Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI

2016-2017, Semester 1, CVNG 3009 Highway Engineering Lecture Notes: Material Characterisation

MODULE:

PAVEMENT MATERIAL CHARACTERISATION

1. INTRODUCTION
The primary purpose of a pavement structure is to provide a surface of acceptable ride quality, strength
and durability. It is essential that high quality materials and high standards of construction be used in
situations where high standards of performance are demanded.
Pavements are conglomerations of materials. These materials, their associated properties and their
interactions determine the properties of the resultant pavement. Thus a good understanding of these
materials, how they are characterized and how they perform, is fundamental to understanding
pavement.
In order that the constructed surface, base and subbase course layers contribute to satisfactory long
term pavement performance, materials need to satisfy a number of criteria during the construction
phase and the service life of the pavement. Careful consideration must be given to these criteria in the
selection of pavement materials.

2. FUNCTIONS OF PAVEMENT LAYERS

The functions of the pavement layers are as follows:
(a) Bituminous Surface Layer
The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads and normally contains the highest
quality materials. It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, noise control, rut and
shoving resistance and drainage. It is sometimes thin bituminous surface which has an initial
cover of less than 60 mm of hot mix asphalt, usually a bituminous chip seal.
(b) Base Layer
This is an upper portion of the pavement which supports the surfacing and provides
considerable resistance to traffic loading without deformation. It is usually constructed of
materials having closely specified properties and its thickness is commonly in the range of 100
mm to 250 mm.
(c) Subbase Layer
The lower portion of the pavement between the base and the subgrade and provides sufficient
cover to the subgrade to satisfy pavement design requirements. It further distributes traffic
loads transmitted through the pavement base, reducing their intensity to a level which will not
cause excessive permanent deformation of the subgrade. The subbase is often constructed in
two layers using lower quality materials than that used for base.
(d) Subgrade
The trimmed or prepared portion of the formation on which the pavement is constructed.

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI

2016-2017, Semester 1, CVNG 3009 Highway Engineering Lecture Notes: Material Characterisation

3. COMMON PAVEMENT MATERIALS

Pavement materials:
- Asphalt Binder
- Mineral Aggregates
o Naturally occurring road making materials
o Crushed rock
o Naturally occurring road making materials
o Soft or ripped rock
- Recycled materials (crushed concrete)
- Stabilized Materials
- Asphalt Concrete
3.1 Asphalt Binder
Asphalt is one of the two principal constituents of HMA. Asphalt functions as a waterproof,
thermoplastic, viscoelastic adhesive. In other words, it acts as the glue that holds the road together.
ASTM provides the following engineering definitions.

Asphalt - A dark brown to black cementations material in which the predominating

constituents are bitumens, which occur in nature or are obtained in petroleum processing.
Asphalt cement - A fluxed or unfluxed asphalt specially prepared as to quality and
consistency for direct use in the manufacture of bituminous pavements, and having a
penetration at 25 C of between 5 and 300, under a load of 100 grams applied for 5 sec.
Bitumen - A class of black or dark-coloured (solid, semi-solid or viscous) cementations
substances, natural or manufactured, composed principally of high molecular weight
hydrocarbons, of which asphalts, tars, pitches, and asphaltenes are typical.

Most pavement engineers use the generic term asphalt binder", to represent the principal binding
agent in HMA. "Asphalt binder" includes asphalt cement as well as any material added to modify the
original asphalt cement properties. Asphalt cement is sometimes referred to as a visco-elastic material
because it simultaneously displays both viscous and elastic characteristics as shown in figure 2 below.

