient and excellent endurance. However, they don't
come in high capacitance values and can be expensive.
Silver mica capacitors are used in resonance circuits and high-frequency
filters, due to good stability with temperature. They are also used in highvoltage circuits, because of their good insulation.
Paper Capacitor

Paper capacitors are capacitors that are made of flat thin strips of metal foil conductors
separated by a dielectric of waxed paper.
They have a capacitance range of 500pF to 50F and a high working voltage,
so, thus, they are used mainly in high-voltage equipment.
The downside of paper capcitors are that they have high leakage rates, making
them unsuitable for AC coupling, and their tolerances are no better than 10 to
20 percent, making them unsuitable for precision timing circuits.
These are many of the different types of capacitors. This isn't an exhaustive but
the main types are all covered here.

Capacitor Colour Codes

Generally, the actual values of Capacitance, Voltage or Tolerance are marked onto the
body of the capacitors in the form of alphanumeric characters. However, when the
value of the capacitance is of a decimal value problems arise with the marking of the
Decimal Point as it could easily not be noticed resulting in a misreading of the actual
capacitance value. Instead letters such as p (pico) or n (nano) are used in place of the
decimal point to identify its position and the weight of the number.
For example, a capacitor can be labelled as, n47 = 0.47nF, 4n7 = 4.7nF or 47n = 47nF and so
on. Also, sometimes capacitors are marked with the capital letter K to signify a value of one
thousand pico-Farads, so for example, a capacitor with the markings of 100K would be 100 x
1000pF or 100nF.
To reduce the confusion regarding letters, numbers and decimal points, an International
colour coding scheme was developed many years ago as a simple way of identifying
capacitor values and tolerances. It consists of coloured bands (in spectral order) known
commonly as the Capacitor Colour Code system and whose meanings are illustrated below:

Capacitor Colour Code Table

Band

Digit

Colour

Digit Multiplier

Tolerance

Tolerance Temperature

(T) > 10

(T) < 10

Coefficient

pf

pf

(TC)

Black

x1

20%

2.0pF

Brown

x10

1%

0.1pF

-3310-6

Red

x100

2%

0.25pF

-7510-6

Orange

x1,000

3%

-15010-6

Yellow

x10,000

4%

-22010-6

Green

x100,000

5%

Blue

x1,000,000

Violet

Grey

x0.01

+80%,-20%

White

x0.1

10%

Gold

x0.1

5%

Silver

x0.01

10%

0.5pF

-33010-6
-47010-6
-75010-6

1.0pF

Capacitor Voltage Colour Code Table

Voltage Rating (V)

Band
Colour

Type J

Type K

Black

100

Brown

200

100

1.6

Red

10

300

250

Orange

15

400

Yellow

20

500

Green

25

600

Blue

35

700

Violet

50

800

Grey
White

Gold

Type L

Type M

Type N

10

10

35

40
400

6.3

16

15

630

20

900

25

25

1000

2.5

2000

Silver
Capacitor Voltage Reference
Type J Dipped Tantalum Capacitors.
Type K Mica Capacitors.
Type L Polyester/Polystyrene Capacitors.
Type M Electrolytic 4 Band Capacitors.
Type N Electrolytic 3 Band Capacitors.

An example of the use of capacitor colour codes is given as:

Metalised Polyester Capacitor

Disc & Ceramic Capacitor

The Capacitor Colour Code system was used for many years on unpolarised polyester and
mica moulded capacitors. This system of colour coding is now obsolete but there are still
many old capacitors around. Nowadays, Small Capacitors such as film or disk types
conform to the BS1852 Standard and its new replacement, BS EN 60062, were the colours
have been replaced by a letter or number coded system.
Generally the code consists of 2 or 3 numbers and an optional tolerance letter code to identify
the tolerance. Where a two number code is used the value of the capacitor only is given in
picofarads, for example, 47 = 47 pF and 100 = 100pF etc. A three letter code consists of the
two value digits and a multiplier much like the resistor colour codes in the resistors section.
For example, the digits 471 = 47*10 = 470pF. Three digit codes are often accompanied by an
additional tolerance letter code as given below.

4.

Conclusion: Study of all types of resistors and their color code has been done successfully

EXPERIMENT - 3
1.

OBJECT : To study the various types of Inductance.

2.

REQUIRED MATERIALS :
Sr.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.

3.

Materials
Various Inductor.
LCR Meter
Digital Multimeter
Connecting Leads

Range
--------

Qty.
--1
1
2

THEORY: An INDUCTOR is an passive electronic component which consists of a coil of

wire which may have a metallic or ferrite core. A passive component is one that contributes
no power gain to a circuit or system. Inductors are normally made in the form of a coil. The
reason for this is that the magnetic field is linked between the windings and builds up. As
such an inductor with a sufficiently large inductance can be built up more easily. As the
permeability of the medium in which the coil is located has a major effect on the inductance,
a core running down the centre of the coil is often used.
Cores such as iron, ferrite and other magnetic materials are used. These all significantly
increase the level of inductance that can be obtained, but care has to be taken in the choice of
core to ensure its performance is suitable for the power level, frequency and general
application of the inductor.

Inductor basics
Although there are many different types of inductor, they all comply with the same basic
laws of nature. Each inductor sets up a magnetic field around the conductor and also has a
certain reactance.
The basic parameters are used within the inductor, whatever type it is.
Inductance is one of the basic factors that affect electrical circuits. Any wire or coil has a
certain inductance associated with it which is caused by the magnetic field that is set up when
the current flows. Energy is stored in the field, and the action of the coil is to exhibit a
resistance to change of the current flow within the conductor or coil.
Different Inductor core types
Like other types of component such as the capacitor, there are very many different types of
inductor. However it can be a little more difficult to exactly define the different types of
inductor because the variety of inductor applications is so wide.
Although it is possible to define an inductor by its core material, this is not the only way in
which they can be categorised. However for the basic definitions, this approach is used.

