CHAPTER 5: THE EYE

VISUAL DEFECTS.
The most common visual defects are caused by the distorted shape of the eyeball.
Other defects are due to irregularities in the cornea, the lens and the eyeball itself.

Myopia.

Myopia is more commonly known as

short-sightedness. The normal eye
is practically spherical and, when the
lens and ciliary muscles are relaxed, the
image of a distant object will fall on the
retina. In a myopic eye, the eyeball is
longer than normal. This fact causes
the images from distant objects to fall in
front of the retina. Thus, distant objects
will be out of focus for a short-sighted
person.

Myopia
results from
an elongated
eyeball. It can
be corrected with concave
lenses.
Figure 5.7 The normal eye.

A concave lens will correct myopic vision by bending or refracting the light from
distant objects outwards before it hits the cornea.

Figure 5.8 In myopia, the eyeball is longer

than normal.

Figure 5.9 Myopia can be corrected with a

concave lens.

Normal distance vision for pilots may be very approximately assessed as the ability
to read a car-number plate at 40 metres. For the United Kingdom driving test, the
distance required is 23 metres.

Hypermetropia.

In long-sightedness, or, in medical terms, hypermetropia, a shorter than normal

eyeball results in images being formed behind the retina.

Figure 5.10 Hypermetropia.

Figure 5.11 A Convex Lens Will Correct

Hypermetropia.

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CHAPTER 6: THE EAR

Case Two. In the second case, we are assuming that the pilot has, for some time,
been carrying out a steady turn to the right. Because the turn is steady and balanced,
there is no movement of uid in the semi-circular canals and the hairs have erected
themselves. This gives the pilot who lacks visual information the erroneous feeling
that he is straight and level (see Figure 6.9, below).

Figure 6.9.

As the pilot exits the turn by rolling to the left to regain straight and level ight, the
uid and the hairs move, giving a false impression of entering a turn to the left when,
in fact, the wings are level.

Figure 6.10.

If a pilot
becomes
aware that
he is spatially disorientated,
he must look out at the visual
horizon if in VMC, or, if in IMC,
trust his instruments.

In Case One and Case Two, the pilot will be subjected to two conicting signals. His
visual sense will tell him one thing, whereas his vestibular apparatus will tell him
another. This conict between vestibular apparatus and visual sensory inputs
is the primary cause of spatial disorientation, and indeed, of motion sickness. Of
course, for a healthy, fully-trained pilot, the visual signals will dominate and he is
hardly likely to become disorientated. But a passenger or new student pilot may
experience spatial disorientation.
As a pilot, you must remember to respect, at all times, the cardinal rule that if you
suspect you are suffering from disorientation, you must concentrate on and believe
the aircrafts instruments, or the external horizon.
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CHAPTER 8: THE INFORMATION PROCESS

In hilly terrain, it is possible that, when

emerging from low cloud or mist on takeoff, lights on the ground will be mistaken
for stars and the ight path adjusted to
a lower and dangerous prole.

Gently sloping terrain may create an

illusion affecting a pilots perception of
his ight path, at any time when ying
visually at low level.

Figure 8.26 Sloping terrain on approach may confuse a pilots perception of height.

After take-off or on approach, if the ground slopes down, an illusion of excessive

height may be created. Upwards sloping terrain would have the reverse effect. (See
Figure 8.26.)

JUDGEMENT OF THE APPROACH.

During your ying training, you will have learnt
to recognise the way the runway looks when
you are on the correct approach path. Your
instructor will have taught you how to y a correct
approach based on your judgement of runway
aspect. This aspect will look something like
that depicted in Figure 8.27, when you are 300
to 400 feet above runway level, established on
the approach path.
130

Figure 8.27 Correctly positioned for

the approach to a level runway.

CHAPTER 9: JUDGEMENT AND DECISION MAKING

Figure 9.1 Routine ying may lead to under-arousal and inattentiveness.

Figure 9.2 Flying in deteriorating weather conditions may lead to performance degradation
through mental overload or overarousal.

Pilots can avoid performance degradation through under-arousal by maintaining

strong personal motivation, maintaining a healthy respect for the hazards of flying
traditionally associated with inattentiveness, and by ensuring that they have set
themselves a measurable objective for every flight.
The risk of performance degradation through mental overload or over-arousal
can be lessened by thorough and systematic pre-flight planning. (See Figure 9.3)

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