Hypnosis - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

3/9/2015
HypnosisWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Hypnosis
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Hypnosisisastateofconsciousnessinvolvingfocusedattentionandreducedperipheralawareness
characterizedbyanenhancedcapacityforresponsetosuggestion.[1]Theoriesexplainingwhatoccurs
duringhypnosisfallintotwogroups.Alteredstatetheoriesseehypnosisasanalteredstateofmindor
trance,markedbyalevelofawarenessdifferentfromtheordinaryconsciousstate.[2][3]Incontrast,
Nonstatetheoriesseehypnosisasaformofimaginativeroleenactment.[4][5][6]
Duringhypnosis,apersonissaidtohaveheightenedfocusandconcentration.Thepersoncan
concentrateintenselyonaspecificthoughtormemory,whileblockingoutsourcesofdistraction.[7]
Hypnotisedsubjectsaresaidtoshowanincreasedresponsetosuggestions.[8]Hypnosisisusually
inducedbyaprocedureknownasahypnoticinductioninvolvingaseriesofpreliminaryinstructions
andsuggestions.[9]Theuseofhypnotismfortherapeuticpurposesisreferredtoas"hypnotherapy",
whileitsuseasaformofentertainmentforanaudienceisknownas"stagehypnosis".
PhotographicStudiesinHypnosis,
AbnormalPsychology(1938)
Contents
1Etymology
2Characteristics
2.1Definitions
2.2Hypnoticinduction
2.3Suggestion
2.4Susceptibility
3History
3.1Precursors
3.2FranzMesmer
3.3JamesBraid
3.4Hysteriavs.suggestion
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnosis
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3.5PierreJanet
3.6SigmundFreud
3.7mileCou
3.8ClarkL.Hull
3.9DaveElman
3.10MiltonErickson
3.11Cognitivebehavioural
4Applications
4.1Hypnotherapy
4.2Military
4.3Selfhypnosis
4.4Stagehypnosis
5Thestateversusnonstatedebate
5.1Hypersuggestibility
5.2Conditionedinhibition
5.3Neuropsychology
5.4Dissociation
5.5Neodissociation
5.6Minddissociation
5.7Socialroletakingtheory
5.8Cognitivebehaviouraltheory
5.9Informationtheory
5.10Systemstheory
6Seealso
6.1Historicalfigures
6.2Modernresearchers
6.3Relatedsubjects
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7References
8Bibliography
Etymology
Theterm"hypnosis"comesfromtheAncientGreekwordhypnos,"sleep",andthesuffixosis,orfromhypno,"putto
sleep"(stemofaoristhypns)andthesuffixis.[10][11]Thewords"hypnosis"and"hypnotism"bothderivefromtheterm"neurohypnotism"
(nervoussleep),allofwhichwerecoinedbytheScottishsurgeonJamesBraidaround1841.Braidbasedhispracticeonthatdevelopedby
FranzMesmerandhisfollowers(whichwascalled"Mesmerism"or"animalmagnetism"),butdifferedinhistheoryastohowtheprocedure
worked.
Characteristics
Apersoninastateofhypnosisisrelaxed,hasfocusedattention,andhasincreasedsuggestibility.[12]
Thehypnotizedindividualappearstoheedonlythecommunicationsofthehypnotist.Heseemstorespondinanuncritical,
automaticfashion,ignoringallaspectsoftheenvironmentotherthanthosepointedouttohimbythehypnotist.Hesees,feels,
smells,andotherwiseperceivesinaccordancewiththehypnotist'ssuggestions,eventhoughthesesuggestionsmaybeinapparent
contradictiontothestimulithatimpingeuponhim.Eventhesubject'smemoryandawarenessofselfmaybealteredby
suggestion,andtheeffectsofthesuggestionsmaybeextended(posthypnotically)intothesubject'ssubsequentwakingactivity.
[13]
Itcouldbesaidthathypnoticsuggestionisexplicitlyintendedtomakeuseoftheplaceboeffect.Forexample,in1994,IrvingKirsch
distinguishedhypnosisasa"nondeceptiveplacebo,"i.e.,amethodthatopenlymakesuseofsuggestionandemploysmethodstoamplifyits
effects.[14][15]
Definitions
TheearliestdefinitionofhypnosiswasgivenbyBraid,whocoinedtheterm"hypnotism"asanabbreviationfor"neurohypnotism",ornervous
sleep,whichheopposedtonormalsleep,anddefinedas:"apeculiarconditionofthenervoussystem,inducedbyafixedandabstracted
attentionofthementalandvisualeye,ononeobject,notofanexcitingnature."[16]
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Braidelaborateduponthisbriefdefinitioninalaterwork,HypnoticTherapeutics:[17]
therealoriginandessenceofthehypnoticcondition,istheinductionofahabitofabstractionormentalconcentration,inwhich,
asinreverieorspontaneousabstraction,thepowersofthemindaresomuchengrossedwithasingleideaortrainofthought,as,
forthenonce,torendertheindividualunconsciousof,orindifferentlyconsciousto,allotherideas,impressions,ortrainsof
thought.Thehypnoticsleep,therefore,istheveryantithesisoroppositementalandphysicalconditiontothatwhichprecedesand
accompaniescommonsleep
Therefore,Braiddefinedhypnotismasastateofmentalconcentrationthatoftenleadstoaformofprogressiverelaxation,termed"nervous
sleep".Later,inhisThePhysiologyofFascination(1855),Braidconcededthathisoriginalterminologywasmisleading,andarguedthatthe
term"hypnotism"or"nervoussleep"shouldbereservedfortheminority(10%)ofsubjectswhoexhibitamnesia,substitutingtheterm
"monoideism",meaningconcentrationuponasingleidea,asadescriptionforthemorealertstateexperiencedbytheothers.[18]
Anewdefinitionofhypnosis,derivedfromacademicpsychology,wasprovidedin2005,whentheSocietyforPsychologicalHypnosis,
Division30oftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation(APA),publishedthefollowingformaldefinition:
NewDefinition:Hypnosis
TheDivision30DefinitionandDescriptionofHypnosis
Hypnosistypicallyinvolvesanintroductiontotheprocedureduringwhichthesubjectistoldthatsuggestionsforimaginative
experienceswillbepresented.Thehypnoticinductionisanextendedinitialsuggestionforusingone'simagination,andmay
containfurtherelaborationsoftheintroduction.Ahypnoticprocedureisusedtoencourageandevaluateresponsesto
suggestions.Whenusinghypnosis,oneperson(thesubject)isguidedbyanother(thehypnotist)torespondtosuggestionsfor
changesinsubjectiveexperience,alterationsinperception,[19][20]sensation,[21]emotion,thoughtorbehavior.Personscan
alsolearnselfhypnosis,whichistheactofadministeringhypnoticproceduresonone'sown.Ifthesubjectrespondsto
hypnoticsuggestions,itisgenerallyinferredthathypnosishasbeeninduced.Manybelievethathypnoticresponsesand
experiencesarecharacteristicofahypnoticstate.Whilesomethinkthatitisnotnecessarytousetheword"hypnosis"aspart
ofthehypnoticinduction,othersviewitasessential.[22]
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MichaelNashprovidesalistofeightdefinitionsofhypnosisbydifferentauthors,inadditiontohisownviewthathypnosisis"aspecialcase
ofpsychologicalregression":
1.Janet,neartheturnofthecentury,andmorerecentlyErnestHilgard...,havedefinedhypnosisintermsofdissociation.
2.SocialpsychologistsSarbinandCoe...havedescribedhypnosisintermsofroletheory.Hypnosisisarolethatpeopleplay
theyact"asif"theywerehypnotized.
3.T.X.Barber...definedhypnosisintermsofnonhypnoticbehavioralparameters,suchastaskmotivationandtheactoflabeling
thesituationashypnosis.
4.Inhisearlywritings,Weitzenhoffer...conceptualizedhypnosisasastateofenhancedsuggestibility.Mostrecently...hehas
definedhypnotismas"aformofinfluencebyonepersonexertedonanotherthroughthemediumoragencyofsuggestion."
5.PsychoanalystsGillandBrenman...describedhypnosisbyusingthepsychoanalyticconceptof"regressionintheserviceofthe
ego."
6.Edmonston...hasassessedhypnosisasbeingmerelyastateofrelaxation.
7.SpiegelandSpiegel...haveimpliedthathypnosisisabiologicalcapacity.