Air cored inductor: This type of inductor is normally used for RF applications where the
level of inductance required is smaller. The fact that no core is used has several advantages:
there is no loss within the core as air is lossless, and this results in a high level of Q,
assuming the inductor or coil resistance is low. Against this the number of turns on the coil is
larger to gain the same level of inductance and this may result in a physical increase in size.
Iron cored inductor: Iron cores are normally used for high power and high inductance types
of inductor. Some audio coils or chokes may use iron laminate. They are generally not
widely used.
Ferrite cored inductor : Ferrite is one of the most widely used cores for a variety of types
of inductor. Ferrite is a metal oxide ceramic based around a mixture of Ferric Oxide Fe2O3
and either manganese-zinc or nickel-zinc oxides which are extruded or pressed into the
required shape.
Iron power inductor: Another core that can be used in a variety of types of inductor is iron
oxide. Like ferrite, this provides a considerable increase in the permeability, thereby enabling
much higher inductance coils or inductors to be manufactured in a small space.
Different mechanical inductor types and applications
Inductors may also be categorised in terms of their mechanical construction. There are a
number of different standard types by which inductors may be categorised:
Bobbin based inductor: This type of inductor is would on a cylindrical bobbin. They may
be designed for printed circuit board mounting, even surface mount of they may be much
larger and mounted via some other mechanical means. Some older versions of these
inductors may even be in a similar format to normal leaded resistors.
Toroidal inductor: This form of inductor is wound on a toroid - a circular former. Ferrite is
often used as the former as this increases the permeability of the core. The advantage of a
toroid is that the toroid enables the magnetic flux to travel in a circle around the toroid and as
a result the flux leakage is very low. The disadvantage with a toroidal inductor is that it
requires a special winding machine is required to perform the manufacture as the wire has to
be passed thought the toroid for each turn required.
Multilayer ceramic inductor: This type of inductor is widely used for surface mount
technology. The inductor is manufactured within a ferrite or more commonly a magnetic
ceramic material. The coil is contained within the body of the ceramic and is presented to the
external circuit on end caps in the same way as chip capacitors, etc.
Film inductor: This form of inductor uses a film of conductor on a base material. The film
is then etched or shaped to give the required conductor profile.
As it can be seen, there are a number of ways to classify the different types of inductor. Each
has its own advantages, and it is therefore necessary to make a decision about the various
options available when choosing an inductor for a particular application. Modern materials
and technology has meant that the performance of inductors has increased and many more
options are open to the circuit designer whether for RF applications, combatting EMI, or for
power applications.
4.

Conclusion: Study of all types of inductors has been done successfully.

EXPERIMENT 4
1.

OBJECT : To study various types of Semiconductor Diodes.

2.

REQUIRED MATERIALS :
Sr.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.

3.

Materials
Various Semiconductor Diode
Analog Multimeter
Digital Multimeter
Connecting Leads

Range
--------

Qty.
--1
1
2

THEORY: In its basic form a semiconductor diode is formed from a piece of silicon by
making one end P type and the other end N type. This means that both ends have different
characteristics. One end has an excess of electrons whilst the other has an excess of holes.
Where the two areas meet the electrons fill the holes and there are no free holes or electrons.
This means that there are no available charge carries in this region. In view of the fact that
this area is depleted of charge carriers it is known as the depletion region.

The semiconductor diode PN junction with no bias applied

Even though the depletion region is very thin, often only few thousandths of a millimetre,
current cannot flow in the normal way. Different effects are noticed dependent upon the way
in which the voltage is applied to the junction. If the voltage is applied such that the P type
area becomes positive and the N type becomes negative, holes are attracted towards the
negative voltage and are assisted to jump across the depletion layer. Similarly electrons move
towards the positive voltage and jump the depletion layer. Even though the holes and
electrons are moving in opposite directions, they carry opposite charges and as a result they
represent a current flow in the same direction.

The semiconductor diode PN junction with forward bias

If the voltage is applied to the semiconductor diode in the opposite sense no current flows.
The reason for this is that the holes are attracted towards the negative potential that is applied
to the P type region. Similarly the electrons are attracted towards the positive potential which

is applied to the N type region. In other words the holes and electrons are attracted away
from the junction itself and the depletion region increases in width. Accordingly no current
flows.

The semiconductor diode PN junction with reverse bias

PN junction characteristics
The PN junction is not an ideal rectifier diode having infinite resistance in the reverse
direction and no resistance in the forward direction.

The characteristic of a diode PN junction

In the forward direction (forward biased) it can be seen that very little current flows until a
certain voltage has been reached. This represents the work that is required to enable the
charge carriers to cross the depletion layer. This voltage varies from one type of
semiconductor to another. For germanium it is around 0.2 or 0.3 volts and for silicon it is
about 0.6 volts. In fact it is possible to measure a voltage of about 0.6 volts across most small
current diodes when they are forward biased. Power rectifier diodes normally have a larger
voltage across them but this is partly due to the fact that there is some resistance in the
silicon, and partly due to the fact that higher currents are flowing and they are operating
further up the curve.
From the diagram it can be seen that a small amount of current flows in the reverse direction
(reverse biased). It has been exaggerated to show it on the diagram, and in normal
circumstances it is very much smaller than the forward current. Typically it may be a pico
amps or microamps at the most. However it is worse at higher temperatures and it is also
found that germanium is not as good as silicon.
This reverse current results from what are called minority carriers. These are a very small
number of electrons found in a P type region or holes in an N type region. Early
semiconductors has relatively high levels of minority carriers, but now that the manufacture

of semiconductor materials is very much better the number of minority carriers is much
reduced as are the levels of reverse currents.
Types of Diodes

Favorite I Made it! Collection

5. A diode is a two-terminal device, having two active electrodes, between which it allows the

transfer of current in one direction only. Diodes are known for their unidirectional current
property, wherein, the electric current is allowed to flow in one direction. Basically, diodes
are used for the purpose of rectifying waveforms, and can be used within power supplies or
within radio detectors. They can also be used in circuits where 'one way' effect of diode is
required. Most diodes are made from semiconductors such as silicon, however, germanium is
also used sometimes. Diodes transmit electric currents in one direction, however, the manner
in which they do so can vary. Several types of diodes are available for use in electronics
design. Some of the different types are:
Light Emitting Diode (LED): It is one of the most popular type of diodes and when this
diode permits the transfer of electric current between the electrodes, light is produced. In
most of the diodes, the light (infrared) cannot be seen as they are at frequencies that do not
permit visibility. When the diode is switched on or forward biased, the electrons recombine
with the holes and release energy in the form of light (electroluminescence). The color of
light depends on the energy gap of the semiconductor.
Avalanche Diode: This type of diode operates in the reverse bias, and used avalanche effect
for its operation. The avalanche breakdown takes place across the entire PN junction, when
the voltage drop is constant and is independent of current. Generally, the avalanche diode is
used for photo-detection, wherein high levels of sensitivity can be obtained by the avalanche
process.
Laser Diode: This type of diode is different from the LED type, as it produces coherent light.
These diodes find their application in DVD and CD drives, laser pointers, etc. Laser diodes
are more expensive than LEDs. However, they are cheaper than other forms of laser
generators. Moreover, these laser diodes have limited life.
Schottky Diodes: These diodes feature lower forward voltage drop as compared to the
ordinary silicon PN junction diodes. The voltage drop may be somewhere between 0.15 and
0.4 volts at low currents, as compared to the 0.6 volts for a silicon diode. In order to achieve
this performance, these diodes are constructed differently from normal diodes, with metal to
semiconductor contact. Schottky diodes are used in RF applications, rectifier applications
and clamping diodes.
Zener diode: This type of diode provides a stable reference voltage, thus is a very useful
type and is used in vast quantities. The diode runs in reverse bias, and breaks down on the
arrival of a certain voltage. A stable voltage is produced, if the current through the resistor is
limited. In power supplies, these diodes are widely used to provide a reference voltage.
Photodiode: Photodiodes are used to detect light and feature wide, transparent junctions.
Generally, these diodes operate in reverse bias, wherein even small amounts of current flow,
resulting from the light, can be detected with ease. Photodiodes can also be used to generate
electricity, used as solar cells and even in photometry.