Figure 2: Visco-Elastic Behaviour of Asphalt

Asphalt binders are most commonly characterized by their physical properties, which directly describe
how it will perform as a constituent in HMA pavement and these physical properties are:
Durability
Rheology
Asphalt Safety
Purity
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Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI

2016-2017, Semester 1, CVNG 3009 Highway Engineering Lecture Notes: Material Characterisation

3.2 Mineral Aggregates

3.2.1 Crushed Rock
Crushed rock may be produced in a single crushing operation or its production may involve a number of
crushing and/or screening processes. In addition, some separation and recombination of different
aggregate sizes to produce a material to tight tolerances is required. Crushed rock is generally produced
from igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary source rock but may also be produced by the crushing and
screening of coarse gravel deposits.
Crushed rock is also produce from volcanic aggregates of the Caribbean region. This volcanic aggregates
display adequate performance on a wearing course with heavy traffic and it could be used for surface
courses because of its good friction properties.
Crushed rock sources can often provide a variety of products ranging from base crushed rock produced
to tightly controlled tolerances to by-products such as overburden ripped rock and scalpings which may
have a use as lower subbase or capping layer materials used to enhance the bearing capacity of the
subgrade.
3.2.2 Naturally Occurring Road Making Materials
Naturally occurring road making materials include alluvial or colluvial sands and gravels, pyroclastic tuffs
and scorias, and chemically formed gravels such as calcretes and laterites. These materials, if of
appropriate maximum nominal size, can generally be used without processing although various forms of
mechanical, bituminous and cement stabilisation may be used to compensate for unfavourable
characteristics such as high plasticity, poor grading or lack of cohesion.
These materials, together with those described under Section 5.3, are commonly termed marginal or
non-standard materials. The RLTT or, to a lesser extent the soaked California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test,
may be used to characterise the strength of naturally occurring pavement materials and rank them in
terms of stiffness and resistance to deformation at various moisture contents.
3.2.3 Soft and Rippable Rock
Materials in this category are principally bedded and/or well jointed sedimentary rock types although
some weathered igneous and metamorphic rock types may also be ripped and broken at the road-bed
to provide a useful pavement material. The use of ripped rock is commonly confined to subbase
construction for heavily trafficked freeway and highway pavements but may be the only economically
available material for base construction in rural areas. In some cases, crushing and/or screening may be
used to appropriately size a ripped material.
The selection of such materials for pavement construction use is generally based on an assessment of
the ease of excavation, the subsequent particle size achieved by ripping, track rolling and processing at
the road-bed, and the product particle size distribution, plasticity and bearing capacity after compaction.
3.3 Recycled Materials -Crushed Concrete
Recycled crushed concrete is a product which is gaining importance as a pavement material. For their
use the specifications provide limits for liquid limit, plasticity index, CBR, Los Angeles value, foreign atter
in coarse aggregate and grading.

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI

2016-2017, Semester 1, CVNG 3009 Highway Engineering Lecture Notes: Material Characterisation

The specified products have been found to have equivalent performance as quarried crushed rock when
used as a subbase material. The material may also have potential as a base course material in low traffic
situations (less than 1x106 ESA). The relatively high permeability of some products may require
modification to the grading characteristics using a fine additive. Recycled crushed concrete has also
been used as a shouldering material under a sealed surface.
3.4 Stabilized Materials
Stabilized base or subbase layers are pavement layers composed of a compacted mixture of aggregate
and cementitious material. The binder material is usually lime or cement, though additional pozzolanic
materials may also be added. For new construction, the base or subbase materials are mixed with the
binder and water if needed, either in place or at a plant, and are then graded and compacted. Stabilized
base layers can also be formed through full depth reclamation when binder is added to the reclaimed
pavement material. Stabilized layers provide a strong foundation for both rigid and flexible pavements,
though stabilized pavement layers are usually used in flexible pavements. It should be noted that
calcium chloride is also used for stabilization in the Southern states, and asphalt cement and asphalt
emulsions have also been used as well. However, the focus of this document will be on lime and cement
based stabilization.
The following are material used for stabilization;

Cement
Lime
Lime fly ash / lime cement fly ash
Bitumen
Lime-cement
Lime-bitumen

3.5 Asphalt Concrete

Asphalt concrete - (sometimes referred to as hot mix asphalt or simply HMA) is a paving material
that consists of asphalt binder and mineral aggregate. The asphalt binder, which can be asphalt content
or modified asphalt cement, acts as a binding agent to glue aggregate particles into a cohesive mass.
Because HMA contains both asphalt binder and mineral aggregate, the behaviour of the mixture is
affected by the properties of the individual components and how they react with each other in the
system.

