Analysis of The Evolution of Musical Form

ReaB;-t:o
better; Tea3
Jj ij'e - Natufe-all things.
ANALYSIS OF THE EVOLUTION
OF MUSICAL FORM
BY THE SAME AUTHOR
THE RHYTHMIC CONCEPTION

OF MUSIC
Crown
8vo, 3s. 6d. net
LONGMANS, GREEN AND
CO.
LONDON, NEW YORK, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA
ANALYSIS OF
THE EVOLUTION OF
MUSICAL FORM
BY
MARGARET
AUTHOR
Ol-
H.
GLYN
"THE RHYTHMIC CONCEPTION OF
MUSIC," ETC.
LONGMANS, GREEN AND

39
CO.
PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON

NEW
YORK, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA

1909
All rights reserved
t^ô7^
'U.oO
I'd
One art thou, Music,
<EM[usic
Indivisible,
A voice that from on high doth

1 hat Cometh ever
And
visit us,
singing a nenv song.
he nvho fain ivoulcl speak his thought of thee
Falls to a silent tuonder as he hears
The footstep of thy coming

Like
The
silence
yea,
and
ivheji
grotus upon thy henlson.
Through soul of man thou
But when
We
the deep sea thy tide doth leave his shore.
are
ivllt
declare thyself
ive cease to speak thy rhythmic tongue
like children
Oh Music, nvho
stammering of thee
art greater than our thoughts.
PREFACE
The
general drift of this theory of music has already
been indicated
The
Music."
in
"
The
Conception
of
volume may be
present
of the
object
briefly stated to
Rhythmic
be the application of the evolutionary
principle to practical music, the essential motive
of which
is
is
to be
found
in
By
rhythm.
this
power
means it
possible to produce an analysis which, as promised
in
of
parts
" shall
former volume,
the
musical education
weld
one
into
the
all
various
consistent
and
logical whole."
The
theory has arisen not from abstract ideas, but
out of the study of music.
It is
not so
much
a theory
about music as an endeavour to translate into the terms

of the intellect the form of the impressions
the musical imagination
up
hoped
to
Music.
It
is
in
short,
that
themselves the intuitive knowledge
made upon
to hold the mirror
those
will
who have
recognise the
likeness.
The
the
new
theory.
following up of rhythmic principles introduces
proportions
of
wider range into musical
In the words of one of the most broadminded
of our musicians, the late Mr. Alfred Hipkins, "
We
must forget what is merely European, national, or conventional, and submit the whole of the phenomena to
a philosophical as well as a sympathetic consideration,
PREFACE
Vlll
such as
in
this
century
(nineteenth)
language, but has not yet found
The purpose
its
way
is
conceded to
to music."
of this Analysis could not be better
stated.
The work
is
arranged under two main headings,
which are a guide to
its
contents generally rather than
exact divisions of the subject.
Necessarily
it
contains
much that is already familiar to experienced musicians.

The object has been not so much to discover new facts,
as to present the relations of those already known in
For this purpose complete definition of technical detail, however elementary, is indispensable but it has not seemed desirable to proceed
by precept rather than by argument after the manner
of a text-book.
Such a style proves impracticable
where first principles have to be expounded and estaban
intelligible
order.
lished, particularly in the present transitional conditions
of musical thought.
now mingle
So much do the new and the
together that controversial matter, though
purposely reduced to the smallest possible
be altogether excluded.
style of
art,
is
its
limit,
cannot
Therefore the ordinary text-
book manner would convey a
There
old
false impression.
Whatever be the
also a deeper reason.
expression, art should surely be taught as
We
and not as pseudo-science.
deal with facts,
not as an end in themselves, but as a means to an end.
The end
to
be held in view
is
the explanation of artistic
human expression,
own sake.
technique as the outward form of

not as a thing to be pursued for
In treating the
intended
musicians
its
for
whom
the
work
is
merely as wholesale consumers of ordered
PREFACE
end would have been defeated.
facts, this
is
ix
The
Analysis
not planned to act as a mechanical guide to music,
nor to cram students for examination.
no
one
wiser
the
thought.
It
assimilated
unless
will
It
make
by means of
aims at pointing out the lines upon which
analytical study
may
profitably proceed,
and thus
ing others to think and study for themselves.
at incitIt is
by
stimulating the exercise of the reasoning powers upon
musical
matters hitherto largely ignored or taken for
granted that one
may hope
in music, signs of
which are already beginning
Many
to hasten the artistic revival

to appear.
methods
of us are no longer satisfied with the
of our fathers
we
perceive the inadequacy of narrow
musical judgments founded solely upon technique

desire
become
to
mechanics
we
are
seeking
basis of music
intelligible
for
rather
artists
in
than
all
well
for
an
foundation
artistic criticism.
Old-
fashioned dogmatism will presently be fighting for
its
Nature demands survival of
life or ceasinor to exist.
the
we
informed
directions
that will afford
breadth and independence of
fittest.
I
wish here to
immense advantage
make
it
full
acknowledgment of the
has been to
me
to
discuss
all
the points of this theory with so able and experienced
my friend Dr. T. H. Yorke

am deeply indebted for many
a musician as
to
whom
suggestions.
that
in
upon
the
classes
its
air.
It is
also due to his indefatigable exertions
educational side this

I
am
able
have been held
teachers upon
Trotter,
valuable
the
lines
to
state
for the
laid
is
no longer a theory
that for
some time
purpose of instructing
down
in
this
Analysis.
PREFACE
X
Text-books
for
the
use of teachers,
elementary and
advanced, are being prepared by Dr. Yorke Trotter
and under
his supervision,
and
will shortly
be issued.
The principles of Hindu music have become known

to me through study of the works of the Raja Sir
Sourindro Mohun Tagore, Mus. D., and from some
notes very kindly supplied to me by his son, Kumar
Siva Kumar Tagore.
To the same source I am
my
indebted for
The
examples of Hindu music.
material of
English Folk-song
Sharp,
"
my
I
" Analysis of Time-outline
owe
who generously
to the courtesy of
placed at
my
in
Mr. Cecil
disposal a large
number of tunes from his collection. I am thus enabled

to present this new aspect of melody under most interestinof conditions.
For permission to quote other melodies and transcriptions which appear in the Appendix, I desire to
express my thanks to Baron Kraus Figlio, LieutenantColonel Mockler-Ferryman, Miss Lucy Broadwood, the
Reverend F.
Novello
Triibner
&
&
W.
Co.,
Galpin, Mr. Frank Kidson, Messrs.
and
Messrs.
Kegan
Paul,
Trench,
Co.
M. H. G.
CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION
xix
PART
TONE-MATERIAL
CHAPTER
GENERAL MATERIAL
Definition
Colour The chromatic
Definition of tone
Time Pitch Force

Absolute pitch
of the outlines
scale
CHAPTER
....
II
THE SIMPLE STANDARD OF TIME AND

NOTATION
The
ITS
principle of time-division The time-beat Divisions of the

Evolution of values The notes
CHAPTER
beat
7
III
THE COMPOUND STANDARD OF TIME AND
ITS
NOTATION
The accented beat Evolution of the

The bar notation The beat notation
The time-signature Change of time Causes of incorrect barring
Origin of the grouping of beats

accentual standard
in
in
12
CONTENTS
xii
CHAPTER
IV
RELATIVE PITCH AND
ITS
NOTATION
Dependence of notation on the scale Definitions

Analysis of the diatonic scale minor mode Its
intervals and inversions Definitions of melodic key, key-circle,
and tonality Notation of pitch a compromise Causes of
complication Eastern notation Relation of tuning of orchestral
Material of pitch
of the scale
Its
its
instruments to notation
CHAPTER V
THE SIMPLE STANDARD OF TONALITY
interval In Origin of the melodic
triad Elementary tonality and consonance Physical basis of
the harmonic triad Dissonance The inversions of the triad
Relation of acoustics to music
The
most consonant
tonation of intervalsÂrtificial theories
CHAPTER
34
VI
THE EVOLUTION OF THE SCALE
Development from chord to scale Lack of the semitone Causes of

its omission from early melody
The semitonal instinct of the
East necessary to complete the scale of the West The European
development The Asiatic development Mode and transposition
Relation of key to mode
Modal development due to lack of
consonant intuition Eastern modal names
CHAPTER
PRIMITIVE
44
VII
HARMONY
Two-part consonance Principle of chord-sequence Melodic discord

The minor triad Dominant harmony Primitive harmonic
material The function of the bass Consecutive octaves and
fifths
Instrumental
harmony
60
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
xiii
VIII
ADVANCED HARMONY
Limits of chord-formation
ment due
^Summary
of diatonic chords
Develop-
primary principle Augmented and diminished

and diminished sevenths Ninths and minor
sevenths Definition of chromaticism Chromatic modal inflexions
Summary of European modes The dominant leadingnote Blending of modes in the key Chromatic harmony
Principle of chromatic chord-sequence
triads
to
-Major
CHAPTER
PACE
70
IX
THE COMPOUND STANDARD OF TONALITY
Compound standard of pitch compared with that

Syntonic and atonic proportions Growth of the key
Relation of discords to the key Resolution of discords The
principle of the bass Effect of chromaticism upon the key The
Definition of key
of time
key-circle
and modulation
85
CHAPTER X
ASIATIC TONALITY
Tonality as applied in the East and West respectively
of the Eastern tonic to the scale-tone
The
^The
relation
tonalitive type of the
raga The raga an expression of religious feeling A type distinct

fromtuneand from mode Its tonalitive relations Its practical
value The tonalitive significance of the drone
Hindu notation
and analogies with colour
95
CHAPTER
XI
DISCANT
Mixophonic art Eastern instrumental accompaniment Distinction

between harmony and discant The art of organum or discant
Similarity to primitive Eastern discant
in early writings
The
argument for the Eastern origin of Gregorian chant Its exotic
character Effect of discant upon the chant
....
105
CONTENTS
xiv
CHAPTER
XII
COUNTERPOINT VERSUS CHORD-CONCEPTION

Discant an extempore art
Laws
The
dissonant standard
and practice
folk-music
of discant
PAGE
Efifect
of the
Introduction
of the
consonant basis into musical theory, and consequent definition of

discords Counterpoint, the science of intervals
Lack of chordconception in musical treatises of sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries
Rameau's chord-theory Effect upon the science of
intervals
Welsh chord-conception of the twelfth century Free
counterpoint in education
PART
HQ
II
RHYTHM
CHAPTER
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Rhythm
the underlying unity of musical form
Strict
and
free
rhythm The law
Recurrence of units
A relative balance
of union
The standard units- Alternation The three main divisions of

rhythm The free unit of the idea The idiom Rhythm of pitch
Limitations of pitch as a factor of evolution The underemphasis or over-emphasis of the key The rhythmic significance
of tonality Undulating rhythm Need for rhythmic balance
Rhythm in education
CHAPTER
134
II
TIME-IDIOM
The time-figure List of time-figures Relaand the beat Phrased, slurred,

and tied figures Syncopation Relation of the figure to orchestral
instruments The function of equal time-outline The idiom in
melody and polyphony Relation of the idiom to the accent
Analysis of time-outline
tion of the figure to the accent
Free time-idiom
148
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
XV
III
PITCH-IDIOM
Rhythm
in pitch
Dependence
PAGE
of pitch-outline on the standards of
Hence importance of free time-idiom The pitch-figure

Pitch-idiom a secondary
form Figures of accompaniment Sequences Changes of
values
pitch-figures Metamorphosis compared with idiomatic
time
Relations of time- and pitch-figures

in
development
163
CHAPTER
IV
PHRASE AND STANZA

and
Definition of the phrase
its
origin
Relation
of phrase to bar-
Articulations of phrase-form Connection with circling

rhythm The cadence of the leading -note Function of the
harmonic cadence The stanza The free phrase Phrase-form
of melody Relation of phrase-form to modulation
standard
I75
CHAPTER V
THE TALA OF THE EAST
The Eastern time-system
Definition
bar
The
Sanskrit theory of beat, values, and
of tala Absence of accentual
standard
from
Hindu theory and practice Talas and time-signatures The

The principle of the Eastern bar
principle of the Western bar
The relation of the accentual-bar to Western melody The relation of the tala-bar to Eastern melody
CHAPTER
183
VI
IMITATION
General character of counterpoint Origin of imitation The round

The canon Evolution of the rhythmic unit of imitation An
Two contrapuntal styles Organ countereffect of time-outline
Lingual
point conditioned by the instrument The style of Bach
character of round and early part-songs producing phrase and
stanza
The madrigal Causes of the strictness of counterpoint
ycî^
ijg T
CONTENTS
xvi
CHAPTER
VII
LANGUAGE AND MUSIC

PAGE
The
lingual period of musical evolution The time-character of lan-
Word-songs and dance-songs

Inability of language to develop true musical form Recitative
Phrase-form in music and language Relation of the sense of
words to musical form Difficulties of the combination Music
guage compared with that of music
an essentially non-lingual
208
art
CHAPTER
VIII
IDIOMATIC DEVELOPMENT
The
Evolution of circling rhythm from

polyphony The birth of modern music Principles
versus types Text-book formulas and contradictions -So-called
second subjects Omission of the idiom from theory Outlines of
type of the dance-song
melody
to
analysis
Evolutionary nature of tonality

CHAPTER
219
IX
DERIVED VOCAL TYPES
The folk-ballad Origin of the rondo Mixed types The rondo in

the East The European rondo The variation type The early
Welsh type The middle stage Final development into idio-
matic outline
233
CHAPTER
THE CYCLE
The
Ordered
Tonalitive
scheme of suite A cosmopolitan cycle for the harpsichord The
modern suite The greater cycle Reversal of time and pitch
characteristics of suite Influence of instruments The early
Anomalous
cycles
of opera
sequence of the
suite
and
Early
oratorio
Mass
French dance-types
sonata a combination of differing types of form in a small

balance Development of larger balance under Beethoven
Undulating rhythm essential to unity of a great musical work
Unity of subjects The quartet
243
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
XVll
XI
THE CONTINUOUS STYLE

General lines of evolution
lating
style
Need
rhythm Assistance
^Proportions
in the
Advance
PAGE
of undu-
drama in developing continuous

and length of work Orchestral
The symphonic poem The per-
of the
of orchestra
conditions of dramatic music

spective of music
for continuity
The continuity of counterpoint Counterpoint
Church
257
CHAPTER XH
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
267
APPENDIX OF MUSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS

The Evolution of Europp:an Tonality
Section A. Melodic Consonance
Transitional Stage
....
....
B.
C. The Consonant Pentatonic Formula

D. Elementary Scale-form
,,
......
E. Scale-form
Combined Chord-form and Scale-form

G. Harmonic Consonance
,,
,,
,,
,,
F.
H. Vocal Harmony on a Pedal Bass

I.
Two Bass Notes
,,
Three, Four, or more Bass Notes

K. Instrumental Harmony on a Pedal Bass
J.
,,
,,
L.
,,
Two
,,
M.
,,
Three, Four, or more Bass Notes
The Evolution of
Piass
Notes
....
Hindu Ragas and Melodies
P.
Q. Discant
279
280
282
282
284
286
287
288
292
292
O. Tetrachordal and Modal Types
,,
275
277
278
Asiatic Tonality
Section N. Primitive Microtonal Types
274
274
293
295
Analysis of Time-outline in English Folk-song

Section R.
S.
,,
T.
The
Basis of Equal Outline
,,
the Strict Figure

the Free Figure
298
.....
300
302
CONTENTS
xviii
Analysis of Time-outline in English Dance Tunes of the
Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries

PAGE
Section U.
The
Basis of Equal Outline
305
,,
V.
the Strict Figure
W.
the Free Figure
306
308
The Time-types of the East

Section X. Hindu Talas and Melodies
310
The Elementary Rondo Type

Section Y. English, Chinese, and
Hindu Rondos
....
....
312
The Elementary Variation Type

Section Z.
An
Early Welsh
Movement
in
Variations
316
GLOSSARY
319
INDEX
327
INTRODUCTION
The
form of nuisic
other
is
He who
art.
doomed
to
more complex than
is
But
disappointment.
any
that of
looks for simplicity in
analysis
its
should not
this
deter the musician from the endeavour to understand

his art.
sometimes said that music
It is
be answered
that
which
in
bound by law
a composition,
may
it
the elusiveness of musical effect
due, not to an erratic constitution, for no art

strictly
an
too elusive
is
To
be analysed to any purpose.
art to
is
is
more
neither to lack of organic unity
nowhere
for
else
will
incoherency
sooner involve oblivion.
The
duce
factors of musical effect can be
each
governing
alterable,
this
its
own
the
use
result
inevitably
of these
being inherent
factors
where.
It
The
consists
elusiveness
in
the
the
are
principles
art.
unAll
admits of actual
it
music
of
action
to pro-
equally
nature of the
in the
can be certainly known, since
demonstration.
shown
of the
lies
else-
individual
mind upon the form of music, not as destroying that

it.
So much original person-
form, but as re-creating
much originality
of form will be found in its music.
The mind is no
less elusive than its creations
could we understand
the mystery of personality, we should understand the
ality as exists
in the
mind, exactly so
INTRODUCTION
XX
mystery of music.
degree
in all the arts,
nities for the
ready-made
units
It
some
use,
its
individual
composer.
stamp
own
its
course of
natural
and
leaves
the
all
new
few
laws
the
the
to
rest
he have a mind that can
If
impress upon music, he
time
develop-
of
lines
material
the
and
reofulatingf
nothing but
brings
and
of
part
Instead of a
of personality.
music
construction
of
ment,
but music offers unique opportu-
utterance
form,
some
a mystery that exists in
is
style.
will
produce
not, he
If
in
but
will
stumble and imitate the doings of others.
The
theory of an abstract musical form
composers
to train
There
art.
the
exists,
is
in
false
to the
fact,
which
in
true nature of the
no such thing, except
in
minds of those who lack imagination, and wish

There
told exactly what they are to do next.
to be
are always plenty
and so the
is
who
are ready to live by the telling,
tradition survives,
not taught at
all.
What
and the
is
taught instead
mathematical method of composition,

in a certain
of tones
to
produce
intelligence
and so
done,
is
is
effect.
Any one
commonly realised.
who is thereby the
is
the
distribution
of average
not tone-deaf can learn
cannot but be said that
limits
certain
thing
it
and who
the
is
order that has been calculated
desired
the
music
real art of
its
object
this,
within
But when the

better?
Would
one prefer to hear something original and
not any
however simple, than the cleverest imitation ?

Are we likely to attain greatness in art, or in any
other department of life, by remaining a nation of
sincere,
imitators
INTRODUCTION
xxi
The cumbrous machinery which this method involves resembles nothing so much as the elaborate
Roman days, which are
stone aqueducts of the
water finds
own
its
modern
of
therefore,
life
discovery
that
same way the
the
In
musical
hold of and
rest,
Unfortunately,
all
present
larly of
the
are
we wish
if
the
all
simple
the
level.
outlet.
reverse
in
the
conditions
and
favour of suppression,
music,
we must
of education,
particu-
for originality in
conditions
We
education.
must learn
take
to
develop the natural lever which moves
rhythmic
the
feeling.
It
is
a fact that
motive power can be awakened even
natural
this
own
its
rhythmic feeling of music, unless suppressed,
intuitive
finds
by
superseded
entirely
in
any average town-bred child with astonishing
results,
a far more
difficult
whereas
the adult the matter
to
is
one, except in case of the specially gifted.
Elementary musical education
is,
therefore, of the
Develop the natural powers of

the child as you would the muscles of
highest importance.
the
mind
the
body,
and
healthy
strong,
Such an individuality
result.
of
in
Of
art.
the
social
that
our
its
importance
as
and individually.
may be
national
It
this
it
life,
own
feet,
that
is
it
must be
depends
possible
is
pioneer of
the
yet
race
capacity for standing on our
will
essential to the
is
in
reformer to speak,
existence
individuality
life
for
clear
upon
our
both nationally
the
musician
new educational move-
ment, a movement that regards the mind as a living

thing
to
crammed.
be
fed,
The
rather
musician
than
can
warehouse
testify
that
to
be
analytic
INTRODUCTION
xxii
however important, is not the beginning

Rhythmic culture, bringing with it
of knowledge.
appreciation of music and natural artistic capacity,
instruction,
has existed from
amonofst
cast
the
education.
Nature
If
goes
agination
is
is
understanding
follows
grow
understanding,
of
out
her
no
offers,
not
understanding
out
that has
divorce
im-
does
Imagination
but
musical
own way,
opportunity
as
after.
The
of imagination.
be found broad-
received
given
and
before,
to
still
who have
those
independently of
times
earliest
knowledge, and
intellectual
long existed
between the theory and practice of music is due to

antiquated theory that has little or no root in im-
For these two ought to go hand in hand

Theory must be practical
and assist one another.
or it is valueless, and practice if influenced by
Without theory
false theory will fail of its end.
the musician is prone to become the slave of his
own practice, and through lack of correction by
agination.
practice
the theorist
short,
is
it
degenerates into a pedant.
impossible to separate the two
if
In
either
is
to be completely taught.
There are some few who can trust absolutely to

their own instincts, but it is beyond question that the
majority
to
the
require
purpose
that
they
are
What
is
even more
being taught.
We
sow the right seed, but generally to

The
the ground before any seed can be sown.
have not only

clear
be taught.
to
is
to
English musician
is
still
in
the pre-Darwinian stage.
Like those
who
4004
he dates his art from the early centuries of
B.C.,
believed the world to have been created
INTRODUCTION
xxiii
era, and all time previous to that is a blank to him.

Something of the extraordinary mental quickening that
"
has been produced by the wonderful word " evolution
our
will surely
art
is
spread into music when
man
as old as
himself
our origins almost indefinitely
modern horizon widens

going out,
The
we can push back
that
that in consequence the
illimitably
Columbus,
like
realised that our
it is
new
to discover a
which has already found
principle
we
that, at last,
are
world.
its
way
into
literature lies
ready
of regarding
a text as material for grammatical ana-
in the
lysis
which,
its
of
if
flat,
for application
we recognise
we would
that
understand,
to music.
art
all
we must
stages from the bottom upwards.

its
evolution that
we
realise
it
is
revealed.
of
human
said
All true art
its
a form of
is
a growth,
is
analyse in
is
by analysis
human
life,
character
an expression
and cannot be otherwise.
nature,
all
to be a part of nature
not made, but grows, and thus
it is
It
Instead
"Art,"
Montaigne, "is nature seen through a tempera-
And
ment."
since music
most natural, of
all
the least conventional, the
the arts,
ceptible in the great art
Each great genius
is
elements are as per-
its
work as
in the
simple melody.
creates from the elements
own
and moulds
we grasp
these
elements and the trend of the evolution, we shall
know
the plastic material to his
what has gone

to the past
It
is
and
before,
will.
If
and where we stand
in relation
to the future.
not claimed that such analysis represents the
whole of musical education.
We
require, besides, to
read and write music easily, and to have
ance with the method of
its
some acquaint-
production by voice and
xxiv
INTRODUCTION
instruments, the
knowledge of instruments, and per-
formance upon them.
summed up
notation
as
way
In a general
and
may be
this
tone-production.
It
is
not the object of the present volume directly to teach
They
these subjects.
pertain
more
to
especially
the
and form ground that belongs to

Notation and tone - production must
practice of music,
teaching.
oral
some extent into any technical account of

music, but facility in them can only be gained in pracenter
to
tice.
The
educational need of the day
For
this materials
the most
for
for a truth-
presentment of the growth of musical
intellectual
ful
form.
is
part
do
but they have lain
exist,
unused.
have quietly
Musicians
accepted the theory of mediaeval origin, oblivious to the
monstrous impossibility of developing the natural out

of the
artificial
of music
of
it
and so the practice of the composers
almost wholly at variance with the theory
is
as taught in the schools.
Of
the analysis of the
Melody
natural art there are but fragments.
harmony
made
is
velopment
" is
foolish
by
isolation,
a vague muddle, and
is
ignored,
" thematic de-
strict
counterpoint
burdens the mind with the lumber of the Middle Ages.
But when the complete development unfolds

fragments we have hitherto known
places, the dry
recognisable
itself
that
by
is
its
unity.
rhythmic conception
the
It is
the
into their right
fall
bones come together and grow
whole,
going
itself,
into a
justifies
not this intellectual conception
to originate music, but
can assist to
it
carve out channels for the real motive power, instead

of
damming
it
back.
It
intellectual truth of music,
will
do
this
by finding the
which means freedom to the
INTRODUCTION
xxv
imagination, whereas intellectual falsehood cramps and
chokes
is
it.
And
narrow doctrine taught dogmatically
inevitably false.
Therefore we must prove

see to
it
things, but
all
that our rhythmic feeling
we
hearing take the lead, else
above
all
and our imaginative
shall put the cart before
the horse and repeat the old mistake.
We
the evolution of music in the past, but
it
is
imagination
that will find the road of the future.
And
the musical
imagination
is
" rhythmitonal "
can show
does not exist apart
it
A rhythmically uncultured nation cannot

be actually " musical," whatever may be its potential
from rhythm.
For
capacity for music.
people
with
will
its
always be found to have associated dancing
music, for dancing
of rhythmic feeling than
young.
It
may be
is
said that
Puritan
movement
dealt a
heavy blow
music
and
is
an even greater stimulant
is
exist without national dance,
in
reason a musically gifted
this
music, especially with the
no national music can long
and
it
England, by
in
at the
is
evident that the
killing
the dance,
national music.
Vulgarity
invariably a sign of rhythmic degeneration,
to this cause
must be assigned the present condition
of English popular music.
In the sixteenth century English music was in the

forefront of the nations.
ventional era of the
ment on natural
It
is
This was the
first
great con-
but no independent develop-
lines has ever
taken place
in
England.
yet to come.
What we have
is
art,
to
to
do
in
leave off the external
order to bring this about

acquisition
foreign or otherwise, as an end in
itself,
of technique,
and cultivate
c
INTRODUCTION
xxvi
and
in ourselves
in
our children the love of sincere and
Our own indigenous
spontaneous musical utterance.
form the backbone of elementary educa-
folk-art should
natural musical development springs out of
tion, for all
The
national dance-songs.
true
which
art-spirit
asserts
of folk-song
much
so
to
routine,
the
is
the
against
itself
bondage of custom and
destroying
done
spirit
soul-
has
that
thwart and hold up the natural
We
currents of musical inspiration.
shall
do well to
claim our national heritage, and admit the music of the
recognised place of
folk to a
The
art.
own
in the
world of
study of evolution discloses the steps leading
from folk-song
Between
its
the
up
into
the
higher
of musicians
art
walks of music.
and that of the
folk
there exists the difference of the lettered and the unof the adult and the child, of the individual
lettered,
rather than the
communal
but not of essence.

are forms of
life,
this is a distinction of form,
Both cultivated and wild flower
whereas the essential distinction
is
to
be drawn between the flower and the imitation flower,
which
not a form of
is
That so much of the
life.
spurious article exists in music as to cause

in
minds of some people
the
for
it
to stand
the original,
is
an
unfortunate occurrence due to a lack of the ear that

hears.
It
And
roused.
that
it
is
is
the ear and the spirit that need to be

so long has our folk-song been neglected,
necessary to set the imagination upon this
road of the past

It
is
in
order that
it
may have
a clear lead.
the atmosphere of folk-music that needs to be
restored,
and
the schools,
this
can only be effected by teaching
in
since
song and dance have died out
in
INTRODUCTION
the home.
It
through such
it
is
not
a question of a cursory glance
music, but a
storing of
it
up
xxvii
in
the
thorough familiarity with
memory,
for only
in
this
charm be felt. And if English folk-music

have ceased to charm the Englishman, though he have
all knowledge and make music to the end of time, it
will be but as empty sound and waste paper, since he
way can
is
its
persistently ignoring the law of nature which decrees
that,
because sincerity
is
the
first
requirement,
only
through the gateway of national character can art attain

to the expression of the universal.
ANALYSIS OF THE EVOLUTION
OF MUSICAL FORM
PART
TONE-MATERIAL
CHAPTER
GENERAL MATERIAL
Definition
of
tone
Definition of the outlines Time Pitch Force

The chromatic scale Absolute pitch.
Colour
TONE is a sound of definite duration, pitchi, intensity,

and quality. It can vary in these four respects, and
its
variations are the formal material of music.
a tone varies
shorter
"force,"
is
that
in
in pitch,
it
is
duration, or
it
is
"time,"
higher or lower
louder or softer;
its
it
;
is
in intensity, or
quality, or "colour,"
which distinguishes one kind of voice or instru-
ment from another.

Tones in succession produce a movement
which
ment
When
longer or
is
is
invariably of a rhythmic nature.

called an
line, force-outline,
" outline."
in time,
This move-
Time-outline, pitch-out-
and colour-outline are the names
for
a succession of tones in duration, pitch, force, and colour

respectively.
THE EVOLUTION OF MUSICAL FORM
Tone-movement
a general term expressing the
is
combination of the various outlines.
The
music
character of general
rise
and
To
these outlines colour
fall in
The
pitch, of swelling
tempo.
Tempo
way by an
general
andante,
&c.,
metronome,
fast,
and lessening
in force.
in
or
is
it
is
Speed
term
all
possible
rhythmic move-
its
indicated
Italian
else
and
speed.
therefore in
varies
called
time, of
an accessary.
is
slow to
in
in
material of time-outline consists of
gradations from
ment
and slackening
that of hastening
is
rhythmic movement
music
notation
in
for
in
speed,
is
in
allegro,
determined precisely by
which the movement of a pendulum
can be arranged to give the speed required.
There
are in notation no exact indications of the divisions of
tempo.
terms
of
varying tempo
is
indicated by the following
accelerando and stringendo for gradual increase
speed
rallentando,
ritardando,
and
ritenuto
for
gradual decrease of speed.
The
all
material of pitch-outline,
by nature consisting of
possible gradations of pitch, has been transformed by
and named degrees that exclude

intermediate gradations. These degrees form the
art into a series of fixed

all
material of pitch-outline.
intervals,
is
Divisions of pitch are called
and the interval from one degree
a semitone
{i.e.
half a full-tone),
smallest division of pitch practicable
to the
representing
upon most
next
the
instru-
Quarter-tones and third-tones can be sung by

ments.
the voice, and played upon instruments of the violin
and they form the basis of Eastern music, but

they are not recognised in the European art and have
family,
GENERAL MATERIAL
no place
thus
outline
The
notation.
in its
from high to low, and these

natural
of
division
ally the
this point the
tions
or
differing
eight
or
octaves, each
of
an echo of the others at a different level of
is
Hence
virtu-
and thus
pitch-material available for music
extends over about seven
pitch.
itself,
the
at
name, and
composed of
the largest interval
is
The whole
tones.
which
which occurs
pitch also, of a tone repeats
the octave
ranging
divisions
necessarily into the
fall
octave
the
At
twelfth semitone.
material of our pitch-
of semitonal
consists
of rhythmic
firstly,
downward
according-
the
higher or lower
These two varianotation by the stave and notes
octave
tions are indicated in
varia-
movement, direction upward
secondly, of position,
to
two general
has
pitch-outline
chosen.
I
The
direction of an outline
eye by the
rise
the position
is
The
or
thus reproduced to the
is
of notes
fall
indicated by the
upon the
gradations from
varies therefore in intensity.
words fortissimo,
and
its
This
forte, mezzo-forte,
They
all
possible
rhythmic movement
is
indicated by the
mezzo-piano, piano,
and pianissimo, each of which indications

contradicted by another.
and
clef.
material of force-outline consists of

soft to loud,
stave,
lasts
until
are usually written as
fff, ff, f, mf, mp, p, pp, ppp, representing the

whole range of material from loud to soft. Varying
follows
force-outline
diminuendo
is
indicated
for increase
by the words crescendo and
and decrease, or the sign
<>

The
in
material of colour-outline consists of the voice
four recognised qualities, treble or soprano, alto,
its
and
tenor,
and
bass,
all
the instruments used in music.
These are divided in a general way into strings, wind,

and percussion instruments. Stringed instruments are
divided into keyboard, bowed, and plucked instruments
wind instruments
struments
keyboard, wood, and brass
into
percussion, into instruments giving one or
more tones of
With a
pitch.
definite
This
The
is
and united
resources of colour.
full
in notation are called
vocal score, quartet score, orchestral or
score, &c., of
full
which the separate notation of any single
voice or instrument
will
is
the largest multisonant combina-
combinations of colour-outline
It
orchestra,
full
employing practically the
a score
indefinite
any number of instruments can
be combined from two up to a

with voices.
and those of
pitch,
single instrument the colour-outline
necessarily unvaried
tion,
in-
now be
is
called a part.
seen that pitch-outline differs from
the other outlines in possessing a punctuated material,
which
prevents the smooth,
unbroken passage from
one extreme to the other that takes place

outline
and
force-outline.
we proceed
by
movement
This
and the semitonal divisions of
steps
is
pitch
have received the name of "chromatic

" absolute
The term
actual pitch
by
this
term
synonymous with
not meant that any part of
pitch
is
scale."
is
"
music has an independent existence apart from the

nor that pitch
outlines.
is
The
more absolute
real
time-
In pitch-outline
not by a gradient, but by steps.

called a scale,
in
in itself
sigrnificance
t>
of
the
rest,
than the other
word
lies
in
GENERAL MATERIAL
the fact that in two of these outHnes, those of time and
by which means a new and
process,
rhythmic relations
standards of the
exist
been subjected
material has
the
pitch,
distinction
set
of
do not
relations
special
which
material,
is
The term
absolute.
called
a selective
been established, forming the
These
art.
general
the
in
has
to
definite
by
therefore
applies
more
suitably to time-outline, because in gradual transitions
of speed
whereas
it
in
is
discover definite
to
the
pitch-outline
cannot
tone
difficult
be overlooked.
relation
In
force
of
relations,
standard of relative selection exists, therefore

case the term absolute
What
is
known
semi-
the
and colour no
in
their
not required.
is
as the perception of absolute pitch
is
the recognition of a particular degree of pitch by name.

It
appears to be an immediate intuitive association of
name with
entity.
tone,
It is not,
each
degree
appearing
distinct
as has been stated, merely the power
of imitating correctly a musical sound without reference

to its
name.
The
given
pitch
number
one degree
of tuning
to
of each
degree should
of vibrations.
fixed
at
exact relation
a
of
is
determined by the system
as equal
temperament (the division
another
known
The
be
of the octave into twelve equal parts),
and since the
adoption of this system, which became general during

the course of the last century,
the relations of the
are
still
degrees.
no variation exists
in
But unfortunately there
variations in the absolute pitch of the degrees
as a whole,
which cause great inconvenience, though
they do not affect the system of musical notation
c"
6
is
still
q",
while
its
vibration
number may vary from
It is obvious that the difficulty

536 or higher.
of recognising any given degree by name from the
514
to
sound
is
only,
is
enormously increased when that degree
itself subject to variation,
and
it
is
that such variations should disappear
be generally adopted.
highly desirable
and a fixed pitch
CHAPTER
II
THE SIMPLE STANDARD OF TIME AND
ITS
NOTATION
The
of time-division
principle
The
time-beat
Evolution of values
The
The
Divisions
of the beat
notes.
and pitch have now
to
out of the general time-material
is
relative selections of time
be considered.
The
selection
made upon
This
the
is
the simple principle of equal time-division.
rhythm of the recurring
beat.
principle of universal application,
underlying
all
proof were needed, of
Capacity for music
an
in
"
It
and
a rhythmic
is
to
is
be found
music, ancient or modern, primitive or
cultured. Eastern or Western.
up not
movement,
the principle of pulsative rhythmic
ear
its
This
is
ftict
a proof,
if
essential nature.
in the primitive
" for pitch,
sense
is
summed
but in the ability to repeat
a blow upon any resisting surface at precisely regular

intervals
will
in
other words, to keep time.
be appreciated by teachers of music
with pupils impervious to
all
attempts to
This necessity
who have met

drill
them
into
Such a condition is unheard of

in the savage world, where existence actually depends
upon accurate concerted action. The perception of the
exact moment at which the blow is to be repeated is an
the required precision.
intuitive perception, a repetition so obvious that

7
it
takes
mind almost sub-consciously. It is entirely

natural.
When children are trained young upon natural
rhythmic principles, not the slightest difficulty do they
place in the
The
experience in keeping time accurately.
repetition
continues easily in the mind through sound and silence,
and
if
liable to
be upset by silences
counting, which
is
time
necessarily
not
is
it
an
it
can be assisted by
intellectual process.
At
the
same
dependent upon any such
extraneous support.
This exact unit of recurrence

It
is
called the time-beat.
forms the simple standard of time, and
standard of music that

in truth the siite
is
is
the only
of universal application.
qua non of music.
Without
It is
no con-
it
certed music has ever existed or could exist, for
if
sense of the beat be
gone.
lost,
instantly the clue
is
the
There is no longer music, but a chaos in the mind of

him who fails to grasp the beat.
It is doubtless due to this cause that the beat is a
prominent audible feature of primitive music.
made upon a gong
It
is
or drum, or with a stick upon the
ground, struck by the feet upon a board, or clapped by

the hands.
is
In a later stage of development,
(or should
when
there
be) no fear of the beat being missed, a
noisy time-beat becomes a superfluity, and these manifestations drop out of cultured music.
made
movement
orchestra the beat
players
by the
is
to give
modern
evident to the eye of the

of the
which replaces the primitive appeal
now more used
In the
conductor's
to the ear,
baton,
but
is
an individual "reading," than
to enforce a precise repetition.
From
of music,
the practical
point of view,
in
performance
no musician can possibly ignore the beat,
THE SIMPLE STANDARD OF TIME

and yet the standard
to a great
it
represents has been ignored
The
extent intellectually.
time-notation of
music proceeds frequently regardless of

that
much
has led to
it,
a neglect
superfluous complication in the
record, as will subsequently be shown.
The
only variation that takes place in the beat
that of pace, or tempo.
It
is
can occur at quicker or at
slower intervals, and the emotional character of any
music depends greatly upon the pace of the beat, by
which the tempo
The
desire
decided.
is
variation
for
introduces
and
divisions
sub-divisions of the beat, on the one hand, and causes
its
unit of time to be doubled or quadrupled in length,
on
Thus an unequal time-movement
the other.
beat
the
from
it,
still
and yet constantly
in relation
with
the time-outline proceeds uniformly in the

division as the beat, the outline
The
from one another.

prevails, but
enters
in,
continuing with a time-outline differing
it is
Unless
it.
same equal
and the beat are
distinct
principle of equal division
carried further in the outline.
still
Several
divisions are recognised, each one halving the time of
the one preceding

" values."
The
Each value
into halves.
and
it,
and these time-divisions are called
beat becomes the standard value.

is
divisible into three parts as well as
When
this is carried
the beat
is
in three-part division,
on throughout,
it
is
a " ternal
"
beat.
This forms a variation upon the two-part division, which

is
a "dual" beat.^
employed
and gives
*
Frequently the two divisions are
in succession,
its
name
to
but one usually predominates

the beat.
The words simple and compound which
since they convey
In primitive music
are in use, are misleading,
no idea of the divisions of the beat.
lo
The most
both these divisions are in constant use.

primitive
have not only grasped
peoples
time
their
standard unerringly, but have advanced to a very considerable
amount of
upon
variation
it.
They
appreciate
the values of time-outline apart from the beat, and their
music compares most favourably
with the
in this respect
best folk-songs of Europe.
In consequence of this very early development of

time-outline,
it
quite impossible to trace the evolution
is
They
of musical values in detail.
are
all
frequently
present in the most primitive specimens, and there
nothing to indicate with any certainty that one
than another.
is
is
older
Doubtless the values nearest related to
the beat were the
first to
be grasped, and equal values
must have been appreciated before unequal ones, but

beyond this there is little to be said. The knowledgeable evolution of tone-material in primitive examples
begins with the later form of pitch which is found in
a very elementary stage.
We
may draw from
these facts a definite conclusion
the relative positions of time and pitch in
as to
evolutionary order.
and leads
to the
development of
order to be observed
necessary
outline
or.
first,
reading at
the
Time-outline has a natural priority
in
pitch.
This
musical education.
desirable to teach
all
and then proceed
It
is
the
is
not
the intricacies of time-
to pitch, but capacity for
and writing from dictation in timelittle ahead of what can be
sight
outline should always be a
done
in pitch-outline.
This
Values are called notes

^
The term "note"
is
will
in
commonly used
as for the written character.
ensure rapid progress.

musical notation.
as a
synonym
The
for "tone," as well
THE SIMPLE STANDARD OF TIME
ii
notes are written, and their relative values can be stated

'
in
11
hgures as rtoUovvs
f.
The
are
notes
^
S
I
*h ''*>
I
c?
<s^
named
semibreve,
respectively
minim, crotchet, quaver, semiquaver, demisemiquaver,
The time-beat should be

and half-demisemiquaver.
the crotchet value. Ternal time requires to be specially
indicated,
a dot placed after the note being used for
the purpose
The
= JjJ
following signs, called rests, ---"- f
and are used
are equivalent to the notes,
the value of any spaces of silence
&c.,
indicate
to
that occur
The
course of the tone-movement.
*1
in
the
dotted rest also
equals the dotted note.
The
divisions of time which the notes represent are
the easiest that can be grasped
equal
by the
ear,
being
all
and thus are the foundation of the
divisions,
time-record.
Any
tie
-m
when
sum
sented by the
the value of the tone
of the tied note,

is
of half
when
its
the latter
value.
is
next
value of the note written

is
distinct
divisory value
is
in
of the
repre-
For
used instead
order to
it,
second dot represents the
note one more degree removed, that
the dot
is
of the notes thus combined.
convenience of notation a dot after a note
that
means
of the notes can be combined by
= J
is
of a quarter the
^ J^
This use of
from the dot indicating a change of
the latter does not necessarily add to
the value of the note, since a dotted crotchet

equivalent to an undotted crotchet.
may be
CHAPTER
III
THE COMPOUND STANDARD OF TIME AND
ITS
NOTATION
Origin of the grouping of beats -The accented beatEvolution of the

accentual standard The bar in notation The beat in notation The
Causes of incorrect barring.
time-signature Change of time
Experiments made upon many persons show
that
when-
ever a series of equal beats similar to the time-beat of
music
the
presented to the ear, the mind refuses to accept
is
monotony of
the continued equal repetition, and pro-
ceeds to arrange these beats intuitively into groups of
The
two, three, four, or more.
slightly with the individual,
exact arrangement varies
and the greater the speed,
the larger will be the group, but the fact of grouping
always present.
The
series
is
is
heard imaginatively as a
succession of groups, instead of a single series as actually

presented.^
It
may
therefore be taken for granted that to this
rhythmic process
intuitive
in music.
is
due the grouping of beats
There can be no doubt
grouping beats
is
that the instinct for
as old as music, and that
entirely natural as the perception of the beat
We
are
all
with
familiar
it
is
as
itself.
the vertical divisions in
musical notation called the bar-lines, between which are

enclosed a fixed number of beats, representing what
^
Scripture,
"New
Psychology," pp. 178-9.
is
COMPOUND STANDARD OF TIME
13
generally called the " bar," or occasionally " measure."
Here the number
chosen to form a j^roup
of beats
can vary, but whatever number
change of time
until
is
chosen
is
will
continue
This involves no
made.
change necessarily of the pace of the beat, but only
number
of the
when noted
to
naturally into bars, and this
falls
The group
natural grouping of beats.
its
beats
four
or
three,
Primitive music
of beats in a group.
primitive music
the
easiest to apprehend,
by no means confined
is
developed feeling
is
for
is
rhythm
is
due
of two,
but
to these.
Its
shown both by changes
of time and also by bars of five or seven beats, group-
ings which until recent years were looked upon as impossibilities in cultured music.
seems
It
is
be frequently overlooked that the bar
to
not a thing in
itself
but a sign which indicates the
thing.
We
hear
a variation of force that indicates the time-beat
is
The
grouping.
beats are not
There
and weak.
strono-
louder and
several
one
softer,
the sounds
otherwise
bar-line, but
do not hear the
is
free,
softer
and
this
called
the alternation
in
two
and
force
Force-outline,
in
of one
one louder and
of
or
having no standard of
The
alternation of
equal, but divide into
difference
accent.
relative to time-outline,
tive habit.
is
sound,
all
what we do
its
own,
between
which
is
is
made
accent assumes a pulsa-
primitive bar consists of the simple

beats, accented
and unaccented, or
of one accented and two unaccented, the group of three

beats.
accent
the
It is
is
first
a natural condition of alternation that the
made on
the
first
beat,
and
if
one asks why
and not the second of two, the answer appears
14
be that when we alternate, the weak beat
to
and that we do not
the alternation of the strong one,
The
alternate a lesser factor by a greater.
of the bar
is
that of greater
made
is
length
evolution
and consequent
addition of varying degrees of accent for the purpose
of
its
The
articulation.
strongest accent
invariably
is
beat, and the bar now becomes the space

main
accents, with subsidiary accents to
between the
upon the
assist
first
its
The
grouping.
beat-division
dual
into
ternal does not affect the system of accent, but
divisions of the
accents
beat are used
may have
to
if
or
sub-
melody, additional
in
be made, since the larger the
number of notes in a given beat, the more difficult

does it become to grasp their relative values.
" Time " in music thus consists, firstly, of the recurring
beat,
simple
the
standard
secondly,
of the
recurring accent, or arrangement of accents, the com-
pound standard.
strict
This may be called the standard of
So
accent or of the bar.
essential
is
it
to pulsa-
rhythm, that upon instruments not admitting of
tive
such
it,
as the organ, harmonium, and early keyboard
instruments, no great development of time-outline can
take place, because the standard of the bar disappears
performance through lack of accent.^
in
music tends thus to develop
less
pitch
than
rather
remaining
evolution
in
undeveloped.
of
the
of
that
On
orchestra
in
time,
the
has
Such accent-
the direction of
its
other
time-outline
hand,
the
tended towards the
enforcement of accent and therefore to the develop'
It is
possible to produce a slight feeling of accent
a note, but this
is
rather for occasional than normal use.
by dwelling on

ment
of rhythmitonal art.
cussive character
For
all
instruments emitting
noise.
The
bar
is
sometimes supposed
three centuries back, because

in
European
it is
not to be found earlier
This short-sighted notion
notation.
some extent
some
to date only
due
is
Though
to a misconception of the history of notation.
to
per-
its
largely used, consisting of the class
is
of drums, gongs, cymbals, and
mere
purpose
this
15
the growth of our music corresponds
with the growth of
notation, such correspondence
its
The
limited to a comparatively recent period.
stages of rhythmitonal evolution were unrecorded
one attempted to express tone-relations
is
early
;
no
words or
in
notes,
because such a thing was entirely unconsidered.
As
well
European notation belong to the church-system, and were therefore

the work of monks to whom the popular music was a
is
forbidden
known, the
early stages of
Notation as
thing.
we know
it
dates from
is more significant
came over our music during its tran-
the seventeenth century, and nothing
of the change that
period from church-style to folk-style than the
sition
sweeping and drastic changes undergone by
its
notation,
make this a possible record of rhythmitonal

The appearance of the bar and indeed of all the
in order to
art.
familiar features of
modern notation coincides with the
disappearance of the church-system.

therefore,
that
the
standard
of
We
the
may
take
accented
it,
beat
represented by the bar was missing from the churchsong,

earlier,
It
and that had folk-music
possessed a notation
the bar would have appeared in

is
it.
unfortunate that the natural clearness of our
i6
method
of accentual grouping
fusion of
is
obscured by the con-
As has been
notation.
its
pointed out, this
way apparently ignoring the fact that

any standard value of time exists. The bar-contents
when added together make the right whole, but nothing
exists to show with certainty the relation of these to
the beat.
Thus arises confusion between the beatproceeds on
its
and the group of
division
When
beats.
a beat-division
is
taken at too slow a pace to be recognised as such,
it
becomes a group of
The
accent.
group
point
distinct
is
distinguished in
value, yet there
to
change from beat-division
of
the
is
indifferently.
of relative
sets
that
all
values
required.
is
and should be
The
beat
is
to
clearly
the standard
no standard note to represent
minim, crotchet, quaver,
employed
ear,
notation.
is
by an
beats, normally defined
it
and even semiquaver being
Thus
have
three or four complete
be used where one
to
Nothing
is
by
ever gained
the use of promiscuous notation for the
beat
it
is
The
merely a bad habit on the part of composers.
use of differing notes does not convey the tempo of

the
used
beat
As
for
on the contrary,
quick tempo,
a minim
and a quaver
is
for
more
often
slow tempo.
can vary only in absolute duration (or
beat
the
tempo)
this variation in the sign
which records relative
duration (the note) can serve no practical purpose.
If
the crotchet were adopted as the standard note of the

beat, the
same
results
would be attained with
one-third of the present complication.
The
less
than
indication
of the beat and bar in the sign called the time-signature

could then be
made
clear
and simple.

