1988
International Rice Research Institute
Los Baos, Laguna, Philippines
P.O. Box 933, 1099 Manila, Philippines
The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) was established in 1960 by the
Ford and Rockefeller Foundations with the help and approval of the Government of the Philippines. Today IRRl is one of the 13 nonprofit International
research and training centers supported by the Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The CGIAR is sponsored by the
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank). and the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The CGIAR consists of
50 donor countries, international and regional organizations, and private
foundations.
IRRl receives support, through the CGIAR, from a number of donors
Including the Asian Development Bank, the European Economic Community,
the Ford Foundation, the International Development Research Centre, the
lnternational Fund for Agricultural Development, the OPEC Special Fund, the
Rockefeller Foundation, the United Nations Development Programme, the
World Bank, and the International aid agencies of the following governments:
Australia, Belgium, Canada, China, Denmark, Finland, France, Federal
Republic of Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Mexico, The Netherlands, New
Zealand, Norway, the Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
United Kingdom, and United States.
The responsibility for this publication rests with the lnternational Rice
Research Institute.
ISBN 971-104-170-7
Foreword
Upland or dryland rice covers nearly 20 million hectares worldwide. It is
usually grown by the most underprivileged rice farmers under adverse
and risky conditions. Yields are low, averaging about 1 ton per hectare.
Scientists and extension workers have demonstrated in many countries,
however, that improved cropping systems and practices can be
combined with higher-yielding varieties to achieve a stable 2 tons per
hectare under various ecosystems.
But the dearth of literature on upland rice farming means that
extension workers lack the background to guide farmers, who in turn
lack the technical knowledge to use existing cultural practices efficiently
to minimize cash inputs and maximize returns.
A Farmers Primer on Growing Upland Rice is part of a global upland
rice strategy to train extension workers and help farmers. Students and
scientists will also find advice and guidelines for their own programs and
projects in the book.
The book is patterned after the widely known A Farmers Primer on
Growing Rice, which the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
released in 1979. Modifications have been made to meet the needs of
upland rice growers, and additional information on diseases, pests, and
cropping systems of upland rice has been added.
This new primer was written by M.A. Arraudeau, a visiting IRRl plant
breeder from the lnstitut de Recherches Agronomiques Tropicales,
Centre International de Recherche Agronomique pour le Developpement, France, in collaboration with B.S. Vergara of IRRI, who wrote the
original Farmers Primer.
Like the original primer, which had been published in 35 languages by
mid-1988, this book is designed for inexpensive copublication in
developing countries. The English text has been blocked off from the line
drawings. IRRl makes complimentary sets of the illustrations available to
cooperators, who may translate, strip text onto the drawings, and print
translated editions on local presses.
The volume was edited by Stephen J. Banta with the assistance of
Gloria Argosino. The art was prepared by John Figarola, Gladys Balacuit,
Oscar Figuracion, Arturo Ortega, and Ed Delfino.
Klaus Lampe
Director General
Contents
Intermediate-statured
plant type
A traditional upland
variety
Growth phases of an
upland rice plant
10
Vegetative phase
40 days
55 days
75 days
Reproductive and
ripening phases
60 days
65 days
65 days
Growth duration
100 days
120 days
140 days
11
Vegetative phase
12
Reproductive phase
13
Ripening phase
14
Seeds
Seed types 17
Parts of the seed 18
Stages of germination 19
Water is needed for seed germination 20
Water and air are needed for seed germination 21
Temperature conditions for seed germination 22
Depth of sowing influences germination 23
Why select good seeds? 24
Seed types
17
18
Stages of germination
19
Water is needed
for seed germination
20
21
Temperature conditions
for seed germination
22
Depth of sowing
influences germination
23
24
27
Sources of food
for growth
27
Amount of rainfall
28
Temperature
in
poor
at
cool
29
Light intensity
30
Less light can cause the leaf blades and sheaths to elongate.
The taller plants are weaker and will "lodge" or fall over if
their panicles become heavy with grain.
