Table of Contents

ICI Soda Ash Business Khewra........................................................................................... 1

Major Equipments at ICI Khewra......................................................................................... 2
Equipment Selected....................................................................................................... 2
Cooling Tower................................................................................................................ 2
Why are Cooling Water Systems Needed?...........................................................................2
Failure and Cause....................................................................................................... 3
What is scale?.............................................................................................................. 3
Failure....................................................................................................................... 3
Cause........................................................................................................................ 3
Remedy..................................................................................................................... 3
Water Softening........................................................................................................ 4
pH Adjustment.......................................................................................................... 4
Heat Exchanger............................................................................................................... 5
Failure and Remedy of Stress Corrosion Cracking In Heat Exchanger.........................................6
Stress corrosion cracking............................................................................................. 6
Stress Corrosion Cracking Failures:................................................................................ 6
Controlling Stress Corrosion Cracking............................................................................ 6
Causes Of failures......................................................................................................... 7
Vibration................................................................................................................. 7
Vortex shelling.......................................................................................................... 7
Fluid elastic coupling.................................................................................................. 7
Pressure fluctuation.................................................................................................... 7
Boiler........................................................................................................................... 7
Failure in Shell Plates.................................................................................................... 8
Observations of Failure............................................................................................... 8
Cause for shell plate Failures........................................................................................ 8

ICI Soda Ash Business Khewra

ICI Pakistan Ltd. Soda ash business manufactures soda ash (sodium carbonate) by a
commercially known Solvay process. It is located in Khewra in the north part of the Punjab. The

plant is situated in an area where the two main raw materials namely limestone and salt are
abundant. It is easily accessible via road. Railway track also passes through Khewra. There is an
airstrip at the worksite for chartered flights to Lahore. Two grades of chemically identical soda
ash are produced one is the light ash (LA) and the other one is dense ash (DA), with the only
difference in their densities, 500g/l and 950g/l respectively.

Major Equipments at ICI Khewra

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

Absorber
Monocarbonating tower
Carbonating tower
Rotary vacuum filter
Distiller
Heat Exchanger
Prelimer
Kiln
MOL dissolver
Cooling towers
Boilers
Steam turbines
Diesel generators
Compressors
Calciner
Finishing machine

Equipment Selected
1. Boiler
2. Cooling Tower
3. Heat Exchanger

Cooling Tower
Why are Cooling Water Systems Needed?
Most industrial production processes need cooling water for efficient, proper operation.
Refineries, steel mills, petrochemical plants, manufacturing facilities, food plants, large
buildings, chemical processing plants, and electric utilities all rely on the cooling water system to
do its job. Cooling water systems control temperatures and pressures by transferring heat from
hot process fluids into the cooling water, which carries the heat away. As this happens, the
cooling water heats up and must be either cooled before it can be used again or replaced with
fresh makeup water. The total value of the production process will be sustained only if the
cooling system can maintain the proper process temperature and pressure. The cooling system
design, effectiveness and efficiency depend on the type of process being cooled, the
characteristics of the water and environmental considerations.

Failure and Cause

What is scale?
Scale is a hard deposit of predominantly inorganic material on heating transfer surfaces caused
by the precipitation of mineral particles in water. As water evaporates in a cooling tower or an
evaporative condenser, pure vapor is lost and the dissolved solids concentrate in the remaining
water. If this concentration cycle is allowed to continue, the solubility of various solids will
eventually be exceeded. The solids will then settle in pipelines or on heat exchange surfaces,
where it frequently solidifies into a relatively soft, amorphous scale.

Failure
Scale, in addition to causing physical blockage of piping, equipment, and the cooling tower, also
reduces heat transfer and increases the energy use. For example, the thermal conductivity BTU/
[hr (ft2 ) (F/in)] of copper is 2674, while the common cooling water scale calcium carbonate has
a thermal conductivity of 6.4 BTU/ [hr (ft2 ) (F/in)]. A calcium carbonate scale of just 1.5 mil
thickness is estimated to decrease thermal efficiency by 12.5 %. In compression refrigeration
systems, scale translates into higher head pressures, hence an increase in power requirements and
costs. For example, 1/8" of scale in a 100 ton refrigeration unit represents an increase of 22% in
electrical energy compared to the same size unit free of scale.