At present
the time-signature consists of two figures,
of which the upper relates to the
and the lower
bar,
may
or
17
number
of notes in the
to the value of that note,
Thus
not be the beat.
may
which
the signature indicates
length of bar, and the value in notation (i) of the beat,

or (2) of a division of the beat, or (3) of the
two
sum
of
beats.
medium tempo,
slow or
In
1.
the signature indi-
cates the value of the beat.
In fast
2.
tempo the signature
indicates frequently
not the beat but a fraction of the beat, and
Thus
number.
and
of quaver
beats
divisions
six
of
and
value,
two
beats,
tempo means six

fast tempo it means
in
each of the value of a
This ambiguity
dotted crotchet.
value
slow
in
its
is
sometimes removed
by placing a note showing the value of the beat over

the signature.
In very slow tempo, the signature indicates the
3.
value of two beats.
Ex.
Further complication
C and
is
Adagio = 6 quaver
This condition of the time-signatures
is
or
or
C.
beats.
caused by the use of the
being equivalent to
signs
f
and
(t
to
i.
due to the
lack of accurate time-beat notation, the relative nature
of the signature not being distinctly indicated.

crotchet
were adopted
beat, all
ambiguity
and the signature

the
34
It
the standard note
of
the
the signature would disappear,
itself
number of beats
their division.
i.e.,
in
as
If the
in
would only have

the bar,
to
indicate
and the manner of
could then be reduced to one figure,

6
7,
&c.,
when
the beat
is
dual (in
i8
2
quavers), and
the addition of a dot, to
with
when
the beat
i.
2.
3. 4. 5.
7.
3 quavers).
Six beats to a bar would admit, like five and seven,
6,
of two forms of accent
1
{
ternal (in
is
or
and should be
1
1
distinoruished thus
fT
fJ
III
Changfe
of time involves alteration either of the
t>
bar
of the
or
beat-division,
concerns the position of the
or
The
of both.
strict accent,
changes the beat-division from dual to
first
the second
ternal,
or vice-
versa.
Owing
to the
present state of the time-signatures
a complete change of signature does

dicate change of bar or accent.
ample,
to I (
and there
is
With
in
it.
The
beat chano-es from
the suggested revised signature
would be written
alteration of the bar
In the following ex-
J), the bar consists of two beats
no changfe
dual to ternal.
this
not always in-
is
to
Thus
(dotted).
2.
indicated by change of figure,
and change of beat-division by the addition of a
The
following examples
Suggested signature
The quavers
dot.
show change of accent with
and without changfe

of beat-division
^&'
Present signature
the
I to |
2 to 3
2 to 3
to |
I to |
2 to 3. (dotted).
of the second example would be written
as crotchets, without affecting the
tempo
of the music.

must be
It
the
correctly barred,
the
bar
and never
only
imperfect record of
earlier
accent
strict
music
that, unless
clearly stated
any
of
is
the
larger
19
is
in-
division
of
The
unit.
accent in the music of the
strict
masters has already been pointed out,^ for there
are instances in the
of
others
works of Beethoven, Schubert, and
movements where
it
is
frequently obvious
from the character of the music that the accent does

not
fall
on every
But neither does
bar.
fall
it
on
every alternate bar, as a well-known and widely-spread
modern theory would have us

difficult to
discover a single
believe.
It
would be
movement where such an
alternating accent could be applied
all
through without
making nonsense of the music.

And if this could be
done, it would render the theory superfluous, since
it
clear
is
(except
in
can
there
that
the
no
be
possible
and unaccented and one bar of twice

i.e.
for
^^
|,
occurs, the theory
for
is
|,
The
composers.
the fact that there
tom of
strict
all,
but
was
length,
their
as
this
rarely
not merely a superfluity, but an

practice of the
explanation
true
was
in their
is
to be
great
found
in
time no definite cus-
accent on the bar-line, with the result
that the position of this
artist,
But
&c.
misrepresentation of the
actual
difference
between two bars accented
notation)
left
to
accent
the
was not indicated
intuition
of the
at
executive
and consequently that the bar-line then
signified
nothing to the ear, but was merely placed as a matter

of convenience
to
the
eye
in
reading.
The
great
composers, far from desiring that uniformity with which

1
Macpherson, " Form
in
Music,"
p. 42.
20
modern
has
theory
requiring
considerable
and
were
them,
credited
variety in
given
arrangement of
the
represent these changes
their
accents,
fully
would
quite
beyond the understanding of that day.
to
meant
have
complication
to
faith-
barring
of
They
took advantage, therefore, of the vagueness then prevalent.
bar
It
was simpler
which could
ment,
while
be
the
real
its
The
misfortune
to
that
none
the
absolute
fore,
certainty
unit for the
throughout
retained
bar-unit
(the
the
could
know
what he intended, and
these classics
are
subject
to
at
all.
an omission
posterity of such
composer
moveaccent)
recurring
was not indicated
changes
manifold
with
but
to use a smaller
as
is
an
for
that, there-
many
different
modes of accents as there are readings, and strict

accent is still commonly considered to be a question
Yet clearly
of performance rather than of notation.
method of
suitable
and
the bar-line is the natural
since
indicating
it,
[sf or
must
>)
for the occasional
be
the
kept
ordinary
for
additional
an already accented beat.
the
signs
irregular
significance
And
whatever,
purposeless complication.
accent
use,
or
emphasis required upon

if
the
not convey the position of the accent,
musical
of
and
bar-line
it
does
can have no
merely
leads
to
CHAPTER
RELATIVE PITCH AND
Dependence
IV
NOTATION
ITS
on the scale Definitions of

Its minor mode
Its intervals and inversions Definitions of melodic key, key-circle, and
Notation of pitch a compromise Causes of its complication
tonality
Eastern notation Relation of tuning of orchestral instruments to
Material of pitch
the scale
Analysis
of notation
of the diatonic scale
notation.
However desirable
of pitch in the
course
is
it
may appear
to describe the
element
natural order of development, such a
practically neither convenient nor
altogether
possible.
From
the point of view of evolution
what we have named the
that
was made
way
first
as the
complete
probable
is
relative selection of pitch
out of the natural material in the same
was chosen, and
time-selection
absolute
of semitones
scale
independently or was a
us,
it
much
accustomed from childhood
later discovery.
existed
But
to
to regard these semitonal
steps as the material of our pitch-outline,

to understand a selection
that the
either
made from
this,
it is
far easier
than out of a
nebulous pitch-matter apt to suggest howls or cat-calls

rather than a material of music.
Having taken one
we
step in the face of evolution,
when
turn to consider the selected material of relative pitch,
a further
difficulty presents itself.
analyse music apart from
its
It
is
impossible to
record in notation, but of
22
the early stages of our music notation offers no trace.
The
a
impress of the folk-style on record
first
fully-founded
This scale
in
is
system, a well-established
fittest.
scale-form.
the result of ages of practical experiment
melodic types, of which
The
that of
is
fact
that
all
it
represents survival of the
scales
owe
their origin
to
melody would scarcely need stating were it not for

the current idea that scales are a ready-made material
used
in the
manufacture of music.
As most elementary
teaching proceeds on this assumption,

point out the fallacy involved.
all art,
it is
the standard comes into general use long before
recognised as a fixed thing and
system
necessary to
is
it
In music, and indeed in
the use
is
first,
the system
made
is
the basis of a
And
second.
the
standard grows out of things small in their beginnings.
Thus, though
it
of tone-material
is
inevitable that
was
in existence
have no words or signs
some
lesser
amount
before the scale,
we
to express the relations of these
primitive tones but those which have arisen out of and

therefore imply the pre-existence of the complete scale.
No
student of early music can ignore the fact that the
common
chord or triad
is
a far more primitive set of
relations than the diatonic scale,
of
all is
actual
and the most primitive
the third out of which the chord arises, but the
word "third"
is
unintelligible
except
as
distance between three adjacent degrees of the
The whole
this
scale
of our interval nomenclature

it
is
the standard by which
divisions of pitch
Its definition,
is
are
the
scale.
founded upon
all
successive
measured, named, and written.
therefore, supplies the
key
to the terms
needful for the explanation of relative pitch.
RELATIVE PITCH AND

The word
scale
is
NOTATION
ITS
23
derived from the Latin scala, a
staircase or ladder.
It
an
not
is
easy matter
define
to
general
the
nature of a scale, as will appear from the character of

the following statements concerning
by well-known
it
writers.
1.
"A
term denoting the
in
(Grove's "Dictionary.")
musical compositions."
2.
sounds used
series of
" Successions of steps
(Niecks,
forming ladders."
Dictionary of Musical Terms.")

3.
"
series of notes
which stand
in
some recog-
nisable relation to one another in respect of pitch."
H.
Parry,
"Art
(Sir
of Music")
4.
"
5.
"The most
(Ritter, " History of
key, or scale."
tonal successions
is
natural
found
model
in the
Music")
the formation
for
of
seven degrees of sound
which also form the basis of our whole tonal system."

(Marx, " School of Composition.")
6.
"
The
a sound
series
itself
in
intervals of the
7.
key and by them

"
The
these,
is
its
way
the
determined into
Harmony and
Metre.")
scale appears as chord of the tonic with
passing-notes."
Of
undetermined meets on
(Hauptmann,
degrees."
"
which the ascending motion of
in
(Riemann, " Dictionary of Music")
Nos.
i,
and
2,
would apply equally
to
Nos. 4 and 5 describe the

scale as the key, No. 6 defines it as something distinct
chord-form
which
is
(in
arpeggio)
determined by the key, No.
with passing-notes.
It
will
chord-form
be seen that the
definitions can apply only to that
as diatonic
7 as a
the chromatic scale
last four
form of scale known

is
certainly neither a
24
key, nor determined by the key, neither can
it
be a chord
These statements appear
with passing-notes.
either too
comprehensive or else not comprehensive enough.

simple working definition might
name-order
tones
is
in pitch of
pitch,
a scale whatever
may
intervals
the writers above quoted
grounds
theoretical
all
or
is
is
order
in this
This defines
be.
for
while
it,
attempt to account for
The
it.
lack of the
apparent in these statements, and
it
impossible to account satisfactorily for the nature of
scales without a
The
knowledge of
their evolution.
relations of the degrees
another form what
is
known
of the scale
as the
depending upon the arrangement of
"mode"
its
to
one
of the scale,
intervals.
These
intervals are reckoned upwards, unless the contrary
Degrees next one another
expressed.
of a second
fourth
if
Intervals
it
it
or
philosophical
practical,
acoustical, without clearly defining
evolutionary idea
occurs in the
it
and every succession

its
the
succession of
attempting to account
the scale without
on
musical tones.
not a complete scale unless
name-order of
is
run as follows
of a third
if
lie
one degree
beyond the octave are
at the interval
is
two are missed, and so on up
is
missed, of a
to the octave.
similar to those within
the ninth, tenth, and eleventh, &c., correspond to
the second, third, and fourth respectively.

intervals of the diatonic scale are
The normal
major or minor, or
not admitting of this variation are called perfect.
if
Major
intervals contain
one semitone more than the corre-
sponding minor.
Seconds, thirds, sixths, and sevenths
are major and minor, fourths and fifths and octaves are
perfect.
The major second
is
synonymous with the
RELATIVE PITCH AND ITS NOTATION

inversion of
The
minor second with the semitone.
the
full-tone,
an interval consists
degree an octave
so
higher,
in
that
its
raisinc^;-
the
25
lowest
upper degree
becomes the lower.
The
degree of the scale with
first
most important, and
the
The
note.
is
called
octaves
its
the tonic
distance from one degree
variable, being either a full-tone or a
to
or
key-
the next
semitone.
is
is
This
variation divides the scale naturally into halves, each
consisting
of two
full-tones
followed
by a semitone,
with a full-tone between the last degree of the

half
and the
first
Each of these
four
is
degree of the second
first
half.
called a tetrachord, a succession
notes, the second
of
one being an exact repetition
Such a repetition forms

what is known as a sequence, and it is noteworthy that
this sequence, combined with the related tones of the
common chord, is what gives this scale its peculiarly
of the
first,
fifth
higher.
SLitisfying character.
The minor
trasting
mode,
diatonic scale, the secondary

is
lacking
in
most of the
and conprominent
features of the major mode.
The
sixth,
only altered degrees are those of the third and
which become a semitone lower
but this deprives
26
the
scale
referred
of
to.
its
natural
third,
Consequently
and of the sequence
this
scale
is
of
more
arbitrary character and has been subject to considerable
variation
in
its
sixth
and
above mode commends

for
seventh degrees, but
itself as
the
the one best suited
harmonic development.
The
from the
intervals
and inversions of the scale reckoned
tonic, are as follows
The Major Mode
RELATIVE PITCH AND
NOTATION
ITS
27
major and perfect, and diminished intervals contain one

semitone less than minor or perfect.
These
are of a
and
easily
fore,
striking character,
peculiarly
distinguished
from
They become interchanged by
the
intervals
are, there-
normal intervals.
inversion, as do major
and minor.
major or minor scale repeated upon any degree of
pitch
key.
called
is
It
does
not
represent
the
complete possibilities of the key, but forms a melodic
may stand for it, and can, therefore, be

named the melodic key. As a major and a
type which
correctly
minor key can be formed on every degree of

are thus twelve of each,
there
corresponding to
which
possible only
in
its
the
This forms the key-
twelve semitones of the octave.

circle,
pitch,
complete form has
The
by equal temperament.
been
made
modifications
of pitch introduced by this system provide a
material
keys.
Correct
that
equally available for use in
is
tuning,
acoustic
called
just
intonation,
Keys
material that differs with every key.
nearest related to one another
fifth
the
scales
common, those
of these
The relations of
summed up in the word
is
that are the
of
keys have six notes
in
but five notes, and
tones, chords,
and keys are
"tonality" which means the
relations of all tones to a given centre.
standard of tonality
produces
the interval
at
lie
of two-fifths apart
so on.
all
The
simple
the triad formed on the tonic,
and the compound standard
is
the
key,
melodic and
harmonic.
As
key)
is
already observed, the major scale (the melodic

also the standard of pitch-notation.
But the
28
notation itself records absolute pitch, the twelve tones

of the
have
This requires that every tone
octave.
name
Whereas
invariable
its
from the others.
seven
only
uses
scale,
or
sign,
another, and be recognised as
requires
be
to
shall
relate
a complete
This
independently of the remainder.

over,
octave
on
repeated
it
the
standard,
the
of
and requires that these
twelve,
distinguishing
the relative
tones
shall
out
of
to one
succession
relation,
more-
every degree of
pitch.
The
result
is
absolute pitch nor relative pitch
The
absolute
names given
to
Neither
compromise.
inevitably
is
accurately recorded.
the notes are those of
beginning of the alphabet, but instead of twelve
the
names there are only seven, the remaining

having
be distinguished by an
to
affix
degrees
five
(sharp or
flat)
added to one of the seven, as though they had been

an afterthought. In order to preserve the necessary
standard
of
relative
pitch,
more than once
used
for
these
names have
to
be
most degrees, so that not
alone are there only seven names for twelve degrees,
two of the seven
but
each degree.
It
circumstances
much
as to
what
is
or
is
is
must generally be
used
for
not surprising that under these

difference of opinion should exist
not correct notation, for the actual
stave notation records precisely this confusion of ideas.
The
notes on and between the lines of the stave are
named ones without
the
affix
appears
in the
affix,
form of a
called naturals,
sign,
b, bb,
Jf,
x,
and the
called
an
accidental, placed before the note.
The
essential character of relative pitch
is
that while

each key has
all
keys are
own
its
in
29
relationship to a given centre,
themselves equal, that chord-relations
are invariable, and the only change can be from key

to key, excepting the variation of
pitch
of relative
record
no
is
There
names without
tonic, but
scale
Of
only one key
is
is
of a signature, that
necessary to form
affix
differ
which the
do represent the
to follow G.
its
is,
the
scale
These being placed
scale.
It
would naturally be
Every other key
is
the addition
number of sharps or
flats
on the pattern of the scale of
after the clef, are
understood to
notes of these names, without further record
Every key contains a
in the score.
up
to
chosen, so that in the course of this
and B have
affect all
is
key-relation
in
altered not merely by name, but also by
C.
it
Thus, although relative pitch governs
might have been expected that

its
because
cannot be said to fare much better than
it
absolute pitch.
original
gives
and every key appears
trace,
from the others.

notation,
The
however,
absolute pitch.
also trying to record
there
major to minor.
notation,
impression,
opposite
the
unfortunately
in
seven sharps or
to six or
flats,
different signature,
and the greater the
number, the more complicated does notation become.
When
six
flats
or
six
sharps
are
reached,
there
is
only one tonic to represent them both, therefore this
one key has two entirely distinct forms of notation.
Seven sharps are also used instead of five

avoid a sudden change from sharps to flats.
flats
same
that
time,
the minor,
All
the only true

is
unrecorded
in
relative
variation,
to
At the
of
the signature.
this complication exists
solely in the
notation
30
and not
key of
of
in
Gt>
C,
its
there
There is no reason why the

should appear more complicated than that
and
constitution being exactly the same
the outline.
no reason why
is
should appear invariably as
the standard, since any other key can represent that
standard equally well.

absolute pitch
pitch
false
It
only
not
evident,
is
that
inadequately recorded, but that relative
is
actually misrepresented in notation, an entirely
is
impression of
its
fusion of the ideas of absolute
commonly
notation,
exists
is,
and also
The
nature being given.
in
and
due
turn,
its
relative pitch
to
con-
which
confused
this
form of the keyboard which
to the
accords with the notation.
The
these
causes
Firstly,
notation
of
growth,
but
system
strange confusion are mainly
of this
the fact already
the
was
music
rhythmitonal
adaptation
secondly,
referred to,
of a
of
existing
system
the
a natural
previously
prevalence
the
not
that
of
tuning called the mean-tone, preceding equal tempera-
which
ment,
for
music
confined
centuries
three
for
the most part to half the keys and to the simpler half
of
notation,
during
which
formed and established

plication caused
period
that
the
thirdly,
by the nature of
notation
inevitable
pitch-relations,
was
comand
the necessity for fixed degrees of absolute pitch.

the church-system existed
In
Its
scale.
modes were
material corresponding
differed
in
all
to
arrangement.
no typical form of
composed of
similar tone-
our scale of C,
One
of
these
and only
modes,
least used, called the Ionian, coincided with the

scale,
and as
this
mode happened
to begin
the
popular
upon C, the

scale of
C became
the standard scale in notation
adapted to rhythmitonal
favouring
also
when
the form of the keyboard
art,
known
Accidentals were
use.
its
31
in
church-notation, but merely as accessaries, being used

as occasional
inflections
present
their
tonics than C,
Thus
tion.
of C,
side
rhythmitonal music they were put to
In
difficulties.
use
of
the
the
scale
keys came to branch
increasing
temperament became
developed,
forming
upon
other
and became an essential part of nota-
the
in
the avoidance of melodic
for
full
until
equal
and instruments
more
but
complexity,
general,
on either
off
possibilities
of the
key-circle
re-
mained unrealised and notation was a comparatively

The use of all keys, which in lengthy
simple matter.
compositions becomes a necessity, has raised notation
degree
to
of
complexity,
bewildered
unlikely
The development
the
would have not
which
musicians of a century ago.
made the
is now of
of instruments has
required, so that an orchestral score

plexity not only unrivalled but
other system of record in
art,
culties,
but neither
The Tonic
music.
unapproached by any
science, or mathematics.
greater
for voices.
Sol-fa
system
diffi-
an attempt to
is
it
is
useless except
Attempts to record absolute pitch regard-
of relative standards are
this
is
structure.
these
would be an adequate record of
less
to
of
part
record relative pitch accurately, but
its
a com-
notation of either absolute pitch or relative pitch
would sweep away the
of
strides
doomed
ignore the tonalitive
to failure, since
principle
of
Probably the present compromise,
defects,
represents the
nearest
we can
musical
in
spite
get to
32
a
true record
and even
could be invented,
a more accurate
if
system
would be completely lacking
it
in
the associations and the historical interest of the one
handed down
to
make
At the same time
to us.
clear that the record
is
the true nature of pitch-outline

In the East notation
is
in
apt to be overlooked.
is
an elementary condition,
Abyssinians have ancient note-signs,
Chinese, and
this
in
having
respect
practically
Chinese system
the
no time-notation.
of a
consisting
kind of letter to which some indication of time

but
necessary
an inadequate one, else
The Hindus,
the stave being unknown.
is
it
In
is
all
is
added,
wanting,
probability
note-signs also existed in Persia and Arabia, but these
do not appear
notation
is
have survived.
to
but 300 years old, and
The modern Arabic

is
said to have been
invented by one Demetrius de Cantemir,

the
letters
This
to
is
Turkish alphabet
of the
for
who adapted
the purpose.
an absolute pitch-notation, with eighteen tones
the
and
octave,
used
is
in
Turkey and
other
countries of the near East.
The Japanese have
a notation
for
their
principal
stringed instrument, the koto, which records both time
and pitch and
same
is
about 200 years
old.
It is
on the
European lute tablature, indicating

the string by number, and with marks for the sharps,
but there is no stave, and it is read from top to bottom.
For stringed instruments with frets and for wind instruments a similar form of notation exists, the number
principle as the
being indicated of the
fret
to be stopped.
said that the koto notation
invented
by a
It
is
musician
to be pressed, or the hole
was
named Yatsubashi, who
is
33
considered to be the father of Japanese national music,

as distinguished from
The
due
its
borrowings from China.
key-system
relation of colour-outline to the
circumstances of notation and the practical
to the
any inherent
limitations of instruments, rather than to
property in
modern
and
natures of pitch
the
can be
instruments
orchestral
keys, but their really effective use

to
about
is
instruments
played
in
all
generally limited
tuning
of these
arranged that their most effective
so
is
The
number.
that
half
is
Most
quality.
keys coincide with the simpler half of notation, because

this
arrangement
Else there
in
Gi?,
obviously
most convenient.
the
nothing to prevent a violin being tuned
is
DS,
is
&c.,
and therefore
its
which would have
most
its
open
strings,
the extreme
brilliant effects, in
sharp keys, nor would there be any difficulty
in
pitch-
ing the tube of the bassoon in Fft instead of F.
The
result,
however,
fingering
this
in
all
would
be
keys a practical
notation
impossibility.
and
For
reason the simpler keys of notation are also the
easiest for tone-production,
as
render
to
for
notation
standard key.
for instruments as well
major has become practically the
Upon keyboard
are equally easy to play

of an extreme
and
key
is
in,
instruments
and here the only
that of
its
notation.
all
keys
difficulty
CHAPTER V
THE SIMPLE STANDARD OF TONALITY
music The most consonant interval Intonation
theories Origin of the melodic triad Elemen
tary tonality and consonance Physical basis of the harmonic triad
Dissonance The inversions of the triad.
Relation of acoustics to
Artificial
of intervals
While
the
consist
of
of
time-outline
more
tangible
material
nothing
was
than
found
beats
to
and
arrangements of beats, that of pitch-outline involves

a new element with laws of its own, which forms
known
science
the
means
the pitch-relations of music by
have
resulted
cannot be
This
is
same
made
central
of this science
use
of
point,
the
other to
proceed
they
The
object
Given the natural
the
of
the
triad,
create
object
upon
of
in
diametrically
the
musician
scientist
is
whole down to the
down
single
thus leagues apart,
the
one proceeds to dissect

it.
When
the musician
as a
the scientist ranges from the
tone.
and
it
numbers and other proThese two processes are
exist for entirely different pur-
only point of contact between the two is

upon the value of which both are agreed.
The
triad,
to the vibrational
perties of the
poses.
triad
is
synthesis.
turns to analyse his composition he works from
triad
one
the
to square with the laws of the other.
directions.
analysis,
the
explain
to
perfectly natural, for while both start from the
opposite
it,
the
for
failure,
in
Efforts
acoustics.
as
SIMPLE STANDARD OF TONALITY

The
is
musician takes
able
to
him why he
tell
component
to the
proceed
means
simplicity in
octaves,
fifths,
music.
The
likes
it
the scientist
But when we
it.
parts of the triad, a deadlock
Consonance, by which the
once ensues.
at
because he likes
it
35
relation
scientist
points
of vibrations,
to
and fourths as the suitable foundation of

only
European musicians of this mind

who were unfortu-
were they of early mediaeval fame,
nately unaware of their scientific accuracy.
Now
it
well
is
known
and fourths have
that fifths
brought more argument into music than
all
the rest of
Consonance, by which the
the intervals put together.
musician means relations of tones that satisfy his ear,

points to the third as the fundamental musical interval.
Primitive melody constantly rises and
falls
by thirds
harmony in two parts moves solely in thirds

the harmony of the chord is built up of thirds
the
primitive
We
been
has always
third
have
beloved
by the
to deal here with a fact
natural
ear.
of far greater im-
portance to music than any in the science of acoustics,
and
if
consonance to music means the
in
a limited degree the
it
means the
fifth
fifth
and
third,
and only
fourth, while to science
and fourth and
after that the third,
it
two points of view are being named by

the same name which are by nature different, and should
is
clear that
be recognised as such.
This view of melodic origin

sive of the theory
the rising
easily
upon a
fifth
is
necessarily subver-
which selects the
falling fourth or
as the most primitive interval.
be shown,
radically
It
can
however, that such a theory rests
unsound
basis.
It
is
admittedly the
36
result of a
comparative study of scales, and of scales
The
only.
seem
be
to
thus
intervals
common
selected
nearly
to
all
are
which
those
known
If
scales.
the scale be regarded as the origin of music, then
would be reasonable to look
and indispensable
for the
most persistent
interval within the scale
the
If,
scale,
and
itself,
and of
to regard that as the origin of both the scale
melody.
it
however, we admit that music was before
that
the
implies
scale
development,^ and
yet
interval within the scale
look
for
itself,
we
a previous
the
most
melodic
primitive
are in the position
of admitting the origin of the chicken from the egg,
and
at the
chicken
in
Any one
of the
is
same time
order to
of proceeding to
discover
at liberty to
judge
its
dismember the
origin within
itself.
for himself of the value
evidence submitted by primitive melody, but
not to set aside that evidence in favour of the later
witness of the scale.
If
of music from primitive
we cannot discover the origin

melody, we shall not find it
elsewhere.
unfortunate that the question of primitive in-
It is
tervals
has been approached
hitherto from the
point
of view of intonation, the
exact ratio of the interval.
Hence,
are out of the question as
thirds,
it
is
said,
the most primitive interval, because they vary between
major and minor, and are sometimes not distinctly one

or the other, but a neutral shade between the two.
1
"
It is
advisable to guard at the outset against the familiar misconcep-
tion that scales are
made
and music afterwards. Scales are made in

make music, and continue to be altered and
generation." (Sir H. Parry, "The Art of Music,"
first
the process of endeavouring to

modified, generation after
chap,
ii.)
It

would be requiring' a
much
too
little
of the savage to
our modern idea of equal
expect him to conform to
temperament, but what we should look

if
2>7
for
find
to
is
he uses intervals that can be distinguished generically
one from another, as thirds from fourths,

sixths.
On
from
no doubt has ever been ex-
point
this
Thirds are
pressed.
fifths
fourths and
thirds,
show
fifths
no tendency to run into one another, and the major
and minor intervals are generally

guished.
that
is
viewed
It is
not so
wanted as a
much study
sufficiently
distin-
of exact intonation
knowledge of primitive music
in its relation to
consonance.
Unfortunately for music the ratios of intervals have
always had a fascination
for
We
modern systems of harmony
are
all
familiar with
which bid
fair to
troversies
of
rival
the theoretical
ingenuity the interval con-
in
The one common
Middle Ages.
the
character possessed by these theories
ness
of
primitive
intellect.
and
music,
is
their oblivious-
consequent
failure
to
formulate any conception of the evolution of interval
and chord.
standpoint,
into
The
working from the theoretical
has driven the
a corner
safe guide
intellect,
for
if
not out
natural
of sight,
the musician
is
practice
of music
whereas the only
the experience of the
ear and a knowledge of the general practice of both

the skilled and the unskilled in music.
It is small
wonder that harmony is considered amongst pupils an
intolerably dry subject, since they
of
how
it
comes
to be
what
it
is
sented with rules and a catalogue.
have no conception
and are merely pre-
To make
of pitch-outline of interest to students,
the theory
we must
take
38
them along the path

so far as
it
we
road
this
is
that
man
are able to trace
past has travelled,
in the
it
out.
It is
evident that
not the bypath of counterpoint, nor does
even begin with harmony, but with something too
simple to have hitherto attracted notice
the consonance
of melody.
In order to understand what
meant by
is
this
we
must divest our minds of the formula of the diatonic

This involves the evolution of the melodic key-
scale.
standard,
melody
in
type of scale by means of which
a fixed
and yet
able to develop itself apart from,
is
Melody of
accordance with, harmony.
kind
this
is
highly organised product and presupposes a long range

of development.
It is
a far cry from the most primitive
type to the melody of the average folk-song.
The consonant
pitch
intuition
and originates
The major
minor
third
third
is
of the
intervals
the
added
triad,
perception
the
in
is
a feeling
is
foundation
is
the
jfe=:q^=3=1^1=3
lower third gives
its
name,
of
one
one.
major
and
agree well together.
up
the
to
the
fourth
next
because
The consonant
one
When
octave
appears.
minor
It
the
the
is
this
the
must
since
third,
series
is
the
the
standard
To
it
triad
jfeî^^Êq
represents
which
simple
of rhythmitonal art
prominent
of the third.
to
These are the
melodically.
which
relative
for
the
more
consist
these
continued
interval
of
gap between
the top note of one triad and the bottom note of the

one
the
called
triad,
Since the
the next octave.
in
root,
tone of the
first
representative tone,
its
is
39
has the
interval of the fourth, taken meiodically,
this
satis-
The
fying effect of return to the essential note.
fifth
uses the lowest and highest tones of the triad, omitting
the central
and thus appears of the nature of
third,
Meiodically
a skeleton.
effect of the fourth, since
leaps
to
note
the
of
direction
the
has exactly the opposite
it
removed from
farthest
these
from the root and
starts
it
intervals
taken
is
When
it.
downward
instead of upward, their effect with regard to the root

is
reversed,
except
the
that
always retains
fifth
its
character of a leap.
ii
i
W
This
effect
is
one of great importance, since
pitch to gravitate to a centre,
which
rhythmic movement of relative pitch

not
a strong one,
and naturally
ceedingly limited nature, but
it
is
;
it
the essential
the impression
is
of an
is
itself sufficiently to
point on which the
been
This
invariably called the "tonic," and the second
note detaches
then
ex-
produces distinctly the
sense of a recurring centre or point of repose.

centre
sup-
with the earliest indication of the tendency of
plies us
is
it
move back
given
the
mind
desires to pause slightly
to the tonic.
name
of
"
triad.
To
its
In this function
as the door of the tonic.
the
dominant,"
independent function apart from

tone of the
form an independent
it
fifth
to
tone has
signify
character as
may be
and
its
fifth
regarded
40
When
cessively
all
this
practically
three
tones of the triad are used suc-
independence
and
tonic
two
the
disappears,
of
dominant
being
notes
bound
together by the third, thus producing the purely con-
sonant
Nor does
a single chord.
effect of
which represents the leap from the third and
^
It
it
~\~
^
^Z'
'~
suggest any independent character.
and as such
third,
and appears an organic
as consonant as the third,
is
tones
simply the inversion of the
is
the sixth,
fifth
part of the triad.
Tonic and dominant are the two tones that produce

elementary tonality, the rhythm which involves points
The
of recurring repose.
and
tonic
its
third produce
elementary consonance, without which no development

of this
primitive
tonality
can take place
the
three
tones together complete the consonant conception and
form the simple tonalitive standard.

intervals of consonance appeared
first
Whether these
successively and
were afterwards united, or whether they were discovered
harmony and afterwards
as
impossible
sung
in
to
say.
The
both forms
taken melodically,
fact
is
that
is
remains that they are
by tribes whose general culture
resembles that of the Stone Age.

putable fact^
it
these
further
indis-
very consonant intervals
form the material of blackbirds' song as any one
may
who listens intelligently to

They are to be heard also
bird
ascertain for himself
song
lesser
1
in
the spring.
and more
partial
degree
in
Referred to by Sir John Hawkins in the
in
the songs of other
first
chapter of his history.

birds.
41
would seem, therefore, that consonance has
It
a root in nature as well as in man.
The
standard, harmonically considered, has also
physical basis.
If
its
a single tone be sounded upon the
piano with the pedal held down, some effect of a whole
major triad
Hence
root or generator.
into
Its
upper tones are the
harmonics of the lower one named the
or
relatives
be heard.
will
the term "root" has passed
musical nomenclature, as signifying what
called
lowest tone
also
is
"fundamental bass" of any chord,
the
i.e.
its
the normal position of ascent by thirds,
in
a tone that requires to predominate to ensure a fully
consonant
effect.
than this
it
But root
in
is
music means no more
in
Even where
no sense a generator.
the harmonics are the actual chord, they do not occur

in
the order of the triad series, for the
comes
fifth
at
the twelfth and the third at the seventeenth from the
generator.
The
major triad agrees with
fact that the
the lower part of the harmonic series
unique position
in
accounts for
the general principle of chord formation, which

in
is
found
the predominance of the third.
There are varying degrees of consonance
in
intervals of the standard harmonically considered.
octave taken by
at
its
music, but has nothing to do with
all,
because
its
as to be hardly
tone.
The
effect in
itself
third
is
The
scarcely a harmonic interval
two notes are
such close
in
affinity
more than the doubling of the
single
and sixth produce practically a similar
both harmony and melody.
case with the
the
fifth
and
fourth,
This runs as follows
C,
Such
is
not the
because the successive

c,
g,
c', e',
&c.
42
and dominant must necessarily
relations of tonic
appear
in
of the
is
The
the united chord.
fifth
is
dis-
skeleton character
accentuated in harmony, and the fourth
neither the normal interval of the triad nor the
of two of these, as
the
is
It
fifth.
sum
comes thus within
the practical meaning of the word dissonance (or discord), the presence of any interval that contradicts those
Discords are wanted
of the consonant triad.
for the purpose of relieving the
concords.
is
necessary
certain proportion of concords to discords

in
consonant music, but
the use of discords
is
dissonance
is
effect of
consonance
music
in
monotony of perpetual
is
other respects
in
The
purely an aesthetic matter.

restless
and even painful
necessarily one of repose
ance the effect of the major tonic triad
is
of
that of
conson-
all
the most restful.

(1)
When
the triad
used
is
in
(2)
inversion
f
it
is
root
no longer
is
fully
consonant,
because,
firstly,
the
not in the bass, and secondly, both inversions
contain the dissonant interval of the fourth without any
doubling instead of the consonant third
thus they lack
the complete repose of the normal triad.

of the second inversion this
able than the
first.
We
is
In the case
very much more notice-
cannot end on
that there ought to be something
more
it
without feeling
to follow.
always indicates the presence of a discord.
This
These two
inversions both contain the third and the fourth, but

in
the case of the
scarcely noticeable.
are
are
first,
It
the interval of the fourth
is
has always been held that what
known as the extreme parts

much more prominent than
(the treble
and bass)
the inner or
middle

and
parts,
from
whether or not
be the root,
is
is
undoubtedly a
bass,
Therefore the
fact.
dissonance of the fourth only obtrudes
The most consonant
from the bass.
be gained when
will
the
even more important
This accords with the experience of
than the treble.

musicians, and
harmonic standpoint,
the
it
43
its
itself
taken
if
effect of a triad
principal tone, the root,
in
is
when its most

made prominent.
the bass and doubled in the treble, and
consonant interval, the

In the
third,
also
is
inversion the triad lacks repose because
first
does not rest upon the root, but prominence
and third tone
to the root
more extended
is
given
the treble and bass.
in
position, giving
prominence
it
to the fifth
tone
(gy
~""|
up
covered
in
is
the
second inversion
reduce
its
When we
middle.
The
consonance.
turn
to
the
work
these factors at
find all
is
to
interval of the fourth
is
the
bass,
be
we
consonant because the root
most prominent place possible directly upon the

fifth tone is prominent as the bass, and the
in the
root
less
is
Even
covered by the third tone.
placed
uppermost
i
^^=5=3
these
the root
if
conditions
are
:^:
practically
unchanged, because the fourth (now become
the eleventh)
If,
is
even more prominent than
however, the root be sounded
chord
is
heard
appears, because the root
and the
result
in the
in this position, its
is
is
it
was
before.
bass before the
dissonant effect dis-
heard as
if still
sounding,
a triad in the root position.
CHAPTER
VI
Lack of the semitone Causes of its

to scale
from early melody The semitonal instinct of the East
necessary to complete the scale of the West The European development The Asiatic development Mode and transposition Relation of
key to mode Modal development due to lack of consonant intuition
Eastern modal names.
Development from chord

omission
In origin consonant melody and harmony are one and
The primary
yet in use diverse from the beginning.
harmony
of
conception
stationary, a
is
chord,
single
while melody steps about continually upon the chord-
harmony
is
of direction only and there
is
So long
ladder provided by harmony.
movement
confined to a
no change of chord, consonant melody

to the
same
ment.
But
consonant.
it
The
not natural for
stitution of
an easy staircase
German
friends
prefer
ence
it.
The
between
to
move-
be always
chief point
in
the
It
is
like
the
of
interval
for the ladder.
word Tonleiter
in thinking
melody
melody
sub-
the
The
fact
have emphasised the ladder
part of the definition in their
need not disturb us
also confined
craves for a smoother, closer
voice
movement than the third, and

second makes its appearance.
that our
is
a steep ladder-like
chord-outline,
is
as
is
to
of
it
for scale
as a stair
emphasise the
if
differ-
chord-form and melody
scale-form.
44
we
in
be seen that four additional tones are re-
will
It
45
quired to turn the chord-ladder into the scale.

(4)
(2)
to
common
the
we may look
formula named pentatonic,
the ones that were
find
an incomplete
(7)
1=1=^=J=^
:d
i
w^.
To
(6)
Iq=1:
^
1
five-toned
first
used,
which runs as follows
scale,
(2)
(6)
P=^==1=^
:-]-^-^-^-ii--
This,
be perceived, consists of a succession of
will
it
two minor thirds and three
What
full-tones within the octave.
lacking to complete the scale
is
of the semitone.
When
are supplied, this
relation
the relation
is
the fourth and seventh tones
appears
in
the rise to
and the
tonic of the seventh, called the leading-note,

fall
of the fourth or subdominant to
The
third.
of
entry
later
the
the
mediant or
the
semitone
is
to
be
explained upon melodic grounds, by reference to two

essential
in
general,
one a condition of vocal music
the
factors,
other
the
due
to
the constitution of the
Western mind.
In the
sistent
all
place
characteristic
are
taken
speech
the
intervals
In
first
we have
of
all
to
early
reckon with a pervocal
music.
downwards, instead of upwards.

voice
naturally falls
to
is
of a
word cadence means a
the
the
close
asked which implies the absence
unless a question
close
The
fall.
The
46
singing voice
no exception
is
to
this
general vocal
more natural and therefore

easier to start fairly high and fall to the close instead
With instruments, however, the natural
of rising to it.
starting-point is the lowest tone available, the open
note of the string and pipe, and as all lower notes
are easily produced, it is usual to begin low, and to
rise thence to the close.
Hence the upward-tending
leading-note of modern art, the rise by semitone to the
tonic, and the downward-tending one of primitive music,
the fall by a full-tone to the tonic.
There is rise as well
and
instinct,
as
fall in
the
rise
strain.
far
is
it
primitive music, but with very few exceptions
takes
It
place
first,
and the
fall
concludes the
has been observed that the Orientals, whose
systems are principally vocal, think of their scales as

tending downwards, and this
is
natural
where no
in-
strumental development has occurred strong enough to

turn their thoughts in the opposite direction.
course, possible to
this
fall
by semitone
to
It
is,
of
the tonic, but
opposed to the constitution of the European
is
diatonic scale on account of harmonic relations.
The
the
slowness
actual
is
omission of the leading-note
for
thirds
Western mind
of the
interval
of the
and
is
grasping the
Its natural
semitone.
full-tones
in
further due to
the
instinct
semitone presents
itself as an interval that in the development of harmony cannot be ignored nor dispensed with, and that
has to be reckoned with in the ordinary practice of

diatonic
melody and harmony.
tone should
developments
lead
in
in
itself
harmony
to
is
But that
this
semi-
new and undreamed-of

a very recent discovery,

though
stood,
this is
summed up
words
chromatic
out
carried
to
of
that
all
the
look to
of
than
the
limited
its
under-
use.
free
In
meant in music by the

Chromaticism when
is
extent
full
of
origin
some
fully
diatonic.
even destroy consonance.

for
yet
else
little
instead
and
its
not
is
consists
it
the semitone
of
use
which
of
principle
the
47
It
apt to weaken and
is
therefore evident that
is
semitonal
this
tendency we must
other than the consonant intui-
instinct
which dominates Western music.
tion
There can be no harmony without this consonant

of a different sort, it is
instinct, but there is melody
true, from that to which we are accustomed, but still
melody, and indeed more essential melody than any
that the European system permits of.
As Mr. Hipkins
sympathetically remarked some years ago in his preface
to Captain Day's "Music and Musical Instruments of
;
Southern
India":
"The
greater freedom in musical
must be reckoned
intervals that melodic systems allow
as
compensating
in
some measure
those harmonic combinations of which our
music has such inexhaustible wealth.

in
the
possession of this
effectually
more
melody,
by consonant
estate
European
What we
lose
we
are
that
is
from the use and enjoyment of a
barred
pliant
rich
want of
the
for
chords,
free
from
the
a melody
imposed
fetters
which
has
a great
privilege in easily touching the emotions."
This
free
conditions
be
termed
minute
are
emotional
melody,
unknown, has
the
divisions
"
microtonal
of pitch.
its
"
which consonant
to
origin
instinct,
This
in
what may
the
instinct
love
is
at
of
the
48
same manner as the

consonant instinct underHes the Western art.
It is
true that the Hindus had developed at an earlyroot
Eastern
of
music
the
in
period a diatonic scale which accords practically with
own
our
when we
but
one of seventy-two
two
of
ours,
in
may be
one
against
as
And
notwithstanding the fact that
these seventy-two scales can be written in European
all
Hindus
notation, the
that
are
their
the
tiny
side of pitch
diatonic scale
but
no more than
our harmonic
it
and
quarter-tones,
it
is
their
a useful formula, and
West on
of East and
it
the
represents actual microtonal music
conveys any impression
in
itself
of
art.
According
scale-form
third
truth,
and primitive foundation of
only meeting-place
the
and doubtless with
assert,
the
srutis,
essential
The
music.
is
system,
their
in
is
very different relative significance
its
guessed.
learn that this very scale
is
to
the
view of music here
reached
by
two
the
set forth,
separate
paths,
European and Asiatic (since in Europe

and Asia is found the most striking development of
these converge till they meet in the common
either)
ground of the scale and then diverge again more
as
typified
widely than before.
The
path of European melody from
its
origin in the
consonant triad has already been suggested

is
of a far
owing
its
detail
more complicated character than the Asiatic
to the
conditions.
It
transition
is
from consonant to dissonant
here evident that
though subordinate
originally
become of greater importance
to
fifths
the
and
third,
fourths,
tend to
as consonant conditions
49
way to a dissonant succession. The third holds

own in giving the main character to the scale, but
give
its
the fourth and
become
acter
fifth
natural bulwarks, once the succession
its
or even a part of
is
it
well established.
On
account of
character they are the easiest intervals in which
this
to
with their sharp, thin decisive char-
tune stringed instruments, and such a tuning also
Any
represents the most convenient fingering.
stopped at two-thirds of
open
To
note.
the scale the fourth
ance, because of
its
is
of
fifth
of special import-
The European
to.
key-circle
simplest relation in the interval of the
its
These are reasons which account

the fourth and
fifth
its
natural division into the two tetra-
chords already referred

finds
length gives the
its
string
in all
for
fifth.
the position of
music, without insistence on
priority of appearance.
The
chords
a
general division of the octave into two tetra-
one
is
complete
octave
diatonic
too
is
that
much
appears
scale
to
in
melody long before
established.
is
grasp at once, and
whole
primitive
melody of the European order will be found to lie

either in the upper or lower division, or if it pass from
one to the other the change
is
in
the nature of an
and the two tetrachords are still kept disOnly in a later stage of development does the
tinct.
melody move freely from one to the other, breaking
alternation
down
is
the early division, and the tetrachordal character
thus one of the indications of a
type of the European order.
primitive melodic
In Asiatic
melody
it
is
less apparent.
The
relation
of
the
triad
to
the
tetrachord
in
50
music may be stated as follows

Taking
downward development of intervals, the first tetrachord commences on the dominant, takes next the
primitive
interval
of the third,
and then the second, arriving
on the downward leading-note or supertonic
the
missing
being
note
fourth
afterwards
the second tetrachord starts upon the tonic,
supplied
leaps to
the sixth or submediant, and concludes on the
fifth
'm^
completing
itself
later
in
the
same manner.
It
will
be seen that this reproduces the pentatonic formula,

with the difference that prominence
second tone of the

porary point
scale,
is
given to the
which thus suggests a tem-
of repose apart
from the
tonic.
It
is
not contended that the use of the pentatonic formula
was the only method of passage from chord to scale.

Frequently the third alone was filled up, thus giving
three notes in scale-form
and fragments of scales
existed long before the octave scale was complete.
Naturally, an exact uniformity of practice between
differing tribes and nations is the last thing to be
;
expected.
Infinite
variation occurs in detail,
general trend of evolution
is
unmistakable.
but the
Judging
from the persistence of the above-mentioned instances,

they are to be regarded as typical of the transition
from chord to
scale.
*
See Appendix, Sections A-F.

The
intervals.
tones
it
type becomes more developed,
this
will include full-tones,
a fourth or
fifth.
and even occasionally
thirds,
second equally frequent type con-
of the following intervals
sists
to consist
semitone or a
of a
distance
the
at
when
niicrotonal
from one another, which are incessantly
quarter- tone
repeated
in
is
most primitive type appears
Its
three
of
melody
Asiatic
of
origin
a quarter-tone,
firstly,
semitone, or full-tone, succeeded by

generally, the smaller the
some kind of
Sometimes two quarter-tones
cede the
This
third.
third
interval, the larger will
first
be the second.
appearance
its
New
parts of the world as
will pre-
known
formula
last is the
Greek enharmonic genus, but

different
51
as the
such
in
Zealand, China,
and Java shows that it must be a natural use and not

the highly artificial one it has been commonly supposed
to be.
This elementary type of melody

incomplete
the
of
scales
doubtedly been called

varied
emotional
East.
the
of
is
utterance
has
un-
desire
for
It
being by the
into
at the root
and
its
exact
intervals differ with the character of the race to
which
it
There
belongs.
is
found
in
in
pitch,
it
little
of the sensuous
delight in consonance which bulks so largely in
music.
third
this
down
as
variation
Western
admits the third before other intervals, but
It
is
is
not taken from the starting-note up or

the
case with
consonant music.
upon the microtonal
interval,
It
which
is
is
its
now
to
essential characteristic.
It
is
evident,
classify the
mass of
*
we have
tone-successions known
therefore,
that
See Appendix, Section N.
as penta-
52
two
tonic into
distinct
genera, the consonant and the
The consonant one
dissonant.
form based upon the
is
an elementary chord-
the dissonant
third,
an
is
ele-
mentary scale-form based upon the microtonal second,

from which point of view the third appears as a leap.
The consonant
type
is
invariably as follows
= 1-=1
,
or a transposition of this
of
much
variation,
coincide
with
that
actual
in
the dissonant type admits
and even
consonant
the
use
there
is
its
if
ones,
appear to
tones
it
be
will
found
upon
no emphasis
the
tones of the triad, no feeling of a triad with additional
subordinate notes
an entity which
the five tones form in themselves
is
all
In
sufficing.
addition
to this
the tuning differs frequently from consonant tuning.

All species of the pentatonic nature are, sooner or
merged into modal types, and lose both their

microtonal and their consonant character.
There is
later,
no
country
now
possessing
through
highway
The
it.
which
characteristics
may be
have
in
alone
usage that
is
not
scale
is
erases
of
a great leveller, a universal
many
interesting
pre-modal habit.
To
national
this
cause
assigned the fact that Siam, Java, and China

their present scales
Java
no interval smaller than
Siam has already passed the pentatonic
I of a tone.
stage,
pentatonic
the act of transition, or that has already passed
in
is
in
has occurred
the
act
of
transition
in
China
by royal edict a reversion from
the completed scale to the pentatonic type.
China
is
53
probably the only country where such an edict could

avail
to
knew
all
the
be
safely
much
has been
There can be no doubt
we
if
inherited
the reversion
that
stated to be.
is
it
is
it
of microtonal origin.
constant
the
to
does
foreigner
that whatever be the present
scale-form of these countries,
the
find
likely
complete than
less
Only ears trained
no
that
asserted,
know) we should very
with
of evolution, and
tide
the ins and outs of Chinese music (a thing,
may
it
back
cast
for
taste
hearing
microtonal
and
of
intervals
could possibly have evolved the peculiar scale-tunings
Siam and
of
remarks
notes
"
scale
musicians can
but
so
theory."
right
mode
degrees the fourth
effect
highly developed that their
Of
as could possibly exist.

is
sharp and the
the third and sixth are neutral
of the
scale
or semitones exist
when played upon
The Javanese
it
is
fifth
fiat,
struments are
an
its
that to Europeans,
"
violin
is
exact tones
London
if
The Art
The Chinese
intervals.
to
just intonation
approximation
not tuned
No
scale uses in about equal proportion
f,
emphatically
the general
a scale seen through a
and ^ of a tone for

endeavour to approximate
is
not true
is
Their scale consists of the
blurring out of the normal intervals.
I,
of the
they approximate the most nearly to equal tem-
perament
fog.
relation
octave into seven equal parts, clearly
of the
as non-consonant a
these
of the
by ear directly a note
tell
to the singular
is
Hubert Parry
the Siamese, Sir
Their sense
of the
division
Of
Java.
with
only,
for
precision.
this
their
The
is
in-
result
not to themselves, their music

of Music," chap.
ii.
54
At the same time
sounds out of tune.
hymn
of transposing a ceremonial
each occasion of
for
is
undoubtedly a
stereotyped
who
music,
gives
his
of
a song which
heard sung by Chinese
frequently
taining microtonal intervals.^

that
the
he had
London, con-
in
more than probable
It is
popular music of China does
to the orthodox formula C,

is
new moon)
the
microtonal habit,
Mr. James A. Davies,

observations of Maori
formula.
fragment
(at
of early
known from
best
is
into
a semitone higher
performance
its
survival
custom
the
conform
not
D, F, G, A, and
this
view
borne out by the strange assortment of notes
the scales of the various wind instruments, and

frets
of the
balloon-shaped guitar,
The
from one another.
all
of which differ
statement that
chromatic
all
notes are inserted for purposes of transposition

conclusive, because
most of them are not
places for the purpose, and
is
it
and not a
random here and
flat
is
in-
in the right
clear that for trans-
position in general a complete chromatic scale
quired,
in
in the
is
re-
or a sharp added apparently at
there.
These tunings
either indicate
the present use of chromatic notes or else are a sur-
when such were employed.
vival from a time
Chinese
music has run a chequered course, and has suffered
much from
imperial
By
agriculture,
divination),
and
all
musical instruments
were destroyed throughout the kingdom

p c.
246.
hands
books (excepting those on medicine,
all
and
the
She Huang-Ti, "the book-destroyer."
of the Emperor,
his orders
particularly at
edicts,
The subsequent
^
state
of
See Appendix, Section O.
in
music
the year
is
thus

graphically indicated in a
of
rise
Han
the
same
scarcely
dignity,
"At
Chinese treatise:
dynasty the
whose ancestors had
Chi,
great
the
music-master,
generations
for
remembered
55
held
anything
music but the noise of tumbling bells and
the
about
dancers'
drums," showing that the art had reverted to primitive

conditions.
In seekino- to understand the
the
of
scale
the
in
we
respectively,
relative siofnificance
and European systems

that its two main character-
Asiatic
shall find
istics
assume such
form
practically a difference of kind.
The
pitch,
has
scale
or
entirely different proportions as to
the
variation,
firstly,
of relative
mode, meaning the exact relation of each
note to the other irrespective of their absolute pitch.
Secondly,
process
has the variation
it
known
mode can be
as transposition, by which
transferred intact
but
it
to
is
the
the
pitch,
means any
a higher or lower
Both these variations enter
plane of pitch.
music,
of absolute
into
concentrating of attention
all
upon
one or the other that forms the essential difference
between Eastern and Western

Asiatic scale-form
art.
develops a profusion of modes
bewildering to the Westerner
who probably knows
two, the familiar major or minor.

to
regard
as
all-sufficient,
this
of
He
is
quite
is
disposed
and the notion of another
seventy or eighty added thereto

seriously.
These he
but
is
hardly to be taken
unconscious of the fact that
development of modes forms the essential basis

Eastern tonality
transpositions of his
same way as the

own two modes form the Western
in
exactly the
56
What
key-system.
West
with the key of the
mind.
the East that corresponds
in
is
it
is
probably a blank to his
he has ever heard of a "raga"
If
to be told that
day and
desses, hours of the
and so forth
obscurity.
In
much
has
it
to
it
is
only
do with gods and god-
night, seasons of the year
in short, that the subject
some such words
is
one of great
have most
these
as
of our historians dismissed the matter.
Probably the best way to arrive at an understanding

of the
omissions and
strange
scale-form,
to
is
account
modes, and why and
become keys
for
the limitations and
Why
have we only two
first
the properties of our own.
commissions of Asiatic
what manner do our modes
in
In answer to the
question,
first
must be evident
it
European music consonance forms a standard

Even when
that cannot at any moment be ignored.
the triad is to all appearance merged in the scale it
This fixed chordis in practice reinforced by harmony.
that in
conception, of which Orientals are unconscious, influences
the
mode
of the scale and limits
its
same time our modes are much more

than
but this
in theory,
is
due
At the
variations.
variable in practice
to the
development of
harmony and not to a desire for melodic variety.

