Research Review
which
receives,
stores,
retrieves,
transforms
and
transmits
information.
However, at the very outset cognitive science encounters a deeply
philosophical issue the mind-body problem, which has been plaguing the
minds of philosophers and psychologists for several decades rather centuries ago
the ontological and the epistemological riddles. In philosophical language, the
ontological questions are
1. What things really exist in the mind?
2. What is their essential nature?
2
Primarily there are two theories which attempt to answer these questions:
1. The Materialist Theory holds that only the brain exists and what we
call mental states and mental processes are merely sophisticated states
and processes of a complex physical system called the brain.
2. The Dualist Theory, on the other hand claims that mental processes
constitute a distinct kind of phenomenon that is essentially non-physical
in nature.
Subsequently, both Metaphysicsand Epistemology in philosophy play
very significant role in the development of various cognitive theories. Along with
these another basic discipline sociology, sociology of knowledge in particular
has also played a very important role in the growth of cognitive science.
According to Thagard (1996), Cognitive science proposes that people have
mental procedures that operate on mental representations to produce thought and
action. What is common among the researchers across the various contributing
disciplines is the notion that the processes that occur during cognition can be
represented abstractly by some type of predictive representation. The nature of
that specific representation depends on the discipline; such as, philosophers rely
on formal logic, artificial intelligence researchers employ computer code,
neuroscientists are guided by biological structure, and cognitive psychologists
often use statistical analysis to fit data resulting from experimentation. Thus, by
building theoretically driven, and empirically tested structures of cognitive
processes, cognitive scientists seek to increase understanding of the mind, as well
as to build systems that are able to understand, predict, and generate human
thought and action (i.e., information processing).
However, the methods employed by cognitive scientists vary greatly. Like
linguists (in Linguistics) are most concerned with developing formal systems of
3
Thus,
knowing and understanding that is realized through much practice, care and
learning.
knowing and forms of knowing. Levels of knowing are degrees of extent to which
one has realized the ability to perform adequately in relation to some state of
affairs (refer James E. Christensen). They are degrees of extent to which one
knows. There are at least three levels of knowing, such as 1. Level 1 ( ) preconventional knowing (Alpha state); 2 ( ) Level 2, conventional knowing
(Beta state); 3 Level 3 ( ) post Conventional knowing (Theta state). At
level 1, in pre-conventional knowing stage, the individual experiences a high
degree of disorganization, makes many mistakes, and has a low degree of control.
In this level there are many trials and errors and much self-conscious effort, as
performed by a novice learner. At the level 2 of knowing that is at conventional
stage of achievement, the individuals performance becomes habituated and
automatic. There is high level of mastery, control and very little or no selfconscious effort, the person performs quickly, efficiently and accurately. But the
achievement of level-3 knowing (post-conventional) requires exploration,
inquiry, and creativity, so that one breaks new ground and forms new
standards of performance that extend beyond the conventions of Level 2
knowing. In addition to these there are also forms of knowing. At least six forms
of knowing can be there which deal with different kinds of performance, such as
linguistic, emotional, imaginal, physical, physiological, and conative.
Linguistic performances which signify meaning with symbols, include speaking,
reading, writing, reasoning and performing logical operations such as deduction,
reduction, induction and retroduction (Steiner, 1978), may be in silent, spoken or
written form. Emotional performances are feelings of emotion in relation to some
state of affairs, such as the emotional response in a panic situation, feelings of
anguish about being falsely accused, or a sense of ecstasy while experiencing the
natures beauty. Imaginal performances are the acts of forming images shapes,
imagined sounds, and imagined relationships in ones awareness or consciousness.
5
enunciation precedes adjudication. That is, the act of saying or talking about a
matter must take place before one is able to engage in the act of exercising
competent and adequate judgment about a matter.
As
understanding develops through to the two higher levels, the capacity to make well
informed judgments about something also develops. The realized abilities to
describe, explain predict and prescribe are all linguistic abilities.