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI

2016-2017, Semester 1, CVNG 3009 Highway Engineering Lecture Notes: Material Characterisation

4. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF A PAVEMENT MATERIAL

The general requirements of a pavement material are as follows:
(a)
that it is the most economical and fit for purpose material available;
(b)
that it should be capable of being spread and compacted to meet specification
requirements;
(c)
that it should be durable and not degrade or disintegrate significantly during the
construction and over the life of the pavement;
(d)
that it should have adequate strength to be capable of withstanding the applied traffic
and environmental stresses and spread the applied loads to the subgrade without
excessive deformation/rutting during the life of the pavement.
There are a number of fundamental attributes that pavement materials must have and the degree to
which each material should exhibit these depends on the position it will occupy in the pavement. Since
the intensity of stresses from traffic loads reduces significantly with depth, the quality of material in
terms of bearing capacity may also decrease for each successive layer of pavement. The materials in the
lower layers therefore may be selected for economy and to conserve higher quality resources but still
must be sufficiently durable to resist significant degradation during the design life of the pavement.
Some important material requirements are discussed separately below.
4.1 Economy
Material must be available, workable and give satisfactory field performance at the lowest possible cost.
It is important to note that the final in-place cost should be taken into account and not just the cost of
supply. The cartage lead to the job together with consequent damage to the roads over which the
material is carted must also be considered. Whilst some materials may be of relatively low cost because
of their close proximity to the job or ease of extraction and supply, they can often be more difficult to
spread and compact, resulting in a sometimes unexpectedly high job cost.
4.2 Workability and Cohesion
Material must be able to be easily laid and compacted to the required standard of density, moisture
content and shape. The need for adequate cohesion is particularly important where pavement base is
being placed under traffic and ravelling is to be minimised when the road is open to traffic overnight. A
cohesive base crushed rock also aids in the production of a tight and regular surface required for the
application of a sprayed bituminous surfacing.
4.3 Strength and Stiffness
A pavement must be able to withstand traffic stresses by spreading applied loads to the subgrade
without unacceptable permanent deformation. In other words, the material must behave elastically
rather than undergoing plastic deformation.
Soft source rocks, such as some finely vesicular basalts and scoria, may be subject to excessive physical
degradation during the extraction, handling and compaction processes and the service life of the
pavement may be reduced as a result of rutting and unacceptable ride quality.
Some fine-grained sedimentary rock types such as siltstone degrade significantly during handling and
the compaction process resulting in a material containing an excess of silty fines which can be moisture
sensitive leading to the development of pore pressures in the presence of excess moisture.
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Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI

2016-2017, Semester 1, CVNG 3009 Highway Engineering Lecture Notes: Material Characterisation

4.4 Durability
The stiffness and resistance to deformation of materials can change with repeated loading and with
weathering. Durability in this context refers to the ability of a pavement material to retain its required
characteristics over and beyond the design life of the pavement. The material must be able to withstand
both the traffic and environmental stresses applied to it without significantly changing its form or
composition during the construction and service life of the pavement.
4.5 Volume Stability (Subgrade)
Excessive swelling and shrinkage must not occur if the shape and structural integrity of the pavement is
to be retained. This type of movement is related to changes in the moisture regime and is more
commonly found to be a property of subgrade materials rather than pavement materials. However,
degradation of some non-durable rock types, e.g. altered basalts, can result in the release of highly
expansive clays with a resulting increase in the plasticity of the crushed rock. Some soft and fissile
sedimentary rock types can also exhibit excessive swells when broken from the rock mass and subjected
to compaction in the roadbed.
4.6 Permeability
The moisture regime associated with a pavement has a major influence on its performance. The stiffness
and plastic deformation characteristics of unbound granular pavement materials and subgrades are very
dependent upon moisture content and the permeability of these materials influences the moisture
regime.
The required permeability (or impermeability) is dependent on the level a particular material assumes in
the pavement and the associated subsurface drainage design. It is generally desirable to have
permeability increasing with depth in order to drain moisture away from the higher stressed areas near
the pavement surface. In some cases, a highly permeable drainage blanket layer is placed immediately
below the pavement. In other cases, the pavement may be protected by the specification of a subgrade
capping layer of very low permeability to minimize ingress of moisture into the pavement layers.

