04/15/2013
Chemical evolution
Prebiotic soup hypothesis
o Organic molecules formed near Earths surface in sea of organic soup or
on rock or day surfaces
Iron-Sulfur world hypothesis
o Organic molecules produced at hydrothermal vents in deep ocean floor
The Miller and Urey experiment
H2O, NH3, H2, CH4 in the spark chamber
Organic molecules are produced
Not quite living yet
Organic molecules are precursors of life, but
they lacked a replication machinery and evolutionary tendencies
Macromolecules: produced through polymerization
o Example of a polymer: carbohydrates (sugars), nucleic acids (DNA and
RNA), proteins (coming from amino acids), triglycerides (fatty acids and
glycerols)
Protobionts (Proto-cells): formed from macromolecules; began to use enzymes
for replication, transcription, and translation
But how can have proteins been first produced without a protein enzyme?
Primary enzyme: RNA
Summary of origin of cells
The origin of cells
o Macromolecules
Assembled from small organic molecules
o Protobionts (macromolecules assemblages)
Formed from macromolecules
o Cells
Arose from protobionts
Microspheres produced by adding water to abiotically formed polypeptides
Natural Selection at the Molecular Level
Survival of the fittest
Charles Darwin
o Heterotrophic: does not produce its own food; depend on other molecules
o Autotrophic: can produce own food (ex. Plants)
Evolution of ability to produce own food (photosynthesis) autotrophs
o Autotrophs release oxygen
Contribution of autotrophs: oxygen in the atmosphere
o CO2 + H2O C6 H12 O6 + O2 + H2O
Did all organisms utilize oxygen?
o Yes
o For aerobic respiration
What cells undergo aerobic respiration (in organisms)?
o Needs C6 H12 O6 + O2 CO2 +H2O + ATP
o Only living cells undergo aerobic respiration (not nails, for when cut, the
person cannot feel a thing; hair strands, for when pulled, they are released
from its root)
Serial Endosymbiosis
Material is suspended in the cytoplasm
Endocytosis
o This process will allow the particles outside the cell to enter into the cell
o The bacteria will be allowed to enter the cell
Aerobic bacteria will become a mitochondria, after undergoing aerobic respiration
o 1) The aerobic bacteria will enter into a prokaryotic host cell (with DNA
inside); multiple invaginations of the plasma membrane
o 2) Aerobic bacteria become mitochondria; endoplasmic reticulum and
nuclear envelope form from the plasma membrane invaginations (not part
of the serial endosymbiosis)
o 3) Prokaryotic bacteria become chloroplasts
o 4) Eukaryotic cells plants some protists
Any evidence?
Both mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA and ribosomes
The outer membranes of these organelles originated from invaginations of the
host cells plasma membrane
A look through evolutionary history
Ediacaran Period
600-542 million years ago
Key trend: multicellularity
Dominant: small-bodies invertebrates
Plasma membrane
Surrounds the cell
Separates cell from external environment
Maintains internal conditions
Allows the cell to exchange materials with outer environment
Exocytosis
The sciatic nerve releases a chemical (neurotransmitters)
Prokaryotes
Prokaryotic cells
o No internal membrane organization
o Nuclear area (not nucleus)
o Cell wall
o Ribosomes
o Flagellum and cilia
Cells arise only from preexisting cells
All cells come from cells
At the heart of the reproduction of cells and organisms is cell division
Cell Division
1. Mitosis division that results to 2 daughter cells
2. Meiosis division of reproductive cells (legamines: egg cells and sperm cells)
Two Main Roles of Cell Division
Division Mechanisms
Eukaryotic organisms
o Mitosis
o Meiosis
Prokaryotic organisms
o Binary fission
Roles of Mitosis
Multicellular organisms
o Growth for healing and fast recovery
o Cell replacement
Some protistans, fungi, plants, animals
o Asexual reproduction
Division of cells
Before a cell starts dividing, the chromosomes are duplicated
o This process produces sister chromatids
Nuclear DNA
One chromosome (one dispersed DNA molecule + proteins; not duplicated)
Interphase
Seatwork/Homework
1. What is a nucleosome?
2. What is a kinetochore?
3. Differentiate a bacterial DNA from Eukaryote DNA
4. What is the function of scaffolding proteins?
5. Describe some ways in which the cell cycle is controlled
Nucleosome
A structural unit of a eukaryotic chromosome, consisting of a length of DNA coiled
around a come of histones
Kinetochore
Another term for Centromere
The point on a chromosome by which it is attached to a spindle fiber during cell
division
The cell cycle multiplies cells
The cell cycle consists of 2 major phases:
o Interphase, where chromosomes duplicate and cell parts are made
o Mitotic phase, cell division occurs
Cytokinesis
The pinching to produce the daughter cells
Interphase
Usually the longest part of the cycle
Cell increases in mass
Number of cytoplasmic components doubles
DNA is duplicated/replicated
Mitotic Phase
1. Mitosis (period of nuclear division)
o In mitosis, the duplicated chromosomes are distributed into 2 daughter
nuclei
2. Cytokinesis (cytoplasmic membrane)
Prophase (Early)
Duplicated chromosomes begin to condense
Anaphase
Sister chromatids of each chromosome are pulled apart
Once separated
Results of Mitosis
2n = diploid 6
n = haploid 3
Cytokinesis
Division of cytoplasm
Usually occurs along with telophase
In animals cytokinesis occurs by cleavage
o This process pinches the cells in two
Most animal cells divide only when stimulated, and others not at all
Some cells normally stop in interphase
Neurons in human brain
Arrested cells do not divide
Adverse conditions can stop cycle
Nutrient-deprived amoebas get stuck in interphase
Asexual Reproduction
Single parent
o Offspring have identical hereditary traits
Mitosis
o Basis for eukaryotic asexual reproduction
From 1 prokaryotic cell to 2 identical prokaryotic cells
1. DNA replication begins at single site on bacterial DNA.
2. Replication continues, as replication enzymes work in both directions from site
where replication began.