That is,
understand to the extent that an individual can restate a statement in other words
(translation), reorder the statement (interpretation) or estimate or predict from a
statement (extrapolation). And applying is the realized ability to use general ideas
or procedures appropriately in new situations without help, direction or prompting.
Blooms analyzing, synthesizing and evaluating are instances of understanding at
the level of comprehension. Learned psychomotor abilities are knowing in
relation to physical performances and physiological performances.
psychomotor
abilities
also
include
linguistic
(conceptual),
But
imaginal,
emotional, and conative knowing, such as in playing tennis one must know the
rules of tennis, willing to play by the rules (conative knowing), must keep his/her
emotions in control (emotional knowing), one must also imagine (anticipate) the
positions of ball (imaginal knowing). Psychomotor knowing, in this way is
actually a complex combination of all these physical, linguistic, emotional,
imaginal, conative and physiological knowing. Krathwohl et al. (1956) have
categorized the learned affective abilities as these involved in the process of
attaching a value to something, holding a strong belief about something, or having
a deep-seated attitude about something.
learning, rule learning, and problem solving learning function at the level of
comprehension.
two
dominant
approaches
i.e.,
rationalists
and
the innate biological reality (Noam Chomsky, Jerry Fodor, see Nagarjuna G.,
Review Talks, 2006), and those who believe that they develop during ontogeny
based on incompletely specified embryological reality (Karmiloff-Smith,
Susan Carey, Alison Gopnik, see Nagarjuna G., Review Talks, 2006).
of
more
or
less
inaccessible
(encapsulated)
implicit
Evidence is
evolution of the mind as well as of the brain. Cultural evolution has accelerated
the development of brain systems that must support the emergence of both
12
2)
Connectionist approach
The information processing approach is squarely rooted in the emergence
information about the world, and the plans and goals that humans formed for the
world were based on the information they sought and found. The information
processing psychologists have adopted the computer metaphor to
understand human intelligence or cognitive process.
13
Thus,
15
16
concepts that they find unpleasant, causing these concepts to become inaccessible.
Then again Hobbs and Gordon (2005) began an effort to develop inferential
theories based on 30 representational areas to support automated commonsense
inference, which have a high degree of overlap with the classes of cognitive
models. The aim of this work is to develop formal (logical) theories that
achieve a high degree of coverage over the concepts related to mental states
and processes, but that also have the necessary inferential competency to support
automated commonsense reasoning in this domain.
5.
analyses how people identify threats and opportunities that may impact the
achievement of their goals (e.g., Pryor & Collins, 1992).
10. Goal
Management Model describe how people prioritize and reconsider the goals that
they choose to pursue (e.g., Schut et al., 2004). 11. Planning Model deals with
plans, plan elements, planning modalities, planning goals, plan construction, and
plan adaptation and narrates the process of selecting a course of action that will
achieve ones goals (e.g. Rattermann, 2001). 12. Design Model shows how
people develop plans for the creation or configuration of an artifact, process
information. 13. Scheduling Model explains how people reason about time
and select when they will do the plans that they intend to do. 14. Decision
Making Model describes how people identify choices and make decisions (e.g.,
Zachary et al., 1998). 15. Monitoring Model explains how people divide their
attention in ways that enable them to wait for, check for, and react to events in the
world and in their minds (e.g., Atkin & Cohen, 1996). 16. Plan Execution
Model deals with execution modalities, repetitive execution, body interaction,
19
plan following, observation of execution and defines the way that people put their
plans into action and control their own behavior (e.g., Stein, 1997). However, it is
evident that it is only through the parallel development of inferential theories and
cognitive models that we can appropriately assess the strengths and limitations of
each, which can be possible through further research and analysis.
the
phenomenon
surrounding
cognition
about
cognition.
Developmental psychology has reported the most positive evidence regarding how
cognitive function develops during childhood and the importance of metacognitive
strategies and monitoring in it. Wellman (1992) views human metacognition,
not as a unitary phenomenon, but rather as a multifaceted theory of mind.