Varicap Diode or Varactor Diode: This type of diode feature a reverse bias placed upon it,
which varies the width of the depletion layer as per the voltage placed across the diode. This
diode acts as a capacitor and capacitor plates are formed by the extent of conduction regions
and the depletion region as the insulating dielectric. By altering the bias on the diode, the
width of the depletion region changes, thereby varying the capacitance.
Rectifier Diode: These diodes are used to rectify alternating power inputs in power supplies.
They can rectify current levels that range from an amp upwards. If low voltage drops are
required, then Schottky diodes can be used, however, generally these diodes are PN junction
diodes.
Small signal or Small current diode - These diodes assumes that the operating point is not
affected because the signal is small

Large signal diodes - The operating point in these diodes get affected as the signal is
large.
Transient voltage supression diodes - This diode is used to protect the electronics that are
sensitive against voltage spikes.

Gold doped diodes - These diodes use gold as the dopant and can operate at signal
frequencies even if the forward voltage drop increases.

Super barrier diodes - These are also called as the rectifier diodes. This diodes have
the property of low reverse leakage current as that of normal p-n junction diode and low
forward voltage drop as that of Schottky diode with surge handling ability.

Point contact diodes - The construction of this diode is simpler and are used in analog
applications and as a detector in radio receivers. This diode is built of n type semiconductor
and few conducting metals placed to be in contact with the semiconductor. Some metals
move from towards the semiconductor to form small region of p- tpye semiconductor near
the contact.

Peltier diodes - This diode is used as heat engine and sensor for thermoelectric
cooling.

Gunn diode - This diode is made of materials like GaAs or InP that exhibit a negative
differential resistance region.

Crystal diode - These are a type of point contact diodes which are also called as Cats
whisker diode. This didoe comprises of a thin sharpened metal wire which is pressed against
the semiconducting crystal. The metal wire is the anode and the semconducting crystal is the
cathode. These diodes are obsolete.

Avalanche diode - This diode conducts in reverse bias condition where the reverse

bias volage applied across the p-n junction creates a wave of ionization leading to the flow of
large current. These didoes are designed to breakdown at specific reverse voltage in order to
avoid any damage.

Silicon controlled rectifier - As the name implies this diode can be controlled or
triggered to the ON condition due to the application of small voltage. They belong to the
family of Tyristors and is used in various fields of DC motor control, generator field
regulation, lighting system control and variable frequency drive . This is three terminal
device with anode, cathode and third controled lead or gate.

Vaccum diodes - This diode is two electrode vacuum tube which can tolerate high
inverse voltages.

Conclusion: Study of all types of resistors and their color code has been done successfully

For study Purpose (NO NEED TO WRITE IN PRACTICAL FILE)

Diodes are used widely in the electronics industry, right from electronics design to
production, to repair. Besides the above mentioned types of diodes, the other diodes are PIN
diode, point contact diode, signal diode, step recovery diode, tunnel diode and gold doped
diodes. The type of diode to transfer electric current depends on the type and amount of
transmission, as well as on specific applications.
Diodes are electronic components functions as a one-way valve it means it allow current to
flow in one direction. These diodes are manufactured by the semiconductor materials
germanium, silicon and selenium. Operation of diode can be classified in two ways, if it
allows the current then it is forward biased otherwise it is reverse biased. For silicon diodes
the forward voltage is 0.7v and for germanium it is 0.3v. In silicon diode the dark band
indicates the cathode terminal and the other terminal is anode. Generally diodes are used as
reverse polarity protector and transient protector. There are many types of diodes and some
of these are listed as follows.
1. Small Signal Diode
It is a small device with disproportional characteristics and whose applications are mainly
involved at high frequency and very low currents devices such as radios and televisions etc.
To protect the diode from contamination it is enveloped with a glass so it is also named as
Glass Passivated Diode which is extensively used as 1N4148. The appearance of signal
diode is very small when compared with the power diode. To indicate the cathode terminal
one edge is marked with black or red in color. For the applications at high frequencies the
performance of the small signal diode is very effective. With respect to the functional

frequencies of the signal diode the carrying capacity of the current and power are very low
which are maximum nearly at 150mA and 500mW.
The signal diode is a silicon doped semiconductor diode or a germanium doped diode but
depending up on the doping material the characteristics of the diode varies. In signal diode
the characteristics of the silicon doped diode is approximately opposite to the germanium
doped diode. The silicon signal diode has high voltage drop at the coupling about 0.6 to 0.7
volts so, it has very high resistance but low forward resistance. On other hand germanium
signal diode has low resistance due to low voltage drop nearly at 0.2 to 0.3 volts and high
forward resistance. Due to small signal the functional point is not disrupted in small signal
diode.
2. Large Signal Diode
These diodes have large PN junction layer. Thus the transformation of AC to DC voltages is
unbounded. This also increases the current forward capacity and reverse blocking voltage.
These large signals will disrupt the functional point also. Due to this it is not suitable for high
frequency applications. The main applications of these diodes are in battery charging devices
like inverters. In these diodes the range of forward resistance is in Ohms and the reverse
blocking resistance is in mega Ohms. Since it has high current and voltage performance these
can be used in electrical devices which are used to suppress high peak voltages.
3. Zener Diode
It is a passive element works under the principle of zener breakdown. First produced by
Clarence zener in 1934.It is similar to normal diode in forward direction, it also allows
current in reverse direction when the applied voltage reaches the breakdown voltage. It is
designed to prevent the other semiconductor devices from momentary voltage pulses. It acts
as voltage regulator.

4. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

These diodes convert the electrical energy in to light energy. First production started in 1968.
It undergoes electroluminescence process in which holes and electrons are recombined to
produce energy in the form of light in forward bias condition. Earlier they used in inductor
lamps but now in recent applications they are using in environmental and task handling.
Mostly used in applications like aviation lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes.

5. Constant Current Diodes

It is also known as current-regulating diode or constant current diode or current-limiting
diode or diode-connected transistor. The function of the diode is regulating the voltage at a
particular current. It functions as a two terminal current limiter. In this JFET acts as current
limiter to achieve high output impedance. The constant current diode symbol is shown
below.

6. Schottky Diode
In this type of diode the junction is formed by contacting the semiconductor material with
metal. Due to this the forward voltage drop is decreased to min. The semiconductor material
is N-type silicon which acts as an anode and the metal acts as a cathode whose materials are
chromium, platinum, tungsten etc. Due to the metal junction these diodes have high current
conducting capability thus the switching time reduces. So, Schottky has greater use in

switching applications. Mainly because of the metal- semiconductor junction the voltage
drop is low which in turn increase the diode performance and reduces power loss. So, these
are used in high frequency rectifier applications. The symbol of Schottky diode is as shown
below.