8.Erickson...isconsideredtheleadingexponentofthepositionthathypnosisisaspecial,innerdirected,alteredstateof
functioning.[23]
JoeGriffinandIvanTyrrell(theoriginatorsofthehumangivensapproach)definehypnosisas"anyartificialwayofaccessingtheREMstate,
thesamebrainstateinwhichdreamingoccurs"andtheysuggestthatthisdefinition,whenproperlyunderstood,resolves"manyofthe
mysteriesandcontroversiessurroundinghypnosis".[24]TheyseetheREMstateasbeingvitallyimportantforlifeitself,forprogrammingin
ourinstinctiveknowledgeinitially(afterDement[25]andJouvet[26])andthenforaddingtothisthroughoutlife.Theyexplainthisbypointing
outthat,inasense,alllearningisposthypnotic,whichexplainswhythenumberofwayspeoplecanbeputintoahypnoticstatearesovaried:
anythingthatfocusesourattention,inwardoroutward,putsusintoatrance.[27]
Hypnoticinduction
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Hypnosisisnormallyprecededbya"hypnoticinduction"technique.Traditionally,thiswasinterpretedasamethodofputtingthesubjectinto
a"hypnotictrance"however,subsequent"nonstate"theoristshavevieweditdifferently,seeingitasameansofheighteningclientexpectation,
definingtheirrole,focusingattention,etc.Thereareseveraldifferentinductiontechniques.OneofthemostinfluentialmethodswasBraid's
"eyefixation"technique,alsoknownas"Braidism".Manyvariationsoftheeyefixationapproachexist,includingtheinductionusedinthe
StanfordHypnoticSusceptibilityScale(SHSS),themostwidelyusedresearchtoolinthefieldofhypnotism.[28]Braid'soriginaldescriptionof
hisinductionisasfollows:
JamesBraid'sOriginalEyeFixationHypnoticInductionMethod
Takeanybrightobject(e.g.alancetcase)betweenthethumbandforeandmiddlefingersofthelefthandholditfromabout
eighttofifteeninchesfromtheeyes,atsuchpositionabovetheforeheadasmaybenecessarytoproducethegreatestpossible
strainupontheeyesandeyelids,andenablethepatienttomaintainasteadyfixedstareattheobject.
Thepatientmustbemadetounderstandthatheistokeeptheeyessteadilyfixedontheobject,andthemindrivetedonthe
ideaofthatoneobject.Itwillbeobserved,thatowingtotheconsensualadjustmentoftheeyes,thepupilswillbeatfirst
contracted:Theywillshortlybegintodilate,and,aftertheyhavedonesotoaconsiderableextent,andhaveassumedawavy
motion,iftheforeandmiddlefingersoftherighthand,extendedandalittleseparated,arecarriedfromtheobjecttowardthe
eyes,mostprobablytheeyelidswillcloseinvoluntarily,withavibratorymotion.Ifthisisnotthecase,orthepatientallows
theeyeballstomove,desirehimtobeginanew,givinghimtounderstandthatheistoallowtheeyelidstoclosewhenthe
fingersareagaincarriedtowardstheeyes,butthattheeyeballsmustbekeptfixed,inthesameposition,andthemindriveted
totheoneideaoftheobjectheldabovetheeyes.Ingeneral,itwillbefound,thattheeyelidsclosewithavibratorymotion,or
becomespasmodicallyclosed.[29]
Braidlateracknowledgedthatthehypnoticinductiontechniquewasnotnecessaryineverycaseandsubsequentresearchershavegenerally
foundthatonaverageitcontributeslessthanpreviouslyexpectedtotheeffectofhypnoticsuggestions.[30]Variationsandalternativestothe
originalhypnoticinductiontechniquesweresubsequentlydeveloped.However,thismethodisstillconsideredauthoritative:"Itcanbesafely
statedthatnineoutoftenhypnotictechniquescallforrecliningposture,muscularrelaxation,andopticalfixationfollowedbyeyeclosure."[31]
Suggestion
WhenJamesBraidfirstdescribedhypnotism,hedidnotusetheterm"suggestion"butreferredinsteadtotheactoffocusingtheconscious
mindofthesubjectuponasingledominantidea.Braid'smaintherapeuticstrategyinvolvedstimulatingorreducingphysiologicalfunctioning
indifferentregionsofthebody.Inhislaterworks,however,Braidplacedincreasingemphasisupontheuseofavarietyofdifferentverbaland
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nonverbalformsofsuggestion,includingtheuseof"wakingsuggestion"andselfhypnosis.Subsequently,HippolyteBernheimshiftedthe
emphasisfromthephysicalstateofhypnosisontothepsychologicalprocessofverbalsuggestion.
Idefinehypnotismastheinductionofapeculiarpsychical[i.e.,mental]conditionwhichincreasesthesusceptibilitytosuggestion.
Often,itistrue,the[hypnotic]sleepthatmaybeinducedfacilitatessuggestion,butitisnotthenecessarypreliminary.Itis
suggestionthatruleshypnotism.[32]
Bernheim'sconceptionoftheprimacyofverbalsuggestioninhypnotismdominatedthesubjectthroughoutthetwentiethcentury,leadingsome
authoritiestodeclarehimthefatherofmodernhypnotism.[33]
Contemporaryhypnotismusesavarietyofsuggestionformsincludingdirectverbalsuggestions,"indirect"verbalsuggestionssuchasrequests
orinsinuations,metaphorsandotherrhetoricalfiguresofspeech,andnonverbalsuggestionintheformofmentalimagery,voicetonality,and
physicalmanipulation.Adistinctioniscommonlymadebetweensuggestionsdelivered"permissively"andthosedeliveredinamore
"authoritarian"manner.HarvardhypnotherapistDeirdreBarrettwritesthatmostmodernresearchsuggestionsaredesignedtobringabout
immediateresponses,whereashypnotherapeuticsuggestionsareusuallyposthypnoticonesthatareintendedtotriggerresponsesaffecting
behaviorforperiodsrangingfromdaystoalifetimeinduration.Thehypnotherapeuticonesareoftenrepeatedinmultiplesessionsbeforethey
achievepeakeffectiveness.[34]
Theconsciousandtheunconsciousmind
Somehypnotistsviewsuggestionasaformofcommunicationthatisdirectedprimarilytothesubject'sconsciousmind,[35]whereasothers
viewitasameansofcommunicatingwiththe"unconscious"or"subconscious"mind.[35][36]Theseconceptswereintroducedintohypnotismat
theendofthe19thcenturybySigmundFreudandPierreJanet.SigmundFreud'spsychoanalytictheorydescribesconsciousthoughtsasbeing
atthesurfaceofthemindandunconsciousprocessesasbeingdeeperinthemind.[37]Braid,BernheimandotherVictorianpioneersof
hypnotismdidnotrefertotheunconsciousmindbutsawhypnoticsuggestionsasbeingaddressedtothesubject'sconsciousmind.Indeed,
Braidactuallydefineshypnotismasfocused(conscious)attentionuponadominantidea(orsuggestion).Differentviewsregardingthenature
ofthemindhaveledtodifferentconceptionsofsuggestion.Hypnotistswhobelievethatresponsesaremediatedprimarilybyan"unconscious
mind",likeMiltonErickson,makeuseofindirectsuggestionssuchasmetaphorsorstorieswhoseintendedmeaningmaybeconcealedfrom
thesubject'sconsciousmind.Theconceptofsubliminalsuggestiondependsuponthisviewofthemind.Bycontrast,hypnotistswhobelieve
thatresponsestosuggestionareprimarilymediatedbytheconsciousmind,suchasTheodoreBarberandNicholasSpanos,havetendedto
makemoreuseofdirectverbalsuggestionsandinstructions.
Ideodynamicreflex
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ThefirstneuropsychologicaltheoryofhypnoticsuggestionwasintroducedearlyonbyJamesBraidwhoadoptedhisfriendandcolleague
WilliamCarpenter'stheoryoftheideomotorreflexresponsetoaccountforthephenomenonofhypnotism.Carpenterhadobservedfromclose
examinationofeverydayexperiencethatundercertaincircumstancesthemereideaofamuscularmovementcouldbesufficienttoproducea
reflexive,orautomatic,contractionormovementofthemusclesinvolved,albeitinaverysmalldegree.BraidextendedCarpenter'stheoryto
encompasstheobservationthatawidevarietyofbodilyresponsesbesidesmuscularmovementcanbethusaffected,forexample,theideaof
suckingalemoncanautomaticallystimulatesalivation,asecretoryresponse.Braid,therefore,adoptedtheterm"ideodynamic",meaning"by
thepowerofanidea",toexplainabroadrangeof"psychophysiological"(mindbody)phenomena.Braidcoinedtheterm"mono
ideodynamic"torefertothetheorythathypnotismoperatesbyconcentratingattentiononasingleideainordertoamplifytheideodynamic
reflexresponse.Variationsofthebasicideomotor,orideodynamic,theoryofsuggestionhavecontinuedtoexerciseconsiderableinfluence
oversubsequenttheoriesofhypnosis,includingthoseofClarkL.Hull,HansEysenck,andErnestRossi.[35]ItshouldbenotedthatinVictorian
psychologytheword"idea"encompassesanymentalrepresentation,includingmentalimagery,memories,etc.