Metacognition involves several separate but related cognitive processes and
knowledge structures that share as a common theme the self as referent.
Wellman explains that the theory of mind emerges during childhood from an
awareness of the differences between internal and external worlds , that is from the
perception that there exist both mental states and events that are quite
discriminable from external states and events.
A number of psychological
Meta
Level
Monitoring
(Nelson et al.s model of Metacognitive Monitoring and Control of
Cognition.)
Both the authors (Nelson & Narens, 1992) address knowledge acquisition
(encoding), retention, and retrieval in both monitoring and control directions
of information flow during memory task. Monitoring processes include easeof-learning judgments, judgments of learning (JOLs), feelings of knowing (FOKs)
and confidence in retrieved answers. Control processes include selection of the
kind of processes, allocation of study time, termination of study, selection of
memory search strategy, and termination of search. This framework has been
widely used both in psychological research and computational sciences.
Moreover, research examining the relationship between metacognitive skills and
21
Researchers (Forrest-
Pressley, Mackinnon and Waller, 1985; Garner, 1987) report successful instruction
procedures related to both problem solving and reading comprehension (see also
Ram & Leake, 1995 for related topic in computer/ cognitive science).
Metacognition research encompasses studies regarding reasoning about ones
own thinking, memory and the executive processes that presumably control
strategy selection and processing allocation.
standard cognition in that the self is the referent of the processing or the
knowledge (Wellman, 1983).
But often
metacognitive ability.
metacognitive ability, often use metacognitive skills to compensate for low ability
so that their performance is equivalent to high aptitude subjects.
Moreover,
Davidson, Deuser and Sternberg (1994) from a series of studies show that the use
of metacognitive abilities correlate with standard measures of intelligence. In their
experiments on insight problem-solving they report that, although higher IQ
subjects are slower rather than faster on analyzing the problems and applying their
insights, their performance is higher.
perception. For example Levin and Beck (2004) demonstrated that not only do
people overestimate their visual capabilities but most interesting, given feedback
on their errors, they refuse to believe the evidence before their eyes. Brown
(1987) has described research into metacognition as a many-headed monster of
obscure parentage. This also equally applies to many approaches of Artificial
Intelligence that deal with metacognition, metareasoning and metaknowledge and
the interrelationship among them. But in essence the researchers have concluded
that a metacognitive reasoner is a system (in Artificial Intelligence Programs) that
reasons specifically about itself (its knowledge, beliefs and its reasoning process),
not one that simply uses such knowledge.
26
functions of four areas of the brain. Plannings are broadly located in the front part
27
of our brains, the frontal lobe. Attention and arousal are a function of the frontal
lobe and the lower part of the cortex, although some other parts are also involved
in attention as well. Simultaneous processing and successive processing occur in
the posterior region or the back of the brain. Simultaneous processing is broadly
associated with the occipital and the parietal lobes, successive with the frontaltemporal lobes. Das and Naglieri (1997) have also developed a psychometric test
battery called Cognitive Assessment System based on their PASS model of
intelligence, through which all these above processes (four) can be assessed.
These tests have been widely used for understanding, assessment (diagnosis) and
intervention of different educational problems like mental retardation, reading
disability, autism, attention-deficit etc, as well as cognitive changes in ageing
process.
In recent times the PASS theory has the support of both psychometric
measures as well as empirical findings of brain functions (in favor of). However,
the significance of brain studies awaits further discussion in the context of biology
28
individual differences in reasoning. Earl Hunt expresses his confidence over this
theory in explaining individual differences in intelligence.
However, it still
The
For constructing
Analogical
relationship within certain data effectively recodes those data. The relational
learning always implicitly recodes the data, thus generates new data, and thus can
potentially be applied recursively.