7. Shockley Diode
It was the invention of first semiconductor devices it has four layers. It is also called as pnpn
diode. It is equal to a thyristor without a gate terminal which means the gate terminal is
disconnected. As there is no trigger inputs the only way the diode can conduct is by
providing forward voltage. It stays on ones it turned ON and stays off ones it turned
OFF. The diode has two operating states conducting and non-conducting. In nonconducting state the diode conducts with less voltage.

The symbol of the Shockley diode is as follows:

Shockley Diode Applications:

Trigger switches for SCR.
Acts as relaxation oscillator.
8. Step Recovery Diodes:
It is also called as snap-off diode or charge-storage diode. These are the special type of
diodes which stores the charge from positive pulse and uses in the negative pulse of the
sinusoidal signals. The rise time of the current pulse is equal to the snap time. Due to this
phenomenon it has speed recovery pulses. The applications of these diodes are in higher
order multipliers and in pulse shaper circuits. The cut-off frequency of these diodes is very
high which are nearly at Giga hertz order. As multiplier this diode has the cut-off frequency
range of 200 to 300 GHz. In the operations which are performing at 10GHz range these
diodes plays a vital role. The efficiency is high for lower order multipliers. The symbol for
this diode is as shown below.

9. Tunnel Diode
It is used as high speed switch, of order nano-seconds. Due to tunneling effect it has very fast
operation in microwave frequency region. It is a two terminal device in which concentration
of dopants is too high. The transient response is being limited by junction capacitance plus
stray wiring capacitance. Mostly used in microwave oscillators and amplifiers. It acts as most
negative conductance device. Tunnel diodes can be tuned in both mechanically and
electrically. The symbol of tunnel diode is as shown below.

Tunnel Diode Applications:

1. Oscillatory circuits.
2. Microwave circuits.
3. Resistant to nuclear radiation.
10. Varactor Diode
These are also known as Varicap diodes. It acts like the variable capacitor. Operations are
performed mainly at reverse bias state only. These diodes are very famous due to its
capability of changing the capacitance ranges within the circuit in the presence of constant
voltage flow. They can able to vary capacitance up to high values. In varactor diode by
changing the reverse bias voltage we can decrease or increase the depletion layer. These
diodes have many applications as voltage controlled oscillator for cell phones, satellite prefilters etc. The symbol of varactor diode is given below.

Varactor Diode Applications:

1. Voltage-controlled capacitors.
2. Voltage-controlled oscillators.
3. Parametric amplifiers.
4. Frequency multipliers.
5. FM transmitters and Phase locked loops in radio, television sets and cellular telephone.
11. Laser Diode
Similar to LED in which active region is formed by p-n junction. Electrically laser diode is p-i-n
diode in which the active region is in intrinsic region. Used in fiber optic communications,
barcodereaders, laser pointers, CD/DVD/Blu-ray reading and recording, Laser printing.
Laser Diode Types:
1. Double Heterostructure Laser: Free electrons and holes available simultaneously in the
region.

2. Quantum Well Lasers: lasers having more than one quantum well are called multi quantum
well lasers.
3. Quantum Cascade Lasers: These are heterojunction lasers which enables laser action at
relatively long wavelengths.
4. Separate Confinement Heterostructure Lasers: To compensate the thin layer problem in
quantum lasers we go for separate confinement heterostructure lasers.
5. Distributed Bragg Reflector Lasers: It can be edge emitting lasers or VCSELS.
The symbol of the Laser Diode is as shown:

12. Transient Voltage Suppression Diode

In semiconductor devices due to the sudden change in the state voltage transients will occur.
They will damage the device output response. To overcome this problem voltage suppression
diode diodes are used. The operation of voltage suppression diode is similar to Zener diode
operation. The operation of these diodes is normal as p-n junction diodes but at the time of
transient voltage its operation changes. In normal condition the impedance of the diode is
high. When any transient voltage occurs in the circuit the diode enters in to the avalanche
breakdown region in which the low impedance is provided. It is spontaneously very fast
because the avalanche breakdown duration ranges in Pico seconds. Transient voltage
suppression diode will clamp the voltage to the fixed levels, mostly its clamping voltage is in
minimum range. These are having applications in the telecommunication fields, medical,
microprocessors and signal processing. It responds to over voltages faster than varistors or
gas discharge tubes. The symbol for Transient voltage suppression diode is as shown below.

The diode is characterized by

Leakage current
Maximum reverse stand-off voltage
Breakdown voltage
Clamping voltage
Parasitic capacitience
Parasitic inductance
Amount of energy it can absorb
13. Gold Doped Diodes
In these diodes gold is used as a dopant. These diodes are faster than other diodes. In these
diodes the leakage current in reverse bias condition also less. Even at the higher voltage drop
it allows the diode to operate in signal frequencies. In these diodes gold helps for the faster
recombination of minority carriers.
14. Super Barrier Diodes
It is a rectifier diode having low forward voltage drop as schottky diode with surge handling
capability and low reverse leakage current as p-n junction diode. It was designed for
highpower, fast switching and low-loss applications. Super barrier rectifiers are the next
generation rectifiers with low forward voltage than schottky diode.
15. Peltier Diode
In this type of diode, at the two material junction of a semiconductor it generates a heat
which flows from one terminal to another terminal. This flow is done in only single direction
that is as equal to the direction of current flow. This heat is produced due to electric charge
produced by the recombination of minority charge carriers. This is mainly used in cooling
and heating applications. This type of diodes used as sensor and heat engine for thermo
electric cooling.
16. Crystal Diode:
This is also known as Cats whisker which is a type of point contact diode. Its operation
depends on the pressure of contact between semiconductor crystal and point. In this a metal
wire is present which is pressed against the semiconductor crystal. In this the semiconductor

crystal acts as cathode and metal wire acts as anode. These diodes are obsolete in nature.
Mainly used in microwave receivers and detectors.
Crystal Diode Applications:
1. Crystal diode rectifier
2. Crystal diode detector
3. Crystal radio receiver
17. Avalanche Diode:
This is passive element works under principle of avalanche breakdown. It works in reverse
bias condition. It results large currents due to the ionization produced by p-n junction during
reverse bias condition. These diodes are specially designed to undergo breakdown at specific
reverse voltage to prevent the damage. The symbol of the avalanche diode is as shown
below:

Avalanche Diode Uses:

1. RF Noise Generation: It acts as source of RF for antenna analyzer bridges and also as white
noise generators. Used in radio equipments and also in hardware random number generators.
2. Microwave Frequency Generation: In this the diode acts as negative resistance device.
3. Single Photon Avalanche Detector: These are high gain photon detectors used in light level
applications.
18. Silicon Controlled Rectifier
It consists of three terminals they are anode, cathode and a gate. It is nearly equal to the
Shockley diode. As its name indicates it is mainly used for the control purpose when small
voltages are applied in the circuit. The symbol of the Silicon Controlled Rectifier is as shown
below:

Modes of Operation:
1. Forward blocking mode (off state): In this j1 and j3 forward biased and j2 is reverse biased. It
offers high resistance below breakover voltage and hence it is said to be off state.
2. Forward conduction mode (on state): By increasing the voltage at anode and cathode or by
applying positive pulse at the gate we can turn ON. To turn off the only way is to decrease
the current flowing through it.
3. Reverse blocking mode (off state): SCR blocking the reverse voltage is named as
asymmetrical SCR. Mostly used in current source inverters.
19. Vacuum Diodes
Vacuum diodes consist of two electrodes which will acts as an anode and the cathode.
Cathode is made up of tungsten which emits the electrons in the direction of anode. Always
electron flow will be from cathode to anode only. So, it acts like a switch. If the cathode is
coated with oxide material then the electrons emission capability is high. Anode is a bit long
in size and in some cases their surface is rough to reduce the temperatures developing in the
diode. The diode will conduct in only one case that is when the anode is positive regarding to
cathode terminal. The symbol is as shown in figure:

20. PIN Diode

The improved version of the normal P-N junction diode gives the PIN diode. In PIN diode
doping is not necessary. The intrinsic material means the material which has no charge
carriers is inserted between the P and N regions which increase the area of depletion layer.
When we apply forward bias voltage the holes and electrons will pushed into the intrinsic
layer. At some point due to this high injection level the electric field will conduct through the

intrinsic material also. This field made the carriers to flow from two regions. The symbol of
PIN diode is as shown below:

PIN Diode Applications:

1. Rf Switches: Pin diode is used for both signal and component selection. For example pin
diodes acts as range-switch inductors in low phase noise oscillators.
2. Attenuators: it is used as bridge and shunt resistance in bridge-T attenuator.
3. Photo Detectors: it detects x-ray and gamma ray photons.
21. Point Contact Devices
A gold or tungsten wire is used to act as the point contact to produce a PN junction region by
passing a high electric current through it. A small region of PN junction is produced around
the edge of the wire which is connected to the metal plate which is as shown in the figure.

In forward direction its operation is quite similar but in reverse bias condition the wire acts
like an insulator. Since this insulator is between the plates the diode acts as a capacitor. In
general the capacitor blocks the DC currents when the AC currents are flowing in the circuit
at high frequencies. So, these are used to detect the high frequency signals.
22. Gunn Diode
Gunn diode is fabricated with n-type semiconductor material only. The depletion region of
two N-type materials is very thin. When voltage increases in the circuit the current also
increases. After certain level of voltage the current will exponentially decrease thus this
exhibits the negative differential resistance. It has two electrodes with Gallium Arsenide and
Indium Phosphide due to these it has negative differential resistance. It is also termed as

transferred electron device. It produces micro wave RF signals so it is mainly used in

Microwave RF devices. It can also use as an amplifier. The symbol of Gunn diode is shown
below:

EXPERIMENT 5
1.

OBJECT: To study the operational features of Multimeter.

2.

APPARATUS: Multimeter, probes, Apparatus manuals.

3.

THEORY: A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an

electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A
typical multimeter would include basic features such as the ability to measure voltage,
current, and resistance. Multimeter is also used to test continuity between to 2 points to
verify if there are any breaks in circuit or line
Multimeters are designed and mass produced for electronics engineers. Even the simplest and
cheapest types may include features which you are not likely to use. Digital meters give an
output in numbers, usually on a liquid crystal display.
The diagram below shows a switched range multimeter:

Switched range multimeter

The central knob has lots of positions and you must choose which one is appropriate for the
measurement you want to make. If the meter is switched to 20 V DC, for example, then 20 V
is the maximum voltage which can be measured, This is sometimes called 20 V fsd, where
fsd is short for full scale deflection.

For circuits with power supplies of up to 20 V, which includes all the circuits you are likely
to build, the 20 V DC voltage range is the most useful. DC ranges are indicated by on the
meter. Sometimes, you will want to measure smaller voltages, and in this case, the 2 V or
200 mV ranges are used.
What does DC mean? DC means direct current. In any circuit which operates from a steady
voltage source, such as a battery, current flow is always in the same direction. Every
constructional project described in Design Electronics works in this way.
AC means alternating current. In an electric lamp connected to the domestic mains
electricity, current flows first one way, then the other. That is, the current reverses, or
alternates, in direction. With UK mains, the current reverses 50 times per second. For safety
reasons, you must NEVER connect a multimeter to the mains supply. You are not at all likely
to use the AC ranges, indicated by V~, on your multimeter. An alternative style of
multimeter is the auto ranging multimeter:

Auto ranging multimeter

The central knob has fewer positions and all you need to do is to switch it to the quantity you
want to measure. Once switched to V, the meter automatically adjusts its range to give a
meaningful reading, and the display includes the unit of measurement, V or mV. This type of
meter is more expensive, but obviously much easier to use.
Analog multimeters
An analog meter moves a needle along a scale. Switched range analogue multimeters are
very cheap but are difficult for beginners to read accurately, especially on resistance scales.
The meter movement is delicate and dropping the meter is likely to damage it!

Each type of meter has its advantages. Used as a voltmeter, a digital meter is usually better
because its resistance is much higher, 1 Mega Ohm or 10 Mega Ohm , compared to 200 kilo
Ohm for a analogue multimeter on a similar range. On the other hand, it is easier to follow a
slowly changing voltage by watching the needle on an analogue display.
Used as an ammeter, an analog multimeter has a very low resistance and is very sensitive,
with scales down to 50 A. More expensive digital multimeters can equal or better this
performance. Most modern multimeters are digital and traditional analogue types are
destined to become obsolete.
4.

PROCEDURE: Handle above instruments,

Identify their specifications by referring their manuals and understand their usage. Learn
different controls on the front panel and their significance.

5.

CONCLUSION: Function of multimeter, are studied.

EXPERIMENT 6
1.

OBJECT: To study and check different types of transistors. (NPN PNP)

2.

INSTRUMENTS: Various transistors, multimeter.

3.

THEORY: Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small
output current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current
device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a changing
voltage, so the transistor is being used to amplify Voltage.
The n-p-n junction transistor consists of two n -type semiconductors (called the emitter and
collector) separated by a thin layer of p -type semiconductor (called the base). The transistor
action is such that if the electric potentials on the segments are properly determined, a small
current between the base and emitter connections results in a large current between the
emitter and collector connections, thus producing current amplification. Some circuits are
designed to use the transistor as a switching device; current in the base-emitter junction
creates a low-resistance path between the collector and emitter. The p-n-p junction transistor,
consisting of a thin layer of n -type semiconductor lying between two p -type
semiconductors, works in the same manner, except that all polarities are reversed.
A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with
no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on).
The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE.
Types of transistor
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols.
The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most
transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. The
leads are labeled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
Transistor circuit symbols

The basic diagrams of the two types of bipolar junction transistors mentioned above are
given below.