Susceptibility
Braidmadearoughdistinctionbetweendifferentstagesofhypnosis,whichhetermedthefirstandsecondconsciousstageofhypnotism[38]he
laterreplacedthiswithadistinctionbetween"subhypnotic","fullhypnotic",and"hypnoticcoma"stages.[39]JeanMartinCharcotmadea
similardistinctionbetweenstageswhichhenamedsomnambulism,lethargy,andcatalepsy.However,AmbroiseAugusteLibeaultand
HippolyteBernheimintroducedmorecomplexhypnotic"depth"scalesbasedonacombinationofbehavioural,physiologicalandsubjective
responses,someofwhichwereduetodirectsuggestionandsomeofwhichwerenot.Inthefirstfewdecadesofthe20thcentury,theseearly
clinical"depth"scalesweresupersededbymoresophisticated"hypnoticsusceptibility"scalesbasedonexperimentalresearch.Themost
influentialweretheDavisHusbandandFriedlanderSarbinscalesdevelopedinthe1930s.AndrWeitzenhofferandErnestR.Hilgard
developedtheStanfordScaleofHypnoticSusceptibilityin1959,consistingof12suggestiontestitemsfollowingastandardisedhypnoticeye
fixationinductionscript,andthishasbecomeoneofthemostwidelyreferencedresearchtoolsinthefieldofhypnosis.Soonafter,in1962,
RonaldShorandEmilyCarotaOrnedevelopedasimilargroupscalecalledtheHarvardGroupScaleofHypnoticSusceptibility(HGSHS).
Whereastheolder"depthscales"triedtoinferthelevelof"hypnotictrance"fromsupposedobservablesignssuchasspontaneousamnesia,
mostsubsequentscaleshavemeasuredthedegreeofobservedorselfevaluatedresponsivenesstospecificsuggestiontestssuchasdirect
suggestionsofarmrigidity(catalepsy).TheStanford,Harvard,HIP,andmostothersusceptibilityscalesconvertnumbersintoanassessment
ofaperson'ssusceptibilityas'high','medium',or'low'.Approximately80%ofthepopulationaremedium,10%arehighand10%arelow.
Thereissomecontroversyastowhetherthisisdistributedonanormalbellshapedcurveorwhetheritisbimodalwithasmallblipof
peopleatthehighend.[40]HypnotizabilityScoresarehighlystableoverapersonslifetime.ResearchbyDeirdreBarretthasfoundthatthere
aretwodistincttypesofhighlysusceptiblesubjects,whichshetermsfantasizersanddissociaters.Fantasizersscorehighonabsorptionscales,
finditeasytoblockoutrealworldstimuliwithouthypnosis,spendmuchtimedaydreaming,reportimaginarycompanionsasachildandgrew
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upwithparentswhoencouragedimaginaryplay.Dissociatersoftenhaveahistoryofchildhoodabuseorothertrauma,learnedtoescapeinto
numbness,andtoforgetunpleasantevents.Theirassociationtodaydreamingwasoftengoingblankratherthancreatingvividlyrecalled
fantasies.Bothscoreequallyhighonformalscalesofhypnoticsusceptibility.[41][42][43]
Individualswithdissociativeidentitydisorderhavethehighesthypnotizabilityofanyclinicalgroup,followedbythosewithposttraumatic
stressdisorder.[44]
History
Precursors
Accordingtohiswritings,BraidbegantohearreportsconcerningvariousOrientalmeditativepracticessoonafterthereleaseofhisfirst
publicationonhypnotism,Neurypnology(1843).HefirstdiscussedsomeoftheseorientalpracticesinaseriesofarticlesentitledMagic,
Mesmerism,Hypnotism,etc.,Historically&PhysiologicallyConsidered.Hedrewanalogiesbetweenhisownpracticeofhypnotismand
variousformsofHinduyogameditationandotherancientspiritualpractices,especiallythoseinvolvingvoluntaryburialandapparenthuman
hibernation.BraidsinterestinthesepracticesstemsfromhisstudiesoftheDabistniMazhib,theSchoolofReligions,anancientPersian
textdescribingawidevarietyofOrientalreligiousrituals,beliefs,andpractices.
LastMay[1843],agentlemanresidinginEdinburgh,personallyunknowntome,whohadlongresidedinIndia,favoredmewitha
letterexpressinghisapprobationoftheviewswhichIhadpublishedonthenatureandcausesofhypnoticandmesmeric
phenomena.Incorroborationofmyviews,hereferredtowhathehadpreviouslywitnessedinorientalregions,andrecommended
metolookintotheDabistan,abooklatelypublished,foradditionalprooftothesameeffect.OnmuchrecommendationI
immediatelysentforacopyoftheDabistan,inwhichIfoundmanystatementscorroborativeofthefact,thattheeasternsaints
areallselfhypnotisers,adoptingmeansessentiallythesameasthosewhichIhadrecommendedforsimilarpurposes.[45]
Althoughherejectedthetranscendental/metaphysicalinterpretationgiventothesephenomenaoutright,Braidacceptedthattheseaccountsof
Orientalpracticessupportedhisviewthattheeffectsofhypnotismcouldbeproducedinsolitude,withoutthepresenceofanyotherperson(as
hehadalreadyprovedtohisownsatisfactionwiththeexperimentshehadconductedinNovember1841)andhesawcorrelationsbetween
manyofthe"metaphysical"Orientalpracticesandhisown"rational"neurohypnotism,andtotallyrejectedallofthefluidtheoriesand
magneticpracticesofthemesmerists.Ashelaterwrote:
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Inasmuchaspatientscanthrowthemselvesintothenervoussleep,andmanifestalltheusualphenomenaofMesmerism,through
theirownunaidedefforts,asIhavesorepeatedlyprovedbycausingthemtomaintainasteadyfixedgazeatanypoint,
concentratingtheirwholementalenergiesontheideaoftheobjectlookedatorthatthesamemayarisebythepatientlookingat
thepointofhisownfinger,orastheMagiofPersiaandYogiofIndiahavepractisedforthelast2,400years,forreligious
purposes,throwingthemselvesintotheirecstatictrancesbyeachmaintainingasteadyfixedgazeatthetipofhisownnoseitis
obviousthatthereisnoneedforanexotericinfluencetoproducethephenomenaofMesmerism.[]Thegreatobjectinallthese
processesistoinduceahabitofabstractionorconcentrationofattention,inwhichthesubjectisentirelyabsorbedwithoneidea,
ortrainofideas,whilstheisunconsciousof,orindifferentlyconsciousto,everyotherobject,purpose,oraction.[46]
FranzMesmer
FranzMesmer(17341815)believedthatthereisamagneticforceor"fluid"withintheuniversethatinfluencesthehealthofthehumanbody.
Heexperimentedwithmagnetstoimpactthisfieldinordertoproducehealing.Byaround1774,hehadconcludedthatthesameeffectcould
becreatedbypassingthehandsinfrontofthesubject'sbody,laterreferredtoasmaking"Mesmericpasses."Theword"mesmerize",formed
fromthelastnameofFranzMesmer,wasintentionallyusedtoseparatepractitionersofmesmerismfromthevarious"fluid"and"magnetic"
theoriesincludedwithinthelabel"magnetism".
In1784,attherequestofKingLouisXVI,aBoardofInquirystartedtoinvestigatewhetherAnimalMagnetismexisted.Amongtheboard
memberswerefoundingfatherofmodernchemistryAntoineLavoisier,BenjaminFranklin,andanexpertinpaincontrol,JosephIgnace
Guillotin.TheyinvestigatedthepracticesofadisaffectedstudentofMesmer,oneCharlesd'Eslon(17501786),andthoughtheyconcluded
thatMesmer'sresultswerevalid,theirplacebocontrolledexperimentsusingd'Eslon'smethodsconvincedthemthatmesmerismwasmost
likelyduetobeliefandimaginationratherthantoaninvisibleenergy("animalmagnetism")transmittedfromthebodyofthemesmerist.
Inwritingthemajorityopinion,Franklinsaid,"ThisfellowMesmerisnotflowinganythingfromhishandsthatIcansee.Therefore,this
mesmerismmustbeafraud."MesmerleftParisandwentbacktoViennatopractisemesmerism.