It
can be shown that we use actually about a dozen modes,
though we admit but two.
tively a small
Still
even
this is
number, the greater part of which are of
recent use only
and since we are cut
off
sonant predilections from advanced modal
law of nature
direction.
compara-
it
This
by our conart,
must happen that we develop

is
the
reason
why
in
by the
another
our modes
have
57
become keys. The manner in which a mode becomes

a key is by reiterating itself on one and all planes of
pitch to the exclusion of other modes, until a definite
relation
begins
to
be
between the various
perceived
mode
planes of pitch on which this
used, and these
is
mind to the further exclusion of

between mode and mode. Uniformity of mode
relations absorb the

relations
with variety of plane of absolute pitch
is
the essential
character of key, and in order to develop a key-system
one mode must prevail or
The
thousands of years.
do
this
strength
and
due
to
its
only
mode
predominate
for
strong enough to
and
scale,
its
backbone of pure consonance,
and comparatively even arrange-
to the sequential
ment of
least
been our major diatonic
has
is
at
tones with regard to consonance, a modal
its
West
order from which the

This, in short,
is
never
has
departed.
far
the standard, without which no key-
system could have existed, and
mere variations upon
The key-system
all
modes are
other
it.
of the
West has
thus
its
origin in
consonance.
When we
meets us
is
is
turn back to the East, the
first
thing that
the lack of the consonant intuition.
There
mode against another,

mode within the bounds
nothing therefore to back one
nor to limit the variations of
One may be regarded
of possibility.
and prove
as a whole
itself
it
is
more useful than another, but taken

a democracy in which all have an
equal chance and each has

these conditions
with more favour
it
is
its
Under
one ruling mode
prescribed form.
clear that
the
necessary to create a key-system
will
never appear.
58
and hence the European key and

terra
incognita
Asiatic
or
the
to
East.
its
From
consonant melody,
naturally reflected in
the
modal
and
worked out
to the
teen
made
to consonant
in old
Arabic
division into third-tones,
As
plan.
is
treatises,
to
is
for trans-
be found
where owing
no fewer than seven-
of the eighty-four
transpositions
freedom
this
position of modes, the theory of this
beginning
the
melody has a freedom impossible
partially
fully
tonality are a
modes can be
simply as further
These transpositions appear

variations and give no hint of any
conception
key - system,
within the octave.
expected.
of
It
is
at least
cal
use was ever
all
probability
is
made
their
as
indeed
would
doubtful whether any
be
practi-
of such transpositions, and in
appearance
in
due to the desire of working out
work of theory
all
the possibilities
rather than to the practice of the musical imagination.

In Indian theory and practice no attention
absolute pitch
the singer suits his
own
is
voice,
paid to
and
is
guided by the pitch of the drum, which forms his invariable accompaniment.^
1 "The
key-note is always Sa^ and is taken of any pitch to suit the
requirements of the performer, or the nature of the instrument." (C. R. Day,
"The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan,"
This is also the view stated to be usually held of the Hindu theory
p. 37.)
(S. M. Tagore, " The Musical Scales of the Hindus,"
t)y modern musicians.
p. 95-)

The Names of the Decrees ok the Scale
in
the Various
Asiatic Systems with their English Equivalents

No.
59
CHAPTER
consonance
Two-part
VII
PRIMITIVE
HARMONY
-Principle
chord-sequence
of
Melodic
discord
The minor triad Dominant harmony Primitive harmonic material

The function of the bass Consecutive octaves and fifths Instru-
mental harmony.
Primitive harmony
is
The
the standard triad already described,
first
of these
the second
is
is
traceable to two distinct sources.
the accompaniment of melody by a lower
part in thirds, which seems to be

of
consonant
usage
primitive
volves
predilections.^
the
major or
than
diatonic
all
the
scale.
It
common
is,
to
however,
single
triad,
since
The
thirds
are
greater freedom than
when
but the harmonic result
not
speaking, not
confined to the chord-ladder,
only of value as a certain
is
harmony
chords into
knowledge, but
at
all,
all
that
for
there
We
may,
say
that, starting
harmony adds
built up,
third
is,
is
no
if
we
by the light of developed
is
really there
is
two melodic
from the perception of the

to
It
it
parts united by the essential consonant interval.
may
all
Melody here has a much
chord-conception necessarily involved.

read
in-
it
indication of the existence of consonant feeling.
like,
less
minor, but vary diatonically according to
the requirements of the scale.
strictly
races
all
third,
for all
We
third,
chords are thus
whereas melody here unites the scale principle

^
See Appendix, Section G.

60
HARMONY
PRIMITIVE
The
with the single third.
sonance, which will not in

of harmony,
because the
result
itself
synchronous voices.
may vary
its
but this represents
free
lead to the development
its
fifth,
this case
fourth, second, or seventh,
whole development.
popu-
Its
combines a
it
None
movement
of true harmonic
grappled with,
difficulties
are
is
it
in
which arise solely
out of the combination of melody with harmony.
though
by
or
sixths,
in
melody with the charms of consonance.
of the difficulties
at
Two-part consonance
due to the ease with which
is
requires
triad
monotony by moving
the single insertion of a
larity
a harmonic con-
is
harmonic
least three
6i
For,
melody without harmony,
possible to have
there cannot be harmony, beyond the single detached

chord, without melodic
When we
the
melodic
movement.
proceed to link chords together, at once

principle
enters
Purely
in.
consonant
chords and occasionally dissonant ones that are nearly

related to one another can be used disconnectedly in
the accompaniment of melody, and doubtless have been

so used from the time
was
first
stringed instrument
But primitive harmony
be thrummed.
not
when some
invented upon which one or two chords could
entirely
vocal,
and displays an
melodic succession of chords
formed of
at
least
that
is,
is
mostly
instinct
if
the
for
chords which are
three parts each proceeding
in
melodic manner, the chords being linked together by
means
one
of the scale principle.
triad
sing
as
begins to be used, this principle
appearance, and
to
As soon
in
it
is
more than
makes its
hard to say whether the desire
scale-movement
calls
for other chords,
or
62
whether the love of chords
Be
several parts.
the use of scale-form in
brings
succession
in
in
this as
it
may, wherever chords are sung, the two ideas of chordsequence and scale-movement are found together.
Western pitch-outline is that of

the combination of melody and harmony in the key, and
Thus
the history of
can rightly be understood without the other.
neither
As melody grows
combination with
sake
we
tabulate
difficulties
harmony begin.
chords
dissonant
fundamental discords to
passing discord which
of a
its
For convenience'
name them
them
from
the
more obviously melodic

however,
itself,
of
and
distinguish
is
Harmony
character.
the
dissonant,
is
essentially
consonant, and the natural introduction of dissonance

into
music
is
due
melody.
to
Primitive
harmony
is
purely consonant and the earliest discords in any con-
These run
sonant music are melodic ones.
upon the
up the
lines
of the
intervals of the triad,
is
and varying greatly
In the latter case, their only result
to produce scale-form, or to
the consonant tones
are
strengthened
make
variations
upon
called
\^~r~f''~^î S^^^^^^^Y
new
changing-notes, but a
they
in
they occur upon accented or
character according as
unaccented beats.
passing-notes linking
as
scale,
naturally
by
effect
the
is
introduced
strict
accent.
when
This
causes a retardation of the consonant tone which would
otherwise have occupied the accented position, but
now
relegated
to
less
different emotional effect
important one,
is
produced.
is
and thus a
HARMONY
PRIMITIVE
In melody
has been
it
is
fruitful in
more than probable
new harmonic
63
that this effect
suo-crestion.
The
fact
of special prominence being given to a non-consonant
tone calls attention to

lations
it
as a centre of
new harmonic
bass of another triad.
in short, as the
tone of the pentatonic formula, A,
The
re-
fifth
of no importance
is
harmonically while used merely as a passing or changing

note, but
be used
if it
is
once
at
let it
in relation
with
We
have the two
once suggested.
now
bottom and gives
at the
This minor
triad
is
similar
tonalitive relations of the fifth

exists only in
is
its
prominence
and a new
it,
thirds,
triad
but in
The minor
name
its
to
third
to the triad.
the major one in
and fourth
consonance.
necessarily the
this
above
^=ai3*~f~rj
a different order
is
appear strongly accented, especially
The
its
the difference
third next the root
more important one, and by giving
to the
minor
which
third,
is
indefinite
in
character, a triad of a weaker, less consonant type,
is
produced.
closely
These two
related
three notes in
it
one another,
minor
^^^^jS^H
"
of the
is
generally
happens that melodies founded upon the
wandering between two keys (major and

without ever settling
of a
known
first.
pentatonic formula frequently have a curious
lack
are very
having two of their
The second
common.
as the " relative
Hence
to
triads
defined
in
either.
centre
is
that
essential to the narrowest possible
The
effect of
relative minor)
reason for this
the chord which
is
harmonic conception
64
of key
This
is
is
incomplete.
essential third
Its
the triad of the dominant.
is
missing.
has been already
It
pointed out that the single tone of the dominant

to
able
suggest motion to and from the tonic, but that this
effect is
in
is
obscured by the third of the chord when used
To
arpeggio.
produce a satisfactory harmonic
effect
of this nature the complete triad of the dominant
The
quired.
which
rises naturally to the
tone, thus
to
its
dominant
third of the
by step of a semi-
tonic
appointed centre of repose
tonic
It
is
But
at the root of our music.
realise
difficult to
has not always
tone-formula
familiar
'^~'^^ 'a~^\
/^
y
M-tr^
and dominant, are the foun-
dation of the harmonic key.

this
the leading-note,
is
emphasising the return of the tone-movement
These two chords,

that
re-
is
it
will
been
be observed that
the early developments of the melodic and harmonic
keys respectively do
and
pentatonic
the
In both
not exactly coincide.

the
harmonic formula the
sub-
dominant of the complete melodic key is absent, but

whereas the melodic type takes the submediant and
omits the leading-note, the harmonic type does exactly
the reverse.
From
the harmonic point of view, after
the three tones of the tonic triad and the supertonic

note,
the
leading
note
important tone of the
single
scale,
to
triad,
although
us a very
unquestionably
advanced
once
soon requires
its
the
most
scale.
however,
Part-singing,
the
is
all
the
tones
harmony long remains
primitive
state.
The
in
triads
beyond
of
the
what
on
is
the
HARMONY
PRIMITIVE
subdominant,
times
supertonic,
leading-note,
dominant
the
replace
or
in
the tonic chord, and gradually
may
triad
fined
minor third
which
the
amongst discords
in its
these half-dozen chords
In
with
movement
is
being at the
on one note
singing in
the
of
top,
with
the pedal
from the
two upper
bass,
thirds
bass, or
with
of one
a harmonic
bass
only,
and
it
is
unique
of
to run as follows
of the third part,
hangs
It
moving above
at
third
note
in
the bass
there
are
is
first
and
it,
is
taken
is
a single melody above.
unless
melody
the
parts,
possibly the
complete the chord.
to
con-
of
suggests naturally
thirds
but the function
continuation
it
is
addition
contained the whole
the bass, has yet to be discovered.
called
submediant
the
priority of appearance.
development appears
actual
Familiarity
the
time
in addition
harmony.
primitive
The
may appear
which occupies
triad,
with
alternation
its
dominant seventh, the

to
some-
will
Harmonic discord
be found.
also
the
to
position
by
dominant,
the
to
65
This
not in itself
two voices above
Combined with a melody
merely a drone, of no harmonic significance,

found equally in Asiatic music.
When the bass
is
ceases to
cling
to
the tonic and
takes a step,
probably of a second, to another note, the
and the
real
very
difficulties
development of harmony begin.
Three
moving parts are a very different matter from two,

and instinctively the true harmonic bass is felt to be
on a different footing
is
sluggish,
to the
upper
parts.
Its
movement
and tends towards alternation of two
which generally involves alternation of
triads.
notes,
The
66
distinct
harmony
with
as the supporter of the
function of the bass
soon
is
realised,
and
seldom
is
confused
the airy freedom of the upper parts.
find
the
look
to
development of harmony, we must
natural
movement
the
Thus, to
of the
The more
bass.
The
the less primitive the music.
however, even
true harmonic bass,
an advanced stage of development,
in
never approaches the agility of the upper parts.

bass
artificial
is
contrapuntal
ecclesiastical
The
eras
the harmonic sense, but a melodic
all in
part in the bass

of
the
of
not a bass at
the
movement,
variety of actual bass-notes and the freer the
counterpoint that
very different thing.

all
the
must
parts
The dictum
be
on
the
same footing, is entirely opposed to the natural practice

of harmony which puts the bass from the beginning
upon a
different
tinction that
is
footing from the other parts, a dis-
maintained throuQhout the whole rangre
and course of rhythmitonal
art.
Until four distinct parts are sung, chords in suc-
somewhat incomplete, but it is

evident from the examples ^ we possess that three vocal
parts were sometimes more than the performers could
cession are necessarily
attune entirely to consonance
an upper part
may
lapse
into octaves with the bass, and queer intervals occa-
Nevertheless, what
sionally occur.
about this primitive harmony
harmonic
are
in
fitness
no
is
is
its
most remarkable
general sense of
in the relations of intervals.
sense
dissonant
octaves between vocal
parts
intervals.
are
usually
Octaves
Consecutive
avoided
in
close vocal part-writing, because they involve the lapse

^
See Appendix, Sections H,
I, J.
HARMONY
PRIMITIVE
of one
and the over-balance of another by its

the octave, which means loss of harmonic
part
doubling in
balance and fulness of tone.

of use the octave
can
be
are
is
But
in
all
Not
of
our
As
opinion.
so
aware that consecutive
painfully
are impossible alone, and primitive singers of
were
modes
other
all
a perfectly harmless interval that
employed consecutively.
freely
We
fifth.
67
we,
they
the
fifths
harmony
disguised
the
skeleton character by the addition of thirds.
By
this
means the ear ceases

produced by two fifths
satisfied
to detect the disagreeable effect

in succession, since
by the relations of the
No
thirds.
is
it
subject in
has been so frequently dogmatised upon as
music
this,
and
no rules have been more entirely disregarded by composers
when they happened
to
effect.
The whole matter
actual existence of fifths
these are
in
more
is
in
fifths
this
possible.
one object
That some
admit.
of the
consecutive chords, since
manner
are introduced, and the intervals
not the elimination of the
all will
not
question,
by which they are accompanied.
have
forbidden
often there than not, but of the
which these
subject
want the
All the rules on the
in view,
fifth,
the disguise and
since the latter
disguise of bare fifths
The degree
is
is
im-
required
of disguise required
is
the
debatable point, and this varies with the nature of the

composition, with the character of the effect to be pro-
duced, and
of the
last,
but not least, with the individual taste
composer.
The
ordinary rules
laid
down
for
the avoidance of fifths in two consecutive parts accord
with
primitive
ditions
vocal
generally
best
practice,
suited
and prescribe the conto
purely
vocal
part-
68
writing, but entirely ignore those of instrumental music
generally,
many
varied effects can combine to render
noticeable.
effect
and especially of orchestral work,
The
of
training
the
greater
service
to
to
fifths
un-
detect
the
all
conditions would
future
composers than
of consecutive fifths under
prove of
ear
which
in
a deaf obedience to rules frequently at variance with
modern usage, and of which no reasonable explanation
The
can be given.
primitive singer had certainly no
rules to follow, and, therefore, the fact of the absence
of consecutive fifths from primitive
due
to the instinctive
avoidance of harshness
in pitch-
an instinct essentially consonant which exists in
outline,
European
all
harmony must be
and Africa
The
races,
and
to a great extent in
only requiring development by practice.
also,
evolution of instrumental
a later growth,
development.
America
It
but
it
harmony
follows on
the
is
necessarily
lines of
vocal
does not seem likely that instruments
have had anything directly to do with the evolution of

actual chord-material.
They may account
for curious
intervals occasionally to be found in native music, but
these are mere passing incidents.
conformed
itself
to
harmony,
The
not
instrument has
harmony
to
the
instrument, but in the harmonics of the natural pipe
and horn and string

the consonant triad.
lies
On
the physical connection with
account of the limitations of
early instruments, instrumental
slower of development than

is
its
harmony
is
considerably
vocal forerunner, but
it
by no means an exact imitation of vocal harmony.
From
the
the
beginning the distribution of the tones of
harmony
varies
according to the nature of the
PRIMITIVi:
instrument.
will
HARMONY
Thus instruments giving a
produce sustained chords
69
sustained Lone
the twanging of strings
gives rise to the broken detached chords
geneous character of vocal
many
varied
material
of
harmony
types spring up,

the
native
European orchestral
1
the
homo-
disappears,
and
which form the tone-
orchestra,
the
evolution.^
See Appendix, Sections K, L, M.
prototype
of
CHAPTER
VIII
ADVANCED HARMONY
Limits of chord-formation
Summary
of diatonic
chords Development
primary principle Augmented and diminished triads Major

and diminished sevenths Ninths and minor sevenths Definition of
chromaticism Chromatic modal inflexions Summary of European
modes The dominant leading-note Blending of modes in the key
Chromatic harmony Principle of chromatic chord-sequence.
due
to
The
of harmonic formation,
principle
upwards, being that of ascent by

their original positions are
or
three,
add
five
or six,
thirds,
up of
respectively.
thirds
four
built
after
from the triad
It
all
chords
thirds,
is
in
of two,
needless to
manner of some harmony
the
systems, for these so-called chords are practically never

complete,
and any additional notes which cannot be
reduced to the four-third chord are easily explainable

as
melodic discords.
chord of the ninth (so

a ninth),
but
little
used
in
comparison with the two-
and three-third chords, the
third
the
is
Even the four-third chord, the

named because four thirds make
seventh,
harmony
is
within
whose
triads
inflections
practically contained.
and chords of
the
whole
of
This may be studied
in the diagram on the following page.
harmony is, it
Each tone
observed, a very simple matter.
The
scale,
and
in
its
evolution
of diatonic
both major and minor modes, bears
will
be
of the
its
triad
seventh, the intervals of which vary according

70
ADVANCED HARMONY
to
the
modal diatonic
by any means equally
chords are
include
nearly
types
all
strident to
all
Not
inflections.
the
of
discord,
weak and
71
all
useful,
from
indefinite.
of these
since
they
harsh and
Yet they have
the
a certain value in extending the limits of
the harmonic key, and bringing a

into diatonic
harmony.
much-needed variety
72
a consonant triad demands one major and one minor
Nowhere
third.
could
the
observed
better
augmented one
than
the
in
produced
effect
major thirds or two minor ones
dissonant
two major
consists of
two
by
be
juxtaposition
in
The
triads.
and
thirds,
is
a harsh dissonance, because each major third suggests
own
its
two
character
minor
which
thirds,
are talven from the
from the root

fifth
to
tract
it
it
effect
of
effect
that
the
the two major
form
that
fifth
evident from
is
is
it
fact
that
dissonance
is
from
the
sixth,
when taken alone
sixth,
which
is
fortunately impossible to have a chord of the
interval of the
because the
thirds,
major seventh does not admit of more
Nature herself has
and one minor one.
two,
thus set a limit to the clashings of major thirds
we have more than enough

and even painful
seventh
where
adds to
the
these
the
interval.
seventh consisting of three major
of
the
fifth,
The augmented
disappears.
a concord, and therefore
is
the
if
tone be removed, leaving the bare
indistinguishable
more usual
than
triads
an exactly similar interval to the minor
is
It
of these
(which they contain) reckoned
fifth
and not the augmented
central third
is
the
into
an augmented one, the two minor thirds con-
dissonant
which
together
two major thirds extend the normal
to a diminished fifth
thirds
fifth
blend
contains
triad
The names
type of discord.
softest
all
diminished
the
is
effect
the
discord
the
one
them
of the chords
ugly
of
of
interval
the
formed
rival
of
but
the strident
in
of the major
the
thirds.
seventh
The
upon the major
best
triad.
ADVANCED HARMONY
yz
with the minor third as mediator separating the two
major ones
There
of
minor
thirds
chord
in
and
diminished),
(called
the
in
diminished triad repeats and

the
minor
single
increases
the
with
the
way
same
the
of
seventh
character
of the
the
minor
nothing
another
the
as
effect
diminished
indefinite
is
seventh
the
of
intensifies
so
There
triaid.
clash
to
third
third,
further
still
diminished
prevent the union
nothing, however, to
is
three
(6)
(4)
(1)
interval
in
possesses
it
none of the decided nature of the major third and

combines well with
therefore
resembles a
seems
it
to
nonentity
diatonically
the
but
to
left
without a shepherd.
itself
it
nature
Its
be that of gentle indeterminate hesitation
the
is
sheep
it,
to
the
Although
of music.
leading-note
of
chord of the diminished seventh
suggestive of any key, and
practically
belonging
minor
the
is
it
not
is
in
at
scale,
itself
home
anywhere and can precede or follow any other chord,

but the
It
is
mind soon wearies of
its
ambiguity.^
evident that the chords most useful to music
1 As the octave divides into four minor thirds, there are naturally only
three of these chords in existence in equal temperament, since at the minor
third the first inversion of the first chord presents itself, all the inversions
being necessarily similar to the root position, as the chord contains but
By means of altered notation all these inversions
one kind of interval.
are made to appear different chords belonging^ severally to various keys,
and this notation presents an extreme case of the making of distinction
without difference.
It is caused by the desire to bring the chord into
an appearance of key-relation which it does not naturally possess.
74

more
are those which contain one major third, and not
than one.
These,
form the indispensable part of
in fact,
diatonic harmony.
possible exception exists in the
major ninth, which adds a major third to the chord of

the dominant seventh, where, owing to their greater
distance apart, separated by two minor thirds, the effect
of the major thirds
combined
chord
they
as
smoother
not disagreeable
is
with
are
than
interval
'
f- ^
fw
major
the
major
the
ninth,
The
seventh.
minor ninth, with three minor
of the
thirds,
and but one major, has the disadvantage of a harsh

interval in
Such
ninth.
its
not the case with the
is
Here
chords of the minor seventh.

factory effect
the bottom
obtained
is
fc=gEd
when
This
the most satis-
the major third
kind, to be found
its
only upon the dominant in diatonic use.

similar
among
position
amongst
dominant
triad
acteristic
of the
sevenths
triads
it
key than the
at
the familiar chord of
is
the dominant seventh, the type of
is
to
occupies
It
that
of
the
even more char-
is
since
triad,
it
cannot
occur diatonically in any other scale.
The
its
last
foundation of a major third, and therefore
character.
in
two chords of the minor seventh
The more
the middle (the
_n
major
usual type has the major third
same form
as the minor triad)

n
\
I
L_
'
#=J=^=g-=[f#t^S=[)
(2)
its
lack
(3)
(4)
(4)
ADVANCED HARMONY
and the remaining one has the major
75
third at the top
(2)
and,
being
upon the diminished
built
takes
triad,
its
character from that chord.
Nearly
chords are capable
these
all
versions, which
do not greatly change
of three
in-
their character,
since they are dissonant in the root position, but the
dissonance
always more marked
is
owing
version,
to the
in
the second in-
prominence given to the
It remains now
harmony, those that carry the key beyond
fourth.
to consider the chromatic types of
limit of the diatonic scale.
assume severally an
its
melodic
Consonance and dissonance
entirely
character
different
ac-
cording to their combination with diatonic or chromatic

relations,
their
and
chromatic
forms
appearance quite as soon
made
dissonance
of
not before, those
as, if
of consonance.
must be explained here that
It
word chromatic does not imply a

semitonal
scale
for
the
diatonic
of the
use
this
substitution of the
one.
means a
It
chromatic (a semitonal) variation of the diatonic scale.

It is
the varying of the standard
mode by
other forms
of inflection which do not offer sufficient variety of har-
monic material
in
to
word
"
minor,"
how many
Clearly
it
but
actual
is
three separate
be considered as independent modes
We
themselves.
practically
we have
sum them
not
distinctly
modes are contained
not a single
scale,
as
modes are recognised
up
all
is
in
in the
realised
this
type.
the major, for
as belonging to
it.
76
the matter to consider
It will simplify
point of view of the
complete
scale.
general use in
tetrachord,
it
from the
of the
than
rather
There are but four tetrachords in

European music, for any others depart
too far from the
They may be named
of practical service.
be
to
as follows
Chromatic.
Diatonic.
,
mode
of the major
standard
1-
z^-mt
Augmented.
Neutral.
^3SE^4be seen that the two centre notes are the
It will
only
variable
exact
reverse
the
of
chromatic tetrachord
the
is
one
two
diatonic,
taken downwards
semitone
neutral
ones
full-tones
combination
the
of
augmented the reverse combination,

augmented second from Al7 to B.
tetrachords
are
found
be
to
in
upwards
of
instead
our
is
the
and a
;
the
and
the
containing
the
two,
these
All
ordinary
four
major
and minor modes, which present, however, only a few

of the
possible combinations.
two diatonic tetrachords

for
its
base,
and
the minor has
upper
its
The major
may
part
chromatic, or augmented, as follows

[G
It
appears
E*?
from
A B C
G Ab Bb C
[g
Ab B
this
that
consists of
the
be
neutral
diatonic,
(Diatonic).
(Chromatic).
(Augmented).
our
minor scale does
ADVANCED HARMONY
the major one, consist of two similar tetra-
like
not,
chords.
The
repeated
tetrachord
the
as
reason
for
this
other
than
chord
an
the
an
exceptional
no
reason,
these and
mode
in
and
not
kindred
other
alters
very
this
we
use,
which
a
regard
There
one.
should
types
must
occurs
it
typical
why we
however,
Any-
diatonic
it
and not as a normal one.
form,
exceptional
Therefore
apparent.
the
common
in
is
is
and although
chord of the dominant,
altered
^^
not
be
is
recognise
based upon
the four
tetrachords as occasional modes, which indeed accords
with the
of
practice
composers,
later
we need
but
not give them to children to play upon the piano.
Those modes based upon two

sound
best
of
possible
all
which
those
Owing
are
juxtaposition,
the
in
and
excepting
chromatic
together.
these
two
not
satisfactory
when
placed
scale
appearing
nature
The modes work
itself.
admit
tetrachords
of
opposite
they
chords,
diatonic
the
tetrachords
combination
of
varieties
mix
the
to
but
melodically,
similar
out
tetrain
to
have no unity
as
shown on the
following page.
It will
use of
of
all
be seen that the tetrachords account for the

the twelve tones of the octave in the scale
excepting
subdominant
Hindu
Ftf-
This note occurs
mode and
scale-form.
It
is
found
in
in
the
natural
Hungarian and
could, of course, be considered
as forming another tetrachord, but this seems foreign
European custom, which

as the tritone,^ and limits
to
Three
dislikes
the
use
full-tones in succession, C,
what
of
D, E, FJ.
is
it
known
to
one
78
ADVANCED HARMONY
mode
key
it
to
of
leading
rises
Whenever
only.
It
much
tlie
semitone
risino-
as
simpler and more
leading-note to the domi-
suggestive of
strongly
in
same manner
the
as
it
occurs
as
therefore
is
accurate to regard
nant,
often
precisely
in
C.
to
most
is
note
this
79
key of G,
the
though
not necessarily implying the leading-note of that key.
The dominant harmony
stands on a different footing
may be
from that of any other, forming what

the
pivot
the
of
and
key,
undoubtedly
it
called
does
in
practice possess a leading-note for harmonic purposes.
any
Melodically
by
proached
without
notes
appearing
in
way
our
we
art
clearly
even
are
these
common
one
only
in
blend
one
in
into
because
it
ap-
harmonic
in
key,
such
means
that,
of
which
be
mix up modes
Eastern music, where tonality
is
possible
it
to
convenient,
between
major
distinct.
as
and
mixed.
Ef?
rule,
minor,
and
At?
In
to
but
are
actually incorporated
is
minor
recognised
types.
It
is
modes are kept

the general tendency of harmony is to
melodic music
these together.
flections.
change
major, and Aq
purely
form
any
frequently
the
of
for
semitone
falling
mode being kept
find
distinguish
distinct,
it
impossible to
own
can
scale
mode, they belong harmonically
to the
upon each
depends
the
chromatic,
as
Hence
key.
of
involving
though foreign
the
or
rising
music
to
degree
Strictly speaking, there
of
key, and
Of
these the minor
alters the
that
this
is
is
subject
but
modal
in-
the only typical mode,
chord of the
can have but one inflection.
to
is
tonic,
and
this
The dominant
chord
triad
or
8o
Upon
seventh has no inflection whatever.
the essential
foundation of these two chords the key grows by con-
adding other chords on the
tinually
lines of the
major
and afterwards of other modes.

be
will
It
however,
noticed,
semi-har-
the
that
monic modes above given do not admit of dominant
They
harmony.
or
supertonic,
lack the leading-note or the normal
a tonic only, which
dominant
other
accompaniment
be
added
is
these
have
mode
a few consonant
to
the
key-
Thus, when a chord
such a
to
but
used,
incomplete.
modal character
the
can
triads
strictly
all
not in itself a key without the
is
conception remains
be confined
Harmonically
both.
this
triads,
must
else all
be destroyed and replaced
will
by that of the key.
The development
in
its
modes, but when
of the function of the dominant
admits of only major and minor
early stages
has
this
lished
then other modal
selves
in
way
the
what
appears
tendency
by semitone.
kind
this
semitone
less
is
of semitonal
strengthen
to
and
thus
harmony.
Its
inflection,
chromatic
called
first
estab-
begin to assert them-
types
the
position
and dominant by leading up or down
tonic
of
is
at
is
become thoroughly
of
to these
In the diatonic scale only one semitone
the
exists,
of the scale
important, and
falls
leading-note.
The
other
to the mediant, which
when taken
in
is
the reverse order
apt to suggest the leading-note of the subdominant
key,
easier
that
For this reason it is always

pass downwards from one key to another,
fifth
to
is,
to
below.
increase
in
flats
or
decrease
in
sharps,
ADVANCED HARMONY
than
proceed
to
In
the
reverse
order,
8i
because,
as
already stated, the leading-note to the dominant (the
key
next
whereas
sharper)
lies
outside
leading-note
the
scale,
subdominant
the
to
diatonic
the
key
(the next key flatter) lies within the scale.
The
first
chromatic
additions
the
of
semitonal
nature are those above and below the dominant note
minor submediant and the dominant leading-note)
(the
and the semitone above the tonic
To
these
must
scale.
The
chiefly
dissonant
or
tonic.
be
added
chords
and
now capable
key
The
actual
to
new
its
of
the
notes
are
third
these
resolve
havincf
of suggesting a
and the chords leading

dominant.
upon
must
The dominant
minor
the
founded
upon
dominant
leadinQ:-note
tonic a fifth
higher,
are of the nature of
it
dominant seventh of
this
its
new
borrowed, and appears upon the supertonic of
is
the original key.
The major
triad
on
this
degree
often used instead of the chord of the seventh,
is
and
same manner
in the
is
chromatic chord, called the chord of the aug-
mented
seventh,
sixth,
can
and
identical with the tones of a
be used on
the
and the chromatic supertonic
dominant
minor submediant
(2).
The
seventh
is
(i)
now
82
written as an augmented
sixth
order to show
in
its
inevitable semitonal tendency

(1)
(2)
^
The augmented
is
the dominant
from
sixth
leading-note,
and the corresponding
interval from the chromatic supertonic
To
leading-note.
submediant
minor
the
is
the diatonic
write such intervals in their original
notation of sevenths, as a flattened dominant or tonic

respectively,
would be
to
ignore the reason
for
the
existence of these chords.
Two
and
other chromatic chords
differing
similar
in
by a semitone only from
positions,
these, are called
the chords of the augmented fourth and sixth
They
have, however, a different origin.
The one which
appears to be on the minor submediant contains the

interval of the
tonic.
minor diatonic seventh of the super-
This points to
on that degree, with

altered to include the
submediant
chord
its
^b-
of
third.
not a third at
all,
two
As
origin as a diatonic seventh

third
and
augmented
consists
diminished
its
In
chromatically
on the minor
sixth
this
major
fifth
altered
thirds
divided
this so-called third
is
but a second in disguise,
often than not inverted to form
form
by
the
practically
it
is
more
an augmented sixth,
ADVANCED HARMONY
83
which must resolve upwards and downwards upon the
The corresponding chord on
octave of the dominant.

the chromatic supertonic
with flattened
or
fifth,
augmented
leading-note
Many
must resolve on the tonic
sixth that
n-:
is
merely the dominant seventh
is
which produces a diminished third
in
very
on
seventh
diminished
common
the
dominant
use-
other chromatic dissonances are used, but these
appear
passing
as
being
not
chords,
fundamental discords, and are
recognised
usually resolved
as
semi-
tonally.
Chromatic concords
the
same degrees
acteristic
as the
as
made
first
their
chromatic
one being the major
appearance on
dissonance,
triad
known
itself,
and
triads containing a tone of the tonic triad
note
all
major
were gradu-
added
(G)
(C)
To
in inversion
Neapolitan sixth
principle of tonic relation asserted
ally
a char-
these
(i),
followed
(E)
(E)
major triads on the leading-
the
and dominant leading-note
that on the
minor seventh (3)

(1)
Q-
5*
(2)
1
(3)
(2),
leaving only
84
This
last
had been
triad
and
music,
siastical
was
constant
in
use in
eccle-
without
assimilated
easily
disturbance of the key.
The
chord-relations of major chromatic triads with
those of the minor key, of minor with major, and minor
with minor, have each a necessarily different character,

but the same principle of semitonal inflection underlies
their effective
use and combination, as in the case of
major with major, and so long as the tonality
is
under-
stood, there need be no limit to the free use of chromatic
harmony.
The
restrictions
the head of " false relation
The
commonly
"
essential unity of tonality
different keys
this
for
is
the actual
training
of
fifths,
matter, varying,
like
this general principle
the
for
the
ear,
its
i.e.
they were proceeding
if
much
quently decide each case on

practical
must be maintained
but apart from
a matter not so
down under
are arbitrary and useless.
two parts must not sound as

in
laid
own
the
text-books as
which must
merits.
It
freis
use of consecutive
with the form, style, and character of the com-
position,
and the idiosyncrasy of the composer.
CHAPTER
IX
THE COMPOUND STANDARD OF TONALITY
Compound
standard of pitch compared with that of

and atonic proportions Growth of the key Relation
of discords to the key Resolution of discords The principle of the
bass Effect of chromaticism upon the key The key-circle and
Definition of key
time
Syntonic
modulation.
The word "key"
music does not imply only a selec-
in
tion of tones in scale-form or an aggregate of chords,
but conveys the
of the rhythmic
idea
movement by
means of v^hich definite pitch-relations are recognised.

Thus we may know all the details of harmonic formation and yet have no knowledge of the key.
It
is not a solid entity that can be pulled to pieces and
accounted
for
like
rhythmic movement
formulas
chord,
but
music that
in
is
it
based upon the
is
and the chords, the growth of
of the scale
which we have traced from the primitive
The
nature
of this
condition of
state upwards.
rhythmic movement has already
been described as circling away from or gravitating

towards a given centre.
This centre
any departure from which

calls
for
to
other
is
the tonic triad,
tones or chords
a return to the point started from.
primitive condition
the tonic and
some
it
is
In the
mainly the alternation between
other triad, normally the dominant,
that causes the rhythmic effect.
pendulum swing from
This
is
not a
mere
side to side, but a setting out

85
86
from or towards a clearly defined point, whose position
tone-movement, drawing
the whole
affects
intervals, regular or irregular, to the central

is
immediately recognised by the
we
back at
base which
Such
ear.
alternation soon vanishes into a larger
it
definite
movement.
If
consider the harmonic key as depending originally
on the tonic on the one hand and the dominant on the
whole remainder of harmonic
the
other,
has come
weights
in
upon one
own end
its
possibilities
Yet the
side only.
tonic
of chord-detail, consonant and dissonant, which
posed to
a relation which
thrown
into a
musical
may widen
out,
op-
the essential
The
simile
pond may serve as a further
unique
this
is
is
the fact of tonic predominance
overwhelmino- odds.
against
circles
is
modern key
fact of the
of
This
it.
still
mass
of the scales in spite of the
of a
However
rhythm.
stone
illustration
far
the
they do not affect the position
of the centre, which remains always a point of rest.
Technical terms are needed to convey the idea of
rhythmic motion, for which purpose the words con-
this
sonant and dissonant are useless, indicating only conditions of
harmony.
of repose
We
" syntonic "
gold
"
to
be
in
name
the centre
and the tone-movement through
other chords "atonic."
ment
will, therefore,
It is
possible for a whole
move-
"
Rhein-
syntonic outline, as
is
Wagner's
Prelude.
These
outlines can exist only in alternation,
if
we
except rare instances of a mixture of tonic and domi-
nant harmonies.
In these cases neither the syntonic
nor the atonic impression

effect
is
intended.
It
is
is
complete, and a mixed
clear
that
this
compound
COMPOUND STANDARD OF TONALITY

standard
is
much more complex nature than
of a very
that of time-outline,
^7
and
this
is
due partly to the
rela-
of consonance and dissonance, but
still more so
manner in which this standard has grown up.
While the compound standard of time involves diffi-
tions
to the
culties of
varying and sometimes irregular numbers of
beats in the bar,

character, that
necessarily
it
nevertheless of an entirely strict
is
to say,
it
consists solely of time-beats
The
of equal duration.^
all
compound
the
is
tonalitive standard
is
peculiarity
that
it
of
consists of
the syntonic outline, the simple standard, in combination with atonic outline
that
is
to say,
that the larger
standard, the key, represents a higher stage of develop-
ment, in which what was once variation upon the tonic

is
now become
this,
essential
to
the key.
In addition to
the melodic and harmonic standards are distinct
from one another, and yet must admit of combination.

In time-outline, where
much
of the relations are practi-
cally synchronous,
such conditions could not
in pitch-outline all
chords are heard only
and
their relations are
reason there
is
exist,
in succession,
thus successive only.
For
This
case in time-outline.
is
of
not
its
material
excluded
An
it,
the
examina-
shows that the syntonic
from
is
a relation apparent in the
actual structure of atonic chord-outline.
are
this
found a milder order of contrast and a
greater degree of relation in pitch-outline than
tion
but
tones
provided they are used
in atonic relations.
Since there are only twelve tones

^
Except
in
in the octave,
and
cases of accelerando or ritardando, either of which cause a
relaxation of the standard.
88
from these twelve major and twelve minor triads are
made,
it
times
in
position,
evident that each tone must be used three
is
major
triads,
occupying each time a different
and also three times
similar circumstances.
Of
minor triads under
in
this material syntonic outline
occupies one quarter, being
in
the proportion of three
Atonic chord-outline thus consists of
tones to twelve.
a network of tones, fully a quarter of which

of syntonic
material.
Out of
major and
eleven
the
composed
is
twelve minor triads available in any major key, six
major and three minor triads contain one syntonic tone
and three minor
each,
triads contain
two syntonic tones,
leaving only five major and six minor triads of purely

atonic origin, or less than half of the whole number.
These syntonic tones

of the
key
are the strands on which the
web
spun.
is
When we
turn to purely diatonic relations the pro-
portion of syntonic to atonic tones rises from a quarter
There are but
one-half.
to
scale as against those of the tonic-chord
the
eicr-hth
indicates
that
which
relation
is
deg^ree
of the
strictest
is
tones
four atonic
scale.
type
and
The
its
in
the
octave,
diatonic limit
and atonic
of syntonic
European melody
the melodic key.
thus seen to be a far stricter species than harmony,
and
this
melody as melody
loses
its
character
special
when the bounds of diatonic outline are overpassed.

Harmony, as has been shown, continues to expand
itself in
Upon
the direction of dissonance and chromaticism.
the
chromaticism
relations as
well-worn
floods
paths
in,
of
obliterating
boundaries, and
dissonance
diatonic
the
old
enlarging the
diatonic
movement
tones are brought within
of circling rhythm until
all
the compass of one key,
or, in
other words, are drawn
One may
towards the one centre.
89
What
well ask,
is
the compelling power in this single tonic triad that can

so attract
mere
all
other chords towards
satellites
of
system
its
The
become
that they
it
truth appears to
be that the compelling power resides, not in the triad

itself,
but in the desire of the mind to return to
it,
the
desire for orderliness and coherence, which in this case
can be gratified only by the recurrence of a familiar

central point,
whence radiate the
that knit the
key together.
The same rhythmic
definite pitch-relations
desire causes the
phenomena
of the resolution of discords considered as a whole in

its
So long
relation to the key.
key
to the
may be
passed through.
cords
is
is
can
lies
now
that
memory, and
would
of
discords
character, and are
new
arbiter
of dis-
of
rules
is
relations,
always
and
it
is
is
therefore capable
Where
the centre of the
be clearly perceived through a mass
even a century ago.
ment
effect
which
for pitch-relation,
immense development.
of discords
by
The modern growth
rhythmic feeling
largely dependent on
key
any dissonant
an essential part of the growth of the harmonic
key, the
of an
as the relation of the
perceived
discord
is
have completely obscured
it
All special rules for the employare

liable
temporary
to be continually
superseded
necessarily
greater
the
this
of
elasticity.
rhythmic
The
feeling
ultimate
for
pitch-
rhythmic feeling that decides
the duration of the discord.
What might
be accept-
able as a passing effect would destroy the balance of
90
the
key
given the permanence due to a concord
if
hence the need
The
for the ultimate resolution of discords.
general custom of resolution follows the lines
of the normal
movement
of parts in scale-form between
chord and chord, and thus the discord moves by step

of full-tone or semitone to a note in the next chord.
Unless they
monly
by a semitone, dissonant notes com-
rise
follow the natural vocal usage,
resolution, but
and
as a concord.
to their
fall
another discord
this is just as frequently
concord provides more sense of
re-
pose than a discord, but the complete repose of the
key
will
be found only
rhythm of
tonic
is
more
important
they provide
pitch-relations
ment
the
is
variety,
Thus
perceived.
resolution
these are of value only
and
serve
there
of
harmonic
exact
the
to
by means of which the
temporary
the
direction to or from the
than
on the way
intervals taken
as
movement
circling
To
the tonic-chord.
in
is
one
indicate
the
move-
circling
nothing to forbid
dissonant
interval
upon another, nor any changes of harmony nor pauses

of silence that
of a discord
made
tion
may
and
take place between the introduction
its
resolution.
the final chord of a piece,
is
If
it is
a discord should be
clear that
desired because the final impression
of unrest, but this
is
is
no resoluto
be that
obviously an exceptional case.^
^ The formula known as the preparation of

a discord is the sounding of
a dissonant note previously as a concord, and the custom arose at a time
when people were obviously afraid of the sound of any discord, unless it
became one by simply being held on, and not by being first sounded as a
It is one means of obtaining a smooth effect if an even flow of
dissonance.
harmony is desired, particularly in the case of harsh

means essential in the case of any dissonant chord.
to lessen the effect of the discord in question.
discord, but
Its result is
it is
by no
naturally
91
There exists, however, a special relation in diatonic

harmony which decides the movement of the bass of
This is
any dissonant chord in its root position.
the
relation
of
dominant
the
rhythmic
seventh
gravitation
to
dominant seventh leads inevitably
to
principle
of
to
its
Owing
movement.
the typical atonic-syntonic
tonic,
to the
centre,
the
tonic,
and
the
passage to any other chord appears as a variant
its
its
diminished
diminished
contained
fifth
and seventh tones can scarcely
third
elsewhere
solve
The
normal use.
of the
between
on
but
the
resolve
intervals
major
tonic
naturally
refor
third,
by contraction.
Their inversions, the augmented intervals, go inevitably in the opposite direction
The domi-
but both preferably by semitonal motion.
nant goes thus

respective
risinof
the
chords
fourth or
typical
to
its
tonic,
form
the
fallintr
seventh,
to
go
is
it
to their tonics
melodic
interval
not surprising
its
an imitation only.
seventh
is
No
is
the
procedure, and making as
tonic
satisfactorily resolved
is
by
of the following triad or seventh.

of diatonic
find
to
by the movement of
but so long as the diatonic succession

is
the
of
Since the dominant
fifth.
other sevenths imitating

if
and the roots of these
is
their bass,
retained this
reached,
but
the
falling to the third
These successions
sevenths are of a monotonous character,
and have gone out of use
in
great
development of chromatic harmony.
part
since
the
92
The
welcome
point
and dominant already
tonic
however,
certain
semitonal
because
art,
in
scales,
can
certain
key as a rhythmic
carrying
the
its
full
into
There
out
extent
are,
the
of
harmonic
in
bonds of the key, and

union
the
chromatic
of
which no key and scarcely any consonance

found
be
to
itself
to
noticed.
to
loosens the
this
resolves
finally
limits
principle
up
by the semitonal movement
effected
is
but
strengthen the
to
This
not only to give a
is
from monotony,
relief
actually
whole.
to
of chromaticism
effect
to
This
exist.
an
is
approximation
towards Asiatic music, and not a development on the

lines of
European rhythmitonal
The
art.
evolution of
the latter requires the circling rhythm of the key, and
movement should be made
that semitonal
the variation
and not the backbone of the actual pitch-material.
The
applicable
also
which
conditions
to
the
within
exist
larger
of the
field
key are
the
key-circle.
This employs no more pitch-material than the single
harmonic key (since

involves
relations
all
of a
tones can be used in
but
it),
more complex character and
on a larger scale than any to be found within the

limits of
to
one key.
subordinate
These
keys
greater variety than
This
key
is
to
called
key.
the
The
according
transit
established.
is
ceasing
actual
transit,
to
as
the
object
of
the
the
act
obtaining
one key only.
possible within
modulation,
chords forming the

gradual,
with
relations imply the passage
of passing
from
modulation consists of the
and
this
number
soon
The momentary
as
may
of
the
be abrupt or
chords
new
touching of a
used,
centre
is
new key

without
in
restinsj^
modulation,
merely
it
the
since
suggests
or
feigns
key-centre
original
93
not
is
actually disturbed.
The
become
key-relations expressed by syntonic
in the larger field of the key-circle, " centering
and " modulative."

established
nearest
related
The
place
lines
chords
of
are
and
chord-relation,
of
nearest
the
also
readjustment
the
related
chord-relations
most easily between nearly related
"
upon the
proceeds
Key-relation
already
tonics.
and atonic
takes
tonics,
and
those most nearly related are necessarily the keys of

the major dominant and subdominant, and the minor
After these come
submediant, mediant, and supertonic.
those tonics possessing one syntonic tone of the central

key, but also containing a tone that chromatically con-
This contra-
tradicts another of these syntonic tones.

diction,
combined with
chromatic
effect,
relation,
although
the
produces a somewhat
chromatic and
terms
diatonic are distinctive of relations of the scales only,
and
speaking are not applicable
strictly
The
relations
and minor are

lines.
to key-relation.
between minor and major, and minor

proceed upon the same
less familiar, but
Much, however, depends upon the actual moduis, the manner in which the transit is made,
lation, that
and
this is
When
dependent upon chord-relation.

the
pitch-relations
centre.
key
is
changed,
must undergo
it
is
obvious that
all
new
readjustment to a
Such a change would upset tonalitive unity but

made by the original key upon the outline.
for the hold
By means
of this "key-hold"
all
new keys
are
made
relative, involving recognition of ultimate return to
the
94
central key.
The
temporary centre, and
and draw the

point.
It is
key than
of key
is
unless
too
rhythmic key-hold tendency
the
in,
it
foreign tonic will be
to
may
even
outline
back
long
persisted
assert
will
the
to
merely as
felt
original
itself
starting
indeed far easier to return to the central
remain away from
Manifold changes
it.
take place before the return
made, and
is
possible to establish subordinate central keys
during the course of modulation without destroying the
These complex relations

lengthy compositions, where it becomes
key-hold of the original tonic.

are employed in
necessary
to"
make
use of the
full
resources of the key-
circle in
order to avoid tonalitive monotony.
field
thus
is
opened to the composer, and
probable that the sense of key-hold
much
all
greater development.
keys
When
is
A
it
large
seems
capable of very
this has
taken place
may be brought into recognisable relation with

in the same way as all chords are now united
one centre,
in the key.
But
this line of
development
is
the direct
opposite of the present tendencies to pure chromaticism
and the predominance of discord.
CHAPTER X
ASIATIC TONALITY
Tonality as applied in the East and West respectively The relation of the
Eastern tonic to the scale-tone The tonalitive type of the raga The
raga an expression of religious feeling A type distinct from tune and

from mode Its tonalitive relations Its practical value The tonalitive
Hindu notation and analogies with colour.
significance of the drone
It has been thought well to complete the definition of
Western
the
key before entering upon the
question of Eastern tonality.

involves to the
mode
It is difficult,
European a contradiction of
of musical
utterance,
process
difficult
because
normal
his
may
which
it
be
likened to the endeavour to stand mentally upon one's
head.
Yet the
attitude of the Asiatic towards tonality
can be shown to issue logically and inevitably out of

his
The
microtonal instinct.
selects
one tone as a centre about which other tones
will circle is as universal as
time.
general principle which
The
difference
tonality lies in the
manner of the
principle to the scale.
with Asiatic music
is
the impulse to keep strict
between Eastern and Western

application of this
All that has been
the reading into
it
done hitherto
of the
Western
application.
It
should be observed that the general principle
concerned only with the
When
comes
fact
of a
tonalitive
is
centre.
applied to consonant conditions this centre befor
physical
reasons
the
basis
of
the
triad,
96
hence, naturally enough,
the
basis of the
thus also the essential tone of the key.
due
fore
to
and
scale,
It
there-
is
consonance and to consonance only that
the centre of the key coincides with the basis of the
So much
scale.
name
only
the
or
tonic
first
is
this
fact
taken for granted, that
for
the
first
degree of the scale
The word "

degree giving its name
key-note.
from the
tonic,
the
to
is
meaning
scale-tone,"
apart
scale
has never been required in consonant
art.
On
to
It is
in the
the
tonalitive centre
microtonal and semitonal conditions,
mains simply a centre,

basis.
when
the other hand,
applied
for there
is
nothing to
make
is
reit
recognised, not by consonant relations, but,
most primitive
stage,
central tone of three.
It is
by the
fact of its
forming the
approached and quitted by
quarter-tone or semitone from above and below.

primitive
the
it
use
has
vanished
into
When
more extended
melody these conditions are not invariably retained
other factors, such as frequency, stress, and length of
movement towards the tonic still remains the normal Eastern

method of its definition. As has already been shown,
this principle has invaded the Western art and become
duration, are called in to assist, but the semitonal
familiar to us in the leading-note of our scale.
associate
it
sonant basis, and

has
been long
it
assists only to define further
familiar.
Whereas
forms the essence of tonality, which
to
is
the
to
more than movement about a centre an

is
But we
with a tonic already established upon a con-
true, containing
little
what
Asiatic
it
him nothing
airy fabric,
it
of the solidity and repose of
ASIATIC TONALITY
the consonant basis of harmonic art, but
97
an expres-
still
sion of the identical tonalitive principle.
To some
extent Asiatic tonality comes
in its relations
with scale-form.
a free one, but
it
In the
scale.
assumes
down
to earth
still
remains
Its tonic
towards the
definite relations
Eastern modal system we are brought
which
face to face with a first tone of the scale
a tonic nor a key-note.
is
neither
probably the lack of the
It is
name that has prevented our recognising the thing,

and when we begin to perceive that a scale-tone can
exist on its own merits, its connection with tonality
follows easily enough.
but
of the scale.
tonic
And whereas we Europeans
nothing
each
final
on around
there
is
of
having
its
own
it,
and so
There is
a melody may
function.
about the Eastern tonic
circle
far as the tonic is
no particular reason why
air
which
conclusion.
tone
is
repeats
itself
ad
recognised, and the scale-tone
purpose.
circular
At once a
new developments
relation
tonic,
and
is
set
this
is
form
and has no
libittmz,
At the same time the need
scale-tone and the
concerned
should ever leave
it
Orientals have a fondness for the
off.
unite our
and our scale-tone inextricably, the Asiatic keeps
apart,
his
not a tonalitive centre,
is
necessarily a basis, because the lowest tone
is
it
It
for a
final
used for the
up between the
opens the door to
of relative pitch.
The
tonic
is
no
longer an independent centre, but becomes a tonic upon

a
definite
degree of the
scale,
with specially related
upon other degrees.