Transistors have three leads which must be connected the correct way round. Please take care
with this because a wrongly connected transistor may be damaged instantly when you switch
on.
The drawings on the right show the leads for some of the most common case styles. B

Testing a transistor
Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a circuit. If you suspect
that a transistor may be damaged then test it:
Testing with a multimeter
Use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check each pair of leads for
conduction. Set a digital multimeter to diode test and an analogue multimeter to a low
resistance range.
Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in total):
The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only.

Testing an NPN transistor

The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only.
The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.
The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are reversed
in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.
4.

PROCEDURE:
1. Uniquely identify the transistor.
2. Use the multimeter to detect the orientation of the transistor.

5.

RESULT: Study of transistors has been successfully done.

EXPERIMENT 7
1.

OBJECT: To study the Analog IC and Digital IC.

2.

REQUIRED MATERIALS:
Sr.No. Materials
1.
Various Analog and Digital IC
2.
Analog and Digital IC Tester

3.

Range
-----

Qty.
--1

THEORY:
Digital ICs expect high/low true/false inputs and outputs. Analog ICs take any inputs, and
produce outputs of any level. For example, an audio amplifier is an analog IC. It takes an
analog input (sound), and produces an analog output (louder sound). A ripple counter is an
example of a digital IC. It takes a digital input (clock pulses), and produces a number of
digital outputs (the digital outputs of the flip flops, collectively representing a number in
binary).
Analog ICs are designed to handle and process analog signals (speech, music, TV pictures,
temperature information and so on). Digital ICs only cope with logic states - either high or
low (digital 0 or 1) inputs, and output 1s and 0s. They're designed to perform mathematical
operations, and were originally designed to be used in early computers. Examples would
include AND, OR, NOT, EX-OR, and ADDER ICs - each has its own mathematical function
555 Timer IC:
The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse generation,
and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an oscillator, and
as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up to four timing circuits in one package.
Introduced in 1972 the 555 is still in widespread use, thanks to its ease of use, low price, and
good stability. It is now made by many companies in the original bipolar and also in lowpower CMOS types. As of 2003, it was estimated that 1 billion units are manufactured every
year.

Design:
The IC was designed in 1971 by Hans R. Camenzind under contract to Signetics, which was
later acquired by Philips. Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes
25 transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-inline package (DIP-8). Variants available include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP combining two 555s
on one chip), and the two 558 & 559s (both a 16-pin DIP combining four slightly modified
555s with DIS & THR connected internally, and TR is falling edge sensitive instead of level
sensitive). There is no 557.
The NE555 parts were commercial temperature range, 0 C to +70 C, and the SE555 part
number designated the military temperature range, 55 C to +125 C. These were available

in both high-reliability metal can (T package) and inexpensive epoxy plastic (V package)
packages. Thus the full part numbers were NE555V, NE555T, SE555V, and SE555T. It has
been hypothesized that the 555 got its name from the three 5 k resistors used within, but
Hans Camenzind has stated that the number was arbitrary.
Low-power versions of the 555 are also available, such as the 7555 and CMOS TLC555. The
7555 is designed to cause less supply noise than the classic 555 and the manufacturer claims
that it usually does not require a "control" capacitor and in many cases does not require a
decoupling capacitor on the power supply. Such a practice should nevertheless be avoided,
because noise produced by the timer or variation in power supply voltage might interfere
with other parts of a circuit or influence its threshold voltages.

Pins:

Pin-out Diagram
The connection of the pins for a DIP package is as follows:

Pin Name Purpose:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

GND
TRIG
OUT

Ground, low level (0 V)

OUT rises, and interval starts, when this input falls below 1/2 of CTRL voltage.
This output is driven to approximately 1.7V below +VCC or GND.
A timing interval may be reset by driving this input to GND, but the timing does
RESET
not begin again until RESET rises above approximately 0.7 volts. Overrides
TRIG which overrides THR.
CTRL "Control" access to the internal voltage divider (by default, 2/3 VCC).
THR
The interval ends when the voltage at THR is greater than at CTRL.
Open collector output; may discharge a capacitor between intervals. In phase with
DIS
output.
VCC
Positive supply voltage is usually between 3 and 15 V.
Note-PIN 5 is also called the CONTROL VOLTAGE pin By applying a voltage to the
CONTROL VOLTAGE input you can alter the timing characteristics of the device. In most
applications, the CONTROL VOLTAGE input is not used. It is usual to connect a 10 nF
capacitor between pin 5 and 0 V to prevent interference. The CONTROL VOLTAGE input
can be used to build an astable with a frequency modulated output

1.2 Modes:
The 555 has three operating modes:
Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator.
Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch switches,
frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) and so on.
Astable: free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp
flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position
modulation and so on. The 555 can be used as a simple ADC, converting an analog value to a
pulse length. E.g. selecting a thermistor as timing resistor allows the use of the 555 in a
temperature sensor: the period of the output pulse is determined by the temperature. The use
of a microprocessor based circuit can then convert the pulse period to temperature, linearize
it and even provide calibration means.
Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not
connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free latched switches.

Pin Description:

Pin
No
1
2
3
4
5
6

Function

Name

Output of 1st comparator

Inverting input of 1st comparator
Non-inverting input of 1st comparator

Output 1
Input 1Input 1+

Supply voltage; 5V (up to 32V)

Non-inverting input of 2nd comparator
Inverting input of 2nd comparator

Vcc
Input 2+
Input 2-

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

4.

Output of 2nd comparator

Output of 3rd comparator
Inverting input of 3rd comparator
Non-inverting input of 3rd comparator
Ground (0V)
Non-inverting input of 4th comparator
Inverting input of 4th comparator
Output of 4th comparator

RESULT: Study of Analog and Digital IC has been successfully done.

Output 2
Output 3
Input 3Input 3+
Ground
Input 4+
Input 4Output 4

EXPERIMENT 8
1.

OBJECT: To study various types of Thyristor

2.

REQUIRED MATERIALS:
Sr.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.

3.

Materials
Various thyristor
Analog Multimeter
Digital Multimeter
Connecting Leads

Range
--------

Qty.
--1
1
2

THEORY: Basically the thyristor are Diac, Triac, SCR (Silicon Control Rectifier), GTO,
PUT
The DIAC is a diode that conducts electrical current only after its breakover voltage, VBO,
has been reached momentarily. The term is an acronym of diode for alternating current.
When breakdown occurs, the diode enters a region of negative dynamic resistance, leading to
a decrease in the voltage drop across the diode and, usually, a sharp increase in current
through the diode. The diode remains in conduction until the current through it drops below a
value characteristic for the device, called the holding current, IH. Below this value, the diode
switches back to its high-resistance, non-conducting state. This behavior is bidirectional,
meaning typically the same for both directions of current.
Most DIACs have a three-layer structure with breakover voltage of approximately 30 V.
Their behavior is similar to that of a neon lamp, but it can be more precisely controlled and
takes place at a lower voltage.
DIACs have no gate electrode, unlike some other thyristors that they are commonly used to
trigger, such as TRIACs. Some TRIACs, likeQuadrac, contain a built-in DIAC in series with
the TRIAC's gate terminal for this purpose.
DIACs are also called symmetrical trigger diodes due to the symmetry of their characteristic
curve. Because DIACs are bidirectional devices, their terminals are not labeled as anode and
cathode but as A1 and A2 or main teminal MT1 and MT2.