JamesBraid
FollowingtheFrenchcommittee'sfindings,DugaldStewart,aninfluentialacademicphilosopherofthe"ScottishSchoolofCommonSense",
encouragedphysiciansinhisElementsofthePhilosophyoftheHumanMind(1818),[47]tosalvageelementsofMesmerismbyreplacingthe
supernaturaltheoryof"animalmagnetism"withanewinterpretationbasedupon"commonsense"lawsofphysiologyandpsychology.Braid
quotesthefollowingpassagefromStewart:[48]
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JamesBraid.
Itappearstome,thatthegeneralconclusionsestablishedbyMesmerspractice,withrespecttothephysicaleffectsoftheprinciple
ofimagination(moreparticularlyincaseswheretheycooperatedtogether),areincomparablymorecuriousthanifhehadactually
demonstratedtheexistenceofhisboastedscience[of"animalmagnetism"]:norcanIseeanygoodreasonwhyaphysician,who
admitstheefficacyofthemoral[i.e.,psychological]agentsemployedbyMesmer,should,intheexerciseofhisprofession,
scrupletocopywhateverprocessesarenecessaryforsubjectingthemtohiscommand,anymorethanthatheshouldhesitateabout
employinganewphysicalagent,suchaselectricityorgalvanism.[47]
InBraid'sday,theScottishSchoolofCommonSenseprovidedthedominanttheoriesofacademicpsychologyandBraidreferstoother
philosopherswithinthistraditionthroughouthiswritings.BraidthereforerevisedthetheoryandpracticeofMesmerismanddevelopedhis
ownmethodofhypnotismasamorerationalandcommonsensealternative.
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Itmayhereberequisiteformetoexplain,thatbythetermHypnotism,orNervousSleep,whichfrequentlyoccursinthefollowing
pages,Imeanapeculiarconditionofthenervoussystem,intowhichitmaybethrownbyartificialcontrivance,andwhichdiffers,
inseveralrespects,fromcommonsleeporthewakingcondition.Idonotallegethatthisconditionisinducedthroughthe
transmissionofamagneticoroccultinfluencefrommybodyintothatofmypatientsnordoIprofess,bymyprocesses,to
producethehigher[i.e.,supernatural]phenomenaoftheMesmerists.Mypretensionsareofamuchmorehumblecharacter,and
areallconsistentwithgenerallyadmittedprinciplesinphysiologicalandpsychologicalscience.Hypnotismmightthereforenot
inaptlybedesignated,RationalMesmerism,incontradistinctiontotheTranscendentalMesmerismoftheMesmerists.[49]
Despitebrieflytoyingwiththename"rationalMesmerism",Braidultimatelychosetoemphasisetheuniqueaspectsofhisapproach,carrying
outinformalexperimentsthroughouthiscareerinordertorefutepracticesthatinvokedsupernaturalforcesanddemonstratinginsteadtherole
ofordinaryphysiologicalandpsychologicalprocessessuchassuggestionandfocusedattentioninproducingtheobservedeffects.
BraidworkedverycloselywithhisfriendandallytheeminentphysiologistProfessorWilliamBenjaminCarpenter,anearlyneuro
psychologistwhointroducedthe"ideomotorreflex"theoryofsuggestion.Carpenterhadobservedinstancesofexpectationandimagination
apparentlyinfluencinginvoluntarymusclemovement.Aclassicexampleoftheideomotorprincipleinactionisthesocalled"Chevreul
pendulum"(namedafterMichelEugneChevreul).Chevreulclaimedthatdivinatorypendulaeweremadetoswingbyunconsciousmuscle
movementsbroughtaboutbyfocusedconcentrationalone.
BraidsoonassimilatedCarpenter'sobservationsintohisowntheory,realisingthattheeffectoffocusingattentionwastoenhancetheideo
motorreflexresponse.BraidextendedCarpenter'stheorytoencompasstheinfluenceoftheminduponthebodymoregenerally,beyondthe
muscularsystem,andthereforereferredtothe"ideodynamic"responseandcoinedtheterm"psychophysiology"torefertothestudyof
generalmind/bodyinteraction.
InhislaterworksBraidreservedtheterm"hypnotism"forcasesinwhichsubjectsenteredastateofamnesiaresemblingsleep.Forothercases,
hespokeofa"monoideodynamic"principletoemphasisethattheeyefixationinductiontechniqueworkedbynarrowingthesubject's
attentiontoasingleideaortrainofthought("monoideism"),whichamplifiedtheeffectoftheconsequent"dominantidea"uponthesubject's
bodybymeansoftheideodynamicprinciple.[50]
Hysteriavs.suggestion
ForseveraldecadesBraid'sworkbecamemoreinfluentialabroadthaninhisowncountry,exceptforahandfuloffollowers,mostnotablyDr.
JohnMilneBramwell.TheeminentneurologistDr.GeorgeMillerBeardtookBraid'stheoriestoAmerica.Meanwhile,hisworkswere
translatedintoGermanbyWilliamThierryPreyer,ProfessorofPhysiologyatJenaUniversity.ThepsychiatristAlbertMollsubsequently
continuedGermanresearch,publishingHypnotismin1889.FrancebecamethefocalpointforthestudyofBraid'sideasaftertheeminent
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neurologistDr.tienneEugneAzamtranslatedBraid'slastmanuscript(OnHypnotism,1860)intoFrenchandpresentedBraid'sresearchto
theFrenchAcademyofSciences.AttherequestofAzam,PaulBroca,andothers,theFrenchAcademyofScience,whichhadinvestigated
Mesmerismin1784,examinedBraid'swritingsshortlyafterhisdemise.[51]
Azam'senthusiasmforhypnotisminfluencedAmbroiseAugusteLibeault,acountrydoctor.HippolyteBernheimdiscoveredLibeault's
enormouslypopulargrouphypnotherapyclinicandsubsequentlybecameaninfluentialhypnotist.Thestudyofhypnotismsubsequently
revolvedaroundthefiercedebatebetweenJeanMartinCharcotandHippolyteBernheim,thetwomostinfluentialfiguresinlate19thcentury
hypnotism.
CharcotoperatedaclinicatthePitiSalptrireHospital(thus,knownasthe"ParisSchool"orthe"SalptrireSchool"),whileBernheimhad
aclinicinNancy(knownasthe"NancySchool").Charcot,whowasinfluencedmorebytheMesmerists,arguedthathypnotismwasan
abnormalstateofnervousfunctioningfoundonlyincertainhystericalwomen.Heclaimedthatitmanifestedinaseriesofphysicalreactions
thatcouldbedividedintodistinctstages.Bernheimarguedthatanyonecouldbehypnotised,thatitwasanextensionofnormalpsychological
functioning,andthatitseffectswereduetosuggestion.Afterdecadesofdebate,Bernheim'sviewdominated.Charcot'stheoryisnowjusta
historicalcuriosity.[52]
PierreJanet
PierreJanet(18591947)reportedstudiesonahypnoticsubjectin1882.Charcotsubsequentlyappointedhimdirectorofthepsychological
laboratoryattheSalptrirein1889,afterJanethadcompletedhisPhD,whichdealtwithpsychologicalautomatism.In1898Janetwas
appointedpsychologylecturerattheSorbonne,andin1902hebecamechairofexperimentalandcomparativepsychologyattheCollgede
France.[53]JanetreconciledelementsofhisviewswiththoseofBernheimandhisfollowers,developinghisownsophisticatedhypnotic
psychotherapybasedupontheconceptofpsychologicaldissociation,which,attheturnofthecentury,rivalledFreud'sattempttoprovidea
morecomprehensivetheoryofpsychotherapy.
SigmundFreud
SigmundFreud,thefounderofpsychoanalysis(18561939),studiedhypnotismattheParisSchoolandbrieflyvisitedtheNancySchool.
AtfirstSigmundFreudwasanenthusiasticproponentofhypnotherapy.He"initiallyhypnotisedpatientsandpressedontheirforeheadstohelp
themconcentratewhileattemptingtorecover(supposedly)repressedmemories",[54]andhesoonbegantoemphasisehypnoticregressionand
abreaction(catharsis)astherapeuticmethods.Hewroteafavorableencyclopediaarticleonhypnotism,translatedoneofBernheim'sworks
intoGerman,andpublishedaninfluentialseriesofcasestudieswithhiscolleagueJosephBreuerentitledStudiesonHysteria(1895).This
becamethefoundingtextofthesubsequenttraditionknownas"hypnoanalysis"or"regressionhypnotherapy."