The key-circle of the
Western system, with its two modes only and uniform
tones
tonic reproduced at
all
levels of pitch,
is
here replaced
9S
many
not only by
tion
of the
This
is
variations of mode, but by varia-
of
position
the
within
tonic
European experience.^
But seeing that the Oriental,
consonant
the
has
intuition,
by mode-variation, and that
absorbed
recognition of differing scale-tones,
be
anxious
confine
to
practically a single tone,
scale
mode.
a thing that Hes entirely outside of the normal
lacking
should
the
are open to him
conditioned
is
moveable
tonic,
of relative
We
prevents
likely that
tonic
his
all
it
attention
this
to
what
by
he
is
the degrees of the
might as well confine
All music of advanced
our music to one key.

character
when
is
his
this
modal
development of the
which means the further differentiation

opposed to development on the
as
pitch
lines of absolute pitch.
a purely melodic
art,
It
owing
the normal evolution of
is
its
charm
to delicate
and
subtle inflections of pitch, to which those possessed of
the microtonal instinct are naturally susceptible.
The Hindu
nothing
is
necessity of music
The
evolution.
in
a melodic
type
M. Tagore
not emotional, and this
called
the
Oriental
rdga,
as to
"
defines this thing,
rdga
awaken a
consisting
now
is
but
musician
technical
made
even when
as
is
Raja Sir
he does so on the
lines of its emotional purpose, rather
import.
its
formal definition of tonality
such an experienced
S,
if
has here assisted in
than
its
technical
the succession of notes so arranged
certain feeling of the mind."
Though
of several hundreds of fixed types,
it
is
considered, fundamentally, to be an emotional utterance.

^
It must not be confused with the use of modes other than major or
minor where the tonic is invariably the scale-tone.
ASIATIC TONALITY
The same
can
though unavailing
to
ascribe
identifies
change of
emotional
The
itself
truth
with
characteristics
There
of feeling between major
pitch
is
rather
and minor, which
a view
is
not pro-
is
thus enabled
his feelings in his marvellously elaborate
all
scheme.
It
has been said that everything
East has arisen out of religious
in the
is
The Hindu has
taken the line of least resistance, and
tonalitive
than with
distinctly a difference
duced by any transposition of either.

to express
the
to
appears to be that feeling
relative
pitch-level.
key-system,
have frequently been made
efforts
distinct
various keys.
of our
be said
scarcely
99
feeling,
and such
borne out by the direct association of each
Hindu music with
tonalitive unit of
a corresponding unit
Hindu mythology. The ragas and raginis (technically the same thing) are all named after the gods, who
brought down music from heaven for the solace of man.
The varying emotional characteristics associated with
each god or goddess are reflected in the raga, and the
of
peculiar tonalitive type
place as a
In
all
means
to
employed
into
falls
its
natural
an end.
probability similar systems
once existed in
Arabia and Persia, but our present knowledge of the

raga-type comes solely from the Sanskrit authorities on
Indian music and the modern

exists
much
Hindu
practice.
confusion in the minds of Europeans as to
whether the raga
is
not a melody, or else simply a scale.
Upon the first point we have the following

is
when words
is
given to
it
There
" It
when rhythm {tdla)

song " (S. M. Tagore).
are set to a rdga, and
that
Hindu theory
statement
is
it
can mean a
careful to distinguish, further,
between
loo

The
raga and mode.
and
tion
called Thdt,
is
The
exists.
and of these an immense

scales
are given as follows
modes,
The
"
which are
160
classifica-
mostly
Complete modes, 32
113; pentatonic modes,
of over 300.
is
latter consists of the actual scale
use
in
"
sexatonic
yielding
a total
retention of the incomplete scales
doubtless due to the fact that they supply, by means
of their omissions, certain peculiarities of pitch-relation

not to be found in the complete scales, and thus form
valuable additions to the modal system considered as
The
material for the raga.
difference between
and raga may be gathered from the

of a stringed
mode
fact that the frets
arranged for any
instrument must be
mode once this is done, all the ragas formed

upon that mode can be used without alteration of the
instrument, but a new mode requires a re-arrangement.
As many as thirty ragas may be founded upon a single
mode again there are modes that admit of but one
The latter takes its pitch-material from the
raga.
mode but what makes it a raga is the distribution of
particular
these tones in melodic order according to the tonalitive
already
principle
raga
is
respects
the
unbarred melody, somewhat of the nature of
recitative,
using
time-outline
It consists
relations.^
well-defined rhythm of
ever, are
all
rise
emphasise
fifty
and
or
fall
more
;
that are usually quoted.
sung to meaningless
or played
to
two
pitch-
beats, with a
strains,
When
syllables such as
upon an instrument.
^
its
of four "strains," each a melodic
passage of from a dozen to
it is
other
In
described.
ti^
re, ne,
Its tonic is called
See Appendix, Section P.
how-
performed,
&c.,
Vddi
ASIATIC TONALITY
which
(chief),
European dominant and subdomiSometimes

the distance of fourth and fifth.
manner
nant at
described as the jdn, the Hfe and soul
This has accessary tones somewhat after
of the raga.
the
is
lOi
of the
both exist
both are employed, provided
they
mode upon which
founded, and these are
the raga
is
in
Samvddis (the ministers of the Vdd().
called
with
relations
either
is
the
Their
moreover, when
hold good,
tonic
the
chromatically inflected, this being a permanent
mode which
chromatic inflection of the
is
Such chromatic
repeated in the raga.
necessarily
relations give
a very Oriental character, whereas the diatonic types
suggest European tonality
and
six original ragas,
all
in
some degree.
There are
other ragas and raginis are
formed from these by the process of taking out a few

notes here and there from two or more and combining
the phrases afresh generally upon a
new
tonic.
Hindu
In estimatinor t^g value of the raoâ to the

singer,
must
it
be
non-existent
notation
is
bulk of
musicians.
else
either
extemporise,
remembered
These
and
that,
or
from
the
the greater part of Eastern music
From
this
point
it
East,
by the
memory, or
latter.
Thus
extemporisation.
is
of view the value of the
be appreciated, since
the
unused
is
play
preferably
in
supplies the
singer
raga can
with
essentials of his pitch-outline, certain notes to be
the
made
prominent, and certain sequences of notes to be used,
varying
upon
tuitive
in
ascent and descent
calculation, but
utterance
in
natural to the singer.
is
the
music,
all
this
result of
natural
Quarter-tones,
to
if
is
based, not
centuries of in-
the
race
and
not included in
I02
the traditional use, are
the singer's improvisation,
left to
of which freedom he fully avails himself, embroidering

his
own
The
fancies across the fabric of the raga.
use of the drone-bass, which
throughout the East,
undoubtedly due to a desire
is
definition of tonality.
upon whether
for
depend, however,
Its effect will
be used to enforce the scale-tone or
it
Instances are quoted of a primitive melody
the tonic.
winding
common
very
is
semitonal outline about a drone, which
itself in
must have been the
such a case the con-
tonic, but in
More
by means of
nection with the scale had not yet appeared.

often the drone enforces the scale-tone,
which the intervals of the mode are easily apprehended.

Unless, therefore, the tonic
is
very clearly defined
melody, the tendency of the drone
by degrees
unite
to
with
tonic
The Hindu
European manner.
not recognise
expense of the
the
the scale-tone at
from the melodic nature of

first
and
bination (which
is
fifth
its
degrees
and thus
tonic,
scale-tone
the
after
music.
it
would detract
Of
said,
is
con-
"
the double
This com-
a stranger to Indian Music, and, as
a sound, not recognised by

ally
be to enforce
use of the drone as a note
the
it)
when tacked
occasion-
on to a melodic piece would certainly destroy
character
as
thing not only

of foreign
Rdga, and
un-Wmdu
jargon"
Scales of the
art
(S.
would render the
its
whole
Music, but a perfect babel
M.
Tagore,
"The
Musical
Hindus").
Unfortunately
Eastern
the
theory of music does
sounding, deeming that this
tinuously
drone of
will
in
it
is
impossible
with any certainty
in
to
reproduce this
European notation
ASIATIC TONALITY
owing
our lack of the
to
"
of a " quarter-sharp
insertion
it is
microtonal
103
The
interval.
conveys
little,
because
necessary to be familiar with the use of the thing
before
In this respect the
sign will be appreciated.
its
Eastern musicians, where a notation
advantage of
figure in the
Though
us.
to
equal
have the
do not now
quarter-tones
modal scheme of
approximates
exists,
India, the tuning of
temperament,
which
theory
the
of
them is a recognised part of the Hindu system, and

for microtonal intervals Sanskrit names and signs exist
which indicate
In
native ear.
notation
It is
sufficiently the exact pitch-outline to
meagre and unsuggestive
is
nothing but the bare notes, and
variations
of
force-outline
When
imagination.
to a
Western
nant
instinct, of
tonic at
it is
other respects the present
all
all,
ear,
or
Hindu
in
the extreme.
all
phrasing and
tempo are
one considers,
left
to
the
further, the difficulty
prepossessed by ineradicable conso-
perceiving the bearings of the Eastern
even when not confused by quarter-tones,
clear that
Hindu music cannot be
readily appreci-
ated by European musicians.
The best general idea that can be given of the art

may be found in the analogy with colour. It is a fact
that Sanskrit authorities recognised each degree of the
scale as relating to a special colour.
This
not unfamiliar to Europeans, but where

literally to
monic
in
art,
it
combine such colours on the

the result
is
grotesque.
On
is
is
an idea
attempted
lines
of har-
the other hand,
melodic music, where degrees of pitch are recognised
only as a needful foundation to be wiped out at will
by the inurchana (movement by
s'rutis,
which implies
I04
imperceptible
does
exist.
intervals),
The
real
analogy
with
colour
subtle gradations of colour-tones in
nature and in the finest art find their counterpart in the

equally subtle shading of the pitch-tones of Oriental
music.
CHAPTER
XI
DISCANT
Eastern instrumental
Mixophonic art
between harmony and discant The
for the
Effect
of discant upon the chant.
It must be evident to the most

in
The arguSimilarity to primitive Eastern discant

Eastern origin of Gregorian chant Its exotic character
early writings
ment
Distinction
accompaniment
of organum or discant in
art
Asia beyond
casual observer that,
India, music, though originating like
the music of the nearer East in microtonal intervals,
has taken a path of

fusion
beginning to make
Here instead of a promodal type is only
own.
its
of modes, the
complete
its
appearance
with
the
excep-
tion of Japan, which seems to offer a case of mixed

development, each country has but one or two scales,
and the five-toned formula with varying intervals
for
the most part predominates.
When we
find uniformity in
be tolerably certain
variety in
melodic
music
that
some other
far- Eastern
one direction we
line.
This
has
is
made
for
may
itself
the case with the
music, which, instead of remaining a purely
art,
has sought variety in the combination of
moving parts at differing pitch. It has boldly launched

forth upon a species of art which may be termed " mixophonic," to distinguish
it
from the polyphony of the
West, which has a harmonic foundation.
development has been

described as
"a
in
labyrinth
Siam and Java.
Its greatest
It
has been
of eccentric discant,"
and
is
io6
stated
by those
effect,
the
familiar with
be of a very
great measure
parts compensating in
of the
to
it
fine
extraordinarily rapid and complex weaving
lack of harmony.
It is
for
the
generally found associated with
instruments of the harmonicon type which are tuned

as has been explained.^
of non-harmonic parts)
the interweaving
{i.e.
In this natural art of discant

to be
is
found the explanation of the persistence of the penta-
Tones of differing pitch that are going

to be promiscuously mixed up together at the fancy
of the performers must be limited in number and welldefined in pitch
no variation upon these is wanted,
because the effect desired is mixophonic and not
tonic formula.
melodic
kinds
varied
by variety
obtained
melodic succession,
Thus
raga.
in
as
the five
of
emotional
the
mixture and
case
the
is
utterance
not
with the
tones are long adhered
in
are
the
Hindu
to,
and
and seventh are slow in appearing.

Since
the Siamese and the Javans have no notation of
their own, the whole art is purely extempore, and
sixth
seems to favour its development. In

China and Japan, where notation of a sort does exist,
but little seems to be known to Europeans of a mixo-
this
condition
phonic
that
is
but
Japanese
written
in
this
kind
classical
four
may be found
music
parts,
bling
See
Japan
Kokyu
(the
instrument resem-
with a kind
the
Kotos,
(an
fiddle)
in
not melody alone;
is
two
and Samisen
Kokyu, but played
wooden plectrum). The Koto
first and second violin parts,
Japanese
suggest
statements
following
the
something of
"The
it
art
of large
parts correspond to our
p. 53.
the
Kokyu
reinforcing
DISCANT
melodic
passages.
complicated, but
to render
music
This
impossible
is
it
Burma
In
exceedingly
is
but
of interest;
full
the West."
in
it
107
the musicians
harmony
are said to understand counterpoint, but not
Even in China
can be nothing else than discant.
accompaniments on the guitar are played for a singer
this
or
for
discant which
is
is
We
melody.
and
guitar,
solo
essentially an art
appears
the parts
know nothing
to
suggest
of accompanying a
are told of Javanese music
the important thing
musicians
this
fall in
"The theme
as they like
of score, but only the
the
melody
some go
some go up the scale,

theme
or accompany it they bring
down they vary the
rhythmic life and motion into the music."
was frequently
It is evident also that a tuning
each adds what he likes
employed
in
we should
arpeggio, as
use a chord, for
purposes of accompaniment, upon an instrument that

like
the
string.
koto
has
The
principal
(Piggott's "
A
generally
koto
Music of Japan,"
but
one
tunings
pp. 92-3)
note
are
as
to
each
follows
-^-
(1)
:ft22zS^
122:
-IS^
-^ ^-
(2)
:^
:=:
(3)
:22i:^zi:
-G>
-"^
*
<f
"=='
1891-3.
E. T. Piggott, "Musical Association."
Dr. J. Groneman, De Gamelan te Jogjakarta.
io8
The biwa,
tunings
or balloon-shaped guitar, has the following
(1)
.^_
_(!)
:i^
:22:
(3)
(6)
_=2_
?^"
-Jf^-
14)
_(5)
122=1^
:J^=
Tuning No.
from the others.
it
is
common
is
not considered to differ in kind
On
both these instruments in Japan
to
sweep the
forwards with the plectrum,
Vocal antiphony
is
in
backwards and
strings
arpeggio
also fairly
effect.
common
one phrase
of melody will be answered by another voice or voices
with a slightly differing phrase
the answer
the form of a transposition to the
two voices
is
will frequently
no trace of harmony
fifth
may
take
above, and the
overlap one another, but there
in the sense of chord-conception.
Since certain writers have been led by the discovery

of occasional
attribute
to
thirds
Orientals
elements of harmony,
thing as
or
harmony
in
sixths
Eastern discant to
knowledge
a
it
in
is
at
least
of
the
well to state that no such
the European sense, or even
rudimentary conception of
it,
exists
in
Asia.
The
Easterns have no chord-sense, and do not like chords
when
they
hear
them.^
The mistake
has
arisen
through lack of knowledge of the distinction between

1
It is said that the late Shah of Persia, when in London, sat bored
and gloomy through the first act of an opera. When the orchestra
began tuning up for the second act, his face brightened, and he asked
for
an encore.
DISCANT
harmony
and
which
discant,
109
entirely
separate
of vocal
compass,
are
things.
Discant originates
in variations
which consecutive octaves,
for
most convenient
the
while others
motion.
when
number of moving
historical
made between
develop
of
term
which
art
are
To
would create a
upon which
tones
devoid
basis,
still
impression,
false
feeling
for,
for
forms a variation.
and
music
the
It
is
is
is
true
in
its
new
idea
to
to
create
differing
consecutive
less
pitch
con-
aware that
long, in
synchronous pitch-outline
it
speaking,
strictly
consonant
Where
basis
a scale only
no appreciable consimply
that
tervals will occasionally be found in
would be
it,
of
non-
consonant
because
difficult
inin
altogether
In the Buddhistic service in China each chanter sings at the pitch
most convenient
same
great
describe this music as purely dissonant
consonant character.
man knows how
forms the pitch-standard, there

sonant
of
of
and they are
implies
it
possible
is
it
unites
that
relations,
dissonance
with
both were cramped
perhaps
is
such an art has existed, no

the East.
as contrary
counterpoint
the two
It
itself.
simultaneously
sonant
rise
absolutely incompatible
is
European musicians that

form
for
some
and neither harmony nor discant could
in the union,
fully
developed
fully
parts,
is
desire
forms the only compromise that has
sense
ever been
makes
known
voices
What we
harmony.
with
of
which movement
fall,
This,
Later a
intervals.^
movement
independent
and fourths are
fifths,
time.
to his
own
voice,
though
all
sing the
same words
in the
no THE EVOLUTION OF MUSICAL FORM

to avoid
them, and
must be remembered that the
it
musicians are not seeking dissonance nor
far- Eastern
avoiding consonance
in
they are for the most
itself;
part indifferent to either, and regard their modal type
loom
as a
On
which
in
weave
to
mixophonic
their
the other hand, the origin of
asserted to
lie in
that
art.
harmony has been
European form of discant
called
"organum," which grew up in ecclesiastical surroundis mentioned by monkish writers as far back
ings and
as
the
sertion
early
is
eighth
of the
part
of
quotations
what
are
organum
the
We
is.
literal
are
Melody of the
qualities and quantities.
long
from
each
vergence
voices
and
rational art of
different voices
we
2.
different
are perceived separated
proportions
differing
they
to
are
fitted
certain
rules
con-
of
together
of
the
music and give a certain natural sweet

(Scotus Erigena.)
(concentus)
of similar voices
"
?)
divergence,
tone in each case."

"i. Chant
earliest
While individually and sepa-
each other according
with
any
(notes
by
other
in
following
from the
made to it
organum is made from
"
as
not
The
was.
translation
references that have been
rately,
This as-
again due to a lack of knowledge of what
elementary harmony really
doubt
century/
is
the
successive
discant (succentus)
is
blending
in truth
when
agree very well with each other, just
see in the
organum
Consonance
is
(or organ).
the fixed and agreeable mixture
1
Hawkins says that " Bede does very particularly mention a wellknown species of it, termed Descant." " Ars organandi" is mentioned early
in the ninth century in the
Chronicle of the
Monk
of Angouleme.
DISCANT
III
way
of two sounds which will agree in no other
unless
come together at
same time into one modulation, which happens
when a man's and a boy's voice sound in proper
the two sounds given out differently

the
or
divisions,
customed
Script.
So
also
named,
are
emerge:
exact
implies
this
to see to
what
is
own,
art with rules of its
intervals
and divergence of pitch
Though no
(1)
time of Scotus Erigena
the
in
music was recognised to be an
and
(Gerbert,
?)"
107.)
234,
far the following fîcts
intervals
which people are ac-
case
organum (organ playing
to call
I.,
the
in
(2)
convergence
if
intended (and
it
else such terms could apply)
is
difficult
one voice
remained stationary while the other diverged and converged
motion of voices was
contrary
two
kinds
recognised,
of
and the
qualities
and tenor) were very important

In a
somewhat
later
It
has
organum
always
the
three
species.
in fourths
same
tone,
the final tone

to the
final
ganum
(or
or
it
in
is
(3)
were
consonant,
to
pitch
voices
moved
of voice
(treble
not essential.
organum, the writer
the consonance of the fourth.

In
the
first
the voices
move
the second, both voices end in
may be
a second above or below
in the third,
its
else
work, called the " Treatise of
Cologne," on the subject of the

says that the
if
use
of different
the
{i.e.
in
or
two-part,
called
(4) sounds
different
and
was
latter
sung exactly together
simultaneously)
already
one-part
chant,
which the rules related
were
form of the pedal),
primitive
{i.e.
the
principal
voice
goes
neighbouring tone, while the or-
accompanying voice) goes
to
the
second
112
Thus the carrying out of the first species becomes impossible, and the organum in fourths is not
below.
on throughout.
carried
sometimes happens
that,
deficient,
we make an
and
description
The
when
writer
the
concludes
" It
kinds are
natural
organum by bringing
together the third and the second in some parts."
The nature of the early organum is now quite clear,
the
examples.
In
out.
the
women, and
agrees with the earliest written
similarity
Its
Eastern discant
irregular
the
to
usage of
primitive
almost too obvious to need pointing
is
Andaman
children
the inhabitants
Islands
sing thus
men,
in three parts
the parts rising and falling simultaneously by quarter-
tones
in
consecutive
organum advanced
cise
intervals.
and
fourths
to three
Further,
it
When
fifths.
parts these were
the
pre-
its
was not considered neces-
sary to end on the so-called final tone, a second above
what
or below answering the purpose as well, and,
even more hopelessly opposed
harmonic
to
ideas,
voices might end on the interval of the second.
the "natural kinds"
should
be
is
the
Why
"deficient" does
not
appear, seeing that these are presumably consecutive

fourths
of which
no lack usually
exists,
but
any rate clear that the regular organum was
it
is
at
in fourths
with a possible variation on the last interval, and also
when thirds or seconds were used in the course

The
of the organum it was considered to be irregular.
that
fourth
third
is
here the chosen interval, and the second and
are for occasional use as
we may
use discords,
DISCANT
preference being given to the
113
Riemann
organum in the
Dr.
second.
has laid stress upon the origin of the

fourth instead of the
this
sonant
in
consecutive use, and are used equally often
mixophonic
in
use
early
seeing that both intervals are dis-
immaterial,
is
of
As
art.
the
pedal
no harmonic
implies
but from our point of view
fifth,
previously
observed,
the
practically
universal,
and
is
sense
whatever
accom-
unless
panied by actual chords.

It
may now be
asked, granted the similarity between
organum and Eastern
the
discant,
how
is
the appear-
ance of such an art to be accounted for in the monas-
Western Europe ? Doubtless the main reason

was the nature of the single chant upon which
teries of
for
it
organum was formed. This chant, called Gregorian

(because it was chiefly systematised by St. Gregory,
the
who
flourished in the sixth century),
admitted to be of Greek origin.^
Greek music
of
known
is
less
is
The
now
generally
Asiatic nature
understood, because so
little
when
we come to examine what is known of the Greek art
with a view to discovering whether it is European
has been
or Asiatic,
of Eastern musical usage
but
no doubt can exist upon the matter.
Two
Greek tetrachords, those known as the enharmonic and the old Olympus, are dissonant pentatonic
types the music was entirely melodic and founded upon
modes to which emotional characteristics were attached
of the
the Greeks, like the

*
"
Hindus, were intensely sensitive
There seems no reason
to
doubt that the music used
Christian ritual was of Greek origin."
chap,
(.Sir
in the early
H. Parry, "Art of Music,"
iv.)
114
melodic inflection, and
to the emotional properties of
desired nothing beyond that.
marked
so
is
In addition to this there
between
resemblance
ancient
the
Vedic hymns of the Hindus, Buddhist chants, and the

Gregorian chant of Europe, as to leave
doubt
they have had a
that
common
practice of antiphonal singing also
and
is
said to
little
room
for
The
origin.
came from the East

into the Western
have been brought
Church by St. Ambrose, who was the first ecclesiastic

known to have concerned himself with church-singing.
The
nature of the Gregorian chant
Eastern and
Western melody.
of
of
exhibits a
It
development founded upon relative rather
tonalitive
than
not
itself is that
absolute
tonality
its
Hindu
with the
principle
and
pitch,
raga.
That
has never been rightly explained

case of the Eastern
art,
identical
is
is
as
to the reading into
The
normal Western experience.
tonality
this
due,
in
the
of the
it
we
that
fact
in
re-
cognise a tonic upon the scale-tone only, or that the

true
tonic
of
named, accounts
It
Gregorian
the
for
its
system
was otherwise
previous lack of recognition.
has perhaps not occurred to us to ask
name "dominant"
should be given to the
is
what was
was the
varied
in
found the answer.

called a
and was so named

because
five
it
dominant and a
but
scale-tone,
position
not
between
(like
dominated
modes out
Each of
all
of twelve
the
degree
fifth
its
The
final.
tonic
modes had
the
latter
former
mode and another,

Hindu Vddi, the ruler)
one
the
the other tones.

it
the
In Gregorian
of our scale and not to the key-note.

tonality
why
Since in
occurred upon the
fifth
of
DISCANT
the
attached
it
is
but
name passed on
the
scale,
to
this
into rhythmitonal art
of the
regardless
degree,
now no longer
The
the tonic.
115
dominant which dominates,
the
function
true
had
it
is,
in
raga, but considered as the central
which
the
rest
make
will
Mode
An
circle.
^L^ ^
i
chant to
of this
differs
It
emphasise
its
of great interest as
of Eastern
much on
this tone
it
tonality,
the
Gregorian
of
tonic
a raga
only in
is
too
its
ex-
In Asiatic tonality, as in
European, an advanced stage

to
tone about
h h|-=F-
^=!
treme tonalitive simplicity.
call
in the
Final or Scale-tone D.
be overlooked.
striking to
example
The resemblance
until
the
this clear.
Tonic F.
II.
^^^=^-11
is
fact,
Gregorian chant no more existence than
Hindu
no
in
not in the sense of a consonant key-note which
chant
Gregorian
of the
"dominant" has thus been hidden;

tonic
that
fact
tonic
like
the raga-type
overmuch.
has
This chant
showing a very primitive stage
when
in
it
was necessary
order to
to
distinguish
it.
dwell
To
the voice clings, scarcely moving to another
reaches the cadence at the end.
the natural
stereotyped
fall
of the voice suggested
into
modes had become
final,
or
Doubtless
what was
later
when
the
scale-tone,
These differed only

from the Oriental mode by being more limited in
material and associated with a fixed absolute pitch.
For this the use of the organ probably accounts, and
established.
Ti6

name organum was
Dr. Riemann's suggestion that the
thence derived, seems a likely hypothesis, this instru-
ment having been introduced into churches for use in

the choral service by Pope Vitalianus as early as the
modes
the
To
seventh century/
latter half of the
early
church-musicians
each of their
ascribed
distinct
manner of the Greeks

we have shown such emotional
emotional characteristics after the
and Hindus, and as
was the
utterance
essential
underlying
idea
the
of
Asiatic system.^
Taking all the above-mentioned facts into consideraseems no reason to doubt that early Western
church-music was an importation of the Asiatic form
tion there
of the art bereft of
but
especially microtonal character,
its
otherwise differing but
and doubtless was then,
in
little
from what
use in the East.
now,
is
Semitones,
of course, there had to be, and to these the youthful
Western ears did not take

it
found to
that
before
So
kindly.
difficult
was
hit precisely the position of these intervals,
the
invention by Guido
d'Arezzo
in
the
eleventh century of a set of sol-fa names to indicate

Hawkins, "History of Music," chap, xxxii.
The eight Gregorian modes (called tones) are divided into "authentic"
and "plagal," the latter having a different tonic and an extension of compass
below the scale-tone. The large capitals indicate the tonics, the small ones
^
are the scale-tones.
Plagal.
Authentic.
i.DefgAbcd
3.
5.
7.
EfgabCde
FgabCdef
GabcDefg
2.
4.
6.
8.
abcDeFga
bcdEfgAb
cdeFgAbc
defCabCd
Four other modes of a similar nature were added later. To all these modes
Greek names were misapplied. They must not be confused with the semiharmonic scales of European tonality which have a key-note. See p. 78.
DISCANT
relative
pitch,
The
sing the chant correctly.

exotic,
but
years
ten
took pupils
it
117
learn
to
art was, of course,
an
harmonised with the
It
pains were taken to preserve
it,
to
and great
ritual,
and
to protect
it
from
contaminated by the native-born music of
becoming
This necessity entirely explains the
the people.
tude of the Church towards popular song.
atti-
Unless the
door had been shut and barred upon folk-music, churchIt also
sone would not have had a chance of survival.
explains the atmosphere of rule and hide-bound tradi-
tion
This served
which surrounded Gregorian chant.
the purpose of the dykes which in Holland keep out the

sea.
But
that authority can do,
in spite of all
nature cannot be
made
movement may be
to stand
its
Throughout these early
retarded.
and on into
centuries,
human
however much
still,
there meets
ones,
later
us
perennial stream of bitter complaints against the levity,

the
inattention
to
rule,
the
issue
at
was that the
stupidity
and ignorance
Meanwhile the
of the singers of the chant.
authorities desired
real point
conformity,
and the singers, being human, desired variety and proceeded to make
"
Neither
Thus Guido,
it.
for there are
as there are masters

this
or Albert, or
is
as
many
the antiphon of Gregory, or
any other
the
give offence
times,
if
kinds of antiphons
insomuch that no one can say, as
Leo,
dul every one either varies these,
or forms others at his pleasure.

to
Micrologos
there any uniformity of music at this day in
is
the churches
heretofore,
in his
ought
not, therefore,
contend with the corruptions of
and endeavour
to
render the
music conformable to the rules of art
practice
and as all
of
these
ii8
corruptions have arisen
from
the ignorance of musicians^
must earnestly request that no one
make
will
presume
antiphons, unless he be well skilled in
of forming
them according
rules of music
it
known
to the
the
to
art
and established
being most certain that he
who
is
not the disciple of truth will be a teacher of error."
This statement
Canute by the seashore, and
recalls
becomes apparent that Guido and
it
the innovators
successors,
his
to notation, instead of being
whatever their contributions
we have been
led to imagine, did
all in
their
power
art.
This attitude of Guido's has been the attitude
to
hinder the normal development of the
of the professional musician of
ages, with or without
all
the authority of the Church behind him, the holding up

of an abstract musical form which
art
and cannot be bettered, but
ignorance
of musicians.
"ignorance of musicians
art,
but
still
It
is,
" that
is
is
in
the canon of the
corrupted by the
truth,
this blessed
has given us our modern
the orthodox hold up their form of abstract
beauty and their canon of laws.
Had
the
Church succeeded
in
preserving intact her
musical tradition, there would have been a very

ferent history of
European music
to chronicle.
was, in the end the singers conquered and the sea

in
and the
first
little
the organum, or, as

^
"So
unison,
it
Church mode, according
hole in the dyke proved to be
soon came to be called
discant.^
to the strict diatonic system,
commenced
were adopted
as
to sing in parts, the difificulties of a
chant began to be felt, and it had to seek the assistance of

sharps and flats which opened the door to popular
(Ambros, Geschichte der Musik, vol. ii. p. 155.)
strict diatonic
tonality).
As it
came
long as Gregorian chant, the pure choral song, was rendered in

is well established that none other but the fixed tones of each
soon, however, as they
medium
it
dif-
tones
" {i.e.
CHAPTER
XII
COUNTERPOINT VERSUS CHORD-CONCEPTION
Discant an extempore art The dissonant standard Effect of the folkmusic Laws and practice of discant Introduction of the consonant
basis into musical theory, and consequent definition of discords
Lack of chord-conception in
musical treatises of sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
Rameau's
chord-theory EfTect upon the science of intervals Welsh chordCounterpoint, the science of intervals
conception of the twelfth century
"
The name
Free
counterpoint in education.
of descant," says Morley, "
theory of music
the
if
usurped of
is
the Musicians in divers significations," and

for
were well
it
there had been
no other
names subjected to a like " usurpation." Actually, the

word discant was used largely in place of counterpoint
in
general
but
down
to the close of the seventeenth century,
Morley agrees
" that
when a man
talketh of a
must be understood of one that can, extempore, sing a part upon a plaine song."
He gives
Descanter,
it
his opinion of this practice as follows:
upon a plain-song,
(as every
it
"As
for singing
hath byn in times past in England
man knoweth), and
is
at this
day
in
other
places the greatest part of the usual musicke which in
any churches
is
sung,
which indeed causeth one
to
marvel how men acquainted with musicke can delight

to
hear such confusion, as of force must be amono- so
many
singing extempore.
opinion, which to
is
that
But some have stood
me seemeth
men accustomed
to
in
an
not very probable, that
descanting
will sing
together
I20
upon a
song without singing eyther
plain
false chords,
or forbidden descant one to another, which

I
The
rules
to
Morley
which
counterpoint,
strict
and as
refers
rules
were
But
these
discant existed long before these rules
and
at a very early period
out of the organum, which
it
childhood
the
is
to
superseded.
finally
be obtained about
of the
life
it.
will
art will
In
not be
a backwater of the main stream
As
musical art in the written music.
The
was
when but few can record
of notation,
much more than
It
and therefore
art,
and that only imperfectly, there
music,
the
had been thought
appears to have grown
it
from the beginning an extempore

direct information
were those of
in his opinion.
as
far
concerned he was doubtless right
little
see
even think unpossible."
will
of,
till
in the
of
East now,
be found in extemporisation.
imperfect technique of the record limits what can
be written, and acts as a dead weight upon the natural
advance of the
to
art.
Directly then that any addition
Gregorian or plain chant
the
in
the
shape of a
second part was recognised, the singers had the matter

practically
division
being
all
written,
called.
in
their
hands.
into Pricked sonof
these
and Plain
there
sonof,
came
the
the former
written out, the latter having merely one part

its
But
cantus Jinnies, as
at the
beginning
at the will of the singer.
began
Later
to be classed
came to be
must have gone much
the chant
it
Then synchronous
and chosen
for the
intervals
organum, and
chosen ones were from our point of view
all
Guido mentions the semitone and the fulltone with the fourth and fifth as the perfect concords.
dissonant.
COUNTERPOINT:-. CHORD-CONCEPTION
normal
and
intervals,
were
they
meant that
This merely
considered
121
the
upside-down view of music
this
was due to the dissonant character of the early church
One
art.
could as soon expect to gather figs of thistles
as to look for Gregorian chant to bring forth a love for

thirds.
may have been
It
dissonant
as
Eastern
its
was as
was this
that early discant
but
relative,
there
difference that the question of the properties of intervals
came
early under notice,
and continued matter
for dis-
cussion for centuries, whereas in the East one synchron-
good as another, and no one troubles

how they are mixed up. We cannot know, however,
ous interval
how much
as
attention the singers paid to the theorists
judge from the complaints
to
little
is
and
therefore
may have
nature
in
the
must have been very
it
actual
extemporisations
claimed her own, and insisted upon
the real consonances of thirds and sixths sooner than
we
The
think.
first
'60-Q.-dS}iÂ
inversions of triads, was,
tion,
which yet did not
And
in
to
fmix-boiLrdo7i^ a succession of
we know, an
affect
early innova-
the written
organum.
course of time certain daring spirits ventured
take popular songs, add parts to them after the
manner
of
people's
the
and actually write
singing,
them down, with the addition of the words of a Latin
hymn
That
to lend
this
an odour of sanctity to the proceeding.
was not a practice
the authorities
is
that
commended
shown, however,
itself to
in the fact that
but
one specimen has been allowed to survive, our famous

English round,
"Summer
should not have
known
^
is
i-cumen
that in
in."^
But
for
it,
we
the thirteenth century
See Appendix, Section
J.
122
any monk would have dared

and bring
is
it
to
within the four walls of a monastery.
a significant fact that the very
which
this
round
is
which the following
ff
MS.
It
of Reading, in
written, contains church-music, of

is
an extract, written originally
upon a fourteen-lined stave
^--
study the folk-music
in
-f-? f'-r^F %
two
and one
clefs
COUNTERPOINT CHORD-CONCEPTION
e;.
123
was now by law exactly the rehad previously been, and the distinction
use of these intervals
verse of what
made
it
consonant
accorded with
mattered
the
of
discords
natural
very
therefore
feeling
At
little.
name
the
time
this
began
and second
seventh
the
also to be classed as such.
The
of
account
earliest
discant
actual
as
dis-
tinguished from written music appears to be the one
given
the Cotton MS., circa
in
From
Hawkins.^
best
effect
descanted,
that
four
and the others varied the melody.
the
third,
sixth,
and
most expedient and
ear."
whose duty
the
pleasing to
it
was
shall
this
pleasing task in the octave or twelfth
as regards the opening

fifth
i.e.
continued.^
still
in
parts
same
distinct
If
art,
and
descanted, however,
all
from the canto fernio, the
distinction prevailed
of the seventeenth century,
extempore
art,
and closing tones the reign of
use of consecutives was forbidden.

this
But the
to "break and flower the
above, which savours strongly of mixophonic
sang
seem
such a manner as best to grace the melody,"
performed
the
The
and proceed by
tenth,
him
notes in
five
"only the imperfect concords,
use
these ascending and descending, as to
others,
or
to sing
descanter was to
namely,
appears
it
upon a canto fermo, and that

was obtained when only one actually
were accustomed
the
this
and quoted by
1326,
It
curious that
is
even down
when
to the close
the true discant, the
had become confined
to
" breaking or
* This MS.
was destroyed by fire at Ashburnham House in 1731, but
had been previously copied for Dr. Pepusch.
The custom of closing without the third was not entirely extinct in
Palestrina's time, even he occasionally making use of it.
'^
124
flowering"
the
fermo
upon
played
type
now
descanter,
melody, and was known as divisions
The ground was
on a ground.
a viol-player,
a theme of the canto
and
harpsichord,
the
improvised variations of
These were called

divisions, because the long notes of the theme were
divided up into many small ones. Christopher Sympson,
his " Division Viol," has left some interesting
in
examples for the use of learners of an art which was
the ground simultaneously with
independent
practically
with
and completely
of
out
died
When
harmony.
development of
the
it.
any
of
these examples of this last surviving use of European

discant
are performed
paniment
is
a harmonic accom-
nowadays,
perforce added to satisfy
modern
ears, thus
practically destroying the original effect.
Returning
to the written art,
century
fourteenth
onwards
we
the
departs further and further from
from the
position
its
original standard,
and concords respectively begin
until at length discords
to
find that
theoretical
assume somewhat of
their
modern
significance.
The
foundation of the art has swunsf round from dissonant

to
consonant theory, but
character of
its
it
is
hampered by the Eastern
chant, which forms
still
the actual basis
The composer added parts to a canto

much as the descanters may have done, if
of composition.
fermo very
with more learning and
was taken
of
its
for theme,
it
When
discretion.
was made
into the
melody by unlimited elongation of

original
time-relations
had
its
a folk-tune
same type
notes
disappeared,
became indistinguishable from the chant.

of centuries could not be laid aside.
till
all
and
it
The
habit
COUNTERPOINT:. CHORD-CONCEPTION
The
now became
use of discords
Dissonant intervals might occur
(i)
clearly
125
defined.
through the
filling
up of the melodic third or fourth by scale-form (passingnotes)
or (2) one note of a concord might be held on
moved so as to make dissonance with it

one moved also, and the interval of the
while the other

until the first
two
was again
notes
known
Elizabethans
as "binding,"
suspension, because the

until
it
is
first
The
resolved.
way were
taken in this
This was
consonant.
but
is
by
now
the
called
note hangs over the other
exact intervals that might be
limited by the rules.
These two types of melodic
discord, since
further
stereotyped into the five species of counterpoint, were in

use during the whole Catholic Church period, hedged
about with rules that have not yet ceased to
exist,
although they are entirely inapplicable to rhythmitonal
Their importance consisted
art.
music
for
fully
no
music
lost
acquiring
succession
the
European
contemporary ears
Clearly the
the
the
became harmonic,
tonality
without
Hence it had
nor any defined movement
it
style.
appears a vague wander-
perhaps pleasing, perhaps discon-
unexpectedness,
its
it
Asiatic
original
keys,
of
ing amongst tones,
by
As
movement.
its
within a key, and to us
certing
fact that
which they were invented was devoid of
definite tonalitive
this
in the
is
but
impossible
for
its
us
effect
to
upon
imagine.
only pitch-relations then recognised were
intervals
standard, and
of
it
consonance
rather
than
the
tonic
was most important that consonant
intervals should be paramount.
Hence
the severity of
the rules regulating the use of the most inoffensive and
126
Counterpoint was,
fleeting of discords.
of intervals.
science
in
was added
Interval
the
short,
interval
to
according to laws that are in force at the present day,
sum
but what the
of these intervals amounted to was
by the
that minds, taxed to the uttermost

this
One
no concern of the composer's.
theoretically
science,
must have
conception beyond
intricacies of
refused to grasp any
literally
It is
it.
commonplace
fancies
to say that
musical form was then regarded horizontally, and
now
is
seen to have a vertical significance, but
how many
have ever considered what
statement really
involves
this
trite
Perhaps some idea of
of us
may be gained by
it
Imagine a language confined theoretically
an analogy.
For centuries words have been spoken
to syllabic use.
and sentences formed, but nobody has the remotest idea

that such a thing as a
Every one thinks
exists,
in syllables,
much
less a sentence.
and mentally adds
according to fixed and innumerable
to syllable,
make
order to
word
tricacy of
this
and some
idea
rules, in
Multiply the in-
himself understood.
low estimate,
syllabic use tenfold as a
may be gained
syllable
of the nature of musical
theory before chords were discovered.
Attention
marvellous
which
has
intuitive
able
is
understand.
to
It
hearing
what
describe,
and so
is
often no
focussed
those
on
it
room
to
who doubt
capacity
of
has
the
in
no
it
is
it
for thought, or
part
of
musical
the
to
mind,
unable
to
delight
of
equivalent
to
is
sheer
intellectual
all-sufficing
another
the
what
produce
revels
drawn
been
previously
to hear that there

else
the
the thought
subject.
is
Let
the truth of this assertion explain
if
COUNTERPOINT:'. CHORD-CONCEPTION
they can the historical
no more exquisite or
that
fact
127
grander chord-successions exist than those which were
formed before composers generally had the
For sheer
what a chord was.
tellectual conception of
harmonic beauty no modern music
faintest in-
can surpass
the
Missa PapcB Marcelli or the B Minor Mass, compositions which, though theoretically contrapuntal, owe all
harmonic
their emotional effect to their essential
To
originally unobserved.
by nature,
it
is
who
us
basis,
think in chords as
if
impossible to realise the theory of music
without them, but that chord-theory was at this time un-
known
is
an incontestable
The
fact.
practical treatises
of music of the sixteenth and seventeenth century form
amazing reading, not so much

as for
there
duction,"
that
realise
Yet Morley's
was.
and Sympson's
" Introduction
ford's
Here one gropes
what they omit.
and can scarcely
what they contain,
for
"
"
the
to
this
in the dark,
all
is
Compendium,"
Skill
the
and Easie
Plaine
theory
Intro-
and Play-
Music," are no
of
dry-as-dust tomes, but works of practical musicianship,

delightful
in
of music
as
many
style,
editions
their day.
and presenting the whole theory
then
it
down to the
Harmony Treatise in
almost
flood
of
which ran through
and formed the educational
Playford's
reprinted in
was, works
1727.
light
let
book continued
of
to be reprinted
Rameau's first
Sympson's was actually
publication
1722.
classics
of
Those who wish to appreciate the

in
upon musical theory by the
greatest theoreucal genius of music cannot do better
than
those
study Playford and
who
are
Rameau
unacquainted
side
with
by
these
For
works it
side.
128
may
be said that for Playford and his contemporaries
a chord (spelt cord) was merely an interval, or a string,

or
"common
a tuning,
chords" were the
and eighth, harmony was a general term

key was the
point,
any single
note,
third,
fifth,
for counter-
note of the scale or perhaps
first
no key-system was recognised, modu-
was unknown and the scale of G with the

minor seventh was held to be the foundation of
music.
We wander through utterly strange and
devious mazes of mi in B, mi in E, &c., and approach
something like familiar ground only when discant, i.e.
lation
counterpoint,
is
reached/
Opening Rameau's
all
looks familiar,
we
treatise,
our old friends appear with

is
on
are at once
evident that here
is
Some
home.
names,
different
the model for
hand,
other
the
at
all
books that have since been written.
but
harmony
Here at one
the
dissonant with their inversions, the fundamental

distinguished
from
bass
the real
it
consonant and
stroke appear the major scale, chords
as
of
(an
bass
absolutely
new idea), keys, major and minor modes, cadences,

Mt important for the understanding of this subject to reaHse that down
is
word chord {accord, accordo) had nothing of

This point is overlooked by Dr. Riemann in his
" History of Musical Theory," where he traces the English term " common
chord," meaning the triad, back to Godfrey Kellei-'s " Treatise of General
In this very treatise we are told "By chords is meant either
Bass," 1707.
Common chords
concords or discords, by semitone is meant half-notes.
Trias harmonica is the only theoretical
are the third, fifth, and eighth."
term that signified a chord prior to this, and this term appears once or twice
until 1720, or thereabouts, the
its
present significance.
in
German
treatises of the seventeenth century
and
in Brossard's Dictionary,
1703, but not (so far as I am aware) in any English work.

chord-relation there is no hint before Rameau's treatise.
Of
principles of
Bach indicated
the chord-successions that occur occasionally in his instrumental works,

inserted
somewhat
term arpeggio
after the
legafa.
manner
of a cadenza or recitative, by the
129
c'.
and
modulation,
practically
'
modern harmony.
suggested
of
principle
"The
only
in
the
perfect
chord
of
the
seventh,
but
which
it,
which
is
principle of
so
is
not enough
differing
to
their
on
this
all
centre
this
to
...
It
relate.
Perfect
we must observe
absolutely
progression
its
they are by relation to this centre."
statement
clear
with
Centre
from the
origin
and
in
the
they are composed are only such
Intervals of which
as
precisely
the factors of these depend
harmonic
formed
is
chords and their
all
chord and from that of the Seventh

further that
I'Har-
accordinof
harmonic
perceive that
draw
factors
more
those
the
following
not consist
which
sounds ought to
other
the
all
from
even
speak
to
The
clearly
Traitd de
the
and
sound
fundamental
the
perceived
Harmony does
monie
that
he
tonality.
from
translation
literal
Rameau
European
of
origin
of
famous
his
in
this,
I'Harmonie,"
evolutionary
the
rhythmic
the
de
nait
and also showed that
melody,
is
Further than
Melodie
"la
saying,
paraphernalia
the
all
of
the
central
In view of
fact
of
tonality
(even to-day to a great extent ignored educationally),
Burney's superficial criticism of the value of Rameau's

theoretical
no
work shows only
Attracting
world
the
that
Burney himself was
theorist.
being
way
of
sprang into
eighteenth
tators
had
at
first
satisfied
musical
fanie,
century
arisen,
no
with
theory,
particular
what
had already
Rameau's
and by the
a
it
later
treatise
decades of
host of imitators
English, French,
the
attention,
in
soon
the
and commen-
German,
Italian.
I30
Everybody was discussing

theory
the
where
except
seat
new
saw the
the
took
intervals
served as
it
harmonic
writing
back
foundation
the
theory.
Even
necessity
of reversing what appeared to
natural
the
of
science
old
not
if
counterpoint
the
basis
musical
of
supporters
harmony
making
and
order,
most ardent
its
of
be
and
not
education.
It
cannot have been mere coincidence that led to the

of the ancient contrapuntal
destruction
moment when
very
penetrated men's minds.
was
ripe,
and that
on
was
and
the
bring
to
had no higher
art
much
tinued
ideas
had
intellectual
church-
of the old
of Bach in itself
death
about.
to climb, but
music
consonant
of
Contrapuntal
would have con-
it
longer to dominate musical thought but
new
Rameau's
for
only this
last
this
the
evident that the time
theory
The
footing.
insufficient
is
needed
it
set
natural
its
It
sweep away the
stimulus to
formulas,
new harmonic
these
at
style
theories.
has
It
observed that true intellectual
been
already
understanding;'
cannot
generate inspiration, though false intellectual concepts
dam
will
it
The sudden and
back.
of music from that time

to the fact that people
was due,
rapid development
in
were thinking
the
in
first
instance,
chords instead
of in intervals.
There can be
gone
its
own
interference
art,
that the
little
natural
doubt that had European music
way from
by a church-imposed Asiatic form of the

chord-conception would have arrived at
a comparatively early period.

that
it
the beginning, without
had arrived
in
Wales
In
in the
fact,
there
is
proof
days of Gruffydd
COUNTERPOINT:'. CHORD-CONCEPTION
ab Cynan,
iioo
According to a MS. of the
a.d.
century,
sixteenth
131
from
copied
the
one
original
in
Welsh which has disappeared, the measures of music

were
These
prince.
systematic
were
they
else
than
of
two
chords,
tonic
and
them
and then four of the

written
chords
out
in
each
to
bar,
barred
and
was a
anything
of
attempt
crude
more
Europe
different
down
to
the
place
music at a
this
two domi-
The
chords are
tonic.
letter
at
to
the
and by Edward
the actual music.
rhythmitonal
from
close
the
of
later
the
music
seventeenth
the
It
and
art,
cultivated
is
impossible
date than the twelfth
independent period of
First the bards
and the national music was
many
so
notation,
measure given above
the
or the early thirteenth century, because
belonged
i.o.
tonic chords,
century could scarcely be imagined.

to
shorthand
indicated as follows
the piece exactly corresponds with

It
prove
to
following signs:
the
meaning two
1. 1. 0.0. 1. 1. 1. 1.,
nant,
chords,
as
in
and
triad),
Thus one measure was
or ^ t-
fully
nothing
recognised
notation exists for
above-mentioned
the
are
leading-note
the
(or
of
order
measures
repetitions
dominant
that
by
tabulated
it
must have
Welsh
art,
were put down
to a great extent destroyed.
The whole theory of it vanished from that time.