Cause
The principle factors responsible for scale formation are: 1. As alkalinity increases, calcium
carbonate- the most common scale constituent in cooling systems - decreases in solubility and
deposits. 2. The secondmore significantmechanism for scale formation is the in-situ
crystallization of sparingly soluble salts as the result of elevated temperatures and/or low flow
velocity. Most salts become more soluble as temperature increases, however, some salts, such as
calcium carbonate, become less soluble as temperature increases. Therefore they often cause
deposits at higher temperatures. 3. High TDS water will have greater potential for scale
formation.

Remedy
Scale can be controlled or eliminated by application of one or more proven techniques:
1. Water softening equipment Water softener, dealkalizer, ion exchange to remove scale
forming minerals from makeup water.
2. Adjusting pH to lower values - Scale forming potential is minimized in acidic
environment i.e. lower pH.
3. Controlling cycles of concentration - Limit the concentration of scale forming minerals
by controlling cycles of concentration. This is achieved by intermittent or continuous
blow down process, where a part of water is purposely drained off to prevent minerals
built up.
4. Chemical dosage - Apply scale inhibitors and conditioners in circulating water.

5. Physical water treatment methods Filtration, magnetic and de-scaling devices.

Water Softening
The quality of the makeup water can be adjusted by a water softener, a dealkalizer, or an ion
exchange unit. In areas where only hardness reduction is required, a water softener is used and
where only alkalinity reduction is required, a dealkalizer is used. In areas where combined
treatment is required, an ion exchange unit is used. Water softeners replace unwanted magnesium
and calcium ions with sodium ions, which have none of the negative effects of hard water. To do
this, hard water runs through a bed of small plastic beads that have sodium ions attached to them.
As the water flows through, the sodium ionswhich also occur naturally in waterare released
into the water, and are replaced with the magnesium and calcium ions on the resin beads.
Eventually, the beads in a water softener contain nothing but calcium and magnesium ions and
stop being effective. To refresh the system, water softeners periodically go through a process
known as regeneration. In regeneration, a brine solution of sodium chloridemade from salt
pellets or block saltis flushed through the system, which replaces all calcium and magnesium
in the system with sodium. The calcium and magnesium, along with the remaining brine, is then
drained into the wastewater system. A water softener is easy to operate and maintain. These are
also called single bed ion-exchange unit. Dealkalizer units operate the same as water softeners,
but use different resin bed materials and require strong caustic or acid regeneration. The makeup
water is passed through a treated resin bed where the contaminants in the water are collected
through a chemical exchange process. When the bed becomes saturated with contaminants, the
bed is backwashed, treated with a concentrated electrolyte, rinsed, and placed back in service.
For critical or continuous operations, treatment units may be dual-column units that allow
switching from a saturated column to a regenerated standby column so that service is not
interrupted for routine column regeneration. The ion exchange process is to remove calcium and
magnesium ions by replacing them with an equivalent amount of sodium ions. Unlike simple
water softener, these are mixed bed ion exchange unit consisting of cat ion and anion exchanger.
The cat ion exchanger section removes metals, such as calcium and magnesium (hardness), and
the anion exchanger section controls alkalinity and may remove bicarbonates (corrosion and
embrittlement), sulfates (hard scale), chlorides (foaming), and soluble silica (hard scale).

pH Adjustment
Control of scale with pH adjustment by acid addition is a simple and cost effective way to reduce
the scaling potential. It functions via chemical conversion of the scale forming materials to more
soluble forms - calcium carbonate is converted to calcium sulfate (using sulfuric acid), a material
several times more soluble. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) are the most
common additives used for controlling the formation of calcium carbonate scale. The acid is fed
by variable stroke pumps that are controlled either by automatically adjusting the pump stroke
based on circulating water pH, or by automatically starting and stopping manual stroke
adjustment metering pumps based on circulating water pH. Sulfuric acid is normally used at a

concentration of 93 to 98 percent (66 B). Hydrochloric acid is normally used at a concentration