Plants produce food from light, water, and air. Less light
means less food, which results in weak seedlings.
Seedlings grow better when sunlight is bright.
31
Available nutrients
32
Insufficient nutrients
33
34
What is a good
seedling?
Good seedlings have uniform height 37
Good seedlings have more roots that are longer and heavier
38
37
38
How to grow
good seedlings
Good seed distribution and germination
Good land preparation 42
Uniform size of soil particles 43
Early and good weeding 44
41
41
42
44
Leaves
The rice leaf 47
Leaf variations in upland rices 48
Leaves of the main stem 49
Leaf production 50
Effect of drought on leaves 51
an auricle or neither.
A rice leaf has both a ligule and two auricles.
47
Leaf variations
in upland rices
48
49
Leaf production
50
Effect of drought
on leaves
The leaves curl during drought. Their color turns light bluegreen or whitish.
The ability to recover after long drought stress is an important
character of a good upland variety.
51
Roots
Upland versus lowland rice varieties 55
Origin of roots 56
Crown roots 57
Root hairs 58
Root functions 59
Root development 60
Root development at 40 days after sowing 61
Root development at 60 days after sowing 62
Root development at heading 63
Root distribution 64
Root distribution depends on depth of topsoil 65
Root distribution depends on depth of plowed layer 66
Root distribution depends on soil composition 67
Root distribution depends on availability of air and water
Root distribution depends on fertilizer placement 69
Thick and deep roots help plants withstand drought 70
68
Upland versus
lowland rice varieties
55
Origin of roots
month.
Crown roots
57
Root hairs
Root hairs
- are tubular extensions on the outermost layer of the roots.
- are important in water uptake as well as in nutrient
uptake.
- are generally short-lived.
58
Root functions
59
Root development
60
As the plant grows older, the initial roots from the upper
nodes below the soil surface develop into horizontal "superficial" roots.
Root development at
40 days after sowing
Most roots are in the plowed layer of soil, but some go deeper
into the subsoil.
61
Root development at
60 days after sowing
62
Root development
at heading
More roots are big and strong, They have penetrated further
into the subsoil.
63
Root distribution
64
Root distribution
depends on depth
of topsoil
65
Root distribution
depends on depth
of plowed layer
66
Root distribution
depends on soil
composition
67
Root distribution
depends on availability
of air and water
68
Shallow root type develops if water and air are not sufficient.
Good plowing increases the availability of water and air.
Good roots develop if air and water in deeper layers are
sufficient.
Root distribution
depends on fertilizer
placement
69
70
Tillers
Primary tiller 73
Tillering pattern 74
Internodes of a tiller 75
Production of tillers 76
Productive and nonproductive tillers 77
How to calculate percentage of productive tillers
Variety affects tillering 79
Planting method affects tillering 80
Spacing affects tillering 81
Rainfall and soil affect tillering 82
Nitrogen level affects tillering 83
78
Primary tiller
73
Tillering pattern
74
Internodes of a tiller
75
Production of tillers
76
Productive
and nonproductive tillers
77
How to calculate
percentage
of productive tillers
78
79
Planting method
affects tillering
80
More seeds used per unit area and less space between rows
or hills reduce the number of tillers per plant.
Too many seeds per hill or within a row reduces tillers per
plant.
81
82
Nitrogen level
affects tillering
83
Panicles
Panicle formation 87
Booting 88
The spikelet 89
Flowering order of a panicle 90
Stages of grain formation 91
Causes of empty spikelets 92
Panicle formation
87
Booting
88
The spikelet
unite with the egg inside the ovary before a grain can develop.
A grain is a ripened ovary together with the lemma and palea.
A spikelet bears only one grain.
