AS level biology

Difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

The organelles found inside a Eukaryotic cell are:
Organelle

Description

Function

Nucleus

A large organelle surrounded by

Chromatins is made from

a nuclear envelope (double

proteins and DNA. The pores

membrane) which contains

allow substances to move

many pores. The nucleus

between the nucleus and the

contains chromatins and are

cytoplasm. The nucleolus

often a structure called

makes ribosomes

nucleolus
A round organelle surrounded

Contains digestive enzymes,

by a membrane with no clear

these are kept separate from the

internal structure

cytoplasm by a surrounding

Lysosome

membrane but can be used to

digest invading cells or to break
down worn out components of
Vesicles

Ribosomes

A small fluid-filled sac, which is

the cell.
Transport substances in and

in the cytoplasm, it is

out of the cell and between the

surrounded by a membrane
A very small organelle that floats

organelle.
The site where proteins are

free in the cytoplasm or is

made

attached to the rough

Endoplasmic

endoplasmic reticulum
There are two types of

The smooth ER synthesises and

Reticulum

endoplasmic reticulum these are

processes lipids

smooth ER (due to no

The Rough ER folds and

ribosomes) and the rough ER,

processes proteins that have

Golgi

which is covered in ribosomes

A group of fluid filled flattened

been made at the ribosomes

It processes and packages new

Apparatus

sacs. Vesicles are often seen at

lipids and proteins. It also

the edge of the sacs

Hollow cylinders, containing a

makes lysosomes
Involves with the separation of

ring of microtubules

chromosomes during cell

Mitochondri

Are double bound membrane,

division
The site of aerobic respiration,

the inner one is folded to form

and is where ATP is produced.

Centrioles

cristae and inside that is the

They are very active and require

matrix. It contains enzymes

a lot of energy

which are used for respiration

There are many differences between Eukaryotes and prokaryotes,:

Eukaryotes
Larger cells (2-200um)
DNA is linear
Nucleus present-(DNA is inside)
No cell wall in animal cells, cellulose cell

Prokaryotes
Extremely small cells less and 2.0um
DNA is circular
No nucleus-DNA is free in cytoplasm
Cell wall made of polysaccharides but

wall in plants and chitin cell wall in

not cellulose or chitin

fungi
Many organelles, mitochondria present
Large ribosomes
Example Human liver cell

Few organelles, no mitochondria

Smaller ribosomes
Example E.Coli bacterium

Protein Transport
1. Transcription occurs when changing DNA to mRNA, where the mRNA leaves
the nucleus via pores in the nuclear envelope.
2. Proteins are made on ribosomes
3. The ribosomes sometimes attach to the rER where the protein made moves
through making the 3-D shape en route. (ribosomes on the rough
endoplasmic reticulum make proteins that are excreted or attached to the
cell membrane, whereas the ribosomes which are free in the cytoplasm make
proteins which stay in the cytoplasm)
4. Vesicles pinch off the rER, these contain the proteins.
5. Then they are transported to the Golgi apparatus where the vesicle fuses
with the flattened sacs of the Golgi apparatus; here the proteins may
undergo further processing/moulding.
6. Vesicles containing the modified protein pinches off the Golgi apparatus, to
be transported around the cell. Such as extracellular enzymes will be moved
to the cell membrane ready to be excreted.
Cell organisation
Cell

In a multicellular organism cells are specialised for a particular

Tissue

function
A group of specialised cells, working together to carry out one
function. E.G muscles cells working together to form muscle

Organs

tissue
A group of tissues working together to carry out one function.

Organ systems

E.G muscle, nerve and epithelium work together in the heart

A group of organs working together to carry out a particular

function, E.G the circulatory system.

Genes are expressed through master genes. Such as in fruit flies once the main
body segment have been determined, the cells in each segment become specialised
for the appropriate structure, (Wings Antennae) The master genes control the
development of each segment. These genes were
discovered by looking at mutations. The master
gene produces mRNA which is translated into
signal proteins. These proteins switch on the
genes responsible for producing the proteins
needed for the specialisation of the cell in each
segment.
The Cell cycle and Mitosis
The cell cycle consists of a period of cell growth
and DNA replication called interphase and a
period of cell division called mitosis.
Interphase is sub divided into three separate
growth stages These are called G,S and G2. Mitosis is used for growth, repair and
asexual reproduction.

Interphase

Synthesis of new cell components such as organelles and

membranes and new DNA. DNA synthesis only occurs during the
S stage
There is no interphase for the first few divisions of a human
embryo. By the end of this stage, the cell contains enough

1. Prophase

2. Metaphase

cytoplasm, organelles and DNA to form two new cells.

The chromosomes condense
The centrioles start moving to opposite ends of the cell and

start to form a network of protein fibres called spindles.