Hofstadter (2002) have tried to implement the findings of a project called Letter
Spirit Project. According to them, it is difficult to quantify and model
creativity. The Letter Spirit Project is an attempt to model central aspects
of human high-level perception and creativity on a computer. It is based on
the idea that creativity is an automatic outcome of the existence of sufficiently
flexible and context sensitive concepts or fluid concepts.
33
Emergent
materialism is the view that life and mind are emergent characteristics of matter,
but emergence is neither a necessary nor sufficient condition for creativity. Author
Terry Dartnall (2002) suggests that currently cognitive science needs to get lessons
from classical empiricism by claiming that it is our knowledge about the domain
that does the hard cognitive work, and representations are constructed out of this
knowledge. Current research in cognitive science also supports the view that
representations are not mere stored copies in mind.
alternatives that are both novel and appropriate ( Lubart, 1994). With regard to the
relationship between intelligence and creativity a number of views have come up,
like creativity is a subset of intelligence (Guilford, 1975); that creativity and
intelligence are related or partially overlapping constructs (Barron & Harrington,
1981); and these two constructs are mostly distinct mental abilities (Torrance,
1975; Runco & Albert; 1986). Over the last few decades the research on these
concepts have also incorporated the affective domain and the concepts like
Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Creativity have emerged. Emotional
intelligence (EI), is defined as the ability to perceive emotions accurately, use
emotions to enhance thinking, understand and label emotions, and regulate
emotions in the self and others (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Similar to cognitive
intelligence, EI require reasoning skills, and analytical skills. Parallel to EI,
one new domain of creativity has been introduced called Emotional
Creativity (EC). Emotional Creativity (EC) is the ability to experience and
express original, appropriate and authentic combinations of emotions (Averill
& Thomas-Knowles, 1991).
uncorrelated, or will they be more highly related? Studies have shown that both
EI and EC may be related to creative behavior. In their study Gutbezahl and
Averill (1996) have found that emotional creativity is related to behavioral
creativity that involved expression of emotion (e.g., writing a love narrative). One
35
flexibility and breadth of thinking (Estrada, Isen, & Young, 1994; Isen, 1999).
Both the EI and EC have been analysed to describe the emotional abilities.
Emotional intelligence pertains to how an individual reasons about and with
emotions. It includes four component abilities: the perception, use, understanding,
and regulation of emotion (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Perception of emotions is the
ability to accurately identify emotional content in faces and pictures. Use of
emotions concerns the utilization of emotion as information to assist thinking and
decision making. Understanding emotion involves adequately labeling emotions
and understanding their progress.
37
indicate that this program resulted in more reading, more books checked out of
libraries, more seeking information through interviews and experiments, and
discovery learning.
uses his/her personal tools for learning, and develops as a confident and
successful life-long learner.
affectation & conation) form patterns of behavior within each learner. Its
also found that different learners learn in different settings and therefore not
all learners learn best in a non-traditional setting and vice versa (Zelezny,
1999). More recently, the researchers such as Vanhear Jacqueline and Pace Paul J
(2008) have confirmed that for a learner to take interest in learning, the
teacher must be aware of the learners own preferred way of learning
(learning style) in order to address his/her needs and enhance his/her learning
experience.
knowledge does not occur in a vacuum, and thus prior knowledge has to be
taken into consideration if we expect meaningful learning to take place (Bruer,
1993; Johnston, 1996, 1998; Novak 1998). Jacqueline and Paul (2008) found
that the integration of some of the meta-cognitive tools such as heuristic
(Morias vee Heuristic), concept mapping along with an understanding of
learners learning style (preferred learning mode) can provide the teacher
with a clear picture of how the learner responds to and act upon incoming
information.
teacher can easily shift the control from him (teacher) to the learner.
Consequently, learners become the agents of their own learning and actively
participate in the learning process. They even exhibit their planning for
future learning activities, and this is very important/ useful for the teacher to
be able to collaboratively build a learning program which would be relevant
to the learners style of responding to new information and can be truly
motivating, meaningful and innovative/creative.