3. Replication is completed. Cell begins to divide, as plasma membrane grows
inward.
4. Binary fission is complete. Two identical prokaryotic cells result.
Mitosis
P4
M4
A4
T4
Impacts, Issues: Why Sex
Asexual reproduction is easier and faster
Sexual Reproduction
Involves
o Meiosis
o Gamete production
o Fertilization
The Human Life Cycle
Haploid gametes (n=23)
Animal Life Cycle
At
One chromosome in each pair from the mother, other from the father
Meiosis
Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid
Meiosis, like mitosis, is preceded by chromosome duplication
Meiosis: Two Divisions
Two consecutive nuclear divisions
o Meiosis I
o Meiosis 2
DNA is not duplicated between divisions
o 4 haploid daughter cells
Meiosis I Stages
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
Crossing-over
Tetrad
Synapse
Prophase I
Each duplicated chromosome pairs with homologue
Metaphase I
The spindle is fully formed
Chromosomes are pushed to the center
4 chromosomes
Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes segregate
Telophase II
4 daughter cells
Gamete Formation
Gametes are sex cells (sperm, eggs)
Arise from germ cells
Formation of Egg
1. Oogonium (diploid) Growth
2. Primary oocyte (diploid) Meiosis I, cytoplasmic division
3. Secondary oocyte (haploid) Meiosis II, cytoplasmic division
4. Ovum (haploid) Meiosis II, cytoplasmic division
5. Egg cell
Formation of Sperm
1. Spermatogonium (diploid) Growth
2. Primary spermatocyte (diploid) Meiosis I, cytoplasmic division
3. Secondary spermatocytes (haploid) Meiosis II, cytoplasmic division
4. Spermatids (haploid) Meiosis II, cytoplasmic division
5. Sperm (mature, haploid male gametes)
Mitosis end with 4 daughter cells
Meiosis end with 2 daughter cells
Protein Synthesis
Ribosomes
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Cytoplasm
Endoplasmic Reticulum
AA
o Codon
Anticodon
RNA
rRNA
tRNA
mRNA
Results of Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis
o Two diploid cells produced
o Each identical to parent
Meiosis
o Four haploid cells produced
o Differ from parent and one another
o Daughter cells will be haploid in Meiosis
o Four cells produced by a woman but only one is viable, the other 3 are
called Polar bodies
Mitosis and Meiosis Compared
Mitosis
o Functions
Asexual reproduction
Growth, repair
o Occurs in somatic cells (body cells)
o Produces clones
Meiosis
o Function
Sexual reproduction
o Occurs in germ cells
o Produces variable offspring
Sex Chromosomes
Syndrome
XXY
Klinefelter syndrome
(male)
None (normal male)
XYY
Origin of
Nondisjunction
Meiosis in egg or
sperm formation
Meiosis in sperm
formation
Frequecy on
Population
1/2000
1/2000
Deletion
A deletion is the loss of a portion of chromosome material. May occur at one end
of the chromosome (a terminal deletion), or in the middle (interstitial deletion)
ABC -DEF
Inversion
An inversion is a segment of a chromosome that has been separated from the
chromosome and then replaced in the same location, but in reverse
ABC - DGFEH
Translocation
Translocation occurs when a broken piece from a chromosome attaches to
another chromosome
Most commonly, 2 chromosomes, exchange fragments
ABC DNOP and JKL -MEFG
Part of 1 chromosome becomes attached to another chromosome
o In Down syndrome, part of chromosome 21 may be attached to
chromosome 14
How Cells make ATP: Energy-Releasing Pathways
In aerobic respiration, which reactant is oxidized and which is reduced?
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
Aerobic Respiration
A catabolic process
Glycolysis
Occurs at the cytoplasm
Occurs outside the Mitochondria
Breaking down of 1 glucose = 2 molecules of pyruvate 2 ATP
o FAD
o ADP and Pi
Overall Products
o Coenzyme A
o 2 CO2
o 3 NADH
o FADH2
o ATP
Lipids
Glycerol and fatty acids
o Both oxidized as fuel
Fatty acids converted to acetyl CoA by -oxidation
Carbohydrates (Glycolysis, Glucose G3P Pyruvate) (Acetyl Coenzyme A)
and CO2 Citric acid cycle Electron transport chemiosmosis
PROTEINS Amino acids Pyruvate Acetyl coenzyme A
Anaerobic Respiration
Electrons transferred
o From fuel molecules to ETC
o Coupled to ATP synthesis (chemiosmosis)
Final electron acceptor
o Inorganic substance
o Nitrate or sulfate (not molecular oxygen)
Fermentation
Anaerobic process
o No ETC
Net energy gain only 2 ATP per glucose
o Produced by substrate-level phosphorylation during glycolysis
NAD+
o Produced by transferring H from NADH to organic compound from nutrient
Fermentation
1. Alcohol fermentation
o In yeast cells
o Waste products: Ethyl alcohol, CO2
2. Lactate (lactic acid) fermentation
o Some fungi, prokaryotes, animal cells
o H atoms added to pyruvate
o Waste product: lactate
o How to avoid lactate: good circulation for cells to receive oxygen
Fermentation
Is an inefficient anaerobic redox process in which glucose becomes oxidized and
an organic substance becomes reduced
Some fungi and bacteria, as well as muscle cells under conditions of low oxygen,
obtain low yield of ATP through fermentation
Coverage for LT
Origin of Life
Cells (parts and functions)
Cell division
Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration
(Know raw materials and products, where reactions take place, and # of ATPs in
reactions)