From this general historical survey it should now
be evident that pitch-outline must be studied from the
natural harmonic basis of music
and
not, as
is
usual,
from the narrow and arbitrary one of contrapuntal
mixed up with harmony.

'
To some
See Appendix, Sections
art
extent the greater
L and M.
132
natural
style
contains the
were obtained by
teristic effects of the latter
and
tion,
were
due
to
but the most charac-
less,
narrow
its
isola-
its
These
outlook.
always be of interest to mature musicians,
effects will
but they are not for the study of students until the
rhythmic feeling has been awakened and a knowledge

of rhythmitonal music has
must not be supposed, however,
It
of
rejection
counterpoint
is
meant
that
there
composers
custom,
and
subject
called
to
succeed
in
order
the
study.
original
down
that the laws laid
in the
It
first
of
relaxed,
two
the
while
But
opinions.
though
more
to
be desired than
point
of
view
strict,
it
naturally
counterpoint are
assumption that pitch
is
Germany
In
counterpoint
is
It
is
from
not
a
starts
the
satisfac-
from the
the essential factor in music,
thus
fact,
a hybrid, neither ancient nor modern.
the
between
halt
and
repeats
the
been
already
evolution
tory presentment of pitch-outline.
follows
free
of rhythmitonal
mediaeval
invented
we
England
in
still
of
been
have
study
primitive
left
practice
procedure
their
broken or ignored by the second.
bonds
The
from
has
counterpoint
free
nothing
is
explain
to
mediaeval
of
harmony.
departed
long
has
by the
that
system
antiquated
the
pitch-outline to be taught but
of
been acquired.
first
mediaeval
illusion.
It
this means the word counterpoint has found
is,
in
Yet by
its
way
modern music, an unfortunate occurrence, because

when once extended beyond the interval system it
becomes a loose term incapable of clear definition
into
that can be
made
to
mean anything
in
pitch-outline
e^.
except
chord-movement
simple
order to clear up
to
meaning,
word
the
confine
and
pitch-outline
this confusion,
find
will
art
In
be necessary
to
term
other
rhythmitonal
of the
it
counterpoint
some
melody.
or
133
to
its
original
signify
which
the
implies
The
is
word "polyphonic"
But
already in use as a synonym for counterpoint.
since it is manifestly unreasonable to employ two
chord-conception.
terms indiscriminately
of which
polyphony
harmonic
system.
requires
for
name
will
signify
usage
and
the
two
to
differing
itself,
in
development
counterpoint
the
styles
each
this
work
of
natural
conventional
PART
II
RHYTHM
CHAPTER
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Rhythm
Recurrence of units
relative balance The
the underlying unity of musical form
rhythm The law of union A

standard units Alternation The three main
and
Strict
The
free
free unit of the idea
The
divisions of
rhythm
idiom Rhythm of pitch Limitations

The under-emphasis or over-emphasis
The rhythmic significance of tonality Undulating

Need for rhythmic balance Rhythm in education.
of pitch as a factor of evolution
of the key
Musical
form
combination
of
consists
rhythm
of varied
rhythmic movements conveyed by means of the tonedescribed
already
material
these
are
grouped
all
under the central principle of rhythm.
At
first
sight
it
may appear
unlikely that
all
the
widely differing factors of music should have anything
common
of importance in
study of an
those
all
by
composition,
it
would not
a work
the
parts
are
variety
to
of
the
of
art,
whole.
the
fulfil
to
which
unity
superficial
between
existed
object of intellectual
precisely
is
of
features
disguised
similarity
sary to
however,
art,
underlying
art,
the
discover
exist
in
If
no
variations.
various
the
parts
of
conditions neces-
which require relation of
The
appearance
all
general features of art
combined
with
unity
of
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
This
principle.
have
tone
whole,
been
grasped
development
both
why and how one
All,
short,
assumed
a
new
as
the
factors
An
arises,
form
musical
of
parts
is
but as a means
itself,
sum of
means
that
intuitively
dis-
necessary,
not
it
been
has
of
into
classifying
right
their
up a conception of the whole from study of the

essential
of rhythm
fact
is
The understanding
recurrence.
solves itself into a
the
and thus building
places with regard to one another,
The
to
from another.
the
in
examination of detail
in
various
style
proportion
relative
an end
depends upon the relative proportions
by the various
covered.
as
and
of music,
art
style differs
and when a new
whole,
and
severally
in
understand on general
to
of the
explain
in
manifestations
various
its
rhythmic
the
necessarily
is
become easy
will
it
the
lines
when
and
principle,
unity
135
its
of musical
knowledge of the
parts.
periodicity or
form re-
units or points
of recurrence and their combinations.

It
to
is
noted
be
that the
rhythmic principle as
a whole makes invariably for orderly arrangement of
Whatever be the nature
material.
periodicity enables
of
fact
ligible
which
order,
This order,
stages
The
material
of
all
alike,
the
then
the units recur

intervals,
the
perceive
to
basis
of
at
very simple
available
for
unit,
an
unity
music usually called "form,"
in
early
is
us
of the
is
and obvious
use
is
the
intelin
in
art.
the
nature.
very small,
frequent and generally at
regular
rhythmic relations are thus very much
and may therefore be described as
or exactly symmetrical.
strict,
In course of time this strict
136
form, which at
tonous,
and
begins to appear mono-
satisfied,
first
variety
desired.
is
It
is
that
fact
command
atten-
rhythmic
order,
monotony of any kind soon ceases to

instinctively the mind wanders in search of variety,
and variety in art comes in not as a new and untion
related
but
thing,
as
a varying of what
produced
**
Thus
already in existence.
is
which
free " form,
gress of any
the
of
part
essential
is
and perhaps especially of the
art,
is
to the proart
of music.
The
given
general relations of
rise to the
The law
the
that
perceptible
free
form have
fundamental law of musical evolution.

union of
of the
exact
or
strict
and
strict
through
the
strict
and
reiteration
inexact
free
shall
form
is
be clearly
reiterations
of
free
form.
The
function of free form
vary the exactness of
strict
be
result
too
obvious,
the
after the first hearing.
rhythmic
feeling
is
form.
will
to
a mind
reiterations
It is
undeveloped
may be
perfectly obvious.
in
reiteration,
balance
evident, however,
rhythmic perception,
obscure that to the trained mind are
The
balance
that
varies with
may
also differ with individuals.
period,
is
thus a relative matter
nationality,
and
The
free.
The
strict
is
the
earlier
and
culture,
general lines of
development, however, indicate a progress from

to
strict,
monotony on the one hand
and incoherence on the other.

that
the
appear incoherent.
required that shall avoid
especially
form overpower
If free
form
If the strict
monotony,
is
unable to grasp
is
and hence the music
here to oppose and
is
stage,
strict
unless,
as
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
has frequently happened,
it
137
appears as the result of
development or of degeneration.
There exists, however, necessarily a certain portion
an
artificial
of standard outline
dispensable, since, unless
it
is
consists
line
music
This standard outexact
standard units of
of
in-
is
clearly perceptible,
appear without form and void.
will
that
exact reiteration)
[i.e.
recurrence,
permanent and unalterable nature, the basis of
of a
These standard units are independent of the

individual composer, and are due to racial evolution.
the
art.
The
of their recurrence, however,
7'ate
general
limits,
considered
as
into
of
sometimes mistaken
is
nature.
its
implies
former part of
in the
It
is
work.
which enters
the
for
essence
obvious, however, that alternation
the existence of two units, and of two
Whereas rhythm
only.
are
and have
this
principle of alternation of factors
rhythm
They
music,
of
tone-material
the
been so described
The
within certain
is,
at the composer's option.
certainly
exists
units
the
in
re-
currence of one single unit, such as a blow regularly

repeated,
factors
in
and equally
in
succession,
or
the
in
recurrence
the
opposition
factor to several others of varying nature
be regarded as single
units.
In none
be said to
exist.
It
alternation
that
alternation
that
it
It
not
is
constitutes
of
which follows upon the

only,
and
is
one
of
which must
of these can
clear,
rhythmic
several
therefore,
but
principle,
an occasional condition of rhythm.
forms the stage
of one
the
of
is
several units variously
the
recurrence
of two
units
earlier stage of the recurrence
merged
into
combined.
the
reiteration
of
138
The
may now be
nature of rhythm
as
defined
" the periodic quality, pulsative, circling, or undulating,
of
all
movement."
These three
motion, beats,
in
essential
and waves, are
circles,
Although
music.
produces
sum
the
own development
characteristics
musical
apart
from
rhythm, therefore, divides

branches
to
be found
each
effect,
the
into
Musical
great
three
these
pulsative
rhythm
union of
strict
and
free
has
naturally
precedence, being the primary source of the
in
its
and the undulating, or wave-
rhythm,
Of
rhythm.
The
has
others.
naturally
that
the pulsative, or beating rhythm, the circling,
centering
or
rhythmic
combination
their
is
it
of
all
of
form
is
both pulsative and circling rhythms
art.
to be found
the
has
first
produced the time-system of music, the second that
arrangement
refers
of
pitch-outline
pitch-relations
all
called
the
to
third,
or
undulating rhythm, has a
found
in
all
irregular
sea.
definite
it
of
has,
iteration,
character
its
to
be
but
a
wave
the
naturally
in-
free
waves of the
of
a less
than the recurring beat
or
chord
presents
former
independence
is
necessarily
speaking,
strictly
having
suggestive of
recurring
currence of
movement
This wave-movement
form,
strict
character,
The
The
centre.
the outlines, culminating in the climaxes
of great musical works.
dependent
which
tonality,
tonic
of
is
no
general
state.
strict
point
of
re-
condition
of
re-
is
due
incisive
To
form.
this
It
cause
may
therefore
be called free rhythm.
The
thing that appears to differentiate music from
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
other
the
139
standard material, how-
arts
is
that
ever indispensable,
is
yet neither the whole nor even
all
most important part of the material
the
in
its
and giving
which
prominence.
it
seems
It
purpose of rendering
for the
It
and
speaking
of
the
the
character
exist solely
other material
this
is
and alone determines
We
a work.
of
which
material
to
other material aid
this
the essence of music,
is
value
the
works.
great musical
all
be found
to
are
by the
created
is
composer, and generally known as the musical idea.
This
consists
without harmony,
which,
if
few
of
technically
some
tiative idea, will certainly contain

in
which
time-outline,
its
this
or
unit,
may
it
forming various differing
ini-
striking feature
and
attention,
The whole
which
may
idea
broken
be
eventually
units
or
important
arrest
will
form a unit of recurrence.

in
an
be
it
with
notes,
up,
appear
will
lie
in
succession.
both the
In
manner of
use
its
But
hand.
free
providing of
composer
the
he
cannot
and the
material
this
has an absolutely
from
escape
own
his
Whatever material he use, where

and how he employ it, he must reiterate it.
This
rhythmic nature.
is
the
tured
the
essential
or
reiteration.
tion,
and
part
of
chord,
will
The
primitive.
number of
their
condition
this
units
sole
The
be
musical
difference
form,
cul-
consists
in
and the manner of
reiteration
need only exist
key must
all
employed
Strict
the material.
the
of
is
exact
repeti-
in the familiar standard
time-beat,
exactly
the
bar,
repeated,
be nothing by which to recognise them
or
;
the
there
thus
we
I40
get exact time and exact pitch in
no occasion
is
to
At
iteration.
be entered
been
outline,
which
presently
will
technically
analysable into the time-
pitch-figure,
which form the units of
is
unnamed,
hitherto
term
of " development,"
of
nature.
its
re-
free
This essential reiterative outline of music
recurrence.
has
in
indeed
its
into.
idea
and the
figure
idea strictly
consists
same time the idea exists in strict

as free, and has therefore definite re-
the standard
to
The
music
the
form as well
lations
the
reiterate
whole charm of
the
But there
music.
which conveys no
here
It is
by the
except
named
vague
specific idea
the "idiom" of music
the recurrent time-figure produces time-idiom,
the re-
current pitch-figure, pitch-idiom, and both of these are
included under the general heading of idiomatic outline.
This
subject
the
is
most important
one
the one that
haps
to
its
also
is
vast range has deterred
that
owes
of
colour,
Effects
It
it.
everything
of
the
is
to
harmony,
idiom springs as a
poser's
new
and presents
brain,
master and
to
variety.
one
in
is
tion of rhythmitonal
of
its
art,
time-outline.
genius.
force-outline,
case
lie
whereas
com-
creation from the
of each great
each of his works a
in
time-outline
order to
effect in
individual
of
in the
some extent
It
and therefore
units
new
is
Per-
writers from seeking
ready to hand and can easily be tabulated,

the
it
most commonly neglected.
give any account of
music
the
in
whole range of questions relating to music, and
that
leads
to
pitch,
understand the construc-
first
we must examine
For here
is
the
revealed the
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
organic nature of the idiom
which
be found
to
is
in all
in
most
its
vital
usage,
great instrumental music
Haydn downwards, whether
from
141
be called
basis
its
absolute, poetic, or dramatic.
When we
turn to review units of pitch, the com-
more apparent.
The
actual number of combinations employed is enormous
when compared with those of time.
The key-unit
divides into numerous chord-entities, whose compliplexity
cated
music
of
nowhere
is
contrast
relations
fractional relations of the
As
is
And
bar.
material, in pitch-outline there
rhythmic motion.
with
strangely
is
simple
the
besides bulk of
great complication of
already stated, circling rhythm
the one peculiar to pitch, but since
contains also
it
both idiomatic outline and undulating rhythm,

takes thus
ment
that exists in music.
when
of pitch,
united,
All these various
sum
form the
of pitch-outline in rhythmitonal art

that
effect
due
is
and when
bination,
to
relations
one
all
than
less
is
it
rhythm contains within

and that
par-
it
almost every kind of rhythmic move-
in
of
the
these
all
effect
seldom that
is
it
rhythms
com-
in
further considered that each
itself
varying units of motion,
these varying units,
with
their inter-
all
and varying recurrence, are harmonised into
outline,
it
becomes evident that we have here a
system even more highly organised than that of time-
view of
complication
not sur-
outline.
In
prising
that
undue importance has been attached
pitch.
But
complication
makes
for
to
the hands
tie
this
in
itself
is
is
it
thing
weakness rather than strength

of
the
artist
till
he
it
is
become
to
that
apt
the
142
slave
rule,
pitch
of
own
his
art,
the stronger the
and
as
therefore,
more
the
music,
general
certainly will
into the background.
fall
History shows clearly that tonality

rhythm.
It
is
impossible
for
the
an accessary
is
weaker
tonalitive
standards to develop without the assistance of the time-
standards.
definite time-outline
must
first exist,
and
no tonalitive development has ever taken place that
was not founded upon the time-beat.

at basing
made by
The
only attempt
music upon synchronous pitch-outline was that

the
monks
of the Middle Ages.
But even
the monks, with their false notions of consonance, were
unable to proceed at
all
without a time-standard, and
rhythm had
leaven the whole, and finally
once the elementary beat

entered
after
in,
some
it
began
to
of
pulsative
These
centuries true consonance appeared.
musicians held
to
their
original
idea,
in
that
they
regarded consonant and dissonant relations as the main

thing,
and admitted pulsative rhythm no more than
During the
they were obliged.

centuries
we have
types founded upon
fifteenth
and sixteenth
church-music and certain secular
in
it,
the nearest approach to a music
based upon circling rhythm that has ever existed.

It
may be
urged, however, that this development
can hardly be described as one of circling

seeingf that tonalitive relations in the
not exist in
to
it.
It is
rhythm,
modern sense do
true that the tonalitive definiteness
which we are accustomed
is
not here, because this
music lacks the standard of the key, the absence of
which produces the uncertain rambling movement which

But
distinguishes it from the normal tonalitive usage.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
on comparing
at
it
143
with microtonal music the difference
once apparent, and the type appears by
to approximate
It
more
closely to
precisely this
is
lack
European
is
contrast
tonality.
key-standard that
of the
points to the limitations of pitch considered as a factor
of evolution.
It
due
is
to
absence of the bar-
the
Such
standard of time from this music.
indications of
time as then existed were merely a means of counting

correctly the time-beats of the single part,
no
grouping into a larger
collective
and implied
Thus
unit.
the
attempt to develop music on pitch lines only, defeated
own
its
end,
and was doomed
to
early
destruction,
affording historical proof of the true relations of time
and
pitch.
The aimless rambling amongst chords which formerly

characterised music has given place to a movement of
the
extreme,
opposite
the
by means of which the key

" In
itself.
over-emphasis of tonality
is
exalted into an end in
order to establish the key
"
is
a phrase
constantly to be met with in musical instruction books,
whereas
in
his
it
quite certain that no composer with ideas
is
head has had any object
in writing
except that
of giving the fullest utterance possible to these ideas.

If
the idea required a well-established key, established
the key was
but this
is
ducing an idea in order
about a modulation.
extreme, because
and means.
it
Any
quite another thing from introto establish the key,
The
notion
is
or to bring
ludicrous in the
reverses the normal condition of end

tyro in composition can establish a
key or an orthodox succession of keys, but who can

orive
us the ideas of Beethoven
"i
144
The whole
conception of tonality requires to be re-
The key
cast in relation to idiomatic outline.
only for
emotional
its
and chords
The
effect.
of value
is
gravitation of tones
to a centre produces in itself a feeling
of
repose
when
points,
which appear as temporary centres, and excite
contrasted with
movement towards other
The more
feelings of unrest.
point to point the greater
rapid the transit from
This
the restlessness.
The
the rhythmic significance of our key-system.

of pitch
line
is
rhythm
the only one that can suggest repose
is
some
a certain, and to
made
The
But when
effect.
it
becomes a
factor of
enormous
single idea requires the repose of the
which to develop
a kindred key to the

will
a kindred idea will require
first
a strongly contrasted idea
require an equally strong contrast
method of
key
itself;
key-distribution,
An
of key.
examination of Beethoven's work shows that

his
be
the accessary to the idiom, the mechanical
character vanishes, and

value.
will
it
extent, a mechanical
method of obtaining an emotional

is
This,
also in the tonalitive sense.
perceived,
in
out-
music, the absence of movement, and, therefore, of
in
it
is
however
little
this
was
he
may
himself have been aware of the reasons for his choice.
Undulating or
rise
and
outlines.
of music
fall
It
free
rhythm being a condition of
stands apart from idiomatic and tonalitive

is
concerned not with the single notes
themselves, for they belong to
strict
form,
but with the speed at which they are taken, with their
direction
and position
intensity,
and with
in
pitch,
their colour.
with
Its
their
material
varying
is
thus
the general tone-material of music, irrespective of the
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
The complete wave-
standard units of time and pitch.
rhythm
and slackening of speed
consists of hastening
(accelerando-ritardando) of a rise and

of an
and decrease
increase
145
of pitch, and
fall
intensity (crescendo-
in
Colour has no wave-rhythm of
diminuendo).
own,
its
but by adding instrument to instrument assists to form

the climax.
While
stitutes
nature
is
it
evident that undulating rhythm con-
is
a most important
is
part
of musical
effect,
one of the greatest simplicity, and
its
its
use
upon the union of strict and free

As both standard and idiomatic outlines grow
largely dependent
form.
out of this union,
form of the
it
is
It
art.
rightly regarded as the essential
would be quite impossible
concerted art of music to
for a
founded solely upon
exist
the vague emotional impressions of wave-rhythm.
and
sharp, clear outlines of strict
free
form are needed
to give intelligible order and, therefore, coherence,
any attempt
to
The
understand musical form
is
and
mainly con-
cerned with analysis of the principles upon which that
union
rests,
and the tracing out of these principles
the technical evolution of the art.
in
Modern tendencies
preponderance of force and colour over
in favour of a
the other factors of music
may produce
compositions
sensuously charming and with an air of novelty, but
they cannot
have
the
grit,
vigour,
that arise out of the union of strict

especially from the
The
loftiest
and
is
free form,
and
development of pulsative rhythm.
emotional music
is
invariably found to
be of a rhythmic nature throughout

Time-outline
and spontaneity
naturally rhythmic,
its
since
whole range.
it
makes no
K
146
sensuous appeal, but into the other outlines a very large
The
sensuous element necessarily enters.
lowest order
of emotions are the ones most closely connected with
Therefore, unless these sensuous outlines are
sensation.
dominated by rhythmic principle,
their
tendency
will
be to give utterance to the lower sensuous emotions.
Where we
find a lack of idiomatic
freeing
outline
from the rhythmic cadences of
itself
and revelling
tonality
overwhelming proportions,
emotional force,
this is the
The most
force
of
music of the lower
necessary to assert and
is
it
important truth of musical evolution
that the highest in music
Of
controlling principle.
is
only to be attained by a har-
is
monious working together of
is
and
supremacy of rhythm.
to reassert the
one
colour
and
In order to combat the effect of this demoral-
nature.
ising
dissonant
purely
the
in
combination with
chromatic in
development, a pitch-
its
essential to the full
all
the factors under one
three main rhythms every
development of the others.
Pulsative rhythm lacks repose without a pitch-standard,

tonality
outline,
virtually
is
dependent upon a developed time-
both are apt to become monotonous
tinued without undulating rhythm, while

itself,
without idiomatic outline, loses
all
if
long con-
wave-movement
sense of climax,
and wearies the mind by a ceaseless rise and fall. None

of these rhythms when isolated, that is, when the mind
is
entirely
absorbed
the emotional
And
so rare
in
power
is
it
to
it,
has anything approaching to
possessed
find
appreciating and balancing

in
music
is
by the combination.
a mind that
all
is
capable of
three, that the greatest
necessarily of equally rare occurrence.
In
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Beethoven we have perhaps the
147
solitary instance of
an
absolutely perfect balance.

It
is
three
however, that any mind can
be taught to look
training
early
all
evident,
kinds
its
and appreciate
for
rhythm, and that
of
in
this
mind
will
have an untold advantage over the one that has concentrated
own
its
who
upon
trained
else,
life.
The
and
evil
is
is
natural
rhythm
of
tonality
but
student
the
upon
will
it
as the
has no knowledge of any-
part,
made worse by
will,
in
tonality, but the reverse
use
no
is
narrowed and perhaps thwarted
weaker accessary rhythm

sative
bent,
tonality only, looks
whole instead of as a
thing
has never
There
all.
mind which knows the whole
the
soon discover
is
or
only,
look for rhythm at
to
but that
fear
upon one
attention
its
been taught
that
at
is
the
given preference.
Western
mind,
not the case.
is
present
for
the fact that to the
holds
Pul-
lead
to
The narrow
the
field
in
education leads nowhere, but to a repetition of exactly
what
exists already,
and
for
which there
is
no
future.
CHAPTER
II
TIME-IDIOM
Analysis of time-outline The time-figure List of time-figures Relation

of the figure to the accent and the beat Phrased, slurred, and tied
Syncopation Relation of the figure to orchestral instruments
figures
The function of equal time-outline The idiom in melody and polyphony Relation of the idiom to the accent Free time-idiom.
The
analysis of time-outline in melody,
see why, has hitherto been held to
it
is
hard to
outside
lie
the
domain of the musician. A more mistaken view could

For the critical understanding of melody,
hardly exist.
the intellectual appreciation of
time-outline
ment
is
to
is
beauties, analysis of
as essential as analysis of chord-move-
harmony.
Melody, moreover,
finely organised outline than

is
its
is
a more essential matter.
were, the skeleton of the
art,
is
harmony, and
a far more
its
analysis
Time-figures form, as
and lacking
these,
tends to become invertebrate or wooden, like

figures
it
music
human
drawn without sense of anatomy.
Since the
strict
precedes the
free,
we
shall find this
gradual evolution taking place in time-outline.

primitive savage at
first
one unaltered clothing of
The
repeated his time-figure with

pitch,
force,
and
colour,
and
thus produced a monotonous sing-song, an absolutely

strict
form
of
exact repetition.
development
depending
solely
In course of time this has given
to incessant variations in pitch, force,

148
and
colour,
upon
way
and
TIME-IDIOM
even the time-figure
repeated.
It
is
149
no longer regularly or precisely
is
combined with other
figures,
with passages of equal time-outline, and
varied
the
still fulfills
two purposes of unity and vigour of utterance.
Having
we
once grasped by ear the form of the time-figure,

recognise
shall
and
such
in
under astonishing
it
recognition
the
lies
transformations,
main continuity of
rhythmitonal music, the time-figure causing a relation
between what has gone before and what
to exist
follow after.
It
is
clear that
the understanding of
in
music memory plays a most important
remember
are unable to
we
not recognise
shall
Memory
for
the
to
is
part, since if
we
form of the time-figure
when disguised.
even more important
especially
it,
time-relations
is
than for pitch-relations.
The
has
time-figure
definite
and
standards
of time-outline,
or free
determined by these
is
The
clear
followinij
list
of
its
relations
character
to
the
of strict
relations.
time-ficjures
will
make
this
Beat-figures
Strict
Free
n.
jtj
sj..
jJ
IT:
Bar-figures of
Strict
Two
jn jm
Beats
150
Free
R M n
hi
IIIM *l
III
*l'0 w
I
9' -m -m
n
!
-
II
N|
II
>
19.
-0
'
Equal Figures
D3
!
>
'
i~"!'*i'^~i~^
piiiii,iii iiiiH^
r^"^^'
^ -o -9 -m -9 &C.
I
It will
effect
be seen from these examples that the main
of difference between strict and free
by the position
is
caused
bar of the longest note, and to
in the
a lesser degree by the manner of the division of the
The
time-beat.
single
effect
of a longer note
is
to
impress the ear with a sense of greater importance
than
belongs
with
united
to
the
shorter
accent,
strict
note occurs upon the
ones.
first
When
i.e.
this
when
effect
the
longest
beat of the bar, the time-
outline appears to flow with the regular accents.
the reverse case, as in
all
where the longest note
the examples
is
not on the
time-outline beats against the accent.

strict
is
accent of music continues
its
marked
In
" free,"
the
first
beat,
And
while the
mechanical unvary-
ing method of pointing out the standard outline of the

obvious that the greater the inequality of values the more difficult
Extreme conto grasp them in relation to the standard.
trasts are generally impracticable, being inartistic through lack of balance,
With the exception of certain eccentricities
particularly in melodic art.
^
does
It is
it
become
in the splitting of values, this list practically
for time-figures.
lower value,
<?.^'.
It
can be translated into
11
c^,
or
^
^. ^
S
exhausts the material available

its
equivalents of a higher or
the relative duration remaining unaltered.
TIME-IDIOM
bar,
within
151
time-measure thus rigidly punctuated
the
runs the free time-outline of music, sometimes flowing
sometimes ebbing against
with,
Occasionally the
it.
ebb becomes a counter-current of sturdy defiance, and

counter-accents
Thus
counter-accents
may
the
assist
to
in
new balance
is
added,
are
that
tradiction
quite
agitating
the force
is
alone can create the sense of con-
it
from
apart
The
relative duration.
where no figure
If strong
and
restless
be produced, and so powerful
of accent
and a
created,
imparted to the music.
is
contest.
unopposed flow of time-
of the
relieved,
is
feeling of energy
effect
called
monotony
the
outline
are
more counter-accent
by
produced
effect
following instance, IJ
J J J
but only an equal outline, has
exists,
an undoubtedly free
the
As
effect.
used
is
the
general
more
the
rule
striking
and
passionate will be the utterance, while that of duration

is
of a quieter nature.
The term
bar-figure does not imply necessarily that
the figure occupies the whole bar, but that
and
to the bar-standard,
it
to
is
this
figures,
it
relates
important to consider whether the figure relates
fioure,
if
it
in the analysis of time-outline
standard
"1
I
free
if
or
the
to
beat.
The
beat-
strict
continued and varied with other beat-
or equal,
relates
to
be followed by a crotchet,
the beat only

fî
it
but
becomes
a free bar-figure, because the longest note of the bar

is
not found on
the
the dotted quaver
is
first
beat.
The
strict
overpowered by the
of the following crotchet.
effect
free
of
effect
In order to decide whether
152
a figure
its
strict or free,
is
is
it
necessary by ascertaining
which standard
lenofth to discover to
In
refers.
it
the majority of cases the bar-standard prevails, and an
may be known by
outHne based upon a beat-figure
some
the fact that the figure or
variation of
it
must
recur on each beat.^
The
free,
bar
equal beat-figure
Strict,
I
|
the
to
of the
beat.
Free,
fT^l
equal character can
of
(staccato)
the
inequality
but
appears
The mixture
It
II
the
thus
its
if
the
be altered by
connection
notes.
legato, or again all staccato,
maintained,
position
its
in
bar-standard and not to the standard

Its
disconnection
is
which concerns
phrasing,
figure
nor
in itself neither strict
but becomes so according to
relates
is
is
two
contradicting
If
its
(legato)
the
or
whole
equal character
effects
are
the
equal
mixed an
notation.
of legato and staccato effect forms figures
out of a notation of continuous equal
change of pitch being needed
to
time-outline,
give effect to the
legato.
Example
The
as
if
The
various decrees of staccato
rests
were written
shorten duration
staccato markings thus form a kind of shorthand,
^ Tunes based on the ternal beat-figure are common in English folksong, and an example of the dual beat-figure is to be found in the Morris
Dance,
"
Rigs
o'
Marlow."
Appendix, Sections S and R.
TIME-IDIOM
which
much more
is
153
and written than the
easily read
All phrased figures are strict or
complete notation.
As, however, the
free as are the figures of notation.
importance of a note
time-outline
in
attack (or starting) than
ment of
(or
rests
The
legato line placed over two
the
and has the
"slur,"
accent to the
first
of the second.
ff
If the
The
is
beats,
effect
therefore free.
sounds as
note of a
first
pitch
is
called
of giving a feeling of
f^f
forms
it
tied figure
shorten
to
slightly reducing the duration
Thus f^
between
fall
and
its
notes or chords of
tempo and of varying
fast
in
character of strict or free.
its
moderately
and
staccato marks)
of the
duration does not affect
more
lies
continuance, the employ-
in
J J
The
slurred
free
annuls the
first
if
written
figure
beat-figure
strict accent,
note of this figure
is
a minim, being written as two crotchets for convenience

of notation
and what should be the accented beat
joined on to the last beat of the former bar.

the strict accent
strong
is
the
of this accent
perhaps
accent
itself
for
is
is
Here
to disappear entirely, but so
conception and consequent expectation

that
many
actually
appears
made
is
to
its
effect
continue mentally
will
bars without intermission

heard,
and when
suggest
another
the
accent
when no
time-outline
altogether.
154
This
is
it
an
What
as syncopation.
renders
Hence
the regularity of the strict accent.
is
be easily retained by the mind (any exact
can
this
known
effect
possible
time division being remembered far more easily than
varying ones), and even
successive
opposing
The
tion
force.
following table shows the
with
types of syncopa-
Some
time-signatures.
differing
and
especially in I
are very
I,
irregular nature of the bar,

little
against an
held
of
these,
owing
difficult,
to the
and are consequently but
used.
Syncopation on Beats
2
4
4.
-9
-m
<^
c^
-m
G>
III
c?
-m
c?
4,
-m
6 /3\
I
I
1111111G
5
4.
1111111
(^
^
11
II
-0
I
I
I
I
-m
Syncopation between Beats

This does not vary with change of
only
bar, but
with the beat-division, dual (i) or ternal (2):

(2)
(1)
hi
An
hi
(2)
I
effect of the nature of
syncopation can be pro-
TIME-IDIOM
duced by the alternation of
bars as follows
2
and
free in consecutive
strict
155
or with the addition of a time-figure

s
The
1^1
it
I
i
the mental carrying on of the strict accent, and
consequent realising
irregularity of the outline,
an
1^1
essential feature of this effect, as in syncopation,
lies in
the
effect
of
the
which
is
time against the
written as in
overlooked by writers on music,
who
| time,
refer to
as giving the impression of a change of time to
written
it.
Time-idiom
and
\.
were intended the composer would so have
If that
identifies
itself
art,
natural that an important part should be played
it is
by orchestral colour
in
the determination of the time-
no inconsiderable part of
Time-outline forms
figure.
with instrumental
the technique of an instrument, and effective orchestral

writing
is
outline
as
figure
as
on
much dependent upon

congenial
treatment which
is
congenial time-
The
pitch-outline.
best
suited
to
any
exact
instru-
ment can only be grasped by practical acquaintance

with its character
it
must be either played or
;
frequently listened
to
other instruments.
As
heavier the quality

staccato
effect
alone and in combination with
a general rule, the broader and
of tone,
the
less
suited
is
and rapid rhythmic movement.
it
to
The
brass instruments of the orchestra and the louder stops
of the
organ come under
this
heading.
Broad and
156
masses
equal
are
and
quality,
any
The
vulgarity.
the
treatment
natural
treatment
other
heavy
for
towards
tends
and wood-wind instruments,
strings
being mostly of a lighter quality, lend themselves easily
The
to rapid staccato or legato effect.
however, has quite a different
strings,
of the wood-wind, and

In
variation.
all
staccato of the
effect
from that
capable of finer degrees of
is
wind instruments both the attack and
the stoppage of the tone are less sharp and sudden
made upon any bowed stringed

Where the attack is made by the bow
than those
effect
instrument.
detached
can be produced without appreciable change in
This
the value of the tone.
instruments,
where any
impossible with wind
is
from
deviation
consist in a shortening of duration.
must
legato
It is also
evident
that the sharp accents characteristic of the strings and
percussion
instruments are not
the wind or
for
wind
necessarily
The
from voices.
instruments,
weaker
and
and
time-outline
especially
stricter
from
be obtained
to
than
for
suitable
voices,
is
normal
the
instrumental usage.
The
percussive effects
of time-outline are used in
the East as a substitute for the harmonic accompani-
ment of the West.

possess
considerable
accompaniments
ways of
graver
Asiatic
skill
to a song.
striking the
sound,
and
drum
lesser
in
drummers are
to
adding such extempore
There are various

to
said
different
produce an acute or a
incidental
beats are
inter-
polated between the more essential ones, so that the

art of
effective
to be despised.
time-accompaniment
It is
is
by no means
unfortunate that Europeans
who
TIME-IDIOM
157
have made studies of the music of any Asiatic country

usually forget to mention that such a thing exists.^
continuance of notes of equal length
This forms a most important
time-outline.
modern music, but
The
development.
its
use here appears to
origin of equal outline
beat, and in primitive music
one form.
notation,
it
it
effect
be a
in
late
was the time-
exists principally in this
Thus if the crotchet be taken as

may be said that equal outline was
the beat
confined
Practically in all vocal parts
the crotchet.
to
in equal
is
and
in
some
gong being reserved to
non-percussive instruments the outline consists of
simple
the
idiom,
indicate
the
drum
accent and
or
the
beat.
But
in
course of
development, as monotony gives way to variety, every
new
possibility of contrast
is
seized upon,
and thus equal
time-outline becomes of use, not merely simultaneously
with an idiom, where

also to
account.
for
man
it
forms a natural background, but
cover large tracts of music-space on
Here
its
function
as the form of music
is
is still
its
own
that of an accessary,
not only synchronous but
notable and apparently almost the only exception was the Frenchwhen sent out a hundred years ago on the Napoleonic
Villoteau, who,
Egypt, made an invaluable collection of music in

many examples of time-accompaniment, which he had
scientific expedition to
Cairo, including
minutely studied. These are composed of strict figures, one of which, after
continuing for some time, will change to a more rapid one, the beat growing
louder, and at each change there is increase of intensity in pace, force, and
figure till the highest point is reached and a fall commences.
Thus a
distinct wave-rhythm is produced quite apart from any pitch-outline.
This
is a dance-type, of which time-outline is the only musical accompaniment,
and many of these were noted by Villoteau in Cairo, played upon castanettes, tambourins, and drums.
Percussive time-outline appears in Europe
as the accompaniment of the march or the dance.
In Spain it is familiar
on the castanets, and as hand-clapping or stick-rapping occasionally assists
the English Morris Dance.
158
time-idiom
successive,
made
is
by spaces of equal time-outline
of greater prominence
course of develop-
in the
ment, and such spaces are absolutely essential to the
This
balance of a long work.

the
memory
throws a
effect
veil
over
of the sharp unequal outlines of figures,
which would otherwise weary us by their perpetual
The
inequality.
larger the scale on which equal time-
required the more rapid must be the pace
outline
is
of
it.
Therefore a considerable amount of technique
is
required
for
performance,
its
impossible to primitive
and
an
is
effect
be found that the
It will
art.
it
closer this equal outline approaches to the actual pace
of the beat the less effective does
it
become.
It
requires
either to be the beat, or else to be considerably slower
The former may be an
or considerably faster.
solemn grandeur and dignity, but
effect of
cannot long con-
it
more rapid the

can be maintained.
In this way
tinue without monotony, whereas the

outline the longer
not only does
it
it
obliterate a previous idiom, but unless
strongly accented
Thus
of the bar-standard.
broad
tendency
its
effect of contrast
is
its
the even
existence, and
tenor
emphasising.
of
its
All
The same
variations
produced a general and

free
strict accent,
strict
also
form,
em-
form which pursues
way, neither contradicting nor
be observed in miniature
classified
lessen the effect
to
between strikingly
which, while contradicting the

phasises
is
alternation
in
may
occasionally
a folk-song.
of time-outline
in
melody can be
broadly under three heads, according to the
predominance of equal
of the free figure
outline, of the
The
strict
figure, or
basis of equal outline varied
TIME-IDIOM
by figures;
(2)
the basis of the strict figure varied
other time-figures,
be found that
will
It
strict,
where but
pitch
little
time-outline
nounced
equal, or free
figure also varied
of the free
will
in
same manner/
a small melodic vocal type,
can be obtained, the
variety
principal
by
varied
opening,
other
figures.
the balance and order of these figures the
effect
of the
depend,
will
an-
figure
Upon
melody
by-
the basis
(3)
the
in
consist of one
the
at
159
main
pitch-outline
the
mode) being of a limited charIn a large polyphonic instrumental movement,
(generally a diatonic
acter.
on the contrary, the pitch-features represent endless

while
variety,
has
time-oudine
Consequently one time-figure
preserve
to
will
unity.
sometimes prevail
throughout an entire movement with variations of pitch
This
or of equal outline only.^
is,
more
indeed, the
usual condition of advanced idiomatic development.

It
is
remarkable that the essential
effect
idiom as well as of the single figure

standards
time-outline.
of
consequence that the
It
figure
is
itself
fact
sets
standard, forming a model upon which

variations
view
of
siderable,
of
pitch,
force,
time-figure
the
changes and
in
Such
proceed.
still
See Appendix, Sections
An example
itself
a temporary
all
successive
from
the
point
are
often
con-
may undergo
slight
is
the
R-W.
trio, this movement consists of 134

repeated no fewer than 72 times. In the first
occurs 10 times, in the next 8 bars 6 times, in the next 56 bars
Minor, Op. 42.

it
colour,
lesser
of this will be found in the Scherzo of Schubert's Sonata
Exclusive of the
bars, in which one figure
28 bars
and
of
be recognised, but so strong
variations,
an
due to the
is
of
is
35 times, in the last 42 bars 21 times.
i6o
of the time-standards that
effect
repetition than
of the
outline
the
in
that
the
position
causes
of
recurrence
its
main
the
the nature
less
is
it
idiom as well as the single figure

idiom
but the
bar
single
not
relates
but
bars
to
standard
the
to
free,
of
The
succession.
in
Timeor
strict
is
the
of
effect
idiom, and therefore of the whole time-outline.
the
strict
which causes the beat and bar succession
reiteration
can either be enforced or contradicted by the idiom.
When
a figure
each bar,
is
strict
not
at
i.e.
regularly
figure
strict
idiom
the
repeated
in
be
position
idiom
the
intervals,
the
idiom
irregularly
The
free.
is
reiterated
in
free
can be repeated exactly in a
figure
If differing figures are successively
strict idiom.
in
another part of the bar, or
each bar,
can
free
in
same
the
in
exactly regular
repeated
if
is
com-
bined so that no coherent repetition occurs, the idiom
But even where some contrast of time-figures
is
lost.
is
desirable,
as in melody,
it
be found that any
will
good tune not based on equal
outline has one pre-
vailing figure throughout the whole of
give the impression of an idiom
it
sufficient to
it,
freely varied,
is
but the variations are recognisable as such, and do

not appear as
new and
dency to add figure to
what has gone before

grip.
An
apparently
contrapuntal art
the
the preponderance
parts.
figure
without
a
indicates
opposite
all
at
all,
to
of rhythmic
tendency
drowning of
ten-
reference
lack
that
of
figure effect
by
is
sum of the
many figures,
of equal outline in the
Whether, however, we have too
or none
The
unrelated matter.
the
practical
result is
the
same
the
TIME-IDIOM
i6i
absence of idiom and hence of clear reiteration.
The
reverse
failing
or partially strict idiom carried on throughout
strict
a work
is
found
too
in
obvious a repetition.
weak and undeveloped condition

of rhythmic initiative, a mind that cannot break away
from the tyranny of the strict accent.
Most of the
modern church music and the popular music to be
indicates a
heard on barrel organs
On
lies in
of this description.
is
the other hand, the
charm of a
free time-idiom
the ease and unexpectedness of
or
disappearance.
in,
or
to
carry
its
appearance
Perhaps other figures are woven
background of equal time-outline
the
on the movement.
There
is
is
used
here no law,
but a vista of endless possibilities, an immense
store-
house over which the composer's imagination hovers,

selecting
intuitively
forming
it
is
to
the
much
the
figure
the more
image
depend on the
the
does the idiom,
development that
the genius of a composer or exposes his
deficiencies.
between
If
precisely the track of this
to
testifies
brain.
mind, so
individual
and
his
in
which answers
that
strict
perfect
and
development implies a balance
free
form which answers exactly
underlying emotional condition of which
it
is
There will be just so much strict and

so much free as is needed to awake the right feeling,
and this not by any process of calculation, but, as it
were, by the grace of God. This marvellous balancing
the utterance.
of manifold opposing factors into a consecutive organic
whole
is
a thing that actually transcends
comprehension
ditions
change,
in
the
detail.
mind
Every
is
intellectual
moment
baffled
by the
the
con-
rapidity
i62
motion
of the
bar,
is
no
factors
what of the
but
relating
the
to
all
human
mind
the intuitive
can grasp
its
whole.
is
and
it,
factors,
but
The
follow,
one another
art,
There
and
all
com-
in
approaches nearest to
variety of Nature.
the
Only
that called such art into existence

it
is
then grasped not by means of
suddenly and
limited,
intuitive
to
one
for
simplicity of appeal, music,
infinite
intellectual
necessarily
of the
and
utterances,
immensity and the
to
bars
any other
in
it
plexity of actual form
of
thousand
backward or forward
parallel
may be grasped
without
effort
as
attempt to realise the factors
and can never take the place
grasp,
but
it
can at least
go
far
somewhat of the conditions that

make for the highest art, and thus to distinguish
critically between the true art-work and the spurious
enouofh
to
realise
mechanical imitation.
CHAPTER
III
PITCH-IDIOM
Rhythm
Dependence of pitch-outline on the standards of time

in pitch
Hence importance of free time-idiom The pitch-figure Relations of
Pitch-idiom a
accompaniment Sequences Changes
time- and pitch-figures
secondary form
of values in
Figures
of
pitch-figures
Metamorphosis compared with idiomatic development.
It
proved by ethnological research that there was
is
stage
before
consisted
definite
when music
appeared
pitch
of noise or howls reduced to
When
time.
aided by early flutes and the stretched string of the
bow men began
hunter's
and
sustained
about,
the
pitch
principle
in
pitch-outline.
in
time-outline,
tendency
of
sing
to
instead
of the
of
sounds of definite
rambling
confusedly
rhythmic order appeared

already
Reiteration,
was naturally applied

was to establish
this
well
to
an
developed
The
pitch.
elementary
Reiteration of any single note will
circling rhythm.
produce a sense of a melodic centre, and when notes

in
chord or scale form are intermingled, reiteration of
one of these upon an accented beat

effect.
To
will
produce a
like
elementary tonality frequent reiteration
is
essential.
Since pitch-outline implies

well as pitch,
it
follows that
and cannot
it
is
movement
in
time as
exist without a time-outline,
governed
163
in the first place
by the
i64
of time and
reiterative standards
by the standards of
place
considered
the
standards, and
it
now
is
We
pitch.
of
relations
only in the second
have already
time-outline
all-important
to
to
own
its
make
clear
the effect of the beat and the bar upon pitch-outline.
Musicians are
aware
well
any
that
striking
effect,
such as a cadence, a suspension, or any pronounced
change of chord or key,
more
(and
especially
either
lose
detail,
or
else
exception
may
between
sound
time-beats),
occur
occasionally
where
leap to a high note takes place on a

it
be
will
accent, the
found
even flow of the
and
undisturbed,
exceptional and
We
facts
note,
weak
beat, but
by
effect
one
is
for
normal use.
not
that
its
only thing
overpower the
the
less
is
it
position
in
is
in
music
strict
volving free accent.

outline
free
accent will remain
relative
the bar
that
accent
From
completely at
is
the
it
im-
its
secondly,
that
strong enough
free
is
this
of a
pitch
consonant or dissonant, that determines
portance than
the
sudden
are thus brought face to face with the following

firstly,
strict
any case the
in
apparent
accompanied
unless
that,
An
a mistake.
like
will
become mere passing
and
force
its
all
placed between the accents
if
if
to
time-idiom
in-
appears that pitch-
mercy
of
time-outline
and accent, and that all its own effects which are in
origin and character due to pitch have to be adjusted
in
accordance with
they
if
may be
the
strict
rightly heard.
accent,
And
it
the right balance of strict and free
in
order
further
form
that
follows,
is
to
be
preserved, that time-outline must generally predominate
PITCH-IDIOM
165
over pitch-outline, because only a free time-idiom can

preserve this
the
balance,
being
of pitch
effect
in-
evitably that of strengthening the standard outline in
order to get a hearing for
that wherever music has developed

that
lines,
is
this
essential to
pitch
while a purely polyphonic music will
it,
neglect
the
to
of
Hence
time.
of this in performance the bar-standard
drop out by omission of

a subordinate time-beat
accent comes
Strict
is
vulgar superfluity,
accent,
be
comes a
allowed to
and there
is
only
keep the parts together.
left to
to
its
its
is
absorbed
monotony
In order to obviate the
time-outline.
strict
Melody
itself.
always lack the balance because the mind

in
on natural
freely
balance has asserted
be found
will
It
itself.
considered
somewhat
true function having completely
disappeared.
But where pitch-outline has developed on natural

lines
the
assumes an
it
first
idiomatic
from time-outline.
instance,
naturally gives birth
derived,
character
The
to a pitch-figure, a
in
time-figure
few notes or
chords of varying pitch modelled on the lines of the

time-figure.
is
usually
course
of
variety
is
In a strict development the pitch-figure

incessantly
time,
as
required.
and exactly repeated.

form
strict
As
the
gives
following
show, this variety mostly comes
in,
way
But
to
example
in
free,
will
not as a modifi-
cation of the original time-figure, but of the derived

pitch-figure.
leading
the
The
variations of one of the
ideas of this sonata are here presented,
movement
analysis.
principal
is
one
that
will
repay
and
exhaustive
i66
Sonata
in
Minor
(Schubert, Op. 42).
Time and Fitch Idiom.