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However,Freudgraduallyabandonedhypnotisminfavourofpsychoanalysis,emphasizingfreeassociationandinterpretationofthe
unconscious.Strugglingwiththegreatexpenseoftimethatpsychoanalysisrequired,Freudlatersuggestedthatitmightbecombinedwith
hypnoticsuggestiontohastentheoutcomeoftreatment,
Itisveryprobable,too,thattheapplicationofourtherapytonumberswillcompelustoalloythepuregoldofanalysisplentifully
withthecopperofdirect[hypnotic]suggestion.[55]
However,onlyahandfulofFreud'sfollowersweresufficientlyqualifiedinhypnosistoattemptthesynthesis.Theirworkhadalimited
influenceonthehypnotherapeuticapproachesnowknownvariouslyas"hypnoticregression","hypnoticprogression",and"hypnoanalysis".
mileCou
mileCou(18571926)assistedAmbroiseAugusteLibeaultforaroundtwoyearsatNancy.Afterpractisingforseveralyearsasa
hypnotherapistemployingthemethodsofLibeaultandBernheim'sNancySchool,Coudevelopedaneworientationcalled"conscious
autosuggestion."SeveralyearsafterLibeault'sdeathin1904,CoufoundedwhatbecameknownastheNewNancySchool,aloose
collaborationofpractitionerswhotaughtandpromotedhisviews.Cou'smethoddidnotemphasise"sleep"ordeeprelaxationandinstead
focuseduponautosuggestioninvolvingaspecificseriesofsuggestiontests.AlthoughCouarguedthathewasnolongerusinghypnosis,
followerssuchasCharlesBaudouinviewedhisapproachasaformoflightselfhypnosis.Cou'smethodbecamearenownedselfhelpand
psychotherapytechnique,whichcontrastedwithpsychoanalysisandprefiguredselfhypnosisandcognitivetherapy.
ClarkL.Hull
ThenextmajordevelopmentcamefrombehavioralpsychologyinAmericanuniversityresearch.ClarkL.Hull,aneminentAmerican
psychologist(18841952),publishedthefirstmajorcompilationoflaboratorystudiesonhypnosis,Hypnosis&Suggestibility(1933),in
whichheprovedthathypnosisandsleephadnothingincommon.Hullpublishedmanyquantitativefindingsfromhypnosisandsuggestion
experimentsandencouragedresearchbymainstreampsychologists.Hull'sbehaviouralpsychologyinterpretationofhypnosis,emphasising
conditionedreflexes,rivalledtheFreudianpsychodynamicinterpretationwhichemphasisedunconscioustransference.
DaveElman
AlthoughDaveElman(19001967)wasanotedradiohost,comedianand(song)writer,healsomadeanameasahypnotist.Heledmany
coursesforphysiciansandwrotein1964theclassicbook:'FindingsinHypnosis',latertoberetitled'Hypnotherapy'(publishedbyWestwood
Publishing).PerhapsthemostwellknownaspectofElman'slegacyishismethodofinduction,whichwasoriginallyfashionedforspeedwork
andlateradaptedfortheuseofmedicalprofessionalshisstudentsroutinelyobtainedstatesofhypnosisadequateformedicalandsurgical
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proceduresinunderthreeminutes.Hisbookandrecordingsprovidemuchmorethanjusthisrapidinductiontechniques,however.Thefirst
heartoperationusinghypnosisratherthannormalanesthesia(becauseofsevereproblemswiththepatient)wasperformedbyhisstudentswith
DaveElmanintheoperatingroomas"coach".
MiltonErickson
MiltonH.Erickson,M.D.(19011980)wasoneofthemostinfluentialpostwarhypnotherapists.Hewroteseveralbooksandjournalarticles
onthesubject.Duringthe1960s,Ericksonpopularizedanewbranchofhypnotherapy,knownasEricksoniantherapy,characterisedprimarily
byindirectsuggestion,"metaphor"(actuallyanalogies),confusiontechniques,anddoublebindsinplaceofformalhypnoticinductions.
However,thedifferencebetweenErickson'smethodsandtraditionalhypnotismledcontemporariessuchasAndrWeitzenhoffertoquestion
whetherhewaspractising"hypnosis"atall,andhisapproachremainsinquestion.
Ericksonhadnohesitationinpresentinganysuggestedeffectasbeing"hypnosis",whetherornotthesubjectwasinahypnotic
state.Infact,hewasnothesitantinpassingoffbehaviourthatwasdubiouslyhypnoticasbeinghypnotic.[56]
Cognitivebehavioural
Inthelatterhalfofthetwentiethcentury,twofactorscontributedtothedevelopmentofthecognitivebehaviouralapproachtohypnosis:
1. Cognitiveandbehaviouraltheoriesofthenatureofhypnosis(influencedbythetheoriesofSarbin)[57]andBarber[30]became
increasinglyinfluential.
2. Thetherapeuticpracticesofhypnotherapyandvariousformsofcognitivebehaviouraltherapyoverlappedandinfluencedeach
other.[58][59]
Althoughcognitivebehaviouraltheoriesofhypnosismustbedistinguishedfromcognitivebehaviouralapproachestohypnotherapy,they
sharesimilarconcepts,terminology,andassumptionsandhavebeenintegratedbyinfluentialresearchersandclinicianssuchasIrvingKirsch,
StevenJayLynn,andothers.[60]
Attheoutsetofcognitivebehaviouraltherapyduringthe1950s,hypnosiswasusedbyearlybehaviourtherapistssuchasJosephWolpe[61]and
alsobyearlycognitivetherapistssuchasAlbertEllis.[62]Barber,SpanosandChavesintroducedtheterm"cognitivebehavioural"todescribe
their"nonstate"theoryofhypnosisinHypnosis,imagination,andhumanpotentialities.[30]However,ClarkL.Hullhadintroduceda
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behaviouralpsychologyasfarbackas1933,whichinturnwasprecededbyIvanPavlov.[63]Indeed,theearliesttheoriesandpracticesof
hypnotism,eventhoseofBraid,resemblethecognitivebehaviouralorientationinsomerespects.[59][64]
Applications
Therearenumerousapplicationsforhypnosisacrossmultiplefieldsofinterestincludingmedical/psychotherapeuticuses,militaryuses,self
improvement,andentertainment.
Hypnotismhasalsobeenusedinforensics,sports,education,physicaltherapyandrehabilitation.[65]Hypnotismhasalsobeenemployedby
artistsforcreativepurposes,mostnotablythesurrealistcircleofAndrBretonwhoemployedhypnosis,automaticwritingandsketchesfor
creativepurposes.Hypnoticmethodshavebeenusedtoreexperiencedrugstates[66]andmysticalexperiences.[67][68]Selfhypnosisis
popularlyusedtoquitsmokingandreducestress,whilestagehypnosiscanpersuadepeopletoperformunusualpublicfeats.[69]
Somepeoplehavedrawnanalogiesbetweencertainaspectsofhypnotismandareassuchascrowdpsychology,religioushysteria,andritual
trancesinpreliteratetribalcultures.[70]
Hypnotherapy
Hypnotherapyisauseofhypnosisinpsychotherapy.[71]Itisusedbylicensedphysicians,psychologists,andothers.Physiciansand
psychologistsmayusehypnosistotreatdepression,anxiety,eatingdisorders,sleepdisorders,compulsivegaming,andposttraumatic
stress,[72][73][74]whilecertifiedhypnotherapistswhoarenotphysiciansorpsychologistsoftentreatsmokingandweightmanagement.
Hypnotherapyisahelpfuladjuncthavingadditiveeffectswhentreatingpsychologicaldisorders,suchasthese,alongwithscientificallyproven
cognitivetherapies.Hypnotherapyshouldnotbeusedforrepairingorrefreshingmemory,becausehypnosisresultsinmemoryhardening
whichincreasestheconfidenceinfalsememories.[75]
Modernhypnotherapyhasbeenusedinavarietyofformswithvaryingsuccess,suchas:
Cognitivebehavioralhypnotherapy,orclinicalhypnosiscombinedwithelementsofcognitivebehavioraltherapy[59]
Ageregressionhypnotherapy(or"hypnoanalysis")
Ericksonianhypnotherapy
Fearsandphobias[77][78][79][80][81][82]
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Addictions[83][84]
Habitcontrol[85][86][87]
Painmanagement[88][89][90][91]
Psychotherapy[92]
Relaxation[93]
Skindisease[94]
Soothinganxioussurgicalpatients
Sportsperformance[95][96]
Weightloss[97][98][99]
InaJanuary2001articleinPsychologyToday[100]Harvardpsychologist
DeirdreBarrettwrote:
Ahypnotictranceisnottherapeuticinandofitself,butspecific
suggestionsandimagesfedtoclientsinatrancecanprofoundlyalter
theirbehavior.Astheyrehearsethenewwaystheywanttothinkand
feel,theylaythegroundworkforchangesintheirfutureactions...