89
Flowering order
of a panicle
90
91
92
Dormancy
Grain dormancy 95
Dormancy prevents seed germination on the panicle 96
Dormancy prevents germination of seed stored in wet conditions
after harvest 97
Grain dormancy
95
Dormancy prevents
seed germination
on the panicle
96
Dormancy prevents
germination of seed
stored in wet conditions
after harvest
harvested seeds
97
Fertilizers
Nutrients that the rice plant needs
What are fertilizers? 102
Organic fertilizers 103
Inorganic fertilizers 104
Role of fertilizers 105
101
Plants need oxygen and carbon from the air, and mineral
nutrients from the soil.
Plants need nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in large
amounts. These are the major mineral nutrients.
Minor nutrients are needed in smaller amounts. The soil
often has sufficient minor nutrients. If not, they must be
added.
101
102
Organic fertilizers
103
Inorganic fertilizers
104
Role of fertilizers
105
How much
nitrogen to apply
What happens to nitrogen applied to soil?
The humid tropics 110
The semiarid tropics 111
Fertility of the soil 112
Plant type 113
Disease incidence 114
Profit from applied fertilizer 115
109
109
110
111
112
Plant type
113
Disease incidence
114
Too much nitrogen usually increases blast disease, particularly in susceptible varieties.
Do not use too much nitrogen in late sowings.
115
How to increase
the efficiency of
nitrogen fertilizer
Use improved varieties 119
Apply the right amount of fertilizer 120
Apply fertilizer at correct growth stage 121
Do not let the field dry out 122
Mix the fertilizer into the soil 123
Do not topdress when leaves are wet 124
Keep the fields free from weeds 125
119
120
The darker the shade is, the better the time of fertilizer application.
The early tillering stage and the panicle initiation stage are
the best times for applying nitrogen fertilizer.
Fertilizer application after flowering may increase spikelet
sterility and result in late and useless tillers.
121
122
123
124
125
Other fertilizers
and organic matter
Phosphorus 129
Potassium 130
Minor fertilizers 131
Organic matter 132
Phosphorus
Many upland soils in the humid tropics are acid and very
deficient in phosphorus.
Phosphorus fertilizers are very important in many upland
soils.
When the phosphorus level in acid soils is low, nitrogen
efficiency can be low. Phosphorus must be applied to
increase total soil fertility.
Apply phosphorus as a basal fertilizer.
129
Potassium
130
Minor fertilizers
131
Organic matter
132
Carbohydrate
production
Carbohydrate manufacture
135
The food factory 136
Amount of water in the leaf affects carbohydrate production
137
Amount of light affects carbohydrate production 138
Amount of green color affects carbohydrate production 139
Carbohydrate
manufacture
135
136
When the leaves lose water, their pores close and air cannot
enter. The leaves roll to protect the plant.
This leads to decreased food manufacture.
This occurs during drought.
137
138
139
Water
Major components of the plant 143
Raw material for food manufacture 144
Water carries the food 145
Water cools the plant 146
Water stiffens the plant 147
Influence of shallow water table 148
Drought resistance and recovery 149
Major components
of the plant
Raw material
for food manufacture
144
145
146
147
Influence of shallow
water table
148
Drought resistance
and recovery
149
Yield components
Growth stages when yield components are determined
Leaf development and tillering affect yield
154
Panicle formation affects yield
155
Flowering affects yield
156
Ripening affects yield
157
importance of yield components 158
Variations in yield components 160
How to use yield components 161
153
153
Leaf development
and tillering affect yield
154
Panicle formation
affects yield
155
156
Transfer of the male cell to the female cell in the ovary occurs
at flowering.
Successful transfer will determine the development of the
spikelet into a grain.
The percentage of fertility of the spikelets is one important
yield component.
At any time between panicle formation and flowering,
drought can cause irreversible yield loss.
157
Importance of yield
components
Grain
yield
Numberof Number of Percentage
Weightof
in
= panicles x spikelets x of fertile x a single grain
grams
per square
per
spikelets
ingrams
persquare
meter
panicle
meter
158
Example
2
150
210
120
80
50
75
0.034
300
3
0.024
300
3
Two conclusions:
With very different data for each yield component, the
same yield is obtained.
Yield is affected by important changes in the environment.