So far as the role of emotion in decision making is concerned Prof. J. P. Das
(2008) has narrated about his cognitive planning model and stated that emotions
and conations interact with cognition. This is the recent received view that
39
The EI-
These
findings also suggest that students, who are generally attuned to their emotions
and feelings and can adapt to emotionally driven situations, were more likely
to attain higher levels of academic achievement in the course.
It is the
commercial pursuits, students should end up better prepared for the realities of
entrepreneurial life.
engineering students with students from business schools. This would lead to a
pooling of creative strengths as well as induce learning between individuals.
Another way could be more successful if the educational structure is flexible
enough to formulate heterogeneous entrepreneurs group. The pedagogy should
cater to both group and individual needs by allowing both the extremely creative
individual and others to thrive and develop in collaborative learning situations.
The
on the other hand, argues that both mastery and performance goals might be
beneficial for learning (Barron & Harackiewicz, 2003; Harackiewicz, Barron.
Pintrich, Elliot, & Thrash, 2002). Moreover, the goal difficulty also determines
the amount of effort to attain a goal; effort is greater when attaining difficult
goals. Studies on the affective component have shown that various emotions
influence both the quality of thinking and cognitive information processing
(Meyer & Turner, 2002; Wolters & Pintrich, 1998). Positive emotions, such as
curiosity, generally enhance motivation, and facilitate learning and performance.
Negative emotions, like mild anxiety, can also enhance learning and performance
by focusing the learners attention on a particular task. However, intense negative
emotions, like anxiety, panic, insecurity and related thoughts, feeling incompetent,
generally adversely affect motivation, interfere with learning and contribute to a
lower performance (Sarason, as cited in Kuyper, Van Der Werf & Lubbers, 2000).
The existing literature in this area indicates that cognitive and meta-cognitive
strategy uses may mediate the relationship between expectancy, values, and affect
on the one hand, and achievement on the other. However, more information is
needed on whether the effects of motivation on achievement change over years
and if so, how these effects change over years (Jacobs & Newstead, 2000). In this
context one longitudinal study has shown that the students expectancy and value
influenced the total achievement credits directly, and higher motivation resulted in
higher academic achievement (Bruinsma, M., 2004). But a deep information
processing approach did not automatically result in a higher total number of
credits.
related to achievement. Some other studies have also found similar results like no
significant relationship existed between self-efficacy and performance when
cognitive engagement variables were included in the design/analyses (Pintrich &
De Groot, 1990).
multimedia
offer
many
possibilities
to
facilitate
knowledge
47
Interactive knowledge
Information
The
point on the basis of prior units and their mutual links. Knowledge integration
involves a large number of component skills that are not always adequately
covered in instructional design.
information elements into a single unit or into cognitive schemas that can
subsequently be automated and stored in long-term memory. The information that
becomes integrated may stem from different information sources such as text and
pictures. These integrative processes may impose high working memory load on
the students working memory (Paas et al, 2003). The review of recent studies
concludes that the knowledge base in learner long-term memory (LTM)
provides executive guidance in the process of knowledge elaboration.
Accordingly, the role of external instructional guidance could be described as
providing a substitute for missing LTM knowledge structures in a schemabased framework for knowledge construction and elaboration.
It is also
such
as
prior
knowledge,
motivation,
and
perspective-taking.
levels are attuned to the expertise and memory capacities of the individual
learner (Salden, Paas, & Van Merrinboer, 2006) Based on the re-analysis of
these above factors, Schnotz and Krschner (2007) have also identified the need
for research on more sensitive ways of assessing learner characteristics, both prior
to and during instruction, in order to understand learning processes and outcomes.
The same learning environment is differentially demanding and produces different
results depending on characteristics of the learners, most importantly their
knowledge in the task domain.
guidelines for instructional designers. Such as, Kalyuga (2009) demonstrates that
task instructions have to be carefully tailored to fit the learners level of prior
knowledge.
between the child and the Web is a useful addition to education. Amadieu et al.s
(2009) results point to the need to design content representations that are easy to
interpret and to use (as apposed to complex / confusing network concept maps).