Charcotdemonstratinghypnosisona"hysterical"Salptrirepatient,
"Blanche"(MarieWittmann),whoissupportedbyJoseph
Babiski. [76]
andshedescribedspecificwaysthisisoperationalizedforhabitchangeand
ameliorationofphobias.Inher1998bookofhypnotherapycasestudies,[73]
shereviewstheclinicalresearchonhypnosiswithdissociativedisorders,smokingcessation,andinsomniaanddescribessuccessfultreatments
ofthesecomplaints.
InaJuly2001articleforScientificAmericantitled"TheTruthandtheHypeofHypnosis",MichaelNashwrote:
...usinghypnosis,scientistshavetemporarilycreatedhallucinations,compulsions,certaintypesofmemoryloss,falsememories,
anddelusionsinthelaboratorysothatthesephenomenacanbestudiedinacontrolledenvironment.[101]
Irritablebowelsyndrome
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Hypnotherapyhasbeenstudiedforthetreatmentofirritablebowelsyndrome.[102][103]HypnosisforIBShasreceivedmoderatesupportinthe
NationalInstituteforHealthandClinicalExcellenceguidancepublishedforUKhealthservices.[104]Ithasbeenusedasanaidoralternativeto
chemicalanesthesia,[105][106][107]andithasbeenstudiedasawaytosootheskinailments.[108]
Painmanagement
Anumberofstudiesshowthathypnosiscanreducethepainexperiencedduringburnwounddebridement,[109]bonemarrowaspirations,and
childbirth.[110][111]TheInternationalJournalofClinicalandExperimentalHypnosisfoundthathypnosisrelievedthepainof75%of933
subjectsparticipatingin27differentexperiments.[101]
Hypnosisiseffectiveinreducingpainfrom[112]andcopingwithcancer[113]andotherchronicconditions.[101]Nauseaandothersymptoms
relatedtoincurablediseasesmayalsobemanagedwithhypnosis.[114][115][116][117]Somepractitionershaveclaimedhypnosismighthelpboost
theimmunesystemofpeoplewithcancer.However,accordingtotheAmericanCancerSociety,"availablescientificevidencedoesnot
supporttheideathathypnosiscaninfluencethedevelopmentorprogressionofcancer."[118]
Hypnosishasbeenusedasapainrelievingtechniqueduringdentalsurgeryandrelatedpainmanagementregimensaswell.Researcherslike
Jerjesandhisteamhavereportedthathypnosiscanhelpeventhosepatientswhohaveacutetosevereorodentalpain.[119]Whatismore,
MeyersonandUzielhavesuggestedthathypnoticmethodshavebeenfoundtobehighlyfruitfulforalleviatinganxietyinpatientssuffering
fromseveredentalphobia.[120]
TheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationpublishedastudycomparingtheeffectsofhypnosis,ordinarysuggestionandplaceboinreducing
pain.Thestudyfoundthathighlysuggestibleindividualsexperiencedagreaterreductioninpainfromhypnosiscomparedwithplacebo,
whereaslesssuggestiblesubjectsexperiencednopainreductionfromhypnosiswhencomparedwithplacebo.Ordinarynonhypnotic
suggestionalsocausedreductioninpaincomparedtoplacebo,butwasabletoreducepaininawiderrangeofsubjects(bothhighandlow
suggestible)thanhypnosis.Theresultsshowedthatitisprimarilythesubject'sresponsivenesstosuggestion,whetherwithinthecontextof
hypnosisornot,thatisthemaindeterminantofcausingreductioninpain.[121]
Othermedicalandpsychotherapeuticuses
Treatingskindiseaseswithhypnosis(hypnodermatology)hasperformedwellintreatingwarts,psoriasis,andatopicdermatitis.[122]
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Thesuccessrateforhabitcontrolisvaried.Ametastudyresearchinghypnosisasaquitsmokingtoolfoundithada20to30percentsuccess
rate,[123]whilea2007studyofpatientshospitalisedforcardiacandpulmonaryailmentsfoundthatsmokerswhousedhypnosistoquit
smokingdoubledtheirchancesofsuccess.[124]
Hypnosismaybeusefulasanadjuncttherapyforweightloss.A1996metaanalysisstudyinghypnosiscombinedwithcognitivebehavioural
therapyfoundthatpeopleusingbothtreatmentslostmoreweightthanpeopleusingCBTalone.[125]Thevirtualgastricbandproceduremixes
hypnosiswithhypnopedia.Thehypnosisinstructsthestomachitissmallerthanitreallyisandhypnopediareinforcesalimentaryhabits.
Controversysurroundstheuseofhypnotherapytoretrievememories,especiallythosefromearlychildhoodor(supposed)pastlives.The
AmericanMedicalAssociationandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationcautionagainstrecoveredmemorytherapyincasesofalleged
childhoodtrauma,statingthat"itisimpossible,withoutcorroborativeevidence,todistinguishatruememoryfromafalseone."[126]Pastlife
regression,meanwhile,isoftenviewedwithskepticism.[127][128]
Psychiatricnursesinmostmedicalfacilitiesareallowedtoadministerhypnosistopatientsinordertorelievesymptomssuchasanxiety,
arousal,negativebehaviors,uncontrollablebehavior,andimproveselfesteemandconfidenceonlywhentheyhavebeencompletelytrained
abouttheirclinicalsideeffectsandwhileundersupervisionwhenadministeringit.[129]
Military
ArecentlydeclassifieddocumentobtainedbytheUSFreedomofInformationActarchiveshowsthathypnosiswasinvestigatedformilitary
applications.[130]However,theoverallconclusionofthestudywasthattherewasnoevidencethathypnosiscouldbeusedformilitary
applications,andnoclearevidencewhether'hypnosis'isadefinablephenomenonoutsideordinarysuggestion,motivationandsubject
expectancy.Accordingtothedocument,
Theuseofhypnosisinintelligencewouldpresentcertaintechnicalproblemsnotencounteredintheclinicorlaboratory.Toobtain
compliancefromaresistantsource,forexample,itwouldbenecessarytohypnotisethesourceunderessentiallyhostile
circumstances.Thereisnogoodevidence,clinicalorexperimental,thatthiscanbedone.[131]
Furthermore,thedocumentstatesthat:
Itwouldbedifficulttofindanareaofscientificinterestmorebesetbydividedprofessionalopinionandcontradictory
experimentalevidenceNoonecansaywhetherhypnosisisaqualitativelyuniquestatewithsomephysiologicalandconditioned
responsecomponentsoronlyaformofsuggestioninducedbyhighmotivationandapositiverelationshipbetweenhypnotistand
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subjectT.X.Barberhasproducedhypnoticdeafnessandhypnoticblindness,analgesiaandotherresponsesseeninhypnosis
allwithouthypnotizinganyoneOrnehasshownthatunhypnotizedpersonscanbemotivatedtoequalandsurpassthe
supposedsuperhumanphysicalfeatsseeninhypnosis.[132]
Thestudyconcludes:
Itisprobablysignificantthatinthelonghistoryofhypnosis,wherethepotentialapplicationtointelligencehasalwaysbeen
known,therearenoreliableaccountsofitseffectiveusebyanintelligenceservice.[133]
ResearchintohypnosisinmilitaryapplicationsisfurtherverifiedbytheMKULTRAexperiments,alsoconductedbytheCIA.[134]According
toCongressionaltestimony,[135]theCIAexperimentedwithutilizingLSDandhypnosisformindcontrol.Manyoftheseprogramsweredone
domesticallyandonparticipantswhowerenotinformedofthestudy'spurposesorthattheywouldbegivendrugs.[135]
Thefullpaperexploresthepotentialsofoperationaluses.[136]
Selfhypnosis
Selfhypnosishappenswhenapersonhypnotisesoneself,commonlyinvolvingtheuseofautosuggestion.Thetechniqueisoftenusedto
increasemotivationforadiet,quitsmoking,orreducestress.Peoplewhopracticeselfhypnosissometimesrequireassistancesomepeopleuse
devicesknownasmindmachinestoassistintheprocess,whereasothersusehypnoticrecordings.