(3)
(1)
q:
:3^=3:
Izzîqzq:
zi^zizsri:
J_
iii
j-J^-^
(12)
(11)
(10)
=1:
iîi: :^
Frequently pitch-idiom
to variation until
merged
in
this stage
it
may
will
lose
ti^Z^trc:^-
tend
its
more and more

and become
identity
a continually varying pitch-outline.

is
reached repetition
When
in pitch-outline is at
minimum, the ear being satisfied by the relations of

time-idiom and the larger outlines of circling rhythm.
But the pitch-figure does
music altogether.
new
conditions.
On
not, therefore,
the contrary
It is in
it
combination
disappear from
reappears under
v/ith
equal time-
PITCH-IDIOM
that
outline
Here
unequal values, and,
and
pitch-figure
Time-relations
fiill
take
relations
idiomatic
its
much
the absence of
to
of the time-figure,
therefore,
the
idiom actually replace time-idiom.
background,
the
into
and
pitch-
place as the exponent of the

That these are the weaker kind is
their
idea.
evident from the fact that

are
normal function.
its
Owing
indispensable.
is
it
the pitch-figure finds
167
smaller.
its
possibilities of variation
Time-idiom
naturally develop
will
a free pitch-outline without loss of recognition of
its
figure,
but pitch-idiom requires an equal time-outline,
else
will
it
remain unnoticed, or merely reinforce the
So long
time-idiom.
as daylight
lasts,
ineffectual,
and the absence of sunlight
moonlight
may
counterpart
in
appear.
These
music
the relative
in
is
is
required that
relations suggest their
positions of the
Wherever
time-figure and pitch-figure.
moonlight
are found to coincide exactly, there
is
the two idioms
a temporary re-
versal to primitive conditions for the sake of extreme
The advanced
stage
is
the
evolution of both, each producing
its
own
clearness.
is
independent
effect,
which
essential to a fully developed musical work.
In considering pitch-idiom
the
we
are thus dealing with
secondary and derived use of the idiom, which,
though
it
may appear
becomes
use,
simultaneously with the primary
essential to music
only in
the absence
of the latter.^
^
The development
of idiom that
first
asserted itself in the music of
was not the primary one of time, but this secondary one of pitch.
When we consider that pitch-outline was then uppermost in the minds of
all musicians, this inversion of the normal order appears very natural.
The
preludes to the " Forty-eight " are to a great extent founded upon melodic
culture
pitch-idiom.
i68
what are
generally known as "figures of accompaniment," for
These
the most part consisting of melodic outline.
Pitch-idiom
is
noticeable
especially
in
figures are seldom absent from the great rhythmitonal
works, where they appear constantly
in
accompanying
parts, and also occupy long spaces of equal time-outline

If the figure be an important
on their own account.
melodic one, only slight changes can take place

intervals, for if these
be recognised
not
will vanish.
as are
vary
If,
in
the
however,
Example
it
figures,
the intervals
repetition
its
will
will
and direction of pitch
force.
student of music will recognise as
of pitch the
in
form
and the idiom

be founded upon harmony,
chord-change,
becomes the binding
its
the repetitions,
most accompanying
with
The
be too much varied
usage that
is
known
as
an idiom
sequence,
the
of the pitch-figure upon a higher or lower
plane of absolute pitch.
This
is
an outline generally
harmonic, involving undulating rhythm.
The sequence
and though the wave-motion is as

must rise or fall
were by step and not by gradient, the ear is
it
familiar with this necessity of pitch and accepts it
Where a long
in place of the gradual movement.
;
pitch-figure forms the step of the sequence (extending
over two or more bars) the wave-rhythm
will
be perhaps
more apparent than the idiomatic outline. The tonemovement will appear to be gradually rising, suggesting
a coming climax, or falling down into the depths, and
PITCH-IDIOM
the
of
fact
found
frequently
pulsative
order
in
small figure
its
be but
will
conditions
these
also,
rhythm,
to
movement
slightly
time-idiom
strengthen
is
the
undergoing several
This complex
on one step of the sequence.
repetitions
by step
repetition
Under
noticeable.
169
necessarily a polyphonic development.
is
sequence
does
admit
not
of
breaks
in
the
and therefore the pitch-figure cannot appear
repetition,
and disappear with
the
freedom of the time-figure,
but will be practically lost unless continuously repeated
on successive
sequence
the
standard.
beats
in
coincide,
There
steps.
can
is
taken
be
only one case
as
opposing
the
where
bar-
where the number of

the pitch-figure and in the bar do not
or (2) where each step of the sequence
This
weak beat
begins on a
Example
occurs
(i)
in
each
bar.
(1)
(2)
-\-
2=z^:
--=\-
^z=4
The ear holds the rhythm of the pitch-idiom

and recognises the beginning of each step, while it
also
hears
mentally
the
strict
accent,
complex
due to the union of strict and free form

between time and pitch, instead of, as is more usual,
between varying time-outlines only. This effect, how-
effect
ever,
it
is
must be considered of a doubtful nature, since

possible
to
hear both these sequences
strictly,
I70
and

in
order
to
ensure a free
effect
the
slur
must
be added, thus forming a phrased sequence.
Example
:P=:
:t=:
i=4=zE=:
-P
IZIZD
Attention has already been drawn to the important

part played by equal time-outline as an accessary in
the later evolution of music.
It
much used
has been
to link together time-idioms of an opposing character,
which would not follow one another immediately withBut

out a disagreeable abruptness in the transition.
this
can also be done by means of the pitch-figure
only, in a
can be shaded into

the
Varying time-figures
one another by an anticipation of
more concise manner.
new one combined with

Example
the previous pitch-figure.
"Parsifal" (Wagner), Vocal Score,
~^-
s^Pf
-^-
(Grail Motive!)
fit=4:
r-
^-^-
^^:
:^
^--
74.
p.
is:
cres.
:t:
,-===feS=S:
i=g
rp*l {Faith Motive.)
^^^ 4==p
&C.
PITCH-IDIOM
171
have a variation in the timeoutline between a pitch-figure and its repetition. Since
It
is
possible
to
there are varying values of equal time-outline,
by
turning
figure
oudine,
or slowing
down
is
it
effect
this
of the
or
minims,
If the
will
each
and being
time-outline,
its pitch-outline.
the whole
way
quavers
equal
existing in
still
recognised by
this
into
crotchets
is
it
that value
simple matter suddenly to halve or double
figure
involve
be a hurrying up
tone-movement by
used by Beethoven, but
jerks.
is
an
In
effect
obviously for occasional use only.
Example
Sonata
in
E Minor
(Beethoven, Op. 90).
8va
^^^^
H^lI^
i
s
:^^-^^
-.-<2.
1:
gi^^gj
In
:?:
i^^!
counterpoint
it
-n =t=zit=z=:?=
W:
:p=i^
is
familiar
-^-
as
diminution and
augmentation, these relating to a single part.
Sometimes there occur time and pitch figures in

combination, where not time but pitch becomes the
172
of
factor
reiteration.
preserved
The
the
intact,
however,
is,
to
from
altered
certain tones
shortened, accompanied
It
are
pitch
of
intervals
but the values of time are changed.
may be
beat
reverse,
The
may
dual
to
ternal,
or
be lengthened, others
by changes
absolute time.
in
be noted that the general time-
features of the original figure are preserved.
long
note will be more prolonged, a short one hastened, but

their relative values will not
be reversed.
such changes are given as follows
Instances of
"Episode de la Vie d'un Artiste"
(Berlioz).
(1)
--^=-I=l^:
:=^
1^=?=^:
iî
s
-^
t:
:z2:
(2)
(3)
5E3^
Hii:
tr.
ir.
/r.
^gjg^^gg^'rggî^
Siegfried Motive (Wagner).
(2)#
Â
Â
1-
g3f
?2Ziq
PITCH-IDIOM
Not any one
import with
This
They combine
own
to
make
is
no more than a
it
does not
its
Nor have
which
is
means
the
it
The
feeling
is
new, but the form
mood
The
by
of time and pitch
simply
this
is
exchanging
is
about
external
carefully
isolated
see that
of
but
the
occasional
will
recognition
effect
use
is
its
functions
Time-outline
changes
and there
by the
we have
to
the
equal
in
just
ear.
purely
prove of greater value
the
time-
feeling
force,
values,
and
its
remains only
It
is
considered
musical
in
is
in
in
secondary and lesser
emotional effect disappears,

the
the
and changes
force,
bring
the
the former
a further proof of the essential
is
emotional
perforce
pitch-outline
unless
idiom which
extraordinary psychic difference
differences in their constitutions.
fundamental
is
with an ever-varying form.
development of an idea
produced
the
him of introducing a
affords
this is the direct opposite of the
latter is
for
without abrupt dislocation of the
effect
metamorphosis.
outline
that will require
pitch resemblance
with what has gone before
link
sustains one emotional
thus
The
impression.
The value that the method has
tone-movement.
The
not a working out of
is
either of these composers attempted to use
new emotional
appearance with
any sense constitute a development.
in
as such.
familiar
whereas the
new conception
the original idea, but a
composer
of emotional
of
similarity
distinct emotional change,
it
unity
aspect,
involves
of external
variety
to con-
above quoted show exactly opposite condi-
instances
tions.
examples can be said
of these
an idiom.
stitute
173
easy to
may
be
composer,
the combination
174
music
of
with
vanish,
drama and
with
number
of
Here we meet
poetry.
differing
which appear,
themes,
and reappear under new emotional conditions.
These require change, while the art technique deMetamorphosis satisfies both these
mands unity.
music,
certain
also
be present
the
composer
the
idea
same
time,
amount
of
idiomatic
for
of
the sake
absolute
only
can
the
At
requirements.
be
it
is
realised
in
outline
of coherence,
music
fully
even
must
and
certain
by
this
for
that
idiomatic
theme will impress on a first

hearing, but development is needed to drive home
treatment.
possibilities.^
its
^
"
striking
For an example of metamorphosis in a folk-song, see Morris Dance,

bars 18-21, in Appendix, Section Y.
Laudnum Bunches,"
CHAPTER
IV
PHRASE AND STANZA

and
origin Relation of phrase to bar-standard
Articulations of phrase-form Connection with circling rhythm
The cadence of the leading-note Function of the harmonic cadence
The stanza The free phrase Phrase-form of melody Relation
Definition of the phrase
its
of phrase-form to modulation.
The
tendency to extend the standard of the bar into

a larger unit has already been observed.
This unit
is
generally
phrase,
called
Out of
times vaguely "rhythm."
or
some-
this collection,
phrase
section,
period,
word best suited for the purpose, because it

suggests what is a true analogy with language.
The
word-phrase and tone-phrase are identical in orio-in,
is
the
and may be defined as a grouping of accents. The

only difference between them is that the word-phrase
consists of irregular accents (accents at
not precisely
regular intervals), and the tone-phrase of regular ones.
When
the
accented,
word-phrase
and
this
is
sung,
difference
Both kinds of phrase originate

of taking
breath,
for the
it
becomes regularly
practically
disappears.
in the physical necessity
primitive tone-phrase,
if
it
depart from vocal usage, occurs upon wind instruments
This necessity has created a normal length of

phrase, which can be observed in music and equally
only.
in conversation.
From
these
facts
it
may be gathered
175
that
the
176
phrase
and
bar
of
purely
the
time-figure,
usage common
vocal
therefore
follows
normal phrase
making
thus
ignoring
show
but
are the
general
of
bars,
bar-standard,
are
and merely
constitution,
its
It
the
confine
groups
extended
and
origin
as
is
it
equal
to
an
into
that
who would
those
music
of
origin,
language and music both.
to
that
it
its
that
tyranny
musical
not
is
they themselves cannot
escape
from the
strong
rhythmic
of
the
accent.
strict
individuality, on the other hand, will require a certain
between successive phrases, but not an exact
relation
Exact time-relation
relation.
beat and
the
two
the
bar,
music
in
confined to
is
equal
smallest
units
of
recurrence, and beyond that, the larger the units, the

freer
their
being
the
the
tend
relations
these
of
smallest
The
become.
to
units
free
is
phrase
naturally
The
one most influenced by the bar-standard.
and
phrase
bar
functions
of
the
however,
of
an entirely different
exists
for
the
phrase exists
for
outline,
two
functions.
music,
The
but
marking
of
is
bar
time,
the
no need to confuse these
bar-standard
phrase-form
indefinite articulation,
strict
are,
The
purpose of articulation of the
the
and there
free
certed
purpose
respectively
nature.
and
in
is
essential to con-
from
varies
clear
instrumental music
to
may
disappear altogether.
It
is
necessary to distinguish between the occur-
rence of phrases in music and a definite phrase-form.
By
the
latter
termination
is
meant a
of each
distinct articulation at
phrase, forming
continuity of the outline.
slight
break
the
in
the
pause effects
this
PHRASE AND STANZA

in
and
language,
music,
where the
There
are,
however,
of pointing
long
note
this
phrase.
(long
notes preceding), by a pause
the
to
which
rhythm.
The cadence
last
two notes
of
is
of the
over a note (a vague
(/^)
known
importance
great
rests.
methods
values
prolongation), or by a tonalitive figure
cadence,
of
can be done by a
It
proportion
in
by
for
musical
other
several
the
out
accounted
is
method
primitive
the
is
silence
177
of the
consists
as the
to
circling
note
last
(or
weak ending) which

articulation more prominent
the case of a
in
made by reason of the

From the
than the rest.
are
point
view of
of
pitch,
they represent a temporary centre, a point of repose

in
the
importance
of
some extent
to
on which
note
momentarily
degree
is
each
but
cadences,
either
rest
There
rhythm.
circling
or
must be
one
mind
the
the
in
to
will
desire
permanently.
The
relation of the cadence-note to the rest of the outline

will
depend
movement.
If
cadence
likely
is
on the direction of the circling
entirely
tending
is
it
to
relief to
cadence
to
the
is
The
restful.
the
tonic.
by
fall
When
by the minor seventh
This
cadence.
(it
is
said
doubtless,
which
is
an
leading-note
there
of
the
tone,
afford
is
syntonic
by semitone
full-tone or rise
the
will
melodic
is
replaced
no semitonal
rising
with a certain proportion
English folk-songs.
mainly due to the general
prefers
atonic
this
the
tonic
cadences are naturally
normal
the case
one-third)
the
succession
but syntonic
the ear,
more
the
upon
occur
because after a syntonic
from
downward-tending
It
vocal
is,
instinct
leading-note,
178
emphasised
by the
probably
of
scale
minor seventh, and
which has the
the
bagpipe,
possibly
by the
tones of the church-modes, which (with one exception)
lacked
the
leading-note.
The
combination
of
the
minor seventh or minor second with either the major

or minor thirds and sixths of the scale produces modal
common
varieties
The
to
all
purely vocal
developments.
which distinguishes such varieties
essential feature
from the major and minor modes
the lack of the
is
normal rising syntonic cadence of the leading-note.^
When harmony
is
tonic,
of
chord-movement used
all
became
for
the
centuries
which was never allowed
name
of
figure,
this
dominant-
most typical
purpose.
It
standard syntonic cadence,

to
cadence,
perfect
for
becomes
cadence
most elementary and the
the
is
added the
The harmonic
further accentuated.
received
rust.
It
or
close,
full
the
from the
constant habit of concluding, not merely every piece

of music but every few bars with this figure, or the
which was
called
the half close, representing a slighter articulation.
The
reverse
form of
it,
tonic-dominant,
only chord allowed occasionally to replace the dominant
was the
triad
of the
subdominant, and the cadence
was then called plagal, after the class of church-modes

which started on the fourth below the final note.
It
rise
is
to
probably this persistent usage that has given

the
idea that
the
harmonic
cause of phrase-form, which
We may
is
cadence
is
the
only another instance
appears incorrect to attach the Greek names

names indicate a form of
Asiatic tonality which has no existence in music native to Europe.
^
observe that
it
of the church-modes to such scales, because those
PHRASE AND STANZA

of the
desire
music
to
matter of
and the harmonic cadence

phrase-form,
the
because
emphasised,
used
simultaneously
actual
practical
usage,
more frequently
strengthen
becomes over-
harmony
to disguise
now employed
is
having plenty of means
it,
already
is
phrase-form
the
being
are
what
out
point
to
harmonic
used to empha-
is
many methods
too
in
of
frequently
this
Consequently
obvious.
that
regardless
distinct articulation does take place in
outline,
sise
As
effect.
everything
ascribe
to
influence,
tonalitive
cause and
when
of musicians
179
in
than
to
power
its
ensure continuity and destroy the effect of
will
articulation.
The cadence known

a larger unit
dicates
times
called
suitable
same
of
word
several
sentence,
is
"stanza."
phrases,
and not prose that

spondence
The
is
stanza
music,
still
it
is
some-
but
more
unit
of the
is
composed
only
generally
is
united with
music,
articulation
tone-movement
is
poetry
the
corre-
more
or
less
But
less
essential
is
most vocal music, and
to
mental development, where
distinct
subdivided
as
by
the
actually constitutes
phrase-form
if
so
into a series of blocks,
some music the block
the main feature.
to
this
phrase,
as
represents an
each of which
In
and
This
period,
For
the
as
is
or
usually in-
with the stanza and not with the sentence.
to divide the
phrase.
close
full
of recurrence.
nature
lingual
as the
is
the stanza.
inessential to
It
is
natural
an early stage of instruit
affords facilities for ob-
taining a balance, which in an immature stage the ear
might otherwise be unable
to grasp.
But as rhythmic
i8o
feeling grows, a less obvious
creeps
The
in.
continuity
block of the
the
desired,
is
and more subtle method

close
full
appearing sufficient to define the outline
by suggestion rather than by
indicated
phrase
the
of
articulation
and
irritates,
tonality
direct
is
state-
ment of the tonic, and the full close is avoided

at
the same time the phrase-form tends more and more
;
to
This
irregularity.
The development
the
tions,
is
a natural phase of evolution.
of tonality leads to cadential varia-
remaining no
tonic
now
requiring less obvious and
and
therefore
allowing
more
subtle suggestion,
much
greater
variety
syntonic outline appears at less frequent intervals
than
was wont
it
seldom heard
in
The
modern music
except as the real close, and
even
is
units
should
now be
of far
less
phrase
complete form,
not considered essential
many
phrase
evident that
we
are dealing with
musical value than the
is
not concerned with the values of timein
short,
is
a mere counting of
bars' length,
the accent and
but the
not
the
accent
only,
but in
longer bars where
accent occurs
accent.
two
the
phrase
This indicates again
of
are,
half-way through,
becomes apparent, as
lesser
the
In
bar.
one
strict
strict
factor of the
real
synonymous,
of
time-figrure.
For convenience' sake we speak of phrases
accents.
of so
is
and,
outline,
bar
one
cadence
perfect
in its
is
for this, its original purpose.
It
The
movement
to do, unless the
strongly suggestive of repose.

is
standard, but
For the same reason the return
in atonic cadences.
to
for
the
less
a short
course,
subsidiary
the
difference
may end on
its
the
resemblance
PHRASE AND STANZA

which
to the word-phrase,
shown
further
is
i8i
two
in the
>
forms of phrase-endings,
to the strong
i.e.
J J corresponding
or
and weak terminations of poetry.
Since the phrase consists solely of

its
freedom can
thus
of accents
only in a
lie
number
the
The
grouped together.
accents,
strict
variation in
variation
is
made, not only by irregular numbers of equal bars,

but by the occasional insertion of one or more
of different length.
not seem to upset
the
it
single bar thus
but more than one bar
changes the
undoubtedly
another time
well as giving freedom to the phrase.
merely
vary the
to
inartistic
sake
the
for
of variation,
time-changes
in
unless
as
necessarily
and
needlessly,
the
Most
it.
in
standard,
It is
time-standard
or the word-outline requires
outli)ie
does
mind accepting
standard, the
as a passing variation
inserted
bars
time-
of the
primitive music and English folk-song
(where they are of frequent occurrence) are due as
much to
The
any
of
the word-outline as to the musical idiom.

small concise type
prolonged
time-idiom,
dent upon phrase-form.

melodies
exist
It
is
origin,
The
the
be derived,
dance,
The
length
fine
is
in
the
sense
natural
these
appear
are clearly,
one might
character of this phrase-
in the case of
case
do
predominates
bulk of melodies, whether
say, obviously phrased.

will
but
depen-
there
that
time-idiom
of popular or cultured
form
true
indefinite,
The
be the exceptions.
necessarily
is
is
which
in
and the phrase-form

to
of melody, not admitting
dance-songs, from
of word-songs,
from
that
balances
phrases
of
to
rhythmic
feeling,
and
poetry.
unequal
under
i82
and poetry reveal un-
conditions both dance
natural
equal
phrase-form,
but
and poem of society
conventional
dance
freedom disappears.
Con-
the
in
this
sequently in the music of culture the four-bar phrase
becomes paramount, and any variation upon this

monotony is regarded as a fault, or at the best as
an eccentricity. The time-outline also becomes contaminated, and instead of an idiom we find the
complete phrase-outline (the time-outline of a phrase)
repeating
exactly
as
pitch)
well
the
as
number of
idiom ceases to exist unless
and the
result
may be
two
stanzas
time-
form,
strict
outline of the hymn-tune.
type
and
only
the material
occurs,
consisting
where
available
for
one
of
or
modulation
rarely
cadences
neces-
is
very limited, and here the desirability of un-
sarily
phrase-form
equal
little
melodic
small
accents
very
of
a melody of even more sickly
monotony than the equal

In
its
in
change
without
or
(with
itself
variety
connection
is
especially
be made
can
between
evident,
since
The
on the pitch-side.
pitch-outline
confined
so
to
one
key and a phrase-form of unequal character may be

studied
often
in
it
unknown
almost any
kind
of natural
melody,
and
produces results of great charm, which are

to the
cultured modulating melody with
its
equal phrase.^
^
first
Where degeneration has occurred

things to drop out.
Section V.
the free phrase-form is one of the

See the "Helston Furry Dance," in Appendix,
CHAPTER V
The Sanskrit theory of beat, values, and bar

Absence of accentual standard from Hindu theory
and practice ^Talas and time-signatures The principle of the Western
bar The principle of the Eastern bar The relation of the accentualbar to Western melody The relation of the tala-bar to Eastern
The Eastern time-system

Definition of tala
melody.
We
have
left
time-system
thus late the consideration of the Eastern
in
constitution.
order to explain satisfactorily
It is
Europe belongs
to
composed
free
its
peculiar
largely of material that in
form, and that cannot be in-
cluded under the head of standard tone-material from

the Western point of view.
At
first
sight one
might take
for
prevalence of time-emphasis upon
granted that the
percussion
instru-
ments throughout the East must indicate a stronger

rhythmic feeling than the West can boast
closer
by
examination
means
this
free.
It
our
stereotype
music are naturally
a use of time-figure and
the fact that time-outline has been with us so
little
tends to
man
in
fact,
art.
analysed and
still
in
to
but
European
phrase that
And
units that
involves,
a tendency
reveals
of,
more
is
is
make
utterly
so
foreign
to
much a matter
the
of intuitive practice,
the understanding of this foreign usage
difficult.
The day
is
past
when an English-
could seriously propound the theory that the raga
was the major key and the

183
ragini the
minor
but
we
i84
are just as far from any rational comprehension of the
own
Asiatic bar-system, which actually differs from our
fundamentally as the raga
quite
as
key.
It is as
from
differs
the
misleading to bar a true Eastern melody
according to European time-signatures as to put
into
it
a European key.
It is in
the elementary conditions of time-outline, the
values and the time-beat, that

soil
we
out of which these diverse systems have sprung.

there are Sanskrit
Fortunately,
in existence
treatises
and though of uncertain
that deal with such points,
they contain the theory handed
down from
been
in existence in the
stantially underlies the
may have
Vedic age, and which
modern
mdttra,
this
Any
is
it
is
indttrds,
compound mdttrd
four values similar to ours of
called a
is
divisible into half-beats
and quarter-beats termed broken

doubled, forming a
sub-
M. Tagore,
S.
equal interval of time
the beat
still
practice of the Hindus.
This theory, as stated by Raja Sir

as follows
date,
generation to
generation by oral tradition, a theory which
is
common
shall find the
it is
also
there are thus
\ and
2, \,
and
\,
which also
have names, guru, iaghu, ardha, and anu, corresponding

with minim, crotchet, quaver, and semiquaver
in addi-
compound mdttrds, called pluta^

which consist of three or more beats, corresponding with
the bar is named
the dotted minim and semibreve
tion there are larger
mancka,
is
divided by perpendicular
lines,
and
consists
fundamentally of a fixed number of beats, as with

It is to
us.
be observed, that though the group of three
^ Raja
Tagore takes the quaver as the beat, and so brings the correspondence with crotchet, quaver, semiquaver, and demisemiquaver.

beats
a recognised unit, there
is
Hindu theory of
appears
is
no mention made
beat-division
ternal
in
however,
this,
practice under the occasional
in
185
form of the
triplet.
We
values,
find, therefore, that
and some kind of bar are practically common
both East and West.
term
given
"
We
This
the roads divide.

the
the standard of the beat, the
is
come now
where
to the point
indicated in
to
Hindu theory by
of which the following definitions are
tdla,
Tdla simply means the beating of time by clapping
the hands."
"
Tdla
power over the human passions."
all its
"
regular metre, without which music loses
is
From
compound, and broken mdttrds are

formed Tdlas, the only object of which is to calculate
simple,
the measure of beating time.
us
in
They
are in use
both vocal and instrumental music.
what metre
is
amongst
It is to
music
Tdlas derive different names
to poetry.
from the variety of mdttrds that form them."
(S.
M.
Tagore.
These statements sound very simple and such as

might apply equally to European music. We may
not beat time usually by clapping the hands, but what
It would not readily occur to the
matters the method?
mind,
that,
behind
" the beating
When
apparently obvious expression,
of time," there lurks a double entendre.
a European
otherwise than
this
beats
tji/Zthe
time never would he
beats; but
when a Hindu
beat
beats
time he beats a certain selection of these chosen for him
by
his time-system.
We
are further told
"
Tdla con-
i86
Aghdta and Birdma,

(S. M. Tagore), and an
i.e. the beating and the
acquaintance with the application of talas to Hindu music
shows that their classification depends, firstly, upon the
number of beats that compose them, i.e. the length of the
bar secondly, upon the beats chosen to form tala-beats,
i.e. the particular beats upon which the hand-clapping
or drum-stroke is made as opposed to the " rest " or
Did these tala-beats fall customarily upon
silent beats.
the normally accented beats of European music, there
sists
of two principal actions, viz,

rest "
might
still
be accordance between the two systems
would be quite
though
possible,
it
only
less easy, to beat
the accented beats of European music instead of
all
its
show
beats.
regular alternation of beat as against a large number
that are entirely irregular, it would seem that some
But since there are only a few talas that
other principle
Even a
slight
acquaintance with
reveals the fact that the
thorough
Hindu custom.
at the root of the
is
theorist
than
possesses a genius for
Hindu
is
Sanskrit theory
in his
way a more
he
European musician
classification, and if his music
the
contained a practice of systematic accent such as exists

in
Europe, that practice would be elaborately defined
But no mention of any such system of
in his theory.
accent
is
ever made.
we come
When, moreover,
melody, the
fact
is
clear
alternation of varying
thing noticeable
is
that
to
it
examine
springs
degrees of accent.
out
Hindu
of
The
no
first
the length of the bar, which has an
average of eight beats
the bar of sixteen beats being
as frequent as that of four.
bar of less than four

beats
is
not acknowledged in
average length of bar
is
Hindu
The same
theory.
found also
in
187
number of
Javanese melodies written down by native musicians.

It is
impossible to apply the European system of
strict
accent to such bars, because the alternation cannot be

grasped, and
smaller ones.
Further,
our melodies
in
the
first
simply divides up into several
the bar
all
it
is
points of stress occur necessarily on
beat of the bar, in these Eastern melodies
cadences and especially the

ferably
noteworthy, that whereas
anywhere
frequently upon
beat-division,
but
on
the last
final
the
beat,
for
this
beat,
first
or
special position.
more
and
even on the
where a pause serves
emphasis of the big gong that
all
note are placed pre-
in
enhance the
to
Java
The normal
final
is
reserved
balance of the
European bar is reversed, the weight being placed at

the end instead of at the beginning.
It is clear that
if
a bar
is
to
be indicated by stress at
one end or the other, and where there

of accents to
demand
all it
is
must be
at
no alternation
stress at the beginning,
it
seems
to be a natural impulse to shift the accent to the end.
i88

h
1^
Jhanptdla
Ara-chawtdla
Drutatritdlee
^ ^
12
* *
12
Madhyam^na
3
Slathatritcilee
2
TAla Ara-
12
14
10 11 12 13
^*
4
16
16
European System
2(1)-
3(1)-
4(i)-
(2)-
^ ^ r^ or "'l
J
-#
or
11111(2
(D-
or
J J
'
'
or
'
J J J J J
In the Eastern table the notes indicate the tala-beats the numbers
under the notes are the bar-beats. The rest is kept for the Sanskrit sign
of Birdina, therefore tied notes are used to indicate the space between talaIn the
beats, but these do not necessarily imply continuance of the sound.
Western table all the beats are indicated by notes and the varying degrees
of accent by lines under the notes. The subsidiary accent may vary with
the sub-divisions of the beat, and the dot has to be added to obtain ternal
;
beat-division.

From
the
and
the foregoing tables the differences between
Hindu and European systems
the latter
manifest,
here represented, while of the talas are
is
given only a few out of many.

sufficient
become
will
be observed that practically the whole of
will
it
189
show the trend
to
These, however, are
Hindu
of
feeling.
It
is
toward differentiation of vahie rather than of accent.

following tala-unit be thus written,
If the
J,
e^,
a.
time-figure appears, and the union of this time-figure
(considered as relative duration and not
in
exact
its
values), with varying combination of beats, constitutes the
form of the
last four
When we
of the talas in the preceding table.
arrive at the combination of this tala-unit
with nine bar-beats (the odd ninth beat being equally
amongst the
distributed
melody
last
when
that
grasped,
still
the
be added thereto,
word has been
so that each
might amount
time-outline
drumming were
Hindu
ear of the
is in
the
in
this respect
points, doubtless, to a long stage
when
music, and
robe of pitch.
common
is
occurs
of
would seem that the
it
clapping,
the
to
all
As
not
and
yet
already stated, rhythmic
music
and the group of
where the variation
methui of the grouping.

^
stamping,
time-outline had
feeling expressing itself in the beat
beats
been
an evolution which takes us back into
conditions,
its
has
to the possession of a sixth sense.
Such an example
of evolution,
nine
realise
said in the simultaneous differentia-
The
tion of values.
assumed
against
four
this
remains
there
to
primitive
rest,
two and a quarter bar-beats), and
consists of
further
and
tala-beats
See Appendix, Section X.
The European
I90
groups equal values by means of varying
musician
accent
the Asiatic groups equal values by means of
Thus
unequal values.
system
formal differentiation of duration with equal
is
intensity
the Eastern notion of a time-
the Western idea
is
intensity with equal duration.
formal differentiation of
As
usual, the
methods of
East and West reverse one another.
Hence we must
between the bar
clearly differentiate
of the East and the bar of the West,
former as a bar at
Such
all.
application, but since
it
it
is
if
we admit
not, in the
Western
has the outward appearance of
the bar in notation and serves a similar purpose,
be well to distinguish
the
to
method
cannot be denied that
It
concerned,
more
the
strict
mark
time,
is
The
and
free
form, here
The
strict units results in
Thus we
typed phrase, and
done,
enters
in.
latter is the
European mind.
to our
will.
composers
Not
find
the stereotyping
in the tala-bar a stereo-
the tala-unit a stereotyped time-
in
figures into a system
they
is
of
to
general law of rhythmic evolution,
strict
and
of free units.
it
this
is
the desire of the Oriental partially to avoid the
basis of even
to the
units
is
the chance given to free units and their
balance of
figure.
Eastern
the object
and the more unobtrusively
development.
Hence
this
But such
interesting.
form must be exactly reiterated
the
will
the subtler, and, so far as one bar only
is
the better
it
as the " tala-bar," in opposition
own music which can be named
bar of our
" accentual."
it
the
thing that appears strangest
We
do not work our time-
(Heaven be
to
praised!), but leave
combine and
so the Asiatic.
His
reiterate
tala,
them
as
having taken

time-figures under
wing, offers an immense selection
its
of these to the musician, but

that whichever
to the
end of
its
is
The
course.
The
upon the one condition
chosen shall be reiterated unaltered
lation of strict idiom,
recurrence.
191
owing
its
tala
is,
in short, a
character to
demands a
free unit
its
strict
formu-
persistent
develop-
ment in order to redress the balance. The results of

this upon the development of Hindu melody are veryremarkable.
All
natural
European melody springs out of the
rhythmic feeling for alternation of beats and accented
This
beats as expressed in our bar-system.
ception innate in the
a melody
is
a con-
mind of the European, so
that
not arbitrarily put into bars, but springs
is
up naturally out of that rhythmic sense which determines the accents of the melody and therefore the barunit that belongs to
it.
Any
one possessed of rhythmic
and a knowledge of notation can say whether

a melody is rightly or wrongly barred that is, whether
feeling
natural accents are enforced or nullified
its
accent of the bar-system.
We
melody and the standard outline

the
two
is felt
to be a vital
by the
strict
distinguish between the

;
still
one and
is
the connection of
not broken by the
Such an organic
use of counter accents in the melody.
union of time-outline and melody can take place only
upon an accentual standard basis of equal
outline.
For
whereas the equal nature of the Western time-system

forms a
soil
out of which free idiom naturally springs,
the Eastern basis of a strict idiom, even
if
extended over
sixteen beats, renders any development of a free idiom

in
melody
virtually impossible.
Upon
such a basis what
192
arises
not a melody in the sense of idiomatic treatment,
is
but a promiscuous time-outline, a sort of time-discant
upon the
tala,
dicting
and which may
tala at
it,
neither strongly accenting
This
all.
apart from
is
nor contra-
exactly the constitution of the raga,
special tonalitive characteristics.
its
any
exist independently of
It
is
an unbarred tone-movement of rambling time-outline,

lacking a definite phrase, and wholly irregular in
stanza- form.
has been shown that
It
melody
to turn a raga into a
and sing
the tala
melody
of
that
to unite
it
is
its
needed
with a tala
Language brings phrase-form,

enforces the needful reiteration and thus rewords.
to
it
mains master of the
may
is
all
for
having practically the
situation,
accompaniment.
its
very complex tala
influence the melodic outline to the complete loss
its
independence.
repeating
falls
in
then with
time-outline in each bar.
its
makes
the raga
It
its
influence
tala,
Nevertheless
the lengthening
in
felt
the
out of the bar, whereby the phrase and the bar are
brought to synchronise, a long note serving to indicate

In this
the close of both.

tala-unit
may
way an
appear, such as in Slathatritdlee, which
must give greater independence
And
the more concise units.
to
character,
slow process sets
European
style
from
idiomatic
its
in
raga-type
it
acquires a
vanishes,
approximation
of
of melody.
more
and
towards the
Gradually the tala sinks
time-accompaniment, and the melody,
to the level of a
freed
the
the melody than
once the melodic outline
begins to predominate over the tala
rhythmic
attenuated form of
restraint,
outline.
When
assumes
this
an
accentual
process has
gone
and
far

enough,
to
there
distinguish
remains nothing
it
but
193
Eastern tonality
from Western melody.
The
tala-bar
has given place to the accentual-bar required by idiomatic development, the phrase loses
its
connection with
the bar and becomes a free unit as in European music.
Most
of
what are
called Eastern melodies
down by Europeans
when
How
written
far
they
actually represent the present music of the East,
how
are of this nature.
long such a process of melodic development has been

in
existence,
Western
and again how
influence,
these
far
it
may be due
are questions
that
answered only by those who have lived long

East and have deeply studied
its
music.
to
can
be
in
the
CHAPTER
VI
IMITATION
General charactei' of counterpoint Origin of imitation The round The

canon Evolution of the rhythmic unit of imitation An effect of timeTwo contrapuntal styles Organ counterpoint conditioned by
outline
Lingual character of round and
the instrument The style of Bach
early part-songs producing phrase and stanza The madrigal Causes
of the strictness of counterpoint.
SINGULAR contrast
tala
afforded
is
Though
this
art,
to the precise reiterations of the
by the mediaeval
been shown, owes
as has
West.
of the
art
origin
its
on the pitch-side to Asiatic tonahty, no trace of the

Eastern time-system
mental character of
in
strict units
it,
be found
in
The
it.
and of time units
particular.
in
of recurrence only the time-beat exists
there being no accentual grouping into the
and of the
free
are missing.
all
Hence
early
the
unrhythmic
character
continually
The
object
in
this
varying
of the
similarity
different
of
time-outline
and
counter-
look
as
presents
composer seemed
this
voices at any
that
art
conditions
respect,
if
irregular
in
the
to
be to avoid
values.
whether between
given point or
secutive arrangement of one
notes
of
the lack both of unity and of contrast.
The
all
bar,
none whatever can be found.
units
Time-figure, pitch-figure, phrase, stanza,
point,
funda-
this ecclesiastical art is its lack of
reiteration in general,
Of
to
is
voice-part.
in
the
the
con-
The
long
they were syncopated are due
IMITATION
to
cause.
this
evident
is
when
obtained
other words,
art
to
make
form, to
strict
built
is
realise
mere variety
that
upon a
In
basis of unity.
we must
the
free,
the
initial definite
without which no contrast can follow.
first
have
impression,
Unity
in
time-
by a promiscuous mixing of
not
obtained,
in
This can only be
does not provide contrast.
itself
the
It
195
outline
is
values,
but by recurrence of a selected arrangement,
i.e.
fissure.
But since the idiom
an instrumental rather than
is
a vocal usage, in a very primitive stage of music, there
appears what
by which
imitation,
another
generally
is
same
phrase, the
ginning later and imitating the
may be
type
of
is
notes
the
of the
the phrase
or
third
voice
it.
has
when
all
is
the
recorded
German
traveller
they
sang the
after
the
other, each
beginning
the former had reached the
The
chord
imitated,
This
It is
major triad from one octave down to
tone.
one
sented
by Kolbe,
eighteenth century, that
one voice
next,
voices
musical
their imitation, a primitive
in
Hottentots,
early
second be-
Several
produced known as the round.
the
of the
first.
will follow
and when these voice-parts
thus employed,
make harmony
as the principle of
meant that one voice
is
singing the
in
known
that
voices
continually
is,
in
combination
repre-
while
sounding,
followed
second
after the
each
one before
the constitution of the round, or catch.
It
monotony of primitive song, maintaining
exact repetition
with only the variety of the colour-
distribution of the voices.
When
this kind of singing
had become familiar with a single chord,
it
must have
196
been easy to add another and so get the assistance

natural
of the
that
alternation
Then a
which wound its way
and dominant.
between
exists
verbal phrase
became
tonic
possible,
enough between
easily
these
harmonies, the close of each phrase always coinciding

with
more
tion
the
alternations.
words
of
was
effect
required
one or
Each voice took up the
reitera-
whether
second chord,
well
as
as
and
notes,
produced.
often
it
Since
amusing
an
nearly
all
the
notes of the diatonic scale are available between these
two chords, there was a
fair
melody, which
probably the chief attraction to the singers,
formed
the harmonies involved being
The round grew
ground.
and as each voice came

started
for
field
to
merely as a back-
felt
the length of a stanza,
to the close
of the stanza
it
again at the beginning with the same words
Many
and tune.
old melodies
show
this habit of alter-
nating between tonic and dominant or tonic and supertonic harmonies, each syntonic or atonic tone occurring
on a
accent,
strict
This
between.
is
and frequently with passing-notes

a habit undoubtedly traceable to
common
round-singing, which was
England, probably
in
from the time of the Saxon invasion,
The
Welsh
" nghanon,"
had
mentioned
kind
if
of
by Aneurin
not before
part-song
in
" In September
Whether
or
not this
of
comes the metrical nghanon."
song was
round does not appear, but

^
called
poem
his
the months, said to be of the sixth century
it.^
it
in
the style
of the
shows unmistakably the
I.
IMITATION
derivation of the
197
word "canon," which was
originally
similar to the round.
To
in
the
kind of choral singing
natural
England and Wales
Barry
bears
"
(Giraldus
witness
The
as
in
the twelfth century, Gerald
Cambrensis,
follows
Britons do
So
parts.
not
sing
common
under the softness of Bb.
In
different
among
singers
people meets to sing, as
many different parts

performers, who all at length
is
the
like
many
but in
country, as
are
unison,
in
when a company of
that
Cambrice)
Descriptio
inhabitants of other countries
the
practised
usual in this
heard as there
are
unite in consonance,
the northern parts
of
Humber, on the borders

of Yorkshire, the inhabitants use the same kind of
symphonious harmony
except that they only sing in
two parts, the one murmuring in the bass, and the
beyond the
Great Britain
Nor do
other warbling in the acute or treble.
two nations practise

by
art
as
that
many
parts,
neither
nor
in
their
many
sing
in
different
is
as
parts
where
a simple
soon as
the
is
{i.e.
still
so natural to
they
sing
in
single)
melody
more wonderful,
they attempt using their
same manner."
as
it
much
so
North of England, where
the
And, what
sung.
children,
voices,
Wales,
in
they sing in two parts,

ever well
singing
which has rendered
habit,
them,
kind of
this
these
there
are
The words "as

performers
"
are
very suggestive of round-singing.

Imitation
is
commonly supposed
prerogative of counterpoint
ever,
was not indigenous
to
that
it,
to
this
be a special
practice,
but like all
that
howwent
198
make
to
the
first
of counterpoint a fine
instance from rhythmitonal music,
by the two
song, and
Church.
that imitation
facts
not found in
is
It
actually
is
up and dividing
in
were
at
and
"
breaking
following
voices,
appears to have been a popular
custom
entertainment
of vocal
which the monks, being human, had ventured
That
they continued
seems
authorities,
the Reading
indulge
to
from
likely
MS.
one
words
different
This can be nothing else than
it
unauthorised
monks
the
for
repeating
perpetually
round-singing, and
primitive
song by a method of figurate
their
the same time."^
proved
is
in
that
censzired
in
music of the
the earliest
which the various
descant,
another,
found
is
recorded
Anglo-Saxon days were
of
was acquired
art
in
the
round
which
to,
to join.
despite
famous
the
already referred
it,
in
is
of
clearly
But
a popular and not an ecclesiastical composition.
from the existence of a curious pun upon the words
round and canon
in this very MS., it would appear

was then recognised between them
the canon had already found shelter
that a distinction
in
that
short,
under the roof of the Church.
The canon
in
the notes at the
the round
if
(when each
unison
same
pitch)
is
voice
repeats
indistinguishable from
a popular tune be employed, but a canon
by
of contrapuntal
voice-parts
proceeding, not
monic
but by
science of intervals,
very
instinct,
different
the
matter.
All
tonalitive
phrase-form at once vanish, and

easy to
make
^
the
parts
it
repeat at
See " Musical Association,"
haris
balance
becomes
and
just
as
another pitch,
at
vol. viii. p. 95.
IMITATION
a
199
higher or lower, or at any other interval, the
fifth
contrapuntal formula having taken the place of natural
harmonic
In
feeling.
sense
this
canon
the
is
an
entirely different composition from the round, contra-
puntal
of
instead
principle
rhythmitonal,
imitation
of
for
noteworthy that imitation

confined for centuries
the
canon
ordinary
the
into
period
contrapuntal
for
of each voice one after the other,
the
afterwards meandering off in
usual
manner
without
By
figure of the opening.
the
reference
further
this
further
is
music was
through
to filter
usage,
was commonly used only
it
the
two or more
in
and that when the idea began
parts,
It
ecclesiastical
in
to
basis.
its
only
retaining
long
for
the
starting
parts directly
promiscuous
the
to
imitated
means, however, the
idea arose of imitation of units instead of imitation of

part from
the complete vocal

this
proved
the
regeneration
first
note to
and
last,
of counterpoint
in
the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Imitation
in
is
a rhythmic principle, since
more or
repetition
less
exact, but
the clear reiterations of the idiom,
it
it
consists
compared with
is
a weaker be-
cause indirect and somewhat disguised rhythmic

In combination with time-idiom
asset, but
used
in this
of a figure or at the
of any larger unit.

easily
to
it
will
manner
it
it
may prove
must be the imitation
most of a phrase-outline, and not
The
smaller the unit,
the
be recognised, the more frequent
be the repetition, and the freer
movement.
lost the vocal
Thus
effect.
a valuable
the
will
is
more
likely
be the tone-
unrhythmic canon, which has
phrase and stanza of the round without
200
rhythmic figure of instrumental idiom,
the
acquiring
begins to be merged into the fugue (originally only
name
another
subject
(a
prolonged
This
of imitation.
canon),
the
for
where
provides a unit
phrase-outline)
unrhythmic than continuous
less
is
and when
of a
repetition
consummator of the fugue

imitation,
arrives in the person of Sebastian Bach the timeoutline of the subject grows into a well-knit unit that
Moreover, in
admits of easy recognition by the ear.
a few instances, the subject is actually broken up into
_figuresj
upon
worked
out,
after
has been
it
exposition.
the
which
the
whole
the
complete
fugue
is
imitatively
seldom recurring
subject
once stated by each voice
Beyond
point
this
imitation
in
the
could
no
farther go, having practically reached the stage

it
merges
being
in
the
into
time-idiom
is
does
not
indulge
founded upon, and
imitation
for
in
The normal
the
only
It
in
it
is
figure
imitation,
most part limited
but
to,
pitch,
but
a mere
regarded as a move-
when founded upon
futility
pitch-outline
from the rhythmic standpoint.
has already been shown that for sequence or any
kind of pitch-idiom to be effective

in
fugue,
of phrase-outline.
Imitation has been hitherto
ment
where
difference
the passage of the figure from part to part
instead of reiteration in one part.
however,
only
the
equal values.
Plt_ch-imitation
is
it
must be
isolated
decidedly less easy
to grasp than pitch-idiom, because the ear has to carry
the unit from one part to another.
we
find this obscurer use
combined with equal
When,
therefore,
of pitch-reiteration not even
values, but existing in a promis-
IMITATION
cuous time-outline,
have no possible rhythmic
can
it
20I
and merely produces a sense of general pitch-
effect,
similarity or absence of contrast
out to have any effect at

pitch-outline
came
obvious
channels
rhythmic
effects
expect to find
of
The rhythmic
and
sequence
of
in
vocal
the
unit
But
by means
of time-outline entered in
what one would naturally
is
and hence the gradual
art,
of
recurrence
from a whole
leavening of counterpoint by
slow
more
tonality.
This was
piece to a phrase-outline or even a figure.
the
effect of
into counterpoint through the
of time-imitation, which
shortening
all.
worked
sufficiently
if
rhythmic
the
instinct.
We
it
in
are apt to refer to the contrapuntal style as
truth
merge
is
two modes of counterpoint, which tend

one
into
distinct;
It
if
had been always one and the same, but there are
another though
are
the one_ is vocal, the other an organ style.
the latter that contains the bulk of the familiar
features of imitation
ciate
extremes
their
to
with
the
and pitch-idiom which we asso-
term
This
counterpoint.
not
is
an
abstract conception, but a style called mainly into being
by an instrument.
It
not too
is
much
to
say that,
lacking the organ, this particular development of counterpoint would never have
cisely does the style
transfer
issue,
to
choral
fit
come
Sole??mis,
Palestrina's,
will
subsequent
Its
music has somewhat obscured the
but a study of Bach's
by side with
into existence, so pre-
the instrument.
show
the
vocal part
and Beethoven's
differences
writing side
in
the
Missa
between the true
vocal style and the transferred organ one.
The
former
202
has none of the extreme rapidity of movement which

is
suitable to the organ but not so to a choir
culti-
it
vates harmonic rather than imitative effects, which are
reserved chiefly for

style
best
suited to the
style best suited to the
Imitation,
balance
be
to
choir,
in short,
is
the
is
the
it
and the other
organ/
demands
continuously effective,
between
tone
of
phrases
initial
the
various
Its
factors.
employment in the orchestra on contrasting instruments is useful for brinsîno^ out isolated fragments
of melody, and is melodic rather than contrapuntal.
Where
the
actual
texture
music
of the
consists
of
contrapuntal imitation, a homogeneous and continuous

quality of tone
is
specially characterise
organ-tone, and,
conditioned the music written for
homogeneity.
The two
to be desired.
Exceptional
things that
therefore,
have
are continuity and
it,
the organ
continuity
has
always had since keyboards became responsive to a

touch of the finger instead of a blow of the
its
homogeneity was even greater
than at present.
It
is
Bach might have made
idle
to
to
and
time of Bach
at the
conjecture what use
of the present heterogeneous
collection of orchestral stops, because they
been useless
fist,
the contrapuntal style
must have
and had Bach
written in the rhythmitonal manner, his works would
have been
planned
orchestra.
The
not
for
orchestral
the
stops
but
for
the
there
for
the
organ,
are
purpose of orchestral imitation, and
all
the improved
^ ''The body of (vocal) sound used in performing Bach's church music is

regarded as a vast organ, of which the stops are more refined and flexible
and have the individuality of speech." (Spitta, " Life of Bach.")
IMITATION
The organ
has taken to
same
the
point in
registering
for
facilities
203
it
is
do not greatly detract from

tone
apparent
too
still
is
Even
the organ of Bach.
part of the
instrument admits of a gradual crescendo

it
additions
its
for
any trained ear
for
other
in
homogeneity,
its
and
orchestral colour,
itself
has found means for the application of
respects
direction.
organbe
to
deceived into mistaking a stop for an orchestral instru-
ment.
If a solo
varying
played, the accompaniment, though
is
and
colour
in
force,
same
of exactly the
is
character as the solo, bearing not the slightest resem-
blance to a wind instrument accompanied by the strings.
This
is
mainly because there can be no difference of
attack and no accent upon the organ

the
of
orchestra
time-outline
nate
The
it
are
parts
but one generally
The
takes
of
time-figure
very
may
subordi-
on an exactly equal
all
and therefore afford unrivalled opportunities
imitation.
for
but
is
uses
divers
to
on the organ there
occasionally,
place.
footing,
naturally
that of equal outline.
suitable,
appear
lead
the diversities
Effects of time
being of necessity
in
the background, those of pitch take their place, and
Bach's
in
sustained
essential
music
organ
pitch
kindred types are

the
and
idiom
upon
technique
found
is
imitation.
which
Bach
built.
the
the
is
consummator of contrapuntal
to
art,
apotheosis
This
fugue
is
and
of
the
its
be regarded as
into
which he
introduced on the pitch-side somewhat of the license

of a descanter,^
and on the time-side the freedom of
'
Mr. Hope-Jones'
Hence students entering
Bach
latest
organ
is
entirely enclosed in swell-cases.
for examinations are advised not to
study
204
the rhythmist
but he
more than
is
he
this,
also
is
the daring experimenter in idiomatic outline, although
most striking development was necessarily closed

him by reason of his contrapuntal habits of mind.
Taking his work as a whole, nothing shows Bach's
artistic greatness more than the fact that he limited
his musical utterance to types of form which were
absolutely in harmony with the style of which he was
master.
A lesser man would have failed in Bach's
its
to
complete mastery of counterpoint for the purposes of
and might have wasted himself upon
utterance,
The result would have been

common in music. It is the
rhythmitonal experiment.
the mongrel style only too
highest genius alone
It
who can be
noteworthy
is
called thoroughbred.
the
that
unaltered,
except
in
come down
that
remains
It
be described
can
the
still
as
only
use
The words
en i/msse are a nonsense
single part
makes sense without the
elongations
of syllables
words are considered
to
of
effect,
imitation
as
vocal.
but each
repetitions
counterpoint.
be of importance,,
to
to us
phrase and
well
as
linofual
dear
its
of
of further
the addition
chords and in the lengthening out of

stanza.
practice
original
imitation in the primitive round has

virtually
fruitless
and
The
and are
indeed an essential feature of the type, and out of

the syllabic character of the word-phrase springs the
musical time-outline.
has given the round

it
within
In
the
are sung
present
its
case
it is
It
its
is
this lingual character that
popularity,
and also confined
limits.
of vocal counterpoint,
though words
clear that the essential forms of language,
IMITATION
and therefore
There
regarded.
most part
for the
neither
is
its
205
sense also, are dis-
phrase
nor stanza,
for
though what may be called a cadence articulation does

take place occasionally at long and uncertain intervals
(sometimes of over twenty bars

in
!),
only a pause
is
it
the proceedings, and has nothing whatever to do
with the nature of the words employed nor with any

point or direction of the tonality of the music.
It
is
simply a casual cadence without any thought of phrase.
This vagueness of construction characterises

church-music of the period, and but
to
little
all
the
difference
is
be found between the various ecclesiastical types.
When
all
contrapuntal elaboration threatened to override
bounds of lingual decency and order the Church
protested, and even strove to abolish music from

ritual.
The
its
nature of the reforms effected by Palestrina
consisted mainly in the restoration of
some measure
of
sense to the language employed in the church-music.