The nuclear envelope breaks down freeing chromosomes
The chromosomes (each with two chromatids) line up

along the middle of the cell

They become attached to the spindle by their centromere

3. Anaphase

4. Telophase

The centromeres divide, separating each pair of sister

chromatids.
The spindles contract, pulling chromatids to opposite ends

of the cell. Centromeres first.

The chromatids reach the opposite poles on the spindle
The chromatids uncoil and come long and thin again.
The nuclear envelope forms around each group of

chromosomes, so there are two nuclei.

The cytoplasm divides and there are now two daughter

cells that are genetically identical to each other

Mitosis is finished and the start of interphase begins.

Root tips and observing mitosis

Cut the tip from a growing root, should be about 5mm long.
Place the root tip on a watch glass, and add a few drops of hydrochloric

acid
Add a few drops of stain so the chromosomes become darker, so are

easily seen. Schiffs reagent

Warm the watch glass, by passing it slowly through a Bunsen burner
Place the root tip on a microscopic slide, and use a mounted needle to

break it open to spread the cells thinly

Add a few more drops of stain then place a cover slip on it
Squash the cover slip down gently
Warm the slid again for a few seconds to intensify the stain
Now of
look
at the different stages of mitosis under a light microscope
Production
a gametes
In animals the male gamete is sperm, and in female it is an egg cell (ova). In plants
the male gamete is pollen grains, and the female gametes are ovules.
Gametes contain only half the normal amount of chromosomes, so in one gamete in
humans it will be 23.

1. The DNA
identical

replicates so there are two

copies of each
chromosomes called

chromatids
2. The DNA
armed
two sister
3. The
themselves
1 will match
4. First
pairs are

condense to form double

chromosomes, made from
chromatids
chromosomes arrange
into homologues pairs, so
up with 1.
division the homologues
separated, halving the

5. Second

chromosomes number.
division the pairs of

sister
6. Four new

chromatids are separated

gametes that are

generically different are produced.

Genetic variation:

Crossing over of chromatids is when before the first division of meiosis the
homologous pairs of chromosomes come together and pair up, two of the
chromatids in each pair twist around each other. The twisted bit breaks off
their original chromatid and rejoins onto the other chromatid recombining
their genetically material. The point where the chromatids break is called
the chiasmata.

Independent assortment of chromosomes is when the four daughter cells

formed from meiosis have completely different combinations of
chromosomes.

Fertilisation
Fertilisation is where male and female gametes fuse.
In mammals fertilisation occurs in the oviduct, and in flowering plants it occurs in
the embryo sac.

1. Sperm is deposited high up in the vagina, near the cervix. Once there the
sperm makes its way up the cervix and uterus and into one of the two
oviducts fertilisation occurs.
2. The sperm swims towards the egg cell in the oviduct.
3. Once the sperm contacts the zona pellucida of the egg cell, the acrosome
swells and bursts, releasing digestive enzymes, these digestive enzymes
digest the zona pellucida, so it can reach the cell membrane of the egg cell.
4. Once the sperm head fuses with the cell membrane, this causes a cortical
reaction occurs, which is when the egg cell releases cortical granules in a
space between the cell membrane and the zona pellucid.
5. The chemicals from the cortical granules make the zona pellucid thicken,
making it impenetrable to other sperm cells.
6. Once the nuclei fuse the tall is discarded.
A flowering plant:
1. A pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower. The grain absorbs water and
splits open.
2. A pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain down the style. There are three
nuclei in the pollen tube. One tube nucleus at the tube tip and two male
gamete nuclei behind it that digest surrounding cells, making a way through
for the pollen tube to go.
3. When the tube reaches the ovary, it grows through the micropyle, and into
the embryo sac within the ovule.
4. In the embryo sac, the tube nucleus disintegrates and the tip of the pollen
tube bursts releasing two male nuclei
5. One male nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus to make a zygote. This divides
by mitosis.
6. The other male nucleus fuses with two other nuclei called polar nuclei,
which is at the centre of the embryo sac. This produces a ell with a large
nucleus. This provides a large food store, called the endosperm.
7. So a double fertilisation has taken place.
Cell differentiation
Stem cells are unspecialised and they can develop into any type of cell.
Totipotency which is when it has the ability to produce all cell types including the
specialised cells in an organism and extra-embryonic cells.
The second type is Pluripotency which has the ability to produce all the specialised
cells, but not extra-embryonic cells.
Totipotency cells are only available in very early stages of the embryo in humans.
When there are only 8 cells, this occurs after three divisions.

Five days after conception, a hollow ball of cells called the blastocyst forms. The
outer cells of the blastocyst form the placenta. The 50 or so cells inside this form
the tissue of the developing embryo, these are known as pluripotent embryonic
stem cells.
Multipotent stem cells are those which still have the capacity to give rise to different
cell types, such as neural stem cells.
How stem cells work:
1. Stem cells all contain the same gene, but not all of them are expressed
2.
3.
4.
5.

because some are switched off.