Poor soil fertility and percent sterility induced by drought
are very important yield-limiting factors.
159
Variations in yield
components
160
How to use
yield components
161
162
163
164
167
169
Short to intermediate
stature
167
Nonlodging
168
Semierect, semilong
leaves
169
Good tillering
170
Erect tillers
171
A desirable tiller
172
Plant height
175
176
Stem thickness
The thicker the stem and the thicker the internode, the higher
is the resistance to lodging.
177
178
Wind and rain can cause the plant to lodge. The stronger the
wind, the more likely the plant will lodge.
Avoid using tall varieties.
Seed density
179
Amount of fertilizer
increases plant height. Tall varieties cannot stand too much fertilizer.
180
Land conservation
and crop
management
Damage caused by erosion 183
Protection against erosion 184
Cleaning the land 185
Plowing 186
Harrowing/hoeing and final tillage
Sowing 188
Methods of sowing 189
187
Damage caused by
erosion
183
184
185
Plowing
186
Harrowing/hoeing and
final tillage
187
Sowing
188
Seeding rate varies with soil and variety, and ranges from
about 25 to 100 kg/ha.
Avoid random hill sowing because it requires more time for
weeding. Also, weeding with random hill sowing is more
difficult than with row sowing.
The distance between rows varies with soil and rainfall. It
ranges from 25 to 60 cm.
Methods of sowing
189
Weeds
Weeds reduce rice yield drastically 193
Weeds compete with rice 194
Weeds decrease the effect of fertilizer 195
Differences among grasses, sedges, and broadleaves 196
Common grasses in upland ricefields 197
Common sedges in upland ricefields 198
Common broadleaved weeds in upland ricefields 199
Differences between grasses and rice 200
193
194
195
Differences among
grasses, sedges, and
broadleaves
196
Common grasses in
upland ricefields
197
Common sedges in
upland ricefields
198
Common broadleaved
weeds in upland
ricefields
199
Differences between
grasses and rice
200
Control of weeds
When to weed the rice crop 203
Control by land preparation 204
Control by hand 205
Control by hand tools 206
Control by animals or tractors 207
Control by crop competition 208
Control by herbicides 209
When to weed
the rice crop
203
Control by land
preparation
204
Weeds can grow better than rice when land is poorly and
unevenly prepared.
Deep plowing ensures better land preparation because weed
seeds and seedlings are buried.
Control by hand
205
206
Control by animals or
tractors
207
Control by crop
competition
208
The closer the rows the fewer the weeds there is less light
for the weeds to germinate and grow in.
Tall, traditional rice cultivars are more competitive against
weeds than many improved lines.
Row sowing is better than hill sowing, because less space is
available for weeds.
Control by herbicides
method.
When well managed, herbicides are more efficient and less
costly than any other weeding method.
209
Herbicides
Types of herbicide based on formulation 213
Types of herbicide based on time of application 214
Types of herbicide based on selectivity 215
Types of herbicide based on type of action 216
Rice injuries from too much herbicide dwarfing and spreading
out 217
Rice injuries from too much herbicide brown spots 218
213
214
215
216
Contact herbicides kill only the plant parts that were sprayed.
Systemic (translocated) herbicides can travel inside the plant
and kill the whole plant.
217
218
Major diseases
Blast 221
Sheath blight 222
Brown spot 223
Narrow brown leaf spot 224
Sheath rot 225
False smut 226
Bacterial blight 227
Bacterial leaf streak 228
Viruses 229
Blast
221
Sheath blight
222
Brown spot
Dark brown, more or less round spots are the most common
symptoms on leaves. Grains can show the same symptoms.
This disease is very frequent in poor, acidic soils lacking
phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, silica, or nitrogen.
Improving soil conditions reduces disease severity.
Plant resistant varieties to control brown spot.
Treating seeds with fungicides or hot water will also help
control the disease.
223
224
Sheath rot
225
False smut
226
The disease changes single grains of the panicle into orangegreen, velvety smut balls, which may grow to a diameter of
more than 1 cm.