Selfhypnosisisclaimedtohelpwithstagefright,relaxation,andphysicalwellbeing.[137]
Stagehypnosis
Stagehypnosisisaformofentertainment,traditionallyemployedinaclubortheatrebeforeanaudience.Duetostagehypnotists'
showmanship,manypeoplebelievethathypnosisisaformofmindcontrol.Stagehypnotiststypicallyattempttohypnotisetheentireaudience
andthenselectindividualswhoare"under"tocomeuponstageandperformembarrassingacts,whiletheaudiencewatches.However,the
effectsofstagehypnosisareprobablyduetoacombinationofpsychologicalfactors,participantselection,suggestibility,physical
manipulation,stagecraft,andtrickery.[138]Thedesiretobethecentreofattention,havinganexcusetoviolatetheirownfearsuppressorsand
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thepressuretopleasearethoughttoconvincesubjectsto'playalong'.[139]Booksbystagehypnotistssometimesexplicitlydescribetheuseof
deceptionintheiracts,forexample,OrmondMcGill'sNewEncyclopediaofStageHypnosisdescribesanentire"fakehypnosis"actthat
dependsupontheuseofprivatewhispersthroughout.
Thestateversusnonstatedebate
Thecentraltheoreticaldisagreementisknownasthe"stateversusnonstate"debate.WhenBraidintroducedtheconceptofhypnotism,he
equivocatedoverthenatureofthe"state",sometimesdescribingitasaspecificsleeplikeneurologicalstatecomparabletoanimalhibernation
oryogicmeditation,whileatothertimesheemphasisedthathypnotismencompassesanumberofdifferentstagesorstatesthatarean
extensionofordinarypsychologicalandphysiologicalprocesses.Overall,Braidappearstohavemovedfromamore"specialstate"
understandingofhypnotismtowardamorecomplex"nonstate"orientation.
Statetheoristsinterprettheeffectsofhypnotismasdueprimarilytoaspecific,abnormal,anduniformpsychologicalorphysiologicalstateof
somedescription,oftenreferredtoas"hypnotictrance"oran"alteredstateofconsciousness."Nonstatetheoristsrejectedtheideaofhypnotic
tranceandinterprettheeffectsofhypnotismasduetoacombinationofmultipletaskspecificfactorsderivedfromnormalcognitive,
behavioural,andsocialpsychology,suchassocialroleperceptionandfavorablemotivation(Sarbin),activeimaginationandpositivecognitive
set(Barber),responseexpectancy(Kirsch),andtheactiveuseoftaskspecificsubjectivestrategies(Spanos).Thepersonalitypsychologist
RobertWhiteisoftencitedasprovidingoneofthefirstnonstatedefinitionsofhypnosisina1941article:
Hypnoticbehaviourismeaningful,goaldirectedstriving,itsmostgeneralgoalbeingtobehavelikeahypnotisedpersonasthisis
continuouslydefinedbytheoperatorandunderstoodbytheclient.[140]
Putsimply,itisoftenclaimedthatwhereastheolder"specialstate"interpretationemphasisesthedifferencebetweenhypnosisandordinary
psychologicalprocesses,the"nonstate"interpretationemphasisestheirsimilarity.
Comparisonsbetweenhypnotisedandnonhypnotisedsubjectssuggestthatifa"hypnotictrance"doesexistitonlyaccountsforasmall
proportionoftheeffectsattributedtohypnoticsuggestion,mostofwhichcanbereplicatedwithouthypnoticinduction.
Hypersuggestibility
Braidcanbetakentoimply,inlaterwritings,thathypnosisislargelyastateofheightenedsuggestibilityinducedbyexpectationandfocused
attention.Inparticular,HippolyteBernheimbecameknownastheleadingproponentofthe"suggestiontheory"ofhypnosis,atonepointgoing
sofarastodeclarethatthereisnohypnoticstate,onlyheightenedsuggestibility.Thereisageneralconsensusthatheightenedsuggestibilityis
anessentialcharacteristicofhypnosis.
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Ifasubjectaftersubmittingtothehypnoticprocedureshowsnogenuineincreaseinsusceptibilitytoanysuggestionswhatever,
thereseemsnopointincallinghimhypnotised,regardlessofhowfullyandreadilyhemayrespondtosuggestionsoflidclosure
andothersuperficialsleepingbehaviour.[141]
Conditionedinhibition
IvanPavlovstatedthathypnoticsuggestionprovidedthebestexampleofaconditionedreflexresponseinhumanbeings,i.e.,thatresponsesto
suggestionswerelearnedassociationstriggeredbythewordsused.Pavlovhimselfwrote:
Speech,onaccountofthewholeprecedinglifeoftheadult,isconnectedupwithalltheinternalandexternalstimuliwhichcan
reachthecortex,signalingallofthemandreplacingallofthem,andthereforeitcancallforthallthosereactionsoftheorganism
whicharenormallydeterminedbytheactualstimulithemselves.Wecan,therefore,regardsuggestionasthemostsimpleform
ofatypicalreflexinman.[142]
Healsobelievedthathypnosiswasa"partialsleep"meaningthatageneralisedinhibitionofcorticalfunctioningcouldbeencouragedtospread
throughoutregionsofthebrain.Heobservedthatthevariousdegreesofhypnosisdidnotsignificantlydifferphysiologicallyfromthewaking
stateandhypnosisdependedoninsignificantchangesofenvironmentalstimuli.Pavlovalsosuggestedthatlowerbrainstemmechanismswere
involvedinhypnoticconditioning.[143][144]
Pavlov'sideascombinedwiththoseofhisrivalBekhterevandbecamethebasisofhypnoticpsychotherapyintheSovietUnion,asdocumented
inthewritingsofhisfollowerK.I.Platonov.SoviettheoriesofhypnotismsubsequentlyinfluencedthewritingsofWesternbehaviourally
orientedhypnotherapistssuchasAndrewSalter.
Neuropsychology
Changesinbrainactivityhavebeenfoundinsomestudiesofhighlyresponsivehypnoticsubjects.Thesechangesvarydependinguponthe
typeofsuggestionsbeinggiven.[145][146]Thestateoflighttomediumhypnosis,wherethebodyundergoesphysicalandmentalrelaxation,is
associatedwithapatternmostlyofalphawaves[147]However,whattheseresultsindicateisunclear.Theymayindicatethatsuggestions
genuinelyproducechangesinperceptionorexperiencethatarenotsimplyaresultofimagination.However,innormalcircumstanceswithout
hypnosis,thebrainregionsassociatedwithmotiondetectionareactivatedbothwhenmotionisseenandwhenmotionisimagined,withoutany
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changesinthesubjects'perceptionorexperience.[148]Thismaythereforeindicatethathighlysuggestiblehypnoticsubjectsaresimply
activatingtoagreaterextenttheareasofthebrainusedinimagination,withoutrealperceptualchanges.Itis,however,prematuretoclaimthat
hypnosisandmeditationaremediatedbysimilarbrainsystemsandneuralmechanisms.[149]
Anotherstudyhasdemonstratedthatacolorhallucinationsuggestiongiventosubjectsinhypnosisactivatedcolorprocessingregionsofthe
occipitalcortex.[150]A2004reviewofresearchexaminingtheEEGlaboratoryworkinthisareaconcludes:
HypnosisisnotaunitarystateandthereforeshouldshowdifferentpatternsofEEGactivitydependinguponthetaskbeing
experienced.Inourevaluationoftheliterature,enhancedthetaisobservedduringhypnosiswhenthereistaskperformanceor
concentrativehypnosis,butnotwhenthehighlyhypnotizableindividualsarepassivelyrelaxed,somewhatsleepyand/ormore
diffuseintheirattention.[151]
Theinductionphaseofhypnosismayalsoaffecttheactivityinbrainregionsthatcontrolintentionandprocessconflict.AnnaGoslineclaims:
"GruzelierandhiscolleaguesstudiedbrainactivityusinganfMRIwhilesubjectscompletedastandardcognitiveexercise,called
theStrooptask.Theteamscreenedsubjectsbeforethestudyandchose12thatwerehighlysusceptibletohypnosisand12with
lowsusceptibility.TheyallcompletedthetaskinthefMRIundernormalconditionsandthenagainunderhypnosis.Throughout
thestudy,bothgroupswereconsistentintheirtaskresults,achievingsimilarscoresregardlessoftheirmentalstate.Duringtheir
firsttasksession,beforehypnosis,therewerenosignificantdifferencesinbrainactivitybetweenthegroups.Butunderhypnosis,
Gruzelierfoundthatthehighlysusceptiblesubjectsshowedsignificantlymorebrainactivityintheanteriorcingulategyrusthan
theweaklysusceptiblesubjects.Thisareaofthebrainhasbeenshowntorespondtoerrorsandevaluateemotionaloutcomes.The
highlysusceptiblegroupalsoshowedmuchgreaterbrainactivityontheleftsideoftheprefrontalcortexthantheweakly
susceptiblegroup.Thisisanareainvolvedwithhigherlevelcognitiveprocessingandbehaviour."[152][153]
Dissociation
PierreJanetoriginallydevelopedtheideaofdissociationofconsciousnessfromhisworkwithhystericalpatients.Hebelievedthathypnosis
wasanexampleofdissociation,wherebyareasofanindividual'sbehaviouralcontrolseparatefromordinaryawareness.Hypnosiswould
removesomecontrolfromtheconsciousmind,andtheindividualwouldrespondwithautonomic,reflexivebehaviour.Weitzenhoffer
describeshypnosisviathistheoryas"dissociationofawarenessfromthemajorityofsensoryandevenstrictlyneuraleventstakingplace."[33]
Neodissociation
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ErnestHilgard,whodevelopedthe"neodissociation"theoryofhypnotism,hypothesizedthathypnosiscausesthesubjectstodividetheir
consciousnessvoluntarily.Onepartrespondstothehypnotistwhiletheotherretainsawarenessofreality.Hilgardmadesubjectstakeanice
waterbath.Theysaidnothingaboutthewaterbeingcoldorfeelingpain.Hilgardthenaskedthesubjectstolifttheirindexfingeriftheyfelt
painand70%ofthesubjectsliftedtheirindexfinger.Thisshowedthateventhoughthesubjectswerelisteningtothesuggestivehypnotistthey
stillsensedthewater'stemperature.[154]
Minddissociation
ThistheorywasproposedbyY.D.Tsaiin1995[155]aspartofhispsychosomatictheoryofdreams.Insideeachbrain,thereisaprogram"I"
(theconsciousself),whichisdistributedovertheconsciousbrainandcoordinatesmentalfunctions(cortices),suchasthinking,imagining,
sensing,movingandreasoning."I"alsosupervisesmemorystorage.Manybizarrestatesofconsciousnessareactuallytheresultsof
dissociationofcertainmentalfunctionsfrom"I".