Typical DIAC voltage and current relationships. VBO is the breakover voltage.

SCR:
The silicon control rectifier (SCR) consists of four layers of semiconductors, which
form NPNP or PNPN structures. It has three junctions, labeled J1, J2 and J3, and three
terminals. The anode terminal of an SCR is connected to the p-type material of a PNPN
structure, and the cathode terminal is connected to the n-type layer, while the gate of the SCR
is connected to the p-type material nearest to the cathode.[6]
An SCR consists of four layers of alternating p- and n-type semiconductor materials.
Silicon is used as the intrinsic semiconductor, to which the proper dopants are added. The
junctions are either diffused or alloyed. The planar construction is used for low-power SCRs
(and all the junctions are diffused). The mesa-type construction is used for high-power SCRs.
In this case, junction J2 is obtained by the diffusion method, and then the outer two layers
are alloyed to it, since the PNPN pellet is required to handle large currents. It is properly
braced with tungsten or molybdenum plates to provide greater mechanical strength. One of
these plates is hard-soldered to a copper stud, which is threaded for attachment of heat sink.
The doping of PNPN depends on the application of SCR, since its characteristics are similar
to those of the thyratron. Today, the term "thyristor" applies to the larger family of multilayer
devices that exhibit bistable state-change behaviour, that is, switching either on or off.
The operation of an SCR and other thyristors can be understood in terms of a pair of tightly
coupled bipolar junction transistors, arranged to cause the self-latching action:

Modes of Operation
There are three modes of operation for an SCR depending upon the biasing given to it:
1. Forward blocking mode (off state)
2. Forward conduction mode (on state)
3. Reverse blocking mode (off state)
Forward blocking mode
In this mode of operation, the anode is given a positive voltage while the cathode is given a
negative voltage, keeping the gate at zero potential i.e. disconnected. In this case
junction J1 and J3 are forward-biased, while J2 is reverse-biased, due to which only a small
leakage current exists from the anode to the cathode until the applied voltage reaches its
breakover value, at which J2 undergoes avalanche breakdown, and at this breakover voltage
it starts conducting, but below breakover voltage it offers very high resistance to the current
and is said to be in the off state.
Forward conduction mode
SCR can be brought from blocking mode to conduction mode in two ways: either by
increasing the voltage across anode to cathode beyond breakover voltage or by applying
positive pulse at gate. Once SCR starts conducting, no more gate voltage is required to
maintain it in the on state. There are two ways to turn it off: 1. Reduce the current through it
below a minimal value called the holding current and 2. With the gate turned off, short out
the anode and cathode momentarily with a push-button switch or transistor across the
junction.
Reverse blocking mode
SCRs are available with reverse blocking capability, which adds to the forward voltage drop
because of the need to have a long, low-doped P1 region. (If one cannot determine which
region is P1, a labeled diagram of layers and junctions can help). Usually, the reverse
blocking voltage rating and forward blocking voltage rating are the same. The typical
application for reverse blocking SCR is in current-source inverters.
SCRs incapable of blocking reverse voltage are known as asymmetrical SCR,
abbreviated ASCR. They typically have a reverse breakdown rating in the tens of volts.
ASCRs are used where either a reverse conducting diode is applied in parallel (for example,
in voltage-source inverters) or where reverse voltage would never occur (for example, in
switching power supplies or DC traction choppers).
Asymmetrical SCRs can be fabricated with a reverse conducting diode in the same package.
These are known as RCTs, for reverse conducting thyristors.

Thyristor turn-on methods

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

forward-voltage triggering
gate triggering
dv/dt triggering
temperature triggering
light triggering

SCR Characteristics:
SCR or Silicon Controlled Rectifier is one of power semiconductor devices which is popular
for ac to dc converter, ac chopper, and ac phase control applications. As shown in figure 1,
the SCR (sometimes called thyristor) is a three-junction P-N-P-N device, where P-N-P and
N-P-N component transistors are connected in regenerative feedback mode. The SCR blocks
voltage in both the forward and reverse directions; so that is a symmetric blocking. In the
SCR characteristic curve or SCR volt-ampere characteristic or SCR static characteristic
(figure 2), the SCR blocking voltage are: (i) forward break over voltage (VBO), (ii) reverse
break down voltage (VBD).

SCR (left: symbol; right: characteristic)

Triac:
A Triac behaves just like two conventional thyristors connected together in inverse parallel
(back-to-back) with respect to each other and because of this arrangement the two thyristors
share a common Gate terminal all within a single three-terminal package.
Since a triac conducts in both directions of a sinusoidal waveform, the concept of an Anode
terminal and a Cathode terminal used to identify the main power terminals of a thyristor are
replaced with identifications of: MT1, for Main Terminal 1 and MT2 for Main Terminal
2 with the Gate terminal Greferenced the same.

In most AC switching applications, the triac gate terminal is associated with

the MT1 terminal, similar to the gate-cathode relationship of the thyristor or the base-emitter
relationship of the transistor. The construction, P-N doping and schematic symbol used to
represent a Triac is given below.
Triac Symbol and Construction:

We now know that a triac is a 4-layer, PNPN in the positive direction and a NPNP in the
negative direction, three-terminal bidirectional device that blocks current in its OFF state
acting like an open-circuit switch, but unlike a conventional thyristor, the triac can conduct
current in either direction when triggered by a single gate pulse. Then a triac has four
possible triggering modes of operation as follows.
+ Mode = MT2 current positive (+ve), Gate current positive (+ve)
Mode = MT2 current positive (+ve), Gate current negative (-ve)
+ Mode = MT2 current negative (-ve), Gate current positive (+ve)
Mode = MT2 current negative (-ve), Gate current negative (-ve)
And these four modes in which a triac can be operated are shown using the triacs I-V
characteristics curves.

Triac I-V Characteristics Curves

In Quadrant , the triac is usually triggered into conduction by a positive gate current,
labelled above as mode +. But it can also be triggered by a negative gate current, mode .
Similarly, in Quadrant , triggering with a negative gate current, G is also common,
mode along with mode +. Modes and + are, however, less sensitive
configurations requiring a greater gate current to cause triggering than the more common
triac triggering modes of + and .
Also, just like silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs), triacs also require a minimum holding
current IH to maintain conduction at the waveforms cross over point. Then even though the
two thyristors are combined into one single triac device, they still exhibit individual electrical
characteristics such as different breakdown voltages, holding currents and trigger voltage
levels exactly the same as we would expect from a single SCR device.
Triac Applications:
The Triac is most commonly used semiconductor device for switching and power control of
AC systems as the triac can be switched ON by either a positive or negative Gate pulse,
regardless of the polarity of the AC supply at that time. This makes the triac ideal to control a
lamp or AC motor load with a very basic triac switching circuit given below.