No special control is needed. The disease is very rarely
severe. Only a few panicles in the same field are contaminated.
Bacterial blight
227
228
Viruses
229
Major soil-borne
insect pests
Ants and termites
White grubs 234
Mole cricket 235
Root aphids 236
233
Treating
233
White grubs
234
Mole cricket
235
Root aphids
236
Adults and old larvae remove plant fluids from roots and
cause yellowing and stunting of leaves.
Sprayed and granular insecticides are effective if spraying is
directed at the bases of the plants and if granules are covered
by raking soil over them.
240
Seedling maggots
239
Armyworms and
cutworms
240
Leaffolders
241
Stem borers
242
Mealybugs
243
247
247
Planthoppers
248
Rice bugs
Larvae and adults feed on the endosperm of the rice grain and
also suck plant sap.
Removal of the liquid, milky-white endosperm causes smaller
grains that are broken during milling.
Insecticide sprays or dusts can control rice bugs.
249
Other pests
Nematodes 253
Rodents 254
Birds 255
Nematodes
253
Rodents
254
Birds
255
Soil problems
Soil deficiencies 259
Soil toxicities 260
Soil deficiencies
259
Soil toxicities
260
How to judge
a rice crop
at flowering
Uniform plant height 263
Uniform tiller number 264
No lodging 265
Long, thick, and healthy roots 266
Green, undamaged leaves 267
At least 3 to 4 leaves per tiller 268
Correct plant density 269
Good number of panicles 270
263
264
No lodging
265
266
Short, few roots indicate something is wrong with the soil, for
example,
aluminum toxicity.
lack of nutrients.
rocky, stony soil.
very poor soil.
Damaged roots indicate soil-borne insects such as mole
crickets or white grubs.
267
268
269
270
There should be
110 to 150 panicles per square meter in unfavorable
environments.
200 to 250 panicles per square meter in favorable
environments.
Depending on whether hill or row sowing was used:
Count the number of panicles per hill (clump) in at least 3
hills inside the field, or count the number of panicles in a
one-meter row length, and repeat the countings inside the
field several times.
Calculate as shown on the next page.
Hill planting
If the distance between hills is 25 X 25 cm, the area per hill is
25 X 25 = 625 square cm (= 0.0625 square meter). The
number of hills per square meter is 1/0.0625 = 16.
If the mean of the number of panicles on several hill
countings is 9 per hill, the number of panicles per square
meter is 9 X 16 = 144 panicles.
Row planting
If the distance between rows is 25 cm, the area per 1 -meter
row is 100 X 25 = 2,500 square cm = 0.25 square meter. The
number of counting areas per square meter is 1/0.25 = 4. If
the mean number of panicles per counting is 32, the number
of panicles per square meter is 32 X 4 = 128 panicles.
271
Harvest and
postharvest
Harvest
275
Postharvest
276
Harvest
275
Postharvest
276
the field.
Dry the grain as well as possible.
Store the grain in a dry location.
Protect the stored grain from insects, rats, and moisture.
Cropping systems
Intercropping 279
Crop rotation 280
Cropping pattern 281
Successive cropping and cropping pattern for long rainy
season 282
Some other cropping patterns in long rainy season 283
Some cropping patterns in medium length rainy season 284
Intercropping
279
Crop rotation
280
Good
Year
Plant
Year
Plant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Rice
Rice
Rice
Rice
Rice
Rice
Rice
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Rice
Maize
Bean
Rice
Maize
Bean
Rice
Cropping pattern
Crop rotation is a good control against erosion when broadleaved crops are used.
Crop rotation has fewer risks; if one crop is damaged by
disease or pests, others may still grow.
Crop rotation ensures better and more stable food for the
family.
Crop rotation ensures steadier cash returns.
281
Successive cropping
and cropping pattern
for long rainy season
282
283
284
Any other crop combination can be used, including shortduration vegetables, mustard, chickpea, finger millet, etc.
A legume is very useful for nitrogen fixing in upland soils.