In secular music, where the
was
superseded
by
attractive
Latin of the Church

poetic
forms
of
the
vernacular, the desire to give expression to the words
introduced
necessarily
and stanza.
to
come
and
in
balletto,
And
to
the
sixteenth century,
in
the
some measure of phrase-form
proportion as phrase-form began

froitola,
popular
canzonetta,
Italian
villanello,
part-songs
of
the
counterpoint began to go out, the
is
It
clear that
two being mutually destructive.
if words are being promiscuously repeated among a
number of voices at the same time, all moving inde-
pendently, that no possible effect of poetry,
mere
sense, can be produced.
When
let
alone
the poetic phrase
2o6
began
predominate
to
it
compelled the voices to move
from chord to chord, and the part-song

became only distinguishable from its modern equivalent by the nature of the cadences, which moved within
the vague inflections of the modes rather than in
blocks
in
the definite rhythm of the
invaded
whole
the
cluding
the
differed but
of secular
cultured
little
vocal
madrigal,
poetic phrase
not
music,
of the
ex-
which had originally
from the ecclesiastical motett.
haps the greatest charm

holds a
The
key.
madrigal
is
Perthat
it
and ever - varying balance between
delicate
counterpoint on the one hand and an articulate phrase-
form on the other.

tive there are
some madrigals
between these extremes
effect
to
shade
of
difference
perfectly artistic combina-
in
While phrase-form
give
that are purely contra-
every
majority exhibit
the
tion.
imita-
and also a few that are merely part-songs,
puntal,
but
Without being very strongly
is
sufficiently
suggested to
words (usually of a pastoral or
the
amorous character) the supreme beauty of vocal tone

is
For the strength of vocal counter-
never sacrificed.
point,
whether imitative
being a non-lingual
its
tone only as
as
mere
if
it
vocalisation,
style.
or
promiscuous,
It
in
its
were an instrument, using words
and developing
unhampered by language.
lines
lies
employs the voice for
It
its
is
musical out-
this that
made
the contrapuntal art of the sixteenth century a thing

of beauty, though never a strong emotional utterance,
for
that
idiom.
nated
by the instrumental
The early instruments of the orchestra, domi-
as
can only be achieved
they
were
by the vocal
style,
demanded
IMITATION
music that led inevitably
in the direction of idiomatic
development, and ultimately
to its domination.
That counterpoint remained

strict
and unemotional
a great genius,
is
due
style,
purely vocal
the
least
to this
it
for
except
the
most part a
when
vitalised
is
naturally stiffer than
when counterpoint ceased
developed
its
technique on the
expressive of musical instruments.
were the stereotyping influences of
tradition that has
by
to the fact that in the first place,
as already observed, vocal usage

instrumental, and that
207
perpetually mistaken the
to
be
lines of
Added
tradition, a
means
for
the end, and delighted in mere feats of technical in-
genuity which are regarded as the aim and end of

music.
To
such performances the art of counterpoint
opened a wide playground, which proved in the earlier

stages its weakness, and in the end its destruction.
CHAPTER
VII
LANGUAGE AND MUSIC

lingual period of musical evolution The time-character of language
The
compared with
that of music
Word-songs and dance-songs Inability
Phrase-form
of language to develop true musical form Recitative
Relation of the sense of words to musical form
in music and language
Difificulties
of the combination
Music an essentially non-lingual
art.
The
influence of language on the evolution of musical
form
is
a subject that no student of the art can afford
to ignore.
Music
is
vocal as well as instrumental, and
vocal music implies words.
stage
and
is
past,
in
When
once the primitive
which words are mostly meaningless
exist only for the purpose of vocalisation, the art
of poetry begins to exert a powerful
musical form.
have
It
is
influence
music should
natural that vocal
the start of instrumental,
easier to sing than to invent
because
upon
it
is
obviously
an instrument.
In the
one case the means of tone-production lie ready to hand,

in the other a long phase of evolution is necessary to
produce the means whereby an art
may
exist.
Yet
because of the inevitable introduction of language into

vocal usage, the true independent art of music
mental, and, though late

itself
in
its
is
instru-
arrival, contains within
both the essentials of the present and the seeds
These elements existed in primitive art

before the ascendency of language had begun, and
remained for the most part in abeyance during what
of the future.
208
LANGUAGE AND MUSIC

may
be termed the
ment.
period of musical develop-
lingLuil
can readily be shown that language
It
209
is
opposed
to the essential idiom of music.
Although innocent of bars and time-beats,

certain
limited extent
it
may
guage produces a musical time-character of

is
to
be said that each lan-
evident that the syllabic formation
own.
its
It
an irregular
is
kind of time-outline, and must influence to some extent

this
At
vocal music.
outline in
same
the
time,
the
sound-side of language rarely forms effective musical
such
figures
are
as
natural
an
to
and
instrument,
there exists no definite syllabic repetition (other than
such as
the equality of poetic feet),
reiteration of the time-figure in

is
vague and
cision,
music
destructive
we
Accordingly
find
of
that
time-outline frequently prevails,
of
music
vocal
in
pre-
rhythm, and
strict
time-idiom
the
the
syllabic outline
compared with musical
irregular
having no foundation of
therefore
made by
is
or, if figures
is
music.
an
equal
are found,
the outline generally lacks the close reiteration of the

figure necessary to
its
recognition as an idiom.
It will
be found throughout the whole of musical evolution

that
dance
the
is
it
rhythmic
instrumental
in
associated
feeling
usage
that
the
develops a strong
and therefore an idiomatic
time-outline,
with
style.
Tunes
based upon a recurring time-figure do not owe that

figure
any verbal suggestion, but
to
rhythmical
cause
nature
it
instinct.
fits
that
The
figure
the
words, but
the
figure
shall
is
to
unconscious
repeated,
because
repeat
it
is
itself.
not be-
a law of
When
language replaces the dance, vocal music departs upon
2IO
a
of
line
developing
own,
its
make
instruments begin to
evolution of the
all
lingual
outline,
their influence
in
the
we
find
felt
In European folk-music
art.
until
stages of the transition from voice to instrument.
Instruments are
of limited scope,
still
and there are
dance-songs^ as well as word-songs.
It is
nor desirable to attempt
classification,
the two styles
may
it
of
merge
a definite
not possible
naturally into one another
for
but
be taken as a general distinction that the tunes

time-idiom
clear
are
dance-songs,
and
those
of
equal outline, with or without figure variation, are the
word-songs.
may
It
be said
that, as
regards the time-
idiom of instrumental music, the influence of language

non-existent
practically
is
had a hand
result
is
and where language has
the making of vocal time-outline, the
in
sometimes a
freer phrase,
but a
further
still
stiffening of the naturally strict time-outline.
The
music
is
connection of language with

a very
much more
vital
already been shown, the phrase
But what
is
rhythm which
this has
no
here
peculiar
to
is
phrase-form in
matter,
common
music
is
as has
for,
to
the
both.
circling
assists to articulate the phrase-form,
parallel in language, nor
is
and
there any form
of poetry which can of itself develop tonality in music.
striking
example of the helplessness of language
in this respect is afforded
by the nature of the would-be
dramatic efforts to produce an
artistic
combination of
music and poetry by the inventors of opera
in Italy at
the beginning of the seventeenth century.
It
is
of course, that any form of art must grow, and

^
Songs used
in
true,
is
not
dancing, to which words form a mere accompaniment.
LANGUAGE AND MUSIC

made
all
by a few enthusiasts bent upon a newbut if these composers had li^^hted upon
at once
contrivance
a true evolutionary basis of development,
would have achieved success on
and
in
own
his followers,
by
make
to
the
lay ready to
this,
Peri
analogies with
false
cart
sooner
lines
as to the relations of music
effect
in
led astray
work
their
the music of the people, but ignoring
Greek drama
sought
its
The rhythmic motive power
or later.
hand
211
and poetry,
draw the
horse.
Rightly rejecting counterpoint as unsuited to their purpose, they found
little
of culture
was
there
rhythm on which to
of unrelated
but chaos
neither
In the music
left.
idiom
nor any circling
but only the articulations
build,
Language came
modal cadences.
in
and
prescribed the outlines of the phrase-form, but circling
rhythm was conspicuous by
its
absence, the essentials
of melody were missing, and the
dreary of
all
hybrids
recitative.
panied after the manner of a
hymn
was
result
that
most
Recitative,
accom-
tune that has
lost its
way, and this not as a link to bind together more interesting elements, but as the actual stuff of music
it
not been for the later introduction of
musical elements
by
Monteverde of
we should ever have heard
at musical form.
Its
musical of
all
essential
it
is
unlikely
of this curious attempt
value to posterity
illustration of the fact that
Had
orchestration, by
Cesti and Stradella of melodic interest

that
some
its
clear
this the
most
lies
language (and
in
languages), having here a free hand and
an unprecedented chance
in
the making of music,
made
nothing but an impossible kind of recitative.
The
cadences of circling rhythm spring, like the
212
idiom, from the dance-song, out of simple alternation
When
and dominant.
of tonic
there are but two or
three chords to be used, articulation must result from
the reiteration
and where words are sung, the phrases
of language will naturally assist to define what they are
The
unable to create.
point where the word-influence
determining the length of the phrase,
is strongest is in
This
and consequently the position of the cadences.

influence
shows
itself in
a strong tendency to stereo-
type the natural free articulations of music into fixed
corresponding to those of
formulas
But
language.
everything here depends upon the nature of the poetic
form employed
naturally
to
a free irregular outline will ally
enough with music, but equal poetic
produce
articulation
in
music a very formal
comes
effect,
lines tend
because the
On
at regular intervals.
itself
the other
hand, as harmony grows and more chords are employed,
and the general feeling
for balance
becomes stronger,
instrumental music less and less articulation
Reasoning from the
is
required.
analogy of language,
writers have concluded that phrase-form, which
never absent,
is
also essential to music
in
is
many
there
but this con-
In an advanced stage of
clusion cannot be maintained.
unnecessary.
Phrases
are generally found, though not universally,
but they
circling
tread
rhythm, articulation
upon each
is
other's heels
so
that
new phrase
begins in another part on or before the termination of

the former one.
In this case the essential purpose of
phrase-form, which
there
is
is
articulation,
is
frustrated,
since
and
much
here no break in the continuity
instrumental
in
music no phrase-form whatever can
be
LANGUAGE AND MUSIC

found
to
because
exist,
of the
character
the
213
music
demands an unbroken continuity.

The mistake above referred to has arisen from sup-
frequently
posing that the constitution of music

of language,
do
similar to that
points of likeness
between the two, the fundamental develop-
exist
ment of music
as has been already explained, of a
is,
different nature.
And
the nature of language differs
further from music in that

tively
many
whereas, though
is
phrase-form
its
speaking, of a uniform
is,
compara-
From
character.
actual word-outline apart from the sense,
it
the
would be
impossible to judge whether an idea was being stated

for the first
time or developed, since the grammatical
form would scarcely vary, and the sentence-construction
would necessarily proceed much as

being said.
glance
In
a musical
sufficient
is
whatever was
on the contrary, a
show whether statement
to
velopment of an idea
score,
usual,
is
or de-
taking place, for this statement
can be distinguished from development by the nature

of the actual outline.
In language
sentence to sentence, and
new combinations
demanding the
are incessantly introduced,
of
the
sentence
for
we proceed from
their
of words
articulation
comprehension.
In
ad-
vanced musical form, once a clear statement of the

principal idea or ideas
is
made, there
is
little
further
necessity for articulation, since these ideas themselves
form the actual

in
stuff of the
development (which consists
a perpetual varying of the original statements), and
are therefore easily recognised without being formally
marked
off
important
from their context.

there
may
The idiom
is
here
all-
frequently be phrases including
214
more than one
figure, but in the great orchestral
of music a definite phrase-form

long, because
would produce a halting character, and
it
destroy that continuity which
charms of the
is
works
rarely insisted on for
is
The
art.
one of the greatest
is
practice of the great masters
The
conclusive in this respect.
statement
remarkable than
the opening of Beethoven's
in
marking
clear-cut
perhaps nowhere more
off of the original
is
C Minor
Symphony and
of Wagner's prelude to " Tristan," while
" Parsifal "
prelude contains a masterly statement
the
of the main themes of the drama, each one distinctly
by pause and
articulated
a procedure which never
rest,
occurs again after the development of these themes has
commenced.
form
of the
is
phrases
in
If a
little
is
phrase-form
where
is
prompt
This
used.
nauseatingly obvious, as
works of
that phrase-
use
strict
rhythmic matter being essential,

obvious method
found,
of
four-bar
favoured by the great masters, except
" statement,"
the
The
freest.
is
is
lesser composers.
if
grasp of the
most
the
naturally
continued would become
frequently the case in the
But
all
the great rhythmic
giants of music have given prominence to time-idiom
and thrown phrase-form

ground,
into
its
right place in the back-
with just the amount of variation that will
This variety
neither confuse nor bore the listener.
endless within
mind
mity.
the
the
to grasp,
If
length
and the only thing avoided
an irregular kind of time
become
phrases
stricter
in
is
is
unifor-
used, such as
is
order
Never does phrase-form degenerate

ramble that
is
of phrase possible for the
to
into
balance
the
I,
it.
aimless
caused by lack of balance, nor the rigidity
LANGUAGE AND MUSIC

due
to
want of rhythmic
initiative, neither
215
does
betray
it
the self-consciousness due to intentional design.
not trying to avoid being

It is
free
by nature.
music where the poetic phrase-form
The
served.
is
is
obvious that such freedom cannot possibly exist
vocal
in
but
stiff,
It
setting to music of an
is
pre-
even word-phrasing,
poetic lines of equal length with a sense-pause at the
end of each, must necessarily produce equal phraseform
in music, since
it
is
obvious that the termination
of the tone-phrase must coincide with that of the word-
To
phrase.
such monotony,
avoid
The
phrasing should be sought.

in
respect
this
poetry
suited
best
combination with music
for
poetic
irregular
is
either
where the sense-pauses occur
that of equal lines
fre-
quently in the course of the line instead of at the end

of
it,
thus
where the
creating
freer
use of phrase,
line itself varies constantly in length
poetic accents
irregularly, as in most of
fall
or
else
and the
Wagner's
poetry.
So
far
we have
language, but
to time-idiom.
its
considered only the sound-side of
sense-form has also a definite relation
There
unfortunately, in
is,
bination a certain opposition
Language
is
necessarily conveys
intellectual,
through
sense
music,
purely emotional, and conveys

the
ear.
its
main impression, which
through understanding,
auditory
on
all its
its
secondary one
the
contrary,
is
continually
normal conditions through
the influence of music, and once the sense vanishes
becomes a mere sound-peg
is
impressions through
Hence language when sung
liable to the reversal of its
the com-
between sense and sound.
for
it
musical development.
2i6
No
one can study vocal music without noticing the
manner
senseless
employed.
in
its
language
is
frequently
have no
possible for a singer to
It is
lectual conception
and
which
intel-
whatever of the words of his song,
be unable to arrive at their sense, unless he
to
consider
So strong
them apart from the music.
natural tendency,
sense of words
that
if
it
be desired to enforce the
music, while giving the
in
ac-
Each
cording to the natural accents of the poetry.

the poetic
the
voice
must be barred
chief melodic interest, song-music
sense-accent in
this
is
has to form the be-
line
ginning of the bar, and there must be no bar-line in
between the strong lingual accents,

sense-accents will
destroy
its effect.
superfluous
else
be introduced into the poetry and
Exceptions
may be made
occasionally
with syncopated notes or sudden rises of pitch on a
weak
part of the bar, but this
is
an
effect of counter-
accent of an opposite nature to the normal use.
For the composer of vocal music there are two

One is to ignore poetic rhythm and
courses open.
sense for the most part, and use the voice boldly to
the best advantage on its colour side, as has been done
This is an effect of absolute music of
in choral art.
an instrumental character, the words suggesting no
more than a general sense of atmosphere. The other
legitimate effect is so to unite poetry and music that
though both must resign something, yet each gains
somewhat from the

intellectual interest,
It
other.
and
To
music
is
added an
to poetry an emotional force.
must be confessed, however, that
music appears to lose the most.
in this
If poetic
combination
rhythm
is
to
be
LANGUAGE AND MUSIC

preserved as
it
must
217
be, all the finest effects of imitative
writing (purely musical effects) have to be renounced,

for there
can be no word-repetition, and the poetry must
flow on in
its
employed,
therefore the chorus,
if
reduced to a simple time-outline corre-
is
sponding
natural course
the
to
poetic
Modern attempts
line.
mixing the imitative with poetico-dramatic
at
are
effects
never a success, because they produce a hopeless con-
There is the further drawmusic requires more than double the length
fusion of opposite styles.
back that
of time for
its
This
idiom than does poetry.
difficulty
can be to some extent provided against by using what

is
known
as parallelism in poetry, a repetition of sense
and
with variations of language,

frequent sense-pauses
which
allow
will
the
in
in
of
The
an extremely
is
a large
by providing"
space
of music.
bination of the two arts
accomplish
course
of intermediate
develop the time-idiom
to
also
the
poetry,
which
in
artistic
to
com-
difficult
one
work, and requires poetry
specially written for the purpose.

It
is
evident that
be resigned,
solo
voice
if
elaborate choral effects are to
the musical interest
and to instrumental
has been already
said,
it
is
is
restricted
writing.
clear that the
to
the
From what
solo voice
cannot advantageously carry on a time-idiom
yet this
being the essence of music, when ably worked out must

attract the
is
the main
chief attention of the
source of imaginative
hearers, because
it
musical utterance.
Either the idiom must disappear altogether, in which

case there will be no strong purely musical interest
or
it
must be carried on
in instrumental parts
left,
indepen-
2i8
The
dently of the vocal ones.
latter is
exactly what
has happened In modern music.
might desire
to enforce his
Wagner, however he
drama and his poetry, was
powerless to avert the natural consequences of cause
and
Time-idiom can be nowhere but
effect.
orchestra,
musical
and wherever time-idiom
The
interest.
proved the
fallacy of
is,
is
the main
passing of a generation has
Wagner's theories and the
cor-
His music holds
rectness of his musical practice.
own
there
the
in
its
in the concert-room, innocent of the vocal parts
which the orchestra was supposed
to
accompany, but
even a Wagner enthusiast would not desire a perfor-
mance of a Wagner
opera, or
any portion of
given
it,
with the finest singers and without the orchestra.

If
good
we admit
poetry as the equal partner of music,
results of the
combination
may be
the finest in music will not be reached.
found
in purely instrumental art,
effect of vocal
the result
This
is
which
is
or
This
is
only
where the verbal
music has sunk into insignificance, and
absolute
music though words are sung.
the case in the primitive dance tunes, out of

the
modern
art
has
the future
the vocal style,
of music as an
if it
is
We
evolved.
brought back to the statement that

lies
obtained, but
in
are
thus
the orchestra
independent
art,
and
to take part in this further de-
velopment, must ignore poetry and revert to purely

musical conditions.
CHAPTER
VIII
of the dance-song Evolution of circling rhythm from melody

polyphony The birth of modern music Principles versus types
Text-book formulas and contradictions So-called second subjects
Omission of the idiom from theory Outlines of analysis Evolu-
The type
to
tionary nature of tonality.
In tracing the natural evolution of music out of the
two
folk-period
governed
in
one owes
its
distinct lines present themselves,
the
first
both
The
instance by stanza -form.
origin mainly to the dance, the other to
the ballad.
The music
a
usually
repeated
simple
as
close at the
easily to
of the folk - dance,
often
end
is
tune of a
as
single
stanza,
it,
is
which
is
Sometimes the
required.
full
omitted in order to lead back more
beginning,
the
we know
as
and
shows the natural
this
rhythmic instinct of the dance for continuity, and consequent desire to be rid of the full-stop of the stanza.
The
repetition
beginning
some
clearly
sufficient to indicate the point of reitera-
tune
will
complete
stanza with one or more repetitions, and then pro-
ceed to a new stanza, repeated

return
lies
defined figure at the
In another case the dance
tion.
its
is
of
the
in like
manner
until
made to the first. In this simple beginning

germ of what is generally known as the Minuet
is
and Trio, and
also
of
all
the
types
grouped under
220
head of Aria and Song, the principle of which
the
is (i)
statement of one idea; (2) statement of a second
idea; and (3) restatement of the
known
The sole
bably a slight prolongation

to
round
the
off the whole.
popular and
the
cultured
with pro-
idea,
first
as the coda added

difference
type
that
is
between
there
is
more of the latter. We find, perhaps, double or treble

the number of phrases, with corresponding variety in
the cadences, a longer coda, and the rhythm of the
key-circle called in
provide tonalitive contrast that
to
emphasise the difference between the two ideas.
will
The second
nant,
and
idea
is
probably
the key of the domi-
in
this necessitates a longer
But as
centering tune of the folk-dance.

that tonality
of contrast
is
in
not repeated
treatment than the

if
to
not considered to be a sufficient

itself,
this
at
stage
show
means
same idea is
new key is the
the
in another key, but the
This simple
complement of the new tune.
foundation has always been, and still remains, the most
natural
useful of all musical types
be developed
till
on a small
scale.
It
may
each part contains several stanzas
and a modulative outline within
itself,
provided the
essential principle of contrast in the middle section be
maintained.
Its
general character
strongly idiomatic, for
is
melodic rather than
though figures may be found
and even an idiom may be traced, as a general rule

the phrase and stanza-forms are well pronounced, and
this indicates the subordination of idiomatic to
interest.
pace,
In
is
rapid
This type of form, when taken

usually of a cantabile
movement
the
melodic
at a slow
and expressive nature.
time-features
tend
to
pre-
221
The
and the Scherzo character appears.
dominate,
Minuet stands half-way between these two types, and

has in its cadences something of the formal precision
characteristic of the society dance.
Taken
rhythm
as a whole the type exhibits a small circling
process of formation, which, once brought
in
to perfection, can get
no
and consequently
further,
appears as a factor of the later development.
an inevitable part of musical evolution.
is
dis-
This
Melody,
being by nature a small type of form, must arrive at
harmony
a comparative perfection while

to half-a-dozen
of
vehicle
expressed
chords.
definite
stage melody
this
rhythm,
circling
in
At
reinforced
is
the
by harmony
cadences of limited scope.
as tonality develops and seeks a larger

is
restricted
is still
field, its
But
tendency
break the bounds of the formal cadences of melody
to
and
find
its
natural outlet
the cadences begin to melt
in
harmony.
away
Thereupon
into continuous chord-
movement, and the formal outlines of melody vanish

also.
Thus the melody that belongs to this wide
harmonic range
is
necessarily of a different character
from the small independent type.
harmonic adaptability, and since

cut
up
into
small
fragments
It
it
is
has a far greater
now no
by cadences,
opportunities for free polyphonic treatment.

there
should
be
an over-balance
the balance
is
(as
in
has
been
offers
But
the
lest
case)
favour of the factor of polyphony,
adjusted
of time-idiom, which
as
frequently
it
longer
is
by the natural predominance
now
able to
make
itself
felt
a factor of surpassing interest, unchecked by the
formalities of the cadence.
Circling rhythm
is
trans-
222
ferred
harmony, and
to
pitch-Idiom,
becomes of
melody,
interest for
its
In this
undulating characteristics only.

style
resolved
the
into
idiomatic and
way a
pliant
produced of an entirely different texture to
is
the smaller stanza type.
It
is
mainly this difference
of texture (idiom and polyphony replacing melody) that

distinouishes the later stao;e from the earlier.
new
This
show
of musical
texture
signs of developing itself in
material
beg-ins
Haydn's work, and
is
scarcely to be found in that of his predecessors,
of
whom
were more or
Haydn, we
training.
less influenced
find,
was
in
to
all
by contrapuntal
the matter of com-
position self-taught, of peasant birth, and familiar from
Exactly at the time

babyhood with the folk-dance.
when his development as a composer required it, he
was completely isolated from the rest of the musical

world and carried into the wilderness by his patron
Owing to the lack of means of communiEsterhazy.
cation and transport, in those days the wilderness was
Haydn was thrown entirely upon his
the wilderness.
own
resources,
no one
and forced
to imitate.
to
be himself, since he had
band
at
his disposal supplied
him with the means of hearing and testing his orchestral

These were ideal conditions for natural music
grow in, unhampered by the swaddling-clothes of
effects.
to
counterpoint.
These
facts sufficiently
at this particular period of

rally
account for the appearance
what has since been gene-
recognised as the birth of modern music.
simply that music had at
and atmosphere.
last
That the new
It
was
found a congenial
soil
style did not die with
was
that in
which appealed
it
shows
his contemporaries,
Haydn, but was taken up by

that there
223
to their natural
Bach had accomplished in counterman could do, and a change was wel-
musical instinct.
point
sort
that
all
comed
but
must have been a change of the
it
musicians
have lured
could
that
right
completely
so
There was no deliberate

of making something new, but
from the time-honoured paths.
and conscious intention

expression
the
tone-imaginings, both
out into
anew.
ing
ments of
All
It
come
is
when
way
its
destroying and
creat-
dependent upon the
instru-
the instrument
of the
firstly,
secondly, the
is
music
utterance
its
imagination
tone.
rhythmic force pushing
of a
the right
instruments of the actual
mind and the
means
right
together, the initial imagination, then the players
with their
instruments,
advance takes
and
a sudden
an advance
place,
and
to the long
that
startling
without regard
that,
storage of force preceding
silent
it,
might appear of the nature of a miracle.
We
are
commonly
grace arrived
all
told that at this period of special
the form of absolute music, a series of
types of absolute beauty representing a standard that

later generations ignore at their peril.
Setting aside the
extreme unlikelihood, not to say impossibility of such

a
general
great
might point out that no
composer has ever reproduced the
predecessor
knowledge,
without
and
Reproduction
has
one
proposition,
life
outlets,
in
in
transforming
adding
art
itself will
thereto
means
not in copying
the
almost
it
much
stagnation.
be absorbed
in
work of
style
of
seeking
its
out
his
An
of a
of
own.
age that
its
own
predecessors.
224
What
built
what
are the principles on which form
eternal
is
mutable
is
That the name

after
the form
itself.
of a special type of form survives long
undergone transformation
has
nature
actual
its
is
may
does not check natural evolution, but

unlearned into supposing
they
that
name was
thing to which the
deceive the
by the
the
possess
still
Thus
originally given.
" sonata," as first applied
the term
is
Italian school
of the early eighteenth century to a solo composition

for violin with harpsichord
anything either
is
now
accompaniment, had scarcely

matter to suggest what
in its texture or
generally
understood by the
These
name.
labels are thus frequently misleading, because they are
made to cover many

we are once past the
types of form.
When
early stage of tonality,
and the
various
cadence has ceased to be
tendency
essential, the
once to greater variation, and
to
produce
form that merge into other types, which

nigh
impossible
to
with
classify
accuracy.
That much
due mainly
to the superficial
has hitherto prevailed.
any
method of
evident,
if
at
types of
is
it
well-
approach
to
exists already
classification
It is
is
is
analysis which
we
select only
a few features out of many, and these the less essential,
and proceed
there
When
it
to classify as
if
they represented
know, that the thing can
to
is
is
accomplished
it
may
easily
be
that
all
be done.
convenient
formula wherewith to dose the young, but as the

tellectual
would be
summing-up of what does

ludicrous,
were
it
not so
actually exist
essentially
init
false.
comes naturally a greater

With
freedom and elaboration of subjects, complex variations
idiomatic development
meet us
at
225
every turn, and to analyse with any com-
pleteness a few of the greatest works in music

this point of
view alone would
from
volumes.
fill
Possibly for this reason educational text-books and
primers are given to passing lightly over the matter,

presenting analyses of the sonata-type somewhat after
manner
this
Exposition
passage,
66-81
second
130-142;
subject:
175-191
as
is
an analysis,
character of the
aspect and
this
50-66;
subject:
bridgecodetta,
Recapitulation
bridge -passage,
First
142-174;
second
191-229.
coda,
above formula,
the
that
presented
conveys about as much idea of the
movement
style
the bricks in
once
evident
1-13;
Bars,
82-129.
fantasia,
subject:
It
subject:
First
13-49;
free
its
as might be gained of the
of a house by a careful counting of

several
walls.
when
Unfortunately,
" form
method of dealing with
"
has
been
acquired, teachers and students are only too prone to

rest satisfied that
since
this
assumption
the
there
is
all
is
negatively
And
know.
to
is
acquiesced
in,
if
not actively encouraged by standard instruction books,
who can blame them ?

The line of reasoning upon which such
founded appears to run as follows
subject,
and there
subject
is
first
in
is
analysis
There
also a second subject
the key of the dominant
is
is
first
the second
therefore, the
subject once stated, as soon as the dominant key
appears, there
ject
chance
the
first
to
is
the second subject
if
modulate to the dominant,
subject,
but
is
now
the
it is
first
sub-
no longer
part of the second sub-
226
Further, there
ject.
development
therefore, should
is
or,
no longer the
it
may
now
the
subject
first
first subject,
but
second subject.
As
a Frenchman, because at this
no Englishmen
another season, then he
mad
are but
well might one
if
there are
he travel at
We
an Englishman.
still
is
France he
to
moment
But haply,
France.
in
this
a bridge-passage,
it is
Should an Englishman go
in the
developed
is
appear to develop elsewhere,
it
be, the
reason thus
is
a development section
is
section
" north-north-west."
Such considerations do not disconcert the authors

First subjects masquerade in their
of musical primers.
pages as second subjects, or as " missing links," and
nobody so much
make
Even
as scents a joke.
if
the domi-
appearance in the middle of a phrase,

As well might an
there begins the second subject.
nant key
its
author start a chapter in the middle of a sentence.

is
clear from
the
text-books
know what he was
that
It
Beethoven did not
about.
This fatuous theory, as might be expected, breaks
down
in practice.
Form") analyses
movement of Beethoven's
Dr. H. A. Harding ("Analysis of

thus the opening of the
Sonata
in
connecting
Op.
Major,
episode,
first
loi
5-16;
First
second
subject
subject:
1-4
16-25;
coda, 25-33.
Mr.
W. H. Hadow ("Sonata Form")
as follows
" Its
deceptive
describes
it
first
subject
cadence
modulating to
E,
is
in A Major with a
comes a bar of transition
a melody
then
then a second subject (beginning
and ending with the
with the last chord of bar
chord of bar
amounts
1-6
transition, 7
;^2>)-'
of connecting-
his
second subject
episode,
to
First
8-33
first
subject:
but one bar
second subject
227
another
in
place altogether, and no coda.
movement
type
of this
by some
described
is
and these are
writers as binary, by others as ternary,
names supposed
The Adagio of Beethoven's Sonata in G, Op. 31, is
according to Mr.
.said by Dr. Harding to be a rondo
to represent entirely different species.
Hadow
it
is
These are
might be named. ^
all
important points, and
cannot be set aside as matters of
Under
detail.
how
circumstances
these
student to decide
it
Other instances
a simple ternary type.
unhappy
the
is
Probably, and wisely, he will give
up as hopeless.
The
cardinal
emphasis given
error
What was
of a past age.
teaching
such
in
to the transient
lies
in
the
and secondary features
merely a phase has been
In the sonata-type of
made the essential condition.
Haydn and Mozart the first and second subjects
were
blocked
actually
off
by
cadence
and
pause
the dominant key coincided with the entrance of the
second subject
on
this
point
no doubt could
exist.
In Beethoven's style appears a continuity peculiar then

to himself,
the
and these formal outlines disappear.
dilemma of the
theorists
when they
Hence
persist
in
endeavouring to explain a Beethoven sonata by means

of the obsolete formula.s.
It
is
an attempt to make a
^ See
Macpherson's "Form in Music,"
Harding's " Analysis of Form," p. 62,
p.
132,
and
compare with
228
strict
tonalitive
lying
cause
is,
in
effect,
in
the
development appear the sole under-
of
an
sonata-type,
and of ideas only
The sooner
of
conditions
say
to
that
this
of keys, tonics, and modulation
affair
place,
first
place/
tive
the
it
and not the cause of
sonata-type
its
second
the
understood that the tonali-
is
the
in
were
the
result
existence, the better for the
understanding both of the sonata and of more recent
To
developments.
the
old
fashioned
formulas
the
present generation of composers will have nothing to
say once
past
its
schooldays,
and
rightly,
these
for
things have no bearing upon the essentials of music.
Nor, as has been shown, can they
in
themselves ex-
The
plain the type they are supposed to summarise.

essential principle
found
in
is
omitted, the vital principle to be
rhythmitonal music of whatever age or
all
nation, the reiterative outline of the idiom.
Whether
there
is
one subject or two, whether one
secondary subject or many, whether these occur in the
key of the dominant or

points that
position
might
of a
some other
in
assist us
work
in
in
the
well
the
historical
determining the exact
were
evolutionary order,
there any doubt on the point.

within
key, these are
But since we are now

such investigations
period,
are superfluous, and, from the point of view of prac-
they suggest an entirely false standard,
tical analysis,
because they are secondary considerations.
To any
music there
^
one who has mastered the elements of

will
"The primary
be no
difficulty
fact in musical structure
" Sonata Form," para.
4).
in
is
knowing
at
key-distribution "
once
(Hadow,
229
what chords are used, what keys are employed, where

cadences occur
When we
consider
this
its
is
mere grammar of the
the
we do
reading a poem,
are
not
art.
stop
grammatical formulas unless there
to
some-
is
wrong about them which invades our attention.

In like manner should all great music be studied, and
thing
it
entirely useless to analyse inferior compositions,
is
which depend upon sensuous
The
idiom
of
and are lacking
the
is
following out
the
of
reveal the true balance of the work.
serve to indicate the purpose and the relations
It will
various
the
lating
thing
essential
this will
effect,
rhythmic development.
in the higher
rhythm
the
climaxes,
that,
undu-
of the
outlines
along with tonality, exists for the
purpose of developing idiomatic utterance, the manner

in
which close reiteration
of feeling
equal
that
outline
position
subsides
the
again
contrasts
varying
of
will
ideas
up
lead
to
the
into
climax
serenities
of
by the juxta-
afforded
by
heightened
effects
of
orchestral colour, of modulation, of chromatic harmonies,
of force-variations.
and much more
All this
will
be
grasped by a conscientious and thorough examination

of the precise time
and
in
their
and pitch formation of the ideas
manifold transformations and
idiomatic
treatment.
And when we have
pierced to the core of musical form,

to matter greatly
ramifications
whether we
it
thus
does not seem
sonata,
symphony,
symphonic poem, or by any other name.
Provided
the true rhythmic utterance

to the
understanding, and
nothing worth looking
for.
call it
is
if
there
it
is
it
will justify itself
not there, there
In the end,
it
will
is
always
230
be found that
music which makes a great and a
all
permanent impression upon the imagination reveals a

complex development of
intellect
and
is
which thus from
own
its
standpoint confirms
To
the intuitive impression.
ratifies
no
marvellous to the
this nature,
need to
there
artists,
upon the value of such an
enlarge
experience.
work of any com-
In order to estimate rightly the

poser,
we must
take into account the exact conditions
development of the material of the
of rhythmic
which prevailed
his
in
For
sarily limit his utterance.
tive
perception
key
requires
mild
much
obviously
insistence,
without
contrast
instance,
stage
the
at
is
modulation
be
will
when
tonali-
the
central
where
and
admits
the
circling
of
loss
art
These must neces-
lifetime.
and
limited,
only
of
rhythm,
a
large
proportion of the composition will be devoted to the
Hence
centering outline.
these
exact
a tradition
conditions
tonalitive
ones, providing a pattern that
all
are
grows up that
the weaker brethren
new
breaks the traditions and introduces a

centering
this
again
"form" and
poser
is
may
tive
both
turn
its
sets
may
or
a matter,
and
outline
in
in
right
Presently comes along a genius
hasten to copy.
less
only
the
up a
stronger
creates
tradition.
is
first
may have
instance,
called
The second com-
not be greater than the
the
and
contrasts,
what
who
balance,
first
that
of rhythmic initia-
equally broken
down
traditions
and thus enlarged the scope of idiomatic treatment.

But the second
first,
and
this
starts
from a larger platform than the
means greater emotional
possibilities
because
wider
one
is
much dwelt upon,
is
and
ensues,
way
not
to
the
then
as
stages
must
it
idiom
strongest
the
this
When
unable entirely to counteract.
gives
is
key
repose
be,
earHer
the
coherence and placidity go hand-in-hand.
of tonaHty
If
In
technique.
231
stanza-form
framework of the idiom
looser
it
easy to grasp the circling rhythm,
nearly so
unpunctuated now by the cadence-articulation.
Hence
the insistence upon the central key, the establishment
by a mild form of contrast associated with
of this
another subject, the grouping of modulation into one

place in the middle, then the recapitulation of
first
tive
of
part in the central
scheme
which
Haydn and
to
their
lost
only,
way
at this period,
ripened,
Practically nothing
is
and the recapitulation of
the close, the identity of which
by considerable
is
generally disguised
and a long coda.

these two examples together and
alteration
same name
application of the
treatment.
and
there
to both
This has expanded
gained enormously
But
its
here retained but the modula-
tions of the middle section,
trasts
but as the
became no
vanished into the sonata-type of Beethoven.
it
that links
it
Having served
longer a need, but a convention.

purpose,
definite
idioms composers
their
of circling rhythm
perception
sonata-type
the
Without some such
expand
the
the familiar tonali-
characterised
Mozart.
formula in which
would have
key
all
in
climaxes
can
here the identical
be
in
is
all
The
thing
justifies the
the idiomatic
directions
and
emotional power, involving conimpossible
no
doubt
idiomatic
to
the
that
oudine,
earlier
we
have
stage.
still
emphasised and
232
now
strengthened by the character of the mind that
employed
At the same
it.
was doubtless a
of Beethoven
passionate
time,
far
though the nature

deeper and more
one than that of Haydn or
nature alone does not account for
Mozart, this
the
all
difference
Tonalitive perception, in general,
in his compositions.
had reached what made a point of departure
mind of prodigious strength
embark from
to
for
one
but for
that starting-point the final goal could not have been
But
reached.
for
development of
the
tonality,
the
ideas could not have been thus uttered.
And
far
this goal
was
final
only for Beethoven.
So
has our sense of tonality grown, that Beethoven's
tonalitive
There
is
into the
scheme has become in its turn a convention.

now no need to pack the bulk of modulation
middle part only, and admit long spaces of
define tonality.
So
keen has grown our sense of the central key
that,
order to
exact recapitulation in
when once
are
all
and occasional reference

Less and less has tonalitive
stated, suggestion
that
required.
is
coherence to be considered, since

obvious thing
just
as
be no more of
fine
nay,
effective,
work requires
has
it
more
so,
is
become an
emotionally
because there
than the emotional
need
nature of the
orchestral instruments no longer con-
modulation
development.
it
the repose of the key
there
is
unlimited scope for idiomatic
In the idiom alone lies the link with
the past and with the future.
CHAPTER
IX
DERIVED VOCAL TYPES

The
Origin of the rondo Mixed types The rondo the

The European rondo The variation type The early Welsh
The middle stage Final development into idiomatic outline.
folk-ballad
in
East
type
The
the
of development that
line
folk-ballad
takes
its
origin from
even more closely connected with
is
stanza-form than the line that originates in the dance.
As
already observed, language cannot
rhythm,
form, and
When
undoubtedly
but
it
leads
to
it
the
does
make
a circling
suggest a phraseof the
articulation
stanza.
once the small tonalitive type of melody which
usually accompanies the folk-ballad has been evolved,

further development offers opportunities of a differ-
its
ent character to those of the folk-dance, and these arise
mostly out of
The
its
alliance with language.
folk-ballad
consists
usually
one tune
These
but
is
is
number of
these verses
variations arise out of the varied syllabic formulas,
still
more so from the character of the story which
demand now
will
deliberate
phasised
slackening
will
vary
in
rapidity
The
events of the
of utterance,
the special words
to
now a
be em-
each verse, even the pitch-outline
may be altered to suit

The peasant singer does
of the tune
words.
all
repeated, with or without slight variations.
generally a feature of the song.
tale
of a
To
verses or stanzas of equal length.
the character of the

all
this naturally
and
234
unconsciously,
upon
intent
his
tale,
and
instinctively
adapting his musical utterance to the emotional charof his
acter
this
a type complete in
itself,
advance upon vocal
lines.
is
little
Considered as a folk-song only,
text.
The
and that admits of but
cultured song which has different music to suit
each verse {durch-componirt^ as the Germans have
does not develop out of the ballad, but
is
vocal
rendering of the folk-dance already considered.

basis
is
is
statement, contrast, and restatement
it),
Its
and
this
a fact so completely recognised that the name song-
type has come to be applied to
modern
are
varieties
built.
It
in
this all the
necessary to take
is
and borrowings of vocal
into account the cross-currents
and instrumental music
Upon
it.
order
to
understand their
respective developments.
The
instance
type
of mixed
rences of the
Thus
it
known
first
Rondo seems
as the
origin.
It
be an
to
involves several recur-
idea, with contrasting links in between.
may have developed
out of the simple dance-
song by addition of another contrasting idea and further

repetition of the opening subject (involving five divisions
instead of three), but
it
seems
to
be more accurately
accounted for by the refrain or burden which frequently

concluded each verse, both of the folk-ballad and of the
choral dance.
The
repetition of the
rally called for repetition of the
same
same words natutune, or
it is
again
possible that the desire to repeat the tune called for the
same words, which are often mere nonsense.

rence
is
less essential to poetry
than to music
Recurtherefore
the idea of the rondo may well have originated
in
the
DERIVED VOCAL TYPES

choral dance, afterwards owing
some
of
235
development
its
when the music of

the dance had grown beyond two ideas only, becoming
to the ballad,
and
at a later period,
an instrumental dance-type.
should be borne in mind that two statements only
It
of an idea do not constitute a rondo as generally understood,
and
to apply the
dance-song
destroys
doubtedly does
seems
to
alternation
The
exist.
of two
must sooner or
is
and
distinction
factors
introducing
original theme.
its
strict alternation
as
This
involve monotony, whereas the
later
new
It is
without
ideas,
therefore a type
less primitive,
of ideas.
Equally distinct from the rondo

after
un-
same thing
throughout.
more highly organised, and hence
freer,
which
essential idea of the rondo
this is not the
similar
continually
losing hold of
than
clear
the primitive
to
be varied alternation, one factor persisting and
the other changing
rondo
name rondo
is
the type that,
one repetition of each stanza, or perhaps without
repetition,
in the
goes on continually to something different

In this case there
next stanza.
is
nothing but
similarity of key,
and a general resemblance of
preserve unity.
This
which
hold
assist
to
is
usually
the
the English glee and the
style to
combined with words,
movement together,
modern part-song.
as
in
In the
music of the Byzantine empire, this rambling character

is
found also
in
Turkish schiarky
its
pitch
side,
instrumental
for
piano.
in
the
This music
a somewhat unsatisfactory
European and Asiatic

monic tonality
the
usage
characteristics,
in
modern
is,
on
mixture of
which
har-
and a highly elaborate modal scheme
236
appear to strive
for mastery,
each thwarting the other.
It is
a mongrel species of low rhythmic development,
and
considering
Turks have not
the
that
shown themselves an
artistic
nation,
this
hitherto
scarcely
is
surprising.
India and China the true rondo type appears
In
in the actual ballad.
theme
with the
which recurs
in
as
The
all.
follows
popular Hindu ballad opens
(called pallevi,
two bars
each stanza, usually about
after
stanza-form
is
irregular,
length),
in
six times
one example being
Bars (without theme repetition)
each
in
This, including the theme repetitions
stanza: 2.8.4.8.6.
and two introductory bars leading from
makes a
contrasting stanza,
it
to the first
total of forty-two bars.-^
In a Chinese ballad example the theme, two bars

in
length,
guitars
is
and
started on the orchestra (a collection of
and recurs twice
pipes),
in alternation with
the voice, which has phrases of varying length
whole of this
is
one stanza, and, when the voice has
concluded on a long note, the orchestra comes

four bars of melody,
vocal part, before

figures appear
essential
unity
the
it
and
more
with
or less in imitation of the
recurs to the rondo theme.

assist
in
to
Time-
unify the ballad, but
its
due to the reiteration of the tune.
is
Here
the orchestra provides the persisting factor, the
voice
the
changing ones.
There are
said to
be no
fewer than forty-eight stanzas in this particular ballad,

so the audience would have heard plenty of the theme
before
In
it
all
was done
with.^
Eastern music, owing to the absence of har^
See Appendix, Section Y.
DERIVED VOCAL TYPES

mony, the cadence
articulated
is
by
237
frequently indefinite, phrase-form
is
rest,
and stanza by special emphasis
last note.
Nothing in the exact
block
stanza
can exist, and this
European
nature of the
appears at first to add to the indefiniteness of Eastern
music, notwithstanding its fundamentally coherent and
and pause on the
intelligible basis.
The European rondo

markable
for the precision
is
an instrumental type
and regularity of
its
re-
cadences.
Bach infused into it the free flow of counterpoint, but

this was but a passing phase, for Haydn and Mozart
reverted to the distinctly articulated type that had been
by Couperin
well established
With
freer
with
harpsichord pieces.
in his
the development of the idiom the rondo
and
and
larger,
one another
and
persisted,
it
tion rather than
its
became
various sections began to mingle
but
substantially
has remained one that
same type
grows by addi-
the
by process of idiomatic development.
has generally been associated with some rapidity of
It
tempo, and has
complex
with
now an
idiomatic
air
compared
of simplicity,
treatment,
that
suggests
its
folk-origin.
The music
of the folk-ballad, devoid of refrain, has
been also transferred
names
to instrumental art.
form
the
of Variations, Chaconne, Ground,^ Doubles, &c.,
has a long pedigree, and was the
it
Under
to
mentally
first
natural type of
be cultivated by European musicians.

it
is
Funda-
a melody, repeated with variations sug-
gested originally by the vocal variations of the ballad.
Once
^
this
type had dropped
its
words by transfer
to
ground was continual repetition of the bass of one phrase or stanza.
238
an instrument, the need
melody became
for
greater variation
at once apparent, since the
the
in
element of
variety supplied by the ballad story disappeared.
But
the primitive characteristic remained, and distinguished

it
from the rondo.
new
Instead of introduction of a
melodic idea, the same melody formed the foundation
whole movement, and
of the
were exactly repeated.
In
of variation differed greatly,
harmony
the
or
whatever
but
made
that
times
later
and
of
unit
recurrence
recurred
it
cadences in exactly similar positions

into well-defined
manner
the
might be the bass
it
the
was,
unit
that
phrase and stanza
its
and
with
its
this division
and equal blocks, the matter of which
was constantly repeating
itself
differing
in
ways,
is
first
to
from
what
characterises
last.
This precise and formal nature, combined with
the
variation-type
a usually centering outline,
English composers,
little else,
The
who
commended
in their
to the early
it
virginaU pieces used
with the exception of the contrapuntal prelude.
texture of the
movement admitted
of
some adoption
of the customary contrapuntal manner, and assisted the
use of imitation
the theme, but
tirely
At
opposed
when
its
a popular melody was taken as
reiterative stanza character
to the
unbroken flow of counterpoint.
time (the sixteenth century)
this
it
was a
promise between popular and scholastic

its
the
method was
first
rigid.
This, however,
of the
^
An
twelfth
useful
ideals,
is
appearance of the variation-type
Reference has already

school
was en-
though
by no means
in notation.
been made to the
and thirteenth
com-
centuries.
early keyed instrument, preceding the harpsichord.
Welsh
The
DERIVED VOCAL TYPES
239
standard instrumental music of the Welsh was founded
upon the variation-type
Originally indistinguish-
only.
able from vocal music and governed by the
" song of the voice," instrumental music
twenty-
was
four measures (or metres) of poetry, which
called
became recog-
nised as a separate art by order of the Prince Gruffydd
ab
"
Cynan, and was called
song
of
the
strings."
Musical degrees were instituted, and students had to

study
many
the bards.
years to obtain the highest distinctions of
some
In order to establish
basis of musical
form apart from poetry, twenty-four measures of music

are said to have been introduced from Ireland, and as
the
names of the measures
ancient
this
Irish,
are not in
appears very
have always shown
likely.
independence
of
Ireland
must
naturally
have
music
in
rejection of the Gregorian style, but
Welsh but in
The Welsh
the Celtic music
been
closely
with their own, and similar methods would
themselves to both countries.
The
their
in
allied
commend
foundation of this
music was harmonic and not melodic, apparently for
harmony
the simple reason that whereas
(especially in
a primitive stage) admits of easy classification, with
melody
this
is
far
more
no lack of melodic
Vvêlsh
difficult,
instinct,
but
its
music shows
based
theory,
upon that most primitive of harmonic usages, alternation of tonic and dominant, consisted of the measures,
already described, which
in
length, with a chord
were from one
on each
beat.
was the most frequent, but three-beat

and change of bar
ternal time.
The
occurs, as also
to
six
bars
Four-beat time
is
also
found,
change from dual
to
phrase of the measure, commonly of
240
four
bars,
tonic
usually begins and invariably ends on the
The
chord.
of the measure
chord-succession
Above
repeated throughout the variations.
is
appears
it
one part consisting of some simple pitch-figure constantly reiterated with occasional synchronous consonant
and what
intervals,
is
usually called the
theme does not