Under the right conditions some genes are activated and others inactive.
mRNA is only transcribed from the active gene.
The mRNA from the active genes is then translated into proteins.
These proteins modify the cell- they determine the cell structure and control

cell processes.
6. Changes to the cell produced by these proteins causes the cell to become
specialised. These changes are difficult to reverse.

Totipotency can be demonstrated by plant tissue culture

Plants also have stem cells, and are found in places where the plant is growing. All of
the cells are totipotent
1. A single cell is taken from a growing area on a plant.
2. The cell is placed in some growth medium that contains nutrients and growth
hormones. The growth medium is sterile, so microorganisms cant grow and
compete with a plant cell.
3. The plant cell will grow and divide into a mass of unspecialised cells. If the
conditions are suitable, the unspecialised cells will differentiate into specialised
cells.
4. Eventually the cell will grow and differentiate into an entire plant.
Stem cells in Medicine

Some stem cell treatment already exists, such as treatment for leukaemia, where
bone marrow transplants are given. Scientists are researching treatments for
injuries such as: spinal cord injuries, and heart disease. The treatments can save
many lives, and also improve the quality of lives for many people.

There are two methods from where stem cells can come from, these are Adult stem
cells and embryonic stem cells.

Adult stem cells

Embryonic stem cells

These are obtained from the body

These are obtained from early

embryos
Embryos are created in a

tissue of an adult, such as bone

marrow.
They can be obtained in a very

laboratory using IVF, and are

simple operation, with very little

risk involved. But there is quite a

old, stem cells are moved and the

lot of discomfort for the person.

Adult stem cells arent as flexible
as embryonic stem cells are they
are pluripotent and can only
develop into a limited range of
cells.

fertilised outside the womb.

Once the embryo are 4-5 days

embryo is destroyed.
Embryonic stem cells can develop

into all type of specialised cells.

But there are ethical implications,
such as it is a genetically unique
person, so it has the right to have
a chance in this world.

How society makes decisions about the use of stem cells.

There are many for and against arguments.
To help these arguments many authorities have been set up. These include looking
at the proposals of research to see if it should be allowed. This ensures that any
research involving embryos is carried out for a good reason. The licensing and
monitoring centres involved in embryonic stem cell research. There are many
guidelines which are involved. They also provide evidence and advice to
governmental officials. There are no ethical objections to a person using
multipotent stem cells derived from adults. In the UK the HFEA regulates research
on human embryos.
Different genes are switched on and off. Such as the b-galactosidase which is an
enzyme, it breaks down the carbohydrate lactose when it is presented in the
surroundings. When lactose is not present in the environment a lactose repressor
molecule binds to the DNA, this prevents the transcription of the b galactosidase
gene.
Eukaryotes: genes in uncoiled, accessible regions of the eukaryote DNA can be
transcribed into messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA polymerase binds to the section
of DNA adjacent to the gene to be transcribed. This section is known as the

promoter region. Only once the enzyme has become attached to the DNA will the
transcription proceed. The gene remains switched off until the enzyme attaches to
the promoter region successfully. ``

Variance
Continuous variation is when individuals in a population vary within a range with
no distinct categories; these can be things like height, mass or skin colour.
Discontinuous variation is when individuals are in a specific category, and will fall
into only one category, these can be things like sex, eye colour and blood group.
Some characteristics are controlled by only one gene, and are called monogenic,
these tend to show discontinuous variations.
Most traits are polygenic which is when they are controlled by a number of genes
are different loci. When one gene is affected by another it is known as epistasis.
Some characteristics are only influenced by genotype such as blood group, but
some are influenced by the environment and genotype. Some of these include
Height, monoamine oxidase A, Cancer and animal hair colour.
Height
Since 1850 the human population has on average got 8cm taller. This can be due to
many reasons such as:

Taller men have more children, resulting in a gradual change

Greater movements of people have lead to less inbreeding
Improved health, especially in protein
The end of child labour has allowed more energy to be put into growth.

Hair colour
In animals they make melanin using the enzyme Tyrosinase. This is the first step
along a chemical pathway. Some animals have light hair in the summer and dark in
the winter this is due to a temperature trigger.
MAOA
Monoamine oxidase A is an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of
neurotransmitters in the brain involved in the regulation of behaviour. It has been

found that in some individuals they have a rare mutation of the MAOA gene, where
no enzymes are produced; these people portray a very aggressive behaviour.

Cancer
It is the uncontrolled division of cells that leads to a lump of cells (tumours)
forming. It is made up of both an environmental and genetic threshold.