Programmable UJT (PUT):

Programmable unijunction transistor or PUT is a close relative of the thyristor family. Its has
a four layered construction just like the thyristors and have three terminals named anode(A),
cathode(K) and gate(G) again like the thyristors. Yet some authors call it a programmable
UJT just because its characteristics and parameters have much similarity to that of the
unijunction transistor. It is called programmable because the parameters like intrinsic
standoff ratio (), peak voltage(Vp) etc can be programmed with the help of two external
resistors. In a UJT, the parameters like Vp, etc are fixed and we cannot change it. The main
application of programmable UJT are relaxation oscillators , thyristor firing, pulse circuits
and timing circuits. ON Semiconductor is the only manufacturer of PUT now. 2N6027 is
the most common type number and it is available in the TO-92 plastic package. The internal
block diagram and circuit symbol of PUT are shown below.

From the above figure, you can see that the PUT has a four layered construction. Topmost Player is called the anode (A). The N-layer next to the anode is called the gate (G). The Player next to the gate is left alone. The bottom most N-layer is called cathode (K). Ohmic
contacts are made on the anode, cathode and gate layers for external connection.

PUT characteristics.
PUT characteristics is essentially a plot between the anode voltage Va and anode current Ia
of the PUT. The typical biasing diagram and characteristics plot of a PUT is shown below.

Typically the anode of the PUT is connected to a positive voltage and the cathode is
connected to the ground. The gate is connected to the junction of the two external resistor R1
and R2 which forms a voltage divider network. It is the value of these two resistors that
determines the intrinsic standoff ratio() and peak voltage (Vp) of the PUT.
When the anode to cathode voltage (Va)is increased the anode current will also get increased
and the junction behaves like a typical P-N junction. But the Va cannot be increased beyond
a particular point. At this point sufficient number of charges are injected and the junction
starts to saturate. Beyond this point the anode current (Ia) increases and the anode voltage
(Va) decreases. This is equal to a negative resistance scenario and this negative resistance
region in the PUT characteristic is used in relaxation oscillators. When the anode voltage
(Va) is reduced to a particular level called Valley Point, the device becomes fully saturated
and no more decrease in Va is possible. There after the device behaves like a fully saturated
P-N junction.
Peak voltage (Vp): It is the anode to cathode voltage after which the PUT jumps into the
negative resistance region. The peak voltage Vp will be usually one diode drop (0.7V) plus
the gate to cathode voltage (Vg). Peak voltage can be expressed using the equation:
Vp = 0.7V + Vg = 0.7V + VR1 = 0.7V + Vbb . Where is the intrinsic standoff ratio and
Vbb is the total voltage across the external resistor network.
Intrinsic standoff ratio ( ) : Intrinsic standoff ratio of a PUT is the ratio of the external resistor
R1 to the sum of R1 and R2. It helps us to predict how much voltage will be dropped across
the gate and cathode for a given Vbb. The intrinsic standoff ratio can be expressed using the
equation:
= R1/(R1+R2).

PUT relaxation oscillator.

Relaxation oscillator is of course the most common application of a programmable UJT. PUT
relaxation oscillator can be used for generating a wide range of saw tooth wave forms. It is
called a relaxation oscillator because the timing interval is started by the gradual charging of
a capacitor and the timing interval is terminated by the sudden discharge of the same
capacitor. The circuit diagram of a PUT relaxation oscillator is shown below.

Resistors R1 and R2 set the peak voltage (Vp) and intrinsic standoff ratio () of the PUT.
Resistor Rk limits cathode current of the PUT. Resistor R and capacitor C sets the frequency
of the oscillator. When the supply voltage Vbb is applied, the capacitor C starts charging
through resistor R. When the voltage across the capacitor exceeds the peak voltage (Vp) the
PUT goes into negative resistance mode and this creates a low resistance path from anode(A)
to cathode(K). The capacitor discharges through this path. When the voltage across the
capacitor is below valley point voltage (Vv) the PUT reverts to its initial condition and there
will be no more discharge path for the capacitor. The capacitor starts to charge again and the
cycle is repeated. This series of charging and discharging results in a sawtooth waveform
across the capacitor as shown in the figure below.

The frequency of oscillation of a PUT relaxation oscillator can be expressed by the following
equation:

Gate Turn Off Thyristor (GTO):

The Gate turn off thyristor (GTO) is a four layer PNPN power semiconductor switching
device that can be turned on by a short pulse of gate current and can be turned off by a
reverse gate pulse.

This reverse gate current amplitude is dependent on the anode current to be turned off.

There is no need for an external commutation circuit to turn it off. So inverter circuits built
by this device are compact and low-cost.

The device is turned on by a positive gate current and it is turned off by a negative gate
cathode voltage.
GTO Symbol

As shown the Symbol has three terminals namely Anode(A), Cathode(K) and Gate(G).
The two-way arrow convention on the gate lead distinguishes the GTO from the conventional
thyristor.
GTOs are of two types
Asymmetrical GTO:

The Asymmetrical type GTOs are the most common type on the market.

This type of GTOs are normally used with a anti-parallel diode.

They do not have high reverse blocking capability.

They are used in Voltage Fed Converters.

Symmetrical GTO:

The symmetrical type GTOs have an equal forward and reverse blocking capability.

They are used in Current Fed Converters.

Turn OFF Current Gain:

The Turn Off Current Gain of a GTO is defined as the ratio of anode current prior to turn off
to the negative gate current required for turn off. It is typically very low (4 or 5).

It means a 6000A rating GTO requires 1500A gate current pulse. However, the gate pulse
duration and the power loss due to the gate pulse is small. It can be supplied by low voltage
power MOSFETs.

This gate turn off capability is advantageous because it provides increased flexibility in
circuit application. Now it becomes possible to control power in DC circuits without use of
elaborated commutation circuitry.

Applications of GTO:
They are used in motor drives, static VAR compensators (SVCs) and AC/DC power supplies
with high power ratings.
DISADVANTAGES:
Compared to a conventional SCR, the device has the following disadvantages:

Magnitude of latching, holding currents is more. The latching current of the GTO is several
times more as compared to conventional thyristors of the same rating.

On state voltage drop and the associated loss is more.

Due to multicathode structure of GTO, triggering gate current is higher than that required for
normal SCR.

Gate drive circuit losses are more. Its reverse voltage blocking capability is less than the
forward voltage blocking capability.

ADVANATAGES:
The prime design goal of GTO devices are to achieve fast turn off time and high current turn
off capability and to enhance the safe operating area during turn off. The GTOs turn off
occurs by removal of excess holes in the cathode base region by reversing the current
through the gate terminal. Compare to BJT the GTO has the following advantages:

High blocking voltage capabilities

High over current capabilities

Exhibits low gate currents

Fast and efficient turn off

Better static and dynamic dv/dt capabilities

4.

RESULT: Study of various thyristors has been successfully done.