5. MATERIALS PROPERTIES AND TESTING

When dealing with pavement material properties, a number of basic requirements are specified which
aim to ensure that the material performs satisfactorily during the construction stages and the design life
of the pavement. These requirements relate to:
size and gradation
cleanliness and deleterious materials
toughness and hardness
durability and soundness
particle shape and surface texture
specific gravity
affinity for asphalt
bearing capacity
permeability
While some of these properties cannot be quantified directly, test methods have been developed and
are specified which enable some assessment of these properties to be made. The following are the
requirements and the tests performed.
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Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI

2016-2017, Semester 1, CVNG 3009 Highway Engineering Lecture Notes: Material Characterisation

5.1 Size and Gradation

The grading or particle size distribution is probably the most important property controlling
compactability and stability of a crushed rock pavement layer. In general, greatest stability and
pavement bearing capacity is achieved by use of the largest material that can be handled satisfactorily
without undue segregation or surface unevenness. For crushed rock, 20 mm nominal maximum size
material is most commonly used for base and subbase courses, whilst 40 mm material is sometimes
used for subbase. The test method performed is;

Particle Size Distribution

5.2 Cleanliness and Deleterious Materials

Cleanliness refers to the absence of certain foreign or deleterious materials that make aggregates
undesirable for HMA. When materials have appreciable clay content, problems are likely to arise with
long term performance, particularly where wet conditions are likely to occur. Clay has an affinity for
water, and the content and nature is assessed using the Plasticity Index test. As more water is absorbed
by the clay its cohesion and ability to resist deforming stresses is lowered. The tests method performed
are;
Plastic and Liquid Limits

Clay Lumps and Friable Particles

Sand Equivalent

5.3 Toughness and Abrasion Resistance

For a base material to behave satisfactorily in a highly stressed pavement, the construction material
must be of sufficient hardness to provide strength and stability under shear and compressive stress.
Such stresses are applied both during the initial construction compaction and the design life of the
pavement. The test method performed is;

Los Angeles Value

5.4 Durability and Soundness

For a source rock, all physical and chemical changes produced in the rock mass at or near the surface
can generally be described as weathering. These changes result in degradation of the quality of the rock
by chemical decomposition or physical disintegration processes. The tests method performed are;

Degradation factor (source rock)

Minerals Content

Soundness Index

Coarse Aggregate Quality

5.5 Particle Shape and Surface Texture

Particle shape also has a bearing on material strength. Rounded and smooth gravel particles tend to
have inferior compaction and stability properties when compared to the angular and more cubical
particles produced by crushing such gravels. Flaky and elongated particles produced as a consequence of
poor crushing technique or the natural fissility of the source rock may result in a material that is difficult
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Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI

2016-2017, Semester 1, CVNG 3009 Highway Engineering Lecture Notes: Material Characterisation

to compact or which changes significantly in grading characteristics during placement and the service
life of the pavement.

FIG 2: SHAPE OF AGGREGATE PARTICLES

Coarse Aggregate Angularity

Fine Aggregate Angularity

Flat and Elongated Particles

Surface texture

5.6 Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of an aggregate is useful in making weight volume conversions and in calculating the
void content in a compacted HMA. By definition, the specific gravity of an aggregate is the ratio of the
weight of a unit volume of the material to the weight of an equal volume of water. There are three
different aggregate specific gravities used I for HMA based on the method used to define the volume of
the aggregate particles. There are (1) Apparent (2) Bulk and (3) Effective specific gravity

Specific gravity for Coarse, fine and loose asphalt mix materials

5.7 Affinity for Asphalt

For a source rock, all physical and chemical changes produced in the rock mass at or near the surface
can generally be described as weathering. These changes result in degradation of the quality of the rock
by chemical decomposition or physical disintegration processes. The tests method performed are;

Degradation factor (source rock)