Similarly, Schnotz and Rasch (2009) show the importance of designing
visualizations that facilitate the processing of contents in a way that is consistent
with task demands.
Morenos (2009)
conclusions support the view that collaborative scenarios should be kept simple
and should not bypass students individual work on the subject-matter. Another
important aspect of this research domain is the novelty and versatility of the tools,
representations and learning contents that are presently being investigated.
52
based
on
the
processes
like
organizing,
restructuring,
Thus, knowledge
Specifically, three
53
Some
other
researchers
(Calcaterra,
Antonietti, & Underwood, 2005) have examined the influence of cognitive style,
spatial orientation and computer expertise on hypertext navigation patterns and
learning outcomes when participants interacted with a hypermedia presentation.
Their results indicated that hypermedia navigation behavior was linked to
computer skills rather than to cognitive style and that learning outcomes were
unaffected by cognitive style or by computer skills. However, learning outcomes
were positively affected by specific search patterns, such as by re-visiting
hypermedia sections and visiting overview sections in the early stages of
hypermedia browsing.
transactional settings for liberating our thinking and our approach to spatial design
54
in order to achieve dynamic learning environments, and to meet current and future
needs of teachers and ever increasing students.
involves multiple perspectives and multiple ways of knowing and multidisciplinary learning (Tan, 2003). In present times one of the most important
things today is the ability to gain different perspectives, develop multiviewpoints, be aware of different worldviews and paradigms and different
ways of reasoning and thinking so that we can highly be flexible in our
thinking in new environments.
55
Research on memory and knowledge points out that memory is not just
associations, but more importantly the connections and meaningful coherent
structures of learning experiences. Learning is not just about being systematic and
breaking things into small parts but also seeing the big / whole / total picture. The
whole is more meaningful than sum of its parts is not a new concept, but learning
to get an overview first and learning to get into important details more selectively
as and when we need was not the common practice in pedagogy. Now we can
know more about novice learners and expert learners. We can develop better
learning in individuals by providing opportunities for acquisition of procedures
and skills through dealing with information in a problem space and learning of
general strategies of problem solving. We need to talk aloud thinking processes
and strategies and not just content or factual knowledge. Moreover, individuals
can be taught meta-cognitive processes and self regulatory thinking. Initially we
need a structured and organized approach for acquiring fundamental knowledge
and foundations. Our brain and mind are wired in such a way that we learn well
through pattern recognition, observation and imitation. The mind can also be
highly stimulated through novelty dealing with situation of newness. Often
mind seeks for change and new challenges. This calls for a different perspective
in thinking that would require a more holistic and integrative approach.
Once upon a time, good pedagogy was about making content
knowledge visible to students.
stressed, and making teachers thinking visible was in many ways the next wave of
good pedagogy.
provides the psychological basis for pedagogy that helps to make students
thinking visible. The use of challenging learning environments, as in PBL
activities, encourages questioning and overcomes the fear of making mistakes.
57
economy
globalization
and
fueled
rapid
by
information
proliferation
of
explosion
and
technology
accessibility,
demands
new
constructivism in which realistic problems are used in conjunction with the design
of a learning environment where inquiry activities, self directed learning,
information mining, dialogue and collaborative problem solving are incorporated
(Tan, 2004a). PBL has certain characteristics as following (Tan 2003, 2005).
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
learning.
v)
vi)
problem.
vii)
viii)
discussion/participatory
hands-on learning activities in pedagogical practices. At last, but not the least our
teachers have to constantly engage themselves in self-study and life-long learning
in order to achieve professional competency and academic excellence.
61
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Submitted by
DR. ATASI MOHANTY
CENTRE FOR EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
I.I.T. KHARAGPUR, INDIA
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