Thereareseveralpossibletypesofdissociationthatmayoccur:
thesubject'simaginationisdissociatedandsendstheimaginedcontentbacktothesensorycortexresultingindreamsorhallucinations
somesensesaredissociated,resultinginhypnoticanesthesia
motorfunctionisdissociated,resultinginimmobility
reasonisdissociatedandhe/sheobeysthehypnotist'sorders
thoughtisdissociatedandnotcontrolledbyreason,hence,forexamplestrivingtostraightenthebodybetweentwochairs.
Ahypnotist'ssuggestioncanalsoinfluencethesubjectlongafterthehypnosissession,asfollows.Inanormalstateofmind,thesubjectwilldo
orbelieveashisreasondictates.However,whenhypnotized,reasonisreplacedbythehypnotist'ssuggestionstomakeupdecisionsorbeliefs,
andthesubjectwillbeveryuneasyinlaterdaysifhe/shedoesnotdothingsasdecidedorhis/herbeliefiscontradicted.Hypnotherapyisalso
basedonthisprinciple.
Socialroletakingtheory
ThemaintheoristwhopioneeredtheinfluentialroletakingtheoryofhypnotismwasTheodoreSarbin.Sarbinarguedthathypnoticresponses
weremotivatedattemptstofulfillthesociallyconstructedrolesofhypnoticsubjects.Thishasledtothemisconceptionthathypnoticsubjects
aresimply"faking".However,Sarbinemphasisedthedifferencebetweenfaking,inwhichthereislittlesubjectiveidentificationwiththerole
inquestion,androletaking,inwhichthesubjectnotonlyactsexternallyinaccordwiththerolebutalsosubjectivelyidentifieswithittosome
degree,acting,thinking,andfeeling"asif"theyarehypnotised.Sarbindrewanalogiesbetweenroletakinginhypnosisandroletakinginother
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areassuchasmethodacting,mentalillness,andshamanicpossession,etc.Thisinterpretationofhypnosisisparticularlyrelevantto
understandingstagehypnosisinwhichthereisclearlystrongpeerpressuretocomplywithasociallyconstructedrolebyperforming
accordinglyonatheatricalstage.
Hence,thesocialconstructionismandroletakingtheoryofhypnosissuggeststhatindividualsareenacting(asopposedtomerelyplaying)a
roleandthatreallythereisnosuchthingasahypnotictrance.Asociallyconstructedrelationshipisbuiltdependingonhowmuchrapporthas
beenestablishedbetweenthe"hypnotist"andthesubject(seeHawthorneeffect,Pygmalioneffect,andplaceboeffect).
PsychologistssuchasRobertBakerandGrahamWagstaffclaimthatwhatwecallhypnosisisactuallyaformoflearnedsocialbehaviour,a
complexhybridofsocialcompliance,relaxation,andsuggestibilitythatcanaccountformanyesotericbehaviouralmanifestations.[156]
Cognitivebehaviouraltheory
Barber,SpanosandChaves(1974)proposedanonstate"cognitivebehavioural"theoryofhypnosis,similarinsomerespectstoSarbin'ssocial
roletakingtheoryandbuildingupontheearlierresearchofBarber.Onthismodel,hypnosisisexplainedasanextensionofordinary
psychologicalprocesseslikeimagination,relaxation,expectation,socialcompliance,etc.Inparticular,Barberarguedthatresponsesto
hypnoticsuggestionsweremediatedbya"positivecognitiveset"consistingofpositiveexpectations,attitudes,andmotivation.DanielAraoz
subsequentlycoinedtheacronym"TEAM"tosymbolisethesubject'sorientationtohypnosisintermsof"trust","expectation","attitude",and
"motivation".[30]
Barberetal.,notedthatsimilarfactorsappearedtomediatetheresponsebothtohypnotismandtocognitivebehaviouraltherapy(CBT),in
particularsystematicdesensitization.[30]Hence,researchandclinicalpracticeinspiredbytheirinterpretationhasledtogrowinginterestinthe
relationshipbetweenhypnotherapyandCBT.[60]:105[98]
Informationtheory
AnapproachlooselybasedonInformationtheoryusesabrainascomputermodel.Inadaptivesystems,feedbackincreasesthesignaltonoise
ratio,whichmayconvergetowardsasteadystate.Increasingthesignaltonoiseratioenablesmessagestobemoreclearlyreceived.The
hypnotist'sobjectistousetechniquestoreduceinterferenceandincreasethereceptabilityofspecificmessages(suggestions).[157]
Systemstheory
Systemstheory,inthiscontext,mayberegardedasanextensionofBraid'soriginalconceptualizationofhypnosisasinvolving"thebrainand
nervoussystemgenerally".[64](p31)Systemstheoryconsidersthenervoussystem'sorganizationintointeractingsubsystems.Hypnotic
phenomenathusinvolvenotonlyincreasedordecreasedactivityofparticularsubsystems,butalsotheirinteraction.Acentralphenomenonin
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thisregardisthatoffeedbackloops,whichsuggestamechanismforcreatinghypnoticphenomena.[158]
Seealso
Historicalfigures
VladimirBekhterev
EmileDantinne
FranzMesmer
HippolyteBernheim
JohnElliotson
AlbertMoll
AlfredBinet
JamesEsdaile
JulianOchorowicz
JamesBraid(surgeon)
GeorgeEstabrooks
IvanPavlov
JohnMilneBramwell
AbbFaria
MortonPrince
JeanMartinCharcot
SigmundFreud
MarquisdePuysgur
mileCou
PierreJanet
OttoGeorgWetterstrand
AmbroiseAugusteLibeault
Modernresearchers
TheodoreX.Barber
HansEysenck
DylanMorgan
DeirdreBarrett
JackStanleyGibson
MartinOrne
EtzelCardea
ErnestR.Hilgard
MartySapp
DaveElman
ClarkL.Hull
TheodoreSarbin
GeorgeEstabrooks
IrvingKirsch
NicholasSpanos
MiltonErickson
AinslieMeares
AndreWeitzenhoffer
MichelWeber[159]
Relatedsubjects
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3/9/2015
Highwayhypnosis
Historyofhypnosis
Hypnagogia
Hypnoidstate
Hypnosisinpopularculture
Hypnosurgery
Hypnotherapy
Hypnotherapyinchildbirth
HypnotherapyintheUnitedKingdom
Listofineffectivecancertreatments
Mindcontrol
Neurolinguisticprogramming
Recreationalhypnosis
Scientologyandhypnosis
Sedative(alsoknownassedativehypnoticdrug)
TheZoist:AJournalofCerebralPhysiology&Mesmerism,andTheirApplicationstoHumanWelfare
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