Minerals Content

Soundness Index

Coarse Aggregate Quality

5.8 Bearing Capacity

For a pavement material to perform satisfactorily it must possess sufficient strength under all climatic
conditions and traffic stresses to spread traffic loads to the underlying pavement layers and the
subgrade. A base course material increases the structural capacity of the total pavement by providing
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Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI

2016-2017, Semester 1, CVNG 3009 Highway Engineering Lecture Notes: Material Characterisation

added stiffness and resistance to fatigue of thin surfacing under all moisture regimes. A subbase
material is required to spread traffic loads to the weaker subgrade and provide a working surface during
construction upon which the overlying courses can be properly compacted.
The bearing capacity of a pavement material is a function of the durability of the component particles,
the maximum size and particle size distribution of the material, and the plasticity of the fines. The test
method performed is;

California bearing Ratio

5.9 Permeability
In general, a philosophy of increase in permeability of materials with increase in depth from the surface
should be followed. This allows any moisture entering the pavement to flow as quickly as possible to the
bottom of the pavement where stresses within the pavement due to traffic loading are at their lowest
level. From there, the moisture can migrate to the outer edge(s) of the pavement (if the subbase is more
permeable than the subgrade) and be removed by a subsurface drainage system, or allowed to
percolate through the subgrade (if the subgrade is more permeable than the subbase).The test method
performed is;

Permeability

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI

2016-2017, Semester 1, CVNG 3009 Highway Engineering Lecture Notes: Material Characterisation

6. ASPHALT CONCRETE MIXES

When mineral aggregate are bounded by an asphalt binder, it acts as a stone framework to impart
strength and toughness to the system. Because HMA contains both asphalt binder and mineral
aggregate, the behaviour of the mixture is affected by the properties of the individual components and
how they react with each other in the system.
HMA is distinguished by its design and production methods and includes traditional dense-graded mixes
as well as stone matrix asphalt (SMA) and various open graded HMAs.
6.1

Dense Graded Mixes

Dense graded mixes are produced with well or continuously graded aggregate and is a HMA mix
intended for general use. When properly designed and constructed this mix is relatively impermeable.
This mix can be furthered classified as either fine-graded or coarse graded. Fine-graded mixes have more
fine and sand sized particles than coarse-graded mixes.

FIG 3: DENSE GRADED MIXTURES

Advantages
Good interlock of aggregate particles if compacted
well

Disadvantages
Selection of optimum binder content:

Relatively low permeability if compacted well

Need enough binder for good durability and

cracking resistance BUT

Strength and stiffness derived from binder and

aggregate structure

Not too much binder for good permanent

deformation resistance

In NJ, generally a stiff mix

Optimum asphalt binder content generally

results in relatively thin binder film thickness

Cheaper than other asphalt mixture types

Less asphalt binder, RAP

Air void content and permeability are not optimum

for moisture damage resistance
Design for 4% AV, generally placed between 6
to 8%

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Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI

2016-2017, Semester 1, CVNG 3009 Highway Engineering Lecture Notes: Material Characterisation

6.2

Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA) Mixes

Stone-matrix asphalt (SMA), sometimes called stone mastic asphalt, is a gap-graded HMA designed
to maximize deformation (rutting) resistance and durability by using a structural basis of stone-onstone contact. Because the aggregates are all in contact, rut resistance relies on aggregate properties
rather than asphalt binder properties. Since aggregates do not deform as much as asphalt binder
under load, this stone-on-stone contact greatly reduces rutting. SMA is generally more expensive
than a typical dense-graded HMA (about 20 - 25 percent) because it requires more durable
aggregates, higher asphalt content and, typically, a modified asphalt binder and fibers. In the right
situations it should be cost-effective because of its increased rut resistance and improved durability.