of 28 to 36 percent (18 B to 22 B). The reaction of the acid with calcium bicarbonate is:
H2SO4 + Ca (HCO3)2 = CaSO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2
2HCl + Ca (HCO3)2 = CaCl2 + 2H2O + 2CO2
The Langlier Saturation Index (LSI) and the Ryznar Saturation Index (RSI) are utilized for
system setup when pH adjustment by acid addition is used for scale control. Both indexes are
merely convenient means of reducing the integrated parameters of calcium, alkalinity, pH,
dissolved solids, and temperature to a single value, which indicates the tendency of water to form
a calcium scale or promote corrosion. A positive LSI number (RSI less than 5.0) indicates a scale
forming water while a negative LSI number (RSI greater than 7.0) indicates a scale dissolving, or
corrosive, water. Normal practice is to maintain a slightly positive LSI number, +.2 to +.5, (RSI
between 5.0 and 6.0) when utilizing pH adjustment by acid addition and add some chemical
scale inhibitor to cope with the resultant slight tendency to scale. Caution - Addition of excessive
acid to the cooling water results in depressed pH values and extremely rapid corrosion of all
system metals. Therefore, proper pH control is required to provide a suitable environment for
both scale and corrosion inhibitors work effectively.

Heat Exchanger
Heat exchanger is the equipment which is used to reduce temperature of one process fluid, which
is desired to cool, by transferring heat to another fluid which is desired to heat with or without
inter-mixing the fluid or changing the physical state of the fluid. There are various causes by
which Heat exchanger may fail. As they are used at wide range of temperatures hence there is
possibility that crack may induce in it and can cause catastrophic failure. Heat exchanger may
fail by corrosion of tubes. Vibrations and fatigue are the examples of most dangerous causes that
can cause failure. The study of Failure analysis of Shell and tube Heat Exchangers will help to
understand methods to analyze various types of failure in Shell and tube Heat Exchangers .
A heat exchanger may be defined as equipment which transfers the energy from the hot fluid to a
cold fluid or vice versa, with maximum rate and minimum investment and running cost. The heat
exchanger is used to reduce the temperature of one process fluid, which is desirable to heat
without inter-mixing the fluids or changing the physical state of the fluids.

Failure and Remedy of Stress Corrosion Cracking In Heat Exchanger

Stress corrosion cracking
Stress corrosion cracking is a failure mechanism that is caused by environment, susceptible
material, and tensile stress. Temperature is a significant environmental factor affecting cracking.
For stress corrosion cracking to takes place all three conditions must be met simultaneously. The
component needs to be in a particular crack promoting environment, the component must be

made of a susceptible material, and there must be tensile stresses above some minimum
threshold value. An externally applied load is not required as the tensile stresses may be due to
residual stresses in the material. The threshold stresses are commonly below the yield stress of
the material.
Stress Corrosion Cracking Failures:
Stress corrosion cracking is an insidious type of failure as it can occur without an externally
applied load or at loads significantly below yield stress. Thus, catastrophic failure can occur
without significant deformation or obvious deterioration of the component. Pitting is commonly
associated with stress corrosion cracking phenomenon.

Schematic of stress corrosion cracking

Aluminum and stainless steel are well known for stress corrosion cracking problems. However,
all metals are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking in the right environment.
Controlling Stress Corrosion Cracking
There are several methods to prevent stress corrosion cracking. One common method is proper
selection of the appropriate material. A second method is to remove the chemical species that
promotes cracking. Another method is to change the manufacturing process or design to reduce
the tensile stresses. AMC can provide engineering expertise to prevent or reduce the likelihood
of stress corrosion cracking in your components.

Causes Of failures
Vibration
Damage from the tube vibration has become an increasing phenomenon as heat exchanger sizes
and quantities of flow have increased. The shell side flow baffle configuration and unsupported
tube span are of prime consideration mechanism of tube vibration are follows.
Vortex shelling
The vortex shelling frequency of the fluid in cross flow over the tubes may coincide with a
natural frequency of tube and excite large resonant vibration amplitudes.
Fluid elastic coupling
Fluid flowing over tubes causes them to vibrate with a whirling motion. The mechanism of fluid
elastic coupling occurs .When a critical velocity exceed and the vibration then become self
exited and grows in amplitude .This mechanism frequently occurs in process heat exchangers
which suffer vibration damage.
Pressure fluctuation
Turbulent pressure fluctuations which develop in the wake of a cylinder or are carried to the
cylinder from upstream may provide a potential mechanism for tube vibration .The tube respond
to the portion of the energy spectrum that is close to their natural frequency.