FIG 4: STONE MASTIC (MATRIX) ASPHALT (SMA) OR GAP-GRADED MIXTURE

Advantages

Disadvantages

Good aggregate interlock

Low permeability
Strength and stiffness derived from binder
and aggregate structure
Relatively high binder contents provide
good durability
Best used in areas of heavy traffic where
rutting and fatigue cracking are concerns

Asphalt suppliers not accustomed to

producing
some growing pains
Additional time and effort in material
production
Aggregates
Typically use a modified binder (higher cost)
Costs typically prohibit use in
normal traffic areas

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Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI

2016-2017, Semester 1, CVNG 3009 Highway Engineering Lecture Notes: Material Characterisation

6.3

Open Graded Mixes

An open-graded HMA mixture is designed to be water permeable (dense-graded and SMA mixes usually
are not permeable). Open-graded mixes use only crushed stone (or gravel) and a small percentage of
manufactured sands.

FIG 5: OPEN-GRADED MIXTURE

Advantages

Disadvantages

High permeability
High asphalt binder contents resulting in thick
binder films
Lower noise generated by tires as compared
with dense-graded mixtures
Porous nature allows for surface water to
drain off surface
Reduces splash and spray
Best applied in areas of faster, continuous
traffic with minimal sharp turns

Aggregate interlock is shape dependent

(generally poor)
Lower strength and stiffness
Higher costs associated with polymermodified binders, higher asphalt content and
fibers
Typically requires additional de-icing
applications to maintain ice free in cold
regions
Recommended not to be used in areas of high,
shear turning and slow moving traffic
High, shear turning may cause
shoving-type failures
Slow moving traffic may clog porous
structure

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Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI

2016-2017, Semester 1, CVNG 3009 Highway Engineering Lecture Notes: Material Characterisation

7. DETERMINING APPROPRIATE ASPHALT CONCRETE MIX TYPES

Most of this process is taken directly from the NAPA HMA Pavement Mix Type Selection Guide (2001).
1. Determine the total thickness of HMA required. This is accomplished using an
appropriate structural design procedure.
2. Determine the types of mixtures appropriate for the surface course based on traffic and
cost.
o Identify the general traffic category for the pavement in question then select
those mix types that are appropriate for the surface course.
o

Determine what aggregate size to use for a mix. In general, the higher the
traffic loads, the higher the nominal maximum aggregate size should be.

Consider appearance. Mixes with larger aggregates often have a coarser

surface texture and may be more susceptible to segregation during placement.
Therefore, for a city street where appearance is an issue, a finer mix such as a
9.5 or 12.5-mm (0.375 or 0.5-inch) dense-graded mix may be appropriate.
Conversely, for a heavy industrial area where load resistance is much more
important that aesthetic appearance, a 19.0-mm (0.75-inch) mix may be more
appropriate. However, never sacrifice performance for appearance.

Consider traffic flow. Maximum aggregate size can also affect traffic flow during
rehabilitation of existing roadways. In many urban areas off-peak construction
is used to minimize traffic impacts. However, for a road to be released to traffic
during peak hours either the lane drop-off (elevation difference between
adjacent lanes) must be kept below a specified minimum value (typically less
than 37.5 mm (1.5 inches) with proper signage) or all lanes must be brought to
the same elevation. Bringing all lanes to the same elevation at the end of each
paving day may require changing traffic control and moving paving equipment,
which can increase construction costs and decrease safety. Therefore it is often
better to satisfy the lane drop-off requirement. However, with larger aggregate
mixes the minimum lift thickness may exceed the maximum lane drop-off
allowed. As a result, using a finer gradation may allow paving one lane, then
releasing the road to traffic, then paving the other lane. Again, do not sacrifice
performance.

3. Subtract the surface course thickness from the total thickness and determine what mix or
mixes are appropriate for the intermediate and/or base courses.
4. Continue to subtract intermediate/base course thicknesses from the total thickness until
mixes and layer thicknesses have been selected for the required pavement section.

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Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI

2016-2017, Semester 1, CVNG 3009 Highway Engineering Lecture Notes: Material Characterisation

FIG 6: RECOMMENDED GENERAL MIX TYPES FOR SURFACE,

INTERMEDIATE, AND BASE COURSES

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Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI

2016-2017, Semester 1, CVNG 3009 Highway Engineering Lecture Notes: Material Characterisation

FIG 7: RECOMMENDED GENERAL MIX TYPES FOR SURFACE,

INTERMEDIATE, AND BASE COURSES

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