Boiler
Introduction Boilers are pressure vessels designed to heat water or produce steam, which can
then be used to provide space heating and/or service water heating to a building. In most
commercial building heating applications, the heating source in the boiler is a natural gas fired
burner. Oil fired burners and electric resistance heaters can be used as well. Steam is preferred
over hot water in some applications, including absorption cooling, kitchens, laundries, sterilizers,
and steam driven equipment. Boilers have several strengths that have made them a common
feature of buildings. They have a long life, can achieve efficiencies up to 95% or greater, provide
an effective method of heating a building, and in the case of steam systems, require little or no
pumping energy. However, fuel costs can be considerable, regular maintenance is required, and if
maintenance is delayed, repair can be costly.

Failure in Shell Plates

Observations of Failure
1. The failed portions of the plates were seen to be bulging towards the axis of the furnace. Scale
was seen underneath the plates on water side. The extent of scales for the first failure was not
known. However this time the scaling was found to be about 0.5 mm.

2. Apart from this, the boiler showed a small layer of hardness scale over the tubes. The scale is
seen to be very high where the water is fed in to the boiler. There is definitely slipping of
hardness to boiler.
3. The boiler water TDS reports confirmed that the TDS had been as high as 10000 ppm before
first failure. After the chemical cleaning, instructions were given to operators to increase the
blow down and maintain 5000 ppm of TDS in boiler water. Even then, the water TDS was seen
to increase along with pH as reported by operators. In fact the pH booster dosage was stopped
seeing the pH going to 11. This could have been happened due to high dosage rate of anti scalant.
4. The chemical was being added through a small plastic tank with a cock for regulation. This
could result in non-uniform dosage rates. The system would be dependent on skill of the persons.
5. The burner was seen with a baffle plate inside the wind box. It was suspected that there may
not be uniform air flow in the burner. Hence a ribbon test was arranged to check the uniform
distribution of air. It was found that there was minimum air flow at the bottom portion. Ideally
such a test must be conducted by an anemometer. The baffle plate was oriented vertically and the
air distribution was checked for. An operator physically checked for distribution. This was much
better this time. Yet quantification was required. A test with anemometer was recommended.

Cause for shell plate Failures

1. The plate had failed at the same place twice. This clearly pointed out chances of flame
impingement. Incidentally on flame impingement, the scale formation would be more. On
increase in metal temperature, the plate would swell and would lead to failure.
2. There was scale present all over the boiler. It meant that there was deviation in water quality.
Yet the scale thickness was not alarmingly high. The boiler was cleaned off dislodged hardness
scales inside the boiler shell. Yet the quantity of dislodged scales which were lying outside the
boiler house was seen to be meager.
3. The feed water hardness was not monitored properly. Even when the hardness was reported to
be 24 & 44, Nalco representative had certified that all the water parameters were OK. His signed
report was available.

Remedy
The following were advised to the plant engineers:
1. The furnace shell repair was not done to satisfactory level. Hence it was advised to carry out
radiography test. But this could delay the boiler starting as there were procedures in bringing the
radioactive source. Hence it was arranged to have an ultrasonic test. The local company did that
at site and certified that the weldment did not have cracks.

2. The furnace shell was covered with 65 mm thick refractory brick layer to protect the weakened
plate. Also this would prevent the flame impingement, if it was there earlier.
3. Furnace shell is considered to be most vulnerable part of the boiler. For safety reasons,
procedures should be followed. Manufacturer only should attend to such failure. Tube
replacement is a different matter and it can be attended by a boiler repairer.
4. Burner flame shape should be checked by the suppliers service technician at the earliest.
There should not be any impingement.
5. Water softener must be checked by the supplier. Hardness test kit should be replaced.
6. Hardness levels should be checked before regeneration. This is an important aspect of the
water chemistry.
7. The water treatment chemical supplier is required to ensure that there is no deviation in water
chemistry due to the wrong dosage of chemical itself.