At the same
form from the variations.
differ greatly in
time each variation has a distinct character, for whatever pitch-figure
and
forms an idiom.
usually
sometimes,
found.
but
there
appear
Syncopations
be
time-idiom to
of
little
is
imagination
Celtic
throughout,
it
most part equal time-outline
the
for
Thus
prevails.
chosen distinguishes
is
runs rather to wealth of
decoration than to the definite utterance of the timeidiom.

consists
rapid to
What
is
generally
of shakes,
trills,
known
ornament
as
grace-notes, and
have any idiomatic significance
music had an extensive
and
music
in
too
turns,
this
Welsh
used
set of signs to this effect
incessantly, the exact reproduction of which can only
be guessed.
Upon
this
decorative principle the in-
terest of the variations chiefly depended.
primitive type, as appears from
its
It is
a very
monotony, but
it
is
of great interest as indicating a stage in the evolution of
music that has scarcely been known to
The drawback
the
it
of the variation-type, found in
Welsh music onwards,
adapted
became
all
exist.
itself to
lies
in the ease
any kind of superficial
things to
all
men
to the
it
from
with which
triviality.
Welsh
It
decorative,
to the English contrapuntal, to others melodic
and har-
monic, but to none of these the true musical utterance

^
Z.
DERIVED VOCAL TYPES

of great
This
art.
241
perhaps not surprising,
is
since
was the thing required of musicians,

and spontaneous utterance was regarded with suspicion.
technical ingenuity
There
something almost pathetic
is
borrowings of composers of
showing
to create
in
the
what they themselves
and when a borrowed tune super-
decked out made the essence of the variations,
ficially
name
necessarily these took the
had
all
the
littleness
folk-ballad
to the
independent contrapuntal
limited
and monotonous and yet spun out
style.
was
It
is
of
since one key
tonality,
and
its
duration
was usually employed

in-
relation of parts to a dramatic climax
which
was a mere
string
usually to be found in the ballad,
connected
loosely
once
at
Deprived of the natural consecutive
throughout.
terest
an
in
at great length,
and there existed no proportion between

its
The
of art in vain.
of the
without any of the breadth possible
attenuated form,
and
frequent
nations from folk-song,
their instinctive desire for
were unable
type
all
undulating rhythm
takes the place
units,
because
very
is
late,
called
and time idioms are found

pitch mostly predominates,
cadence
in
to wait
for
it
upon the
Pitch
possible.
the variation-type, but
and neither can develop

block
because
of the
So long
as the stanza-form
be done
is
is
continually
held intact,
have as long a stanza as
while the tonality
is
means of
and the idioms.
imitation
feeling
dramatic sense in
and had
growth of the idiom that alone made
to
the
music on a large scale (which
in
of what
literature) arrived
it
so limited, to
fully
recurring.
all
that can
possible,
make
variety
This Bach,
and
by
in his
chaconnes, was able to do by means of his astound-
242
ing mastery of imitation and

variations harmonic outline
unit of recurrence
of pitch-idiom.
In
his
as with the Welsh, the
is,
but unlike them he forms a string
movements hung on the thread of the

harmony, each of varied emotional interest. Thus the
of complete
little
variation-type began to take on a

to
come
own
to its
as
length an even freer
reiteration
part
fall
of one
In the
becomes
it
at
companion, the
its
divided
stiffly
theme, the cadences for the most
out or are rendered inconspicuous, subsidiary
themes appear
is
movement than
Instead of the formal and
sonata-type.
and
and freedom were infused
and, in the hands of Beethoven,
it,
character,
a musical utterance.
sonata period more ease

into
human
varied and
in
other keys, and while the main theme
transformed in every conceivable way,
the whole works towards a climax to which every part
movement bears its

can now scarcely be found
of the
entirely
ceased to obtrude
The
relation.
if
is
it
itself.
looked
many
the
that
centuries almost untouched
same causes
developed
that
primitive
the
The
dance-song.
and has
for,
This extraordinary
and sudden transformation of a type

for so
stanza-form
had existed
is
due
sonata-type
essential
to the
out of
personality
of a composer, which cannot be freely expressed until
a corresponding freedom has arrived in the means of

expression,
is
the
transforming
freedom of the means consists
rhythm as a whole, and
Thus
the
dance-song by
at the
same
folk-ballad
its
goal.
influence
in the
and
the
development of
especially of musical idiom.
by
its
long
road,
and the
seemingly short one, arrived together
CHAPTER X
THE CYCLE
cycles of opera and oratorio The Mass

Ordered sequence
of the suite Early French dance-types Tonalitive scheme of suite
A cosmopolitan cycle for the harpsichord -The modern suite The
greater cycle Reversal of time and pitch characteristics of suite
Influence of instruments The early sonata a combination of differing types of form in a small balance Development of larger balance
Anomalous
under Beethoven Undulating rhythm essential

musical work Unity of subjects The quartet.
The
Cycle
a succession of several movements grouped
is
Whether
under one head.
together
presents (i) a string of disconnected

(2)
in
an ordered sequence
which each part
whole,
the
to unity of a great
result
whole there are
all
still
fact
or
or (3) one single conception
essential to the
is
is
Between the mere
succession
this
movements
considered
balance of the
to
of succession and
be
cycle.
the artistic
shades of variation to be found, and
these variations depend entirely on the use
made
of
units of recurrence.
The
desire for
small scale, that
is,
the
cycle
arose
when
unity on a
within the limits of a small move-
ment, was understood, but unity on a large scale was
unthought
but
how
What was wanted was
of.
to
fill
greater length,
these greater time-spaces puzzled the
composer of limited imaginative power. The day for

unwearying repetition was past, and musical types,
with the one
exception of the variations, were
very
244
The problem was
short.
language to supply the

dramatic
tale
presented
solved by falling back upon

unity
of
factor
required
known
the stage was the origin of the musical cycles

as
secular or sacred guise on
in
As soon
Opera and Oratorio.
music had re-
as
covered from the recitative phase of the early seventeenth
down
airs,
century,
into
ritornelles.
oratorio
settled
a heterogeneous succession
Where
of
instrumental interludes
little
the
any of these types
itself to
story
back upon
fell
it
would not lend

recita-
which became thus a useful though no longer
tive,
most important feature of the
time oratorio
developed
but
lines,
Its
cycle,
choruses, ballets, and
called
the
the
both the opera and
left
itself
its
After a
opera.
the stage for the concert-room, and
upon
cyclic
less
dramatic and more musical
character changed for the worse.
choruses became under Carissimi, and later under
Handel, more contrapuntal,
arias
its
panied recitative also made
its
except the choral works of
J.
more
florid
accom-
appearance, and
Bach,
S.
who
we
if
infused
a contrapuntal character and therefore a unity of style

into everything he wrote, oratorio
less
anomalous mixture,
not
but also of differing styles.
It
when the dramatic story, if

down into moral or pastoral
some scope for counterpoint.
to
largely
whole
it
its
religious
was and
is
a hope-
only of differing types,

is
least unsatisfactory
there
at
all,
reflections
Its
associations,
is
filtered
which
popularity
is
offer
due
but as a cyclic
lacks form, despite the frequent virtues of
its
factors separately considered.
On
the other hand, the
movements of operas were
THE CYCLE
generally
that
ficialities
would show
oft'
with
filled
super-
the charms of the solo
arrangements of the stage.
decorative
the
or
voice,
music,
as
discreditable
245
In opera as a whole there was less anomaly, because

it
did not lend
so well to contrapuntal methods,
itself
but there was far more superficiality.

a union
musical
for
was an encumbrance
operatic cycle had no form at
in
drama
attempt
by means of the
dramatic unity of a story was not an
sense,
The
to the music.
to supply the place of musical unity
The
display
of fragments spoilt the drama, and the
series
itself
need
the
of arts,
Considered as
artistic success.
in
all
the rhythmic
but remained a mere stringing together of un-
related
Musical
parts.
reiteration
necessary to musical unity
of
some
reiteration
sort
is
not merely
within the limits of each part, but carried on through-
This
out the whole.
absence
in
opera
is
conspicuous by
its
hence the lack of unity and also of contrast,
which are the essential conditions of form.
The
Catholic Mass, though certainly a cycle,
an easy one to define musically.

mentally
literary,
In
interpretations.
seems
to offer
that has
admitting of
course
the
Its
many
of
unity
is
funda-
diverse musical
a long
history,
examples of almost every musical
ever existed in Europe.
It
not
is
gave
it
style
birth
to
the vocal contrapuntal style of the sixteenth century,
which must be regarded as specially belonging
and nevertheless
it
has proved an
highest order to later
composers.
superficial
Again,
music
of
inspiration
to
it,
of the
contrapuntal and rhythmitonal
it
the
has
been
operatic
merely a
stamp.
peg
Under
for
its
246
many
guises
variation
now
sequence of movements
its
orderly,
into the
comprehends the whole range of
it
in
cyclic
now anomalous,
is
the hands of genius
rising
The
unity of the balanced whole.
times
at
fact
can
never be overlooked that the two greatest choral works
Bach and Beethoven, are
of music, the masterpieces of
founded upon the Mass.
The first
known as the
of
cycle
instrumental
was that
music
which belonged to the seventeenth
Suite,
and early eighteenth
centuries.
It
was written
harpsichord, and consisted of a string of
for the
little
move-
same key and on the

same tonalitive scheme, each of which was called after
a favourite dance of society.
With the name the
ments
stanza-form
in
all
in
the
resemblance to the actual dance ceased,

certain convention which
was
in force
if
we
except a
prescribing the
time-signature proper to each, and which
may very
well have arisen from the original dance-movement.

It
suite to
whether the debt owed by the
a question
is
not been
dance-feeling has
As
estimated.
back as the
far
altogether
thirteenth
over-
century,
instrumental pieces were written for the viol or vielle
on the
upon instrumental music
earlier period than

for
showing the influence of the
lines of dance-tunes,
society dance
is
commonly supposed.
dance-tunes was no sudden
teenth
century.
Pierre
Aubry shows
In
at a very
his
the
rage
incursion of the six-
interesting
that
The
much
monograph^ M.
name estampie
(Pro-
vencal estampida) was given to a melody for the viol

of clearly defined phrase and stanza-form, and that
^
Estai/ipies et
Danses Royales.
Pierre Aubry.
it
THE CYCLE
547
must have been one of the commonest instrumental

the Dansse real (royal
MS.
dance) except
Examples
type.
stricter
an
from
It differed Httle
types of the thirteenth century.
being of a
in
of estampies were found in
of the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, con-
taining a valuable collection of songs of the trouveres
and troubadours, the volume having belonged to CarThese examples quoted by M. Aubry
dinal Mazarin.
show a
thus constructed
cadence
First a phrase of four,
known
as the apertum,
came
then
technically as a punctum,
followed by another of four,
or ten bars,
or ten bars
known
then
stanza,
of
repetition
apertum, but ended differently on a
with
eight,
six,
seven,
and ending on a
the
first
final
This made a stanza
called clausmn.
cadence, and
of four phrases,
something corresponding to a half-close
middle
phrase,
by one which began with a repeat of the
followed
was
five,
the phrase-form
fairly
is
The
bar phrase predominates.
free,
the
in
but the four-
estampie consisted
of
from three to seven stanzas, each beginning with a
new melodic
clausum
variation.
stage
of tonality,
They
The melodies show

partly
are written in
ternal beat-figures,
\
repeating the apertum and
but
without
transition
popular.
outline,
Gregorian,
partly
but three values, with
and are translated uniformly
into
time.
This
age,
is
altogether a very rhythmic formula for the
showing dance
origin, but of
character from the folk-dance.

elaborate
and
stricter
in
its
an altogether different
It
was
formation.
at
once more
From
this
source came the dances whose names were given to
248
the
contrapuntal pieces in stanza-form which were
little
grouped together into the
was now
down
filtered
dance-feeling
not only through social influ-
but also through the musical technique of the
ences,
period,
which was of an opposite nature

of the
little
to
original
dance-type
With
the
tonalitive
and
remained,
being chiefly represented by the cadence block

centre.
natural
Practically nothing of the feeling
rhythmic usage.
but
The
suite.
of the
exception
the
scheme was uniform
this
the
in
opening prelude
stanza
i,
a start
from the tonic key leading to a temporary repose

the dominant key
key, usually by
stanza
way
2,
in
return from the dominant
of the subdominant to the tonic.
This scheme shows a
definite, if
formal appreciation
of elementary circling rhythm.
In addition to
this,
though much depending on
it,
a certain air of brisk contentment for the most part
pervaded
but
in
in
the
suite.
hands of
It
J.
was not deeply emotional,

S.
Bach,
its
greatest
ex-
In the place of the

became idealised.
contrapuntal commonplaces of the time, we find
ponent,
trite
the
the
it
English suites a
marvellous
interweaving of
idiom and imitation, mostly on the pitch-side, but by
more development of time-outline in these little pieces than any

here Bach seems to cast
prelude or fugue will bear
off his organ style, and to write whole-heartedly in
the exact form of combined idiom and imitation suited
no means confined
to
it.
There
is
far
to the harpsichord.
Into
all
perfect instrumental art
the idiosyncrasies of the instrument enter largely
composer's
technique
consists
in
great
part
in
the
his
THE CYCLE
capacity
for
syncrasies
adapting himself to these varying idioit
249
happens generally that there
is
one
instrument that appeals naturally to his temperament,
and whose technique seems

that of
The
born within him,
while
the others has to be more or less acquired.
all
greatest master
is
he who can acquire the most
variations of technique without obstructing the natural
In Bach's time there

own imagination.
Germany but two solo instruments of any
flow of his
were
in
importance, the organ and the harpsichord, but these
two demanded very
different
The
technique.
harp-
sichord could produce none of the big rolling sequences
and massed climaxes of the organ - tone, but it was,

though incapable of accent, a much more rhythmic
instrument, because each note had a clear attack, re-
twang of the string by the quill. The

tone -colour was thin and light, and therefore timefigures were effective which on the heavy organ-tone
became unsuitable or even vulgar. Imitation was the
essential of organ music, but on the harpsichord it was
sulting from the
used
most rhythmic character, bar answered by
in its
and blended with time and pitch idioms, which
bar,
frequently predominated.
chamber instrument, had

the
his
less
clavichord, a
for its
delicate
general influence upon
than the harpsichord, but was
suite
Bach
The
graded tone, and used by him
beloved by
for
some
of
most intimate and expressive utterances.
Taken
as a whole, the suite
is
a cycle of ordered
sequence, without any attempt at the larger rhythm of

undulation
possible
or
climax.
These two
effects
were im-
on the harpsichord, and the suite was com-
250
There was nothing in it of the

anomaly of the mixed art of language and music. Its
movements were perfectly homogeneous in texture,
uniform in key and in key-relation, and in stanzaUpon this strong basis of unity, contrast was
form.
made chiefly by changes of tempo and of timesignature between the various movements, and these
plete without them.
changes were summed up
in
names given, each

It was a popular
existing in England as
the
of which indicated a type of time.
cosmopolitan harpsichord cycle,

lessons,
camera, in
was
France
in
as
Germany
ordre,
as partita, for the generic
of later application.
showed
It
from
great
number of
in the
little
of development, but the general tendency
ceed
sonata
as
Italy
in
different
de
name
way
was to promovements,
grouped as many as twenty together,^ to fewer types,

which became at once more fixed and more definite.
The average
suite contained
some
six or seven
move-
ments.
The modern cycle of this name has nothing in

common with the historical suite, save in being a
The amount of unity
succession of short movements.
and contrast
be found
to
poser only, since there
a conventional
with
now
style
descriptive
prescribes
in
is
or with
effect
in
it.
in
nature of
the
association
Its
a definite
programme
emotional character, and renders
its
art,
occasionally applied to the
any
depends upon the com-
nothing
existing
titles
somewhat of a mixed
if
it
upon
whereas the
historical
suites
their musical contents.

^
See Couperin's Ordrcs.
fancy
had
it
titles
little
THE CYCLE
Similar, but of vocal usage
is
is
251
the song-cycle, which
variously written for one voice or several, but usually
possesses the character of orderly sequence, assisted by

literary unity.
It
be observed that
will
features
made
for unity
they were, for contrast.
the greater
starting
features,
freer,
is
formal
in
characteristics are to
reverse
in
turn
Sonata, Quartet,
the
as
Symphony, and Concerto, these

a great extent found
the pitch-
When we
far develop.
known
cycle
suite,
and the time-features, such as

These are not the lines on
which musical form could

to
the
in
The
order.
pitch-
become gradually
unity,
while the promiscuous nature of the time-outline
transformed into a complex yet solid basis of unity,
consisting
every note of which
bears
its
alone
would cease
composition
none
in
spite of
of
its
out
the
cycle
between these two classes of
this
cyclic,
point of view a
and a concerto or
Wagner opera
suite,
with
its
chords, would be
The pause is a matter of convenience

the Wagner opera is continuous, because
;
it
unity of subject matter and lack of formal con-
trasts of
by
tempo
contrast
movements strung together by a few

continuous.
contrast of
not that one has pauses and the other
is
would appear
this
and necessary
and become a continuous musical
distinction
from
without
to exist
The
work.
has
and
remains,
exact
The
relation to the general scheme.
almost
treatment,
idiomatic
of
principally
tempo the
fast or
acts are not severally distinguished
slow characteristics, but these occur through-
when and where they
any pause the concerto
is
are wanted.
cyclic,
Even without
because of
its
depend-
252
ence upon these formal contrasts of tempo, whether

or not unity
may
of the various
exist in the relations
subjects.
The
to
its
greater
cycle
adaptation
ments.
varying combination of instru-
to
It is called
named according
variously
is
sonata for a solo instrument or for
two solo instruments such as piano and
violin, trio for
three such instruments, quartet for four, and so forth.
The term symphony

concerto
for
reserved for the orchestra and
is
accompanied by the
instrument
solo
names represent a cycle,

the number of its movements,
All these different
orchestra.
which may vary
in
but usually consists of three or four.

of
instance
recognition
of
the
It
is
the
of
influence
first
instru-
ments upon music by distinction of name, and

is
found
not
distinction
exist
to
this
before
Haydn's
started
under a
time.
The
sonata
early
disadvantage.
and similar
Instead
of the
perfectly
movements of the
little
an anomalous
symphony
or
suite,
symmetrical
it
dealt with
It
comprised the varied types
of the sonata, the variations
and the rondo, and added
collection.
trio.
The
scheme from the
suite,
thereto the primitive one of the minuet and
sonata-type took
and retained
it
known
to be
by a
made
type
close,
full
the
of
for
first
form
its
tonalitive
long the stanza character which caused

as binary, that
usually in
the
is,
in
dominant key.
movement, and was considered

essential
to
the
sonata.
movements were admitted by way

long as
all
two parts divided
The
of contrast.
This
the
other
So
these as well as the sonata-type retained
THE CYCLE
stanza-form, the differing stages of development
their
represented
by each one were
could
be
only
remained
The growth
short.
the
fact
the
that
movements
the
as
of musical form
length, as a tree
its
single
This
apparent.
less
long
so
retained
estimated by
fairly
and
253
by
its
may be
height,
movement
first
of
Beethoven's Waldstein sonata covers a larger space

than an average whole early sonata of Haydn,
in print
is
one that speaks
form
necessarily a
is
The
for itself.
balance of stanza-
balance
small
not be recognised.
at
fairly
frequent intervals
large
movement must either add

manner of variations, and
after the
it
will
unless repeated
stanza to stanza
thus destroy the
charm of the small movement, without attaining to a

larger
balance,
or
develop on larger
must drop out the stanza and
it
As has been shown,
lines.
fate befell the sonata-type, the rondo,
the
variations
in
and
this latter
finally
even
hands of Beethoven, and thus
the
these three types became merely different manifestations

of one spirit
but
the minuet and trio remained
still
hopelessly in the rear, a
little
ing a complete anachronism.
primitive thing represent-
Hence
it
disappears from
the advanced greater sonata cycle, and the scherzo

substituted,
which,
while distinct from
on a par with them
in
texture
the
others,
and
capabilities
cycles
now had
is
is
of
development.
The
sonata and
material that could
was
its
work
sufficient variety
kindred
into a balanced whole.
the
There
between the movements, and these
were based upon the unity of idiomatic treatment.

only thing lacking was undulating rhythm,
The
which by
254
alternating rise and
its
fall
should prove a larger prin-
of unity, and in combination with the idiom pro-
ciple
The study of
Beethoven and Schubert shows how they
vide the means of climax.
this
new balance
were led
the works of
first
realised
within the single movement, and then
to seek for
it
on the larger scale of the whole.
Instinctively they held something in reserve for the end.
Compared with the denouement,
the
first
movement took
on a character of reserve power, energetic it might be,

the second became a serene and
but well restrained
;
tempo and predominance of
quiet phase with a slow

pitch-features
which bore
both leading up to a
all
before
vitality sufficed in itself,
to a greater climax
Sometimes
it.
sometimes
which called
this
prodigious
led step
it
in
headlong rush
new
by step
resources of
Such works as these are the mountain-
actual tone.
peaks of music, and are the highest possible achievement

within the scope of the cycle.
It
will
be noticed that the right balance of the
now the factor

whole made up of
vast resources of undulating rhythm

that
mainly constitutes a perfect
varied parts.
between the
From
initial
view definite relation
subjects has a lesser effect.
demanded by the
and slow movements this was
contrast of ideas
fast
this point of
the cycle.
is
is
Yet there are
Some
variation between
in
the nature of
certain underlying
features
movements
show the general
of unity between the subjects of the various
of Beethoven's greater works, which

direction of his imagination.
a time-figure, in the
on syntonic
outline,
In the Appassionata
it is
minor symphony an emphasis
and sometimes
is
found the subtlety
THE CYCLE
of
minates throughout the work,
it
may be
or a full-tone or of a larger interval.
wherever unity
that
is
which predo-
of modulation
interval
reiterated
255
felt
to
of a semitone
It is
exist,
quite certain,
some
reiterative
feature of a nature perhaps not easily perceived

to
account for
The
is
is
there
it.
true balance of such a
of abnormal
highest order.
difficulty,
work on
orchestral lines
and demands genius of the
seems unlikely that the symphonic
It
cycle will ever again reach to such a height, for
its
consummation corresponded with a particular phase of

evolution, when the continuous style was scarcely
But the normal walks of
apprehended.
open, wherein
are
still
and
satisfy.
Where
cyclic
usage
orderly sequence shall prevail
the whole body of tone
is
small,
as in the string quartet, or where one solo instrument
predominates as
in the concerto,
and consequently great
climaxes of sound are either impossible or unsuitable,
some
work
sort of cyclic
of any
arrangement must be employed
in
because too long a continuous
length,
working out of any ideas would lack the needful contrasts
of force.
imitation
We
do not want a quartet to be an
symphony, a
of would-be orchestra in
sort
miniature, but most of us would rather
To do
it
remained
its
must avoid the
normal fascinating
self.
symphonic
and cultivate the tempo contrasts of
texture,
the cycle in order to obtain

small platform.
In
circling
this
it
sufficient
rhythm
its
variety on
tone are limited, but the whole key-circle

for occasional
use.
The charms
its
best effects of
is
available
of the quartet
lie
in
dainty perfection of detail, in an unrivalled rhythmic
256
vigour, and a delicate phrase-articulation without need
Thus the higher development of

and some measure of imitation also come
for stanza.
powers,
and
these
ensure
its
vitality,
the idiom
within
although
its
the
wider emotional rhythm of undulation on a large scale

is
necessarily closed to
it.
CHAPTER
XI
General lines of evolution Need
for continuity
Advance of undulating
drama in developing continuous form
Proportions of orchestra and length of work Orchestral condition
of dramatic music The symphonic poem The perspective of music
The continuity of counterpoint Counterpoint in the Church.
rhythm
Assistance
The
of the
general trend of musical evolution
is
the direc-
in
We
have traced the development of

the cycle out of the recurring stanza which was once
tion of continuity.
essential to circling
rhythm
ment, where tonality
is
occupied by the
enforced by the amount of space
initial
matic chord-recurrence.
bounds
to
example,
key rather than by any syste-
The tendency
is
for the smaller
drop out and larger limits to be

the
move-
into the continuous
overture,
once a
small
Then
transformed into a single sonata-type.
come
of time even the larger limits
to
For
became
set.
cycle,
in
course
appear a con-
means that the need for them is past,

and less obvious and more subtle methods begin to
make their appearance. Thus strict form gives way to
vention, which
free.
The
feeling for the larger outlines of undulating
rhythm grows stronger, and

to
its
emphasize the stanza and cycle
manner, are now

in
all
the
factors,
in
once used
a conventional
put to their natural free rhythmic use
scheme of the whole.
out, free idiomatic utterance
As has been pointed
needs continuity, advanced
258
tonality
in
is
any of
larger phases
its
some
rhythm of undulation
impossible without
is
The
measure of continuity.
is
and undulating rhythm
necessarily continuous,
free
the latest arrival, and does not begin to exert

until
effect
the
past
and
pulsative
small-block
subtle influences
rhythms have got
circling
stage.
time for the
takes
It
and
of rise
make themselves
to
fall
above the obvious ones of sudden
felt
much
contrast,
but
they gain ground inch by inch with the inevitableness

of a rising tide.
scale
comes
to
of modulation
Rise and
fall
rise
and
fall
be soft and a
fast
large
particular course
away with
a slow movement
of force does
the conventional arrangement

shall
on a
of pitch
mean more than any

that
one loud, fortissimo
effects
begin to invade the Andante, and the pianissimo
heard in the Allegro
tempo, the bulwark of the cycle,
trasts of
is
the formal arrangement of conis
the last to
go, but this, like the earlier obstructions of undulating

will surely fade
rhythm,
away sooner
and theorists may grumble, missing

marks, and declare the
and
chaotic,
new
irrational, but
no
Critics
their familiar land-
style
to be invertebrate,
man
can stay the march
Music ever advances
of evolution.
or later.
blindfold.
synonymous
with the growth of free undulating rhythm, and its
For a long time it is merely
wider emotional range.
Thus
the continuous style
is
practically
a subtle influence pervading the cycle
whole
is
not until the
leavened can we speak accurately of a con-
tinuous style.
The
operas of Mozart and
a linking up
of scenes in
Weber show sometimes
order to obtain climax at the

end of an
act, or
259
a prolonged scene which admits of a
moods
succession of emotional
these are things which,
entering into that cyclic waste, the opera, show in which

direction the wind
Wagner
Wagner
is
But we have to wait
blowing.
before the real continuous style arrives.
for
And
himself has to write volumes upon volumes of
explanation, not always appropriate, in order to justify

his
proceeding to the world, so strange
it
The
seemed.
experiment of the early seventeenth century was
re-
and this time with success, for

up its own means of utterIt does not follow that Wagner had necessarily
ance.
a greater dramatic insight or even a greater musical
peated
in the nineteenth,
music had meanwhile
facility
built
than Monteverde, but whereas the Italian fore-
runner had to seek the straw
for
Wagner had
The means were there, and
that
could build,
all
the master-brain.
all
bricks ere he
ready to hand.
was wanted was
But without any means, even such
a brain can achieve but
little.
new
In music the tracking out of
much
his
his bricks
conceptions
is
so
a reaching forth into the unknown, a bringing into
existence of what has never been before, that
wonder
it
is
small
that a kindred art should be called in to give
some measure of stability to an equilibrium

unknown proportions, and that cannot in
stage be grasped intellectually.
It was just
of absolutely
itself at this
this
measure
of balance, prescribing emotional mood-succession and

position
of
Wagner had
developed
climax
that
the
drama
could
supply.
the dramatic sense both inborn and wellit
proved
the
tree
developed musical sense climbed
up which
his
less
like a tropical creeper,
26o
and thus supported grew
to a
From
wellnigh killed the tree.

view,
and the manner of
style,
But
little.
the musical point of
Rubicon was crossed
the
it
its
luxuriance that
lavish
here was the
new
and growth mattered
birth
was natural that Wagner should deceive
himself into supposing that the play was the thing and
music
accessary, and that other people should
its
Now, however,
repeating the same after him.
go on
that the
world perceives that instrumental music did not, as was

expected, die with Beethoven, but has taken on a
lease of
ing
worth while to inquire into the mean-
life, it is
and
new
scope of
this
vitality,
and
relation
its
to
Wagner's music.
The
fact that
first
the orchestra
meets us
is
the development of
by composers
further, the skill displayed
generally in the
management
of
its
technique, and the
increasing popularity of orchestral music.
If
we admit
that the future of music lies in a continuous treatment,
the orchestra
tinuity
indispensable.
One
essential of con-
a body of instruments capable collectively
is
of continuous
and
is
force
tone-utterance, offering sufficient
variations
dispel
to
any
colour
of
possibility
monotony.
In music a relation should exist between the length
of the
work and the
ployed.
mands
variety of instrumental tone
Wagner opera
lasting for four hours de-
a larger orchestra than a Beethoven
of forty or
orchestra
fifty
is
minutes.
em-
The
reason
why
symphony
the
Wagner
not four times the size of Beethoven's
is
because a great part of the needful contrast of the opera

is
provided on the stage.
The
orchestra
is
here largely
261
a factor of unity, and a study of Wagner's method of

orchestration shows that he sought instinctively for the
effects of subtly
blended colours, more than for those of
contrast between one instrument and another.
instrumental
the
fore
have
parts
There-
individuality,
less
and are made
especially those of the string orchestra,
to
merge
into a continuous flow reflecting the prevailing
mood
of the
operatic
The
situation.
texture
of the
music becomes at times more imitative and promiscuous than idiomatic,
way
in this
somewhat
These are the
reverting
to the earlier contrapuntal conditions.
musical
of the
conditions
But
concert-room.
rather than of the
theatre
when we
turn to
present
con-
cert-room music, few composers seem able to discern
any
difference
between the technique of
and that of the theatre.

ditions threaten to
own
the whole the operatic con-
And
lacking the
human element
drama, the sensuous element of the orchestra
(enlarged since Wagner's time) rides roughshod.

this
art
dominate everything, as counterpoint
did at a former time.

of the
On
their
department of music as
hand, too
much
diversity, or,
geneous an orchestral
style,
in
others,
In
on the one
on the other, too homo-
means
lack of unity and
of contrast, and hence of the higher emotional phases.
The
of
best effect to be obtained lies in a certain
means based upon
individuality
unity,
of instruments.
economy
and the cultivation of the
The
orchestra
required
for,
say, a continuous composition of
will
probably be found to be larger than Beethoven's
in
mass as well as
in
an hour's length
variety of tone, but
does not require to take the front
seat.
mere colour
Where
it
262
does
so,
there
music or
a fault either in the texture of the
is
in its relation to the size of the orchestra.
concert-room music
Orchestral
transitional stage.
drama,
own
dition has
come
sufficient
to
dramatic
and
to
is
it
The
account
element
poetic
than
freer
cling to a rope.
as
It
an
is
and
apparel,
orchestral
orchestral methods.
It
but
certainly
its
of
will
weight
operatic
it
lacks sufficiently
free
generation of
number of orchestral parts are

the sum of these, considered as
a great
proceeding at once,
time-outline,
clings
has grasped something of the
strong idiomatic development, the
Where
pro-
swimmer
imitation
general principles of free rhythm, but
ideas.
still
it
hampered by
its
the
a sort of half-way
is
inexperienced
further
of
concert-room
in
opera,
the
quite
is
predominance
the
for
its
new con-
that this
fact
like the
into music through the drama,
much
poetry
of
yet
style.
in
arrived at distinguishing
The symphonic poem
grammes.
house
wants to be continuous
It
but has not
continuous
now
just
is
is
either
promiscuous.
monotonously
It
is
less
equal
or
un-
homogeneous than
the time-outline of organ counterpoint, because orchestral
instruments
cannot
be
coerced
uniformly in a contrapuntal manner.

to eive the
into
It is
trombone a time-outline similar
proceeding
merely
silly
to the flute,
and in counterpoint the time-outlines of the various parts

should be
all
this
sense
flat,
we
accept
its
on an equal
like the pattern of
Here
But
in
Counterpoint
is
in
an ironwork gate, and
lack of perspective as
a matter of course.
different.
footing.
we do
the gate, as
the orchestra the case
is
there must needs be diversity of time-

and
outline,
mean
should
this
263
Without
perspective.
attempting to find exact analogies between two widely

differing
and quality
intensity,
pitch,
way
a general
in
arts,
it
may
be said that
music correspond
in
colour and tone in painting, and that time-idiom
drawing of music.
produces a picture
in
is
to
the
In true polyphonic art the idiom

perspective
in so far as
is
concerned,
which foreground, background, and middle tones can
distinctly
This means that
be observed.
outlines which
all
the time-
proceeding simultaneously distinct
are
from one another, are not of equal importance to the
One
ear.
of slower duration
may
stand out, or a strik-
ing form of time-figure will attract attention above the
and
others,
and
assist to
idiom
the rest will group themselves round
all
give
always
is
point and emphasis.
it
in the
foreground
it,
This main
an orchestral work
in
there will frequently be found subsidiary themes appear-
ing and
disappearing in the middle distances,
small and insignificant figures of accompaniment
background.
the
All
this
is
mentally due to time-outline.

effect
primarily
To
and
while
fill
up
funda-
the beauty of the
polyphony, colour, and force are essential, but
these three factors, which might at
first
sight appear
all-important, are thus less of value in themselves than

in
so far as they serve to indicate the true balance and
proportions
figures,
of the
idiom.
no themes of
miscuous time-outline, the

colour,
and force
of any interest
having-
will
to
If
there
are
no
striking
stirring interest, but only a profinest proportions
of pitch,
be pointless, because nothing exists

be
become an end
proportioned, these proportions

in
themselves instead of a means
264
to
Much modern programme music
an end.
this
criticism.
however
action,
under any circumstances
development
to
for its
own
interesting,
It
able
can interpret that
purposes, but
All
is
perform the function of
to
treatment in music.
idiomatic
open
cannot be pretended that a poetic
It
or
scene,
idea,
is
it
cannot replace
such work, however cleverly
it
is
missing.
scored,
is
doomed
musical
elements of permanent interest and profound
it
if
emotional appeal.
It
because
oblivion,
to
it
lacks
the
substitutes for the true musical
utterance a promiscuous speech,
more or
less of a blank, lacking
texture
a continuous
which
is
rhythm.
emotionally
Continuity of
must have, but
composition
it
should be a coherent continuity, either of pitch or of
The symphonic poem
time.
has
too
often
neither
one nor the other.
continuity of pitch only, results in a coherent com-
worked out upon the old contrapuntal lines,

and does admit of some effect of climax. Its scope is
position
if
limited,
but
it
is
within these limits a fully developed
style.
Counterpoint had continuity from the beginning,
owing
to
tonality,
indefinite
its
missed out the early stanza stage.

style while the orchestra
was
and thus altogether

It
was an advanced
in its youth.
One might
say indeed that counterpoint has never been young.
With
its
early stages the rhythmic vigour of childhood
and youth had nothing

thing,
it
is
Thus with
to do.
When
it
expresses any-
the utterance of grave and reverend age.
the waxing of rhythmitonal
means of con-
tinuity has occurred simultaneously the waning of the

continuity, formerly the one solid adcontrapuntal
;
265
vantage possessed by counterpoint over natural music,
now common
is
rhythmic
continuous style
music are transferred bodily to
of orchestral
details
At the present time the

and frequently the actual
both.
to
the organ, the contrapuntal instrument, which becomes
converted into an imitation orchestra to the loss of
own
it
individuality.
also
is
confine
more
or
This
is
as
significant
a fact to be deplored, but

sign
of
the
of
less
limited
man
to
modern musicians
by the organ, to the

Rhythmitonal
compass.
will
Church.
What
these
art
have, and since most of
suffers the
most
is
archaic
a thing beyond the
is
have not an orchestra available, they transfer

organ.
To
times.
a large body of musicians, whose horizon
musical speech of counterpoint

wit
its
them
to the
it
in this transaction is
the
Counterpoint was an ecclesiastical creation in
past ages, and undoubtedly
the musical style best
is
suited to the church-services.
It
is
also best fitted to
the musical material therein employed, which consists of
Under the
choral and organ tone.
one might have hoped

the
in
contrapuntal
to
with
the
Church
the sober dignity of
cherished
style
Anglican churches,
find
shelter of the
and
upheld.
exception
Yet
of certain
cathedral services where the old traditions linger, for
contrapuntal
modern vocal
music
one
substitute
may go
misses
far
the
to
seek.
dignity
The
of con-
tinuous art without acquiring the rhythmic vigour of

natural cyclic music, and justly lays itself open to the
criticism
form of
which perceives
art.
The
best
in
hope
sentimentality a
debased
for the restoration to the
organ and the Church of their true continuous style
266
lies
in the multiplication of orchestras.
If
people have
plenty of the real thing they reject an imitation, and
when
the craving for rhythmitonal art
is
satisfied out-
side the churches, musical taste
may come
something very
from that
appears to
different
satisfy.
inside
demand
which now
to
CHAPTER
XII

Our
draws
task
to
We
close.
its
have examined
minutely the tone-material of music, and have shown

the rhythmic principles that fashion
the various types of music
comes
We
evolutionary order.
of the
actual
have traced
and assigned them
ing of these principles,

in the
We
it.
to their origins in the
tone-material
work-
their place
have seen that the bulk

from
(apart
instruments)
very early stage, and the de-
into being at a
velopment of music consists thenceforward of the use
made
of the material
become evident
lies in
or
as units of recurrence.
has
that the whole secret of musical form
the recurrence of units, units that are of a fixed
nature (the beat, the bar, the
strict
requiring exact
character
of the
tion the
the key)
the ideas that determine
We
utterance.
development of these ideas
shown how
triad,
and those that are of an
repetition,
optional or free nature,
in
the
have analysed the
idiomatic outlines, and
the idea dominates by
means
of
its
reitera-
whole texture of music, and assisted by
circling
and undulating rhythms

trol vast tracts of
proved that
its
It
most
underlying
in
is
awaken and con-
the emotional nature.
time-outline
is
utterance.
essential
unity
able to
of
found
We
its
have
It
has been
earliest
and
noted
the
and West, and compared
East
267
268
and contrasted the diverse development of each. We

have seen that Eastern music is still conditioned by
frequent lack of notation or the use of imperfect forms
of it, and that instruments generally are in a back-
ward
state
that
consequently,
excepting in the far
East where the bell-type of instrument is much developed, of purely instrumental music but little exists.
In melody
the East has struck
out
the
by
we have realised that

a path of its own from which
harmonic
its
Further,
tonality.
West
we have
is
cut off
unravelled
the complication caused by the early introduction into
Western
the slow
traced
music of Eastern
ecclesiastical
progress of this art
tonality,
till
and
by gradual
assimilation of rhythmic features it became a definite

have
though conventional system of the West.
We
noted the unique position occupied by the composers

of the
mature contrapuntal system, and that perfect
works of
art can exist that
oroduce their
in their
own
effect,
by
their
very limitations
and are consequently the
particular range, which admits of
development.
Finally,
we have
last
words
no further
indicated the natural
evolution of rhythmitonal music from primitive dance-
song to the more formal melody of the folk, and thence

by growth of phrase and stanza to the types of the
cycle,
and
rhythm
their gradual transformation
into a partial
of continuity.
strict
form to
In this
free.
and
is
at length a
summed up
Whither
by means of
free
complete phase
the evolution from
the principle of continuity
will lead us remains the problem of the future.
Much more miorht have been written on all of these

points and on many others, but sufficient has been said

to
As
the task of the analyst.
fulfil
the
object
not
is
personally
already observed,
conduct
to
269
the
tourist
through musical regions, but to provide an intellectual

outfit that the
may
musician
use as seems to him
fit.
This could only be done effectually by working from
and
first principles,
upon the agreement
it is
generally as to these
first
value of this theory will depend.
If the
conceded when their logical outcome

be gained
will
is
sound
for the critic, a
of musicians
principles that the practical

principles are
realised,
much
intellectual basis
chaos that has reigned
for his criticism in place of the
since the standard of the sonata cycle
fell
to pieces
for
the composer, a knowledge of his tools and the readiest
way
to use
them
of a labyrinth
for the teacher,
for the
student,
a clear road instead
the right use of the
precious years of childhood and early youth instead of
a dead loss never to be
vast audience of music,
for the
the
made good
spirit, if
in
those
later
who
life.
And
hear with
not with the understanding also, there will
be the possibility
the next generation of becoming
in
readers as well as hearers.

It is
music
to say that the
depend upon the number of people who are

read and write it, at least in its simpler utterances.
there will be a
the people can read.
demand
Music
is
for simple
now
when a book was

people as a score
enormous
is
became
of
general,
as completely a sealed thing to the

is
nowadays.
difficulty of learning to
learned in
music which
in the position
literature before the education of letters
it
whole future of
will
able to
Then
much
not too
Every one knows the

read in later
life,
but
childhood with comparative ease, and
270
experience shows
conducted upon rational
is
we open
to
can
this
In this
way
greater
the
be taught to
musical reading
teaching
ease
young when
even
with
that
lines.
them a storehouse of healthy enjoyment, a
recreation from which they are at present effectually

barred.
The
prodigious technique of music will then
be easily mastered, and
means and not
will fall into its right place as
The
as an end.
true inwardness of
For the power
musical form will then be perceived.

of music
Setting aside the cases of tone-
universal.
is
deafness and actual deafness, of which but a small per-
centage exists, there
everybody.
thing, a
Superficially music
game
of
thinks about things, not

;
it
not
is
attractive to
is
may be
real attraction
its
a mirror of ourselves.
tude
that
a toy, a play-
an academic exercise, a mathe-
skill,
matical puzzle, but

is
some music
is
It
goes deeper.
us not what a
tells
how he appears
It
man
to the multi-
even the selection of himself that he
offers to his friends, but the utterance of that essential
of which
personality
more
we,
or less unaware.
attraction
than a
draws us when we
imagination
new
and probably he
There
personality,
and
is
also,
are
irresistible
is
it
Here
listen to music.
in action,
no more
is
this
the
that
human
untrammelled by the necessity of
reproducing any forms of the outside world, any known

experiences that can go into words, carving out channels
for itself in
rhythmic tone with an elemental freedom and
abandon of convention that seem

youth, the escape of the spirit of
house of conventional thought.

this
to suggest perennial
man from its prisonMany of us have felt
influence without understanding
it
music
is
the

strongest mental force that a
upon
his
fellows,
because
man
271
can bring to bear
There
the most direct.
is
nothing between him and them, no convention to be

observed, no intellectual formula to be mastered
a simple speaking from heart to heart.
music to the
race,
forms this unique
How
long
we
The
intellectually considered,
written,
is
value of
is
that
it
human document.
shall be content to leave the record
unread intellectually depends upon ourselves.

out the method of
it
its
interpretation this
To
point
book has been
but the application of the method to
all
the
music of the world opens a vista which from the present

standpoint
may
well appear illimitable.
spelling out the beginning only of
teach
us.
We
are as yet
what Music has
to
APPENDIX
THE EVOLUTION OF EUROPEAN TONALITY
The design
of the
first six
sections
is
to illustrate the evolution
of melodic pitch-outline from consonant to dissonant conditions,
the transition from chord-form to scale-form, and the subsequent

amalgamation of these separate vocal types. The earliest stages
European tonality have to be sought outside of

Europe. When sufficient material has been collected, something
like a plan of the geographical distribution of consonant conditions
may be mapped out. At present it may be said that these occur
in America, in parts of Africa, and that a mixed type, chiefly
consonant, appears to prevail in the South Pacific Islands,
becoming more microtonal as it reaches Australia and New
Zealand. The similarity existing between the various examples
in each section respectively is too obvious to need pointing out in
of the evolution of
With "Harmonic Consonance " we enter upon primitive

harmonic conditions, leading to actual harmony on the pedal bass,
which gradually develops the harmonic bass. The importance of
the round in this connection should be pointed out. The same
detail.
is traced in instrumental harmonic examples, where

considerable differentiation in time-outline begins to appear, as the
evolution
character of the instrument makes
itself felt.
Morley's
**
Consort
Lesson" completes the illustration, showing that at the close of

the sixteenth century some idea of score had arrived, and that
instruments were not then written for uniformly on the lines of vocal
usage as
is
generally supposed.
Throughout these illustrations the crotchet beat is used, change

minim or quaver having been made in the few cases
where it was required.
of value from
The name
cases where
it
of the collector or transcriber has been inserted in
could be ascertained.
273
all
APPENDIX
274
Section A.
Melodic Consonance.
Scale,
Cradle Song.
Niger.
Naumann.
Nubia.
i êS
Mockler-Ferryman.*
Canoe Song.
^îl^^^
^ ^
i ^^^^^^^^^
Delagoa Bay.
Degrees of
5, 3, 1.
Kaffir Musical
Bow.
BURCHELL.
^SE
Hottentot
Gomgom.
Balfour.
^B=J^=E
^^
Hottentot.
Egypt.
Villoteau.
Funeral Song with Dance.
A-ba A-ba A-ba A-ba
A-ba
Song.
-Love
-r--&
New
Ho ho
A-ba.
i^^^g^
P5*,
Guinea, Papuans.
SCHELLING.
Andante.
Baker. KRAUs.f
Cherokees, N. America.
Section B.
ho ho.
Mockler-Ferryman.
Niger.
Balfour.
Transitional Stage.
Scale, 5, 3, 2, 1.
Macusi Indians of Guiana,
Degrees of
Engel.
S. America.
^gÊJpip'.Êp
^gE^l^^^^^^gg^î|gpg|
Omaha
Indians, N. America.
"The
Scalp-lock Ritual."
=i==j*
:5=&t=i^
<B
i-
jd
&c.
A. C. Fletcher.
-^s=zjK=zx==^^=^=-'
9 -^
^ ^
it
aL
* From " Up the Niger," by permission of Lieut-Col. Mockler-Ferryman.

t From " Appunti suUa Musica del Fopoli Nordici," by permission of Baron Kraus
FiGLIO.
APPENDIX
275
^^^^^
^^
3=!Kig=e=tff=it=e
:ti=6cd
Wilkes.
Fiji Islands, S. Pacific.
ii'^-jjJi<.Lj^J=
Wilkes.
Fiji Islands.*
=S^
ipr:^BZ
Bahama Negroes, West
Edwards.
Indies.*
-J
J.^
->
:^
J * *
N
^ -J
*5Jr-^..
ît:
ViLLOTEAU.
Soudan.
:îti!:
Section C.
The
Pentatonic Formula.
OF Scale,
New
/I
Degrees
6, 5, 3, 2, 1.
Guinea
SCHELLING.
lUf^ro.
.^Jt=i-=.-.
^^^=X^^
^=k^^^Fj"^
* With
4th as a passing-note.
1*=:^
APPENDIX
SCIIELLING.
Kaffirs of Natal.*
Shooter.
Dance
Sioux, N. America,
of
Dogs.t
Baker.
=|5=ff=e:
3^=aL:
1-
fe|-
-i
^^
-p
*^
-j
--^
^^^=^^^S^-*-^V
il?ii
Germany.
^-
t-
-a*
ff^nr-y-jg
"^
1^ -4
'^-^
3tzz3=^=^
*-*
*:
vi
>
i-^
nl^t:
=ffi*r
"^C
HowiTT.
g=Sg=^f^pgg^{^^^^
* With passing
7th.
w=f=f^
Watchman's Song.f
i;{
Kraus.
B*B
+ With passing 4th.
:X=^
APPENDIX
" The Eagle's Whistle."
Ireland.
Very brisk and marked.
L.
Broadwood.*
îp^êpî^î^^
ffZ.ZM=iZ
^6*^
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^.
Section D.
Elementary
OF Scale,
Tutuila,
Samoan
-J-
Scale-Form.
1, 2,
hW.
Degrees
(5).
Islands
Niger.
Hunting Song.
Angola,
W.
Mockler-Ferryman.
SOYAUX.
Africa.
S=E
Amhara.
iP^
Naumann.
Naumann.
Tigre.
ÊfEsa
Siberia.
* With passing 7th. Noted at Camphire, co. Waterford.

By permission of Miss Lucy' Broadwood.
10.
No.
Kraus.
" Folk-song Journal,"
APPENDIX
278
Water
Egypt.
(I)
Carriers.
Lane.
i3j:e3^
Lane.
()
3^
-nru~4
Section E.
Scale-Form.
Degrees of Scale,
15, 16.
4,
Mockler-Ferryman.
Niger.
Wallaschek.
Caribbean Natives, West Indies
gi
Ig^^z^^
^ ^^^^^^g^
^z
*-,
Nile.
,gg
smors.
Boat Song
ViLLOTEAU.
y=p -rr-y
i
^
j-J
i^zfirircj^
r~rT^?^
Esthonia, Russia.*
p^^^^^^gs
J-
Selections from the
^rsii
=u=
Most Celebrated Foreign Journals,
1798.
APPENDIX
TiLESio. Kraus.
Dance
Kamtchatka.
A llegro.
^^m
F Combined Chord-Form and Scale-Form.
Section
Soyaux.
West Africa.
Kaffirs
Shooter.
of Natal.
Andantino.
Niger.^
England.
The Story
of Orange.
F. KlDSON'.f
Deliberately.
simile.
*-
--I
^m-
:iil
*
i
cres.
=1=^:1=^
-J
*-
" Narrative of Expedition to the Niger, 1848."
t " Folk-song Journal,"
II., p. 295.
By permission
of Mr.
Frank Kidson.
APPENDIX
Enget..
Section G.
Niger.
(')
Hunting Song,
spirit
Harmonic
Consonance.
Funeral Song.
(2)
^-.
Mockler-Ferryman.
Song.
(3)
^^^î^=giî^^l^^=^^^
Egypt.
Fellaheen.
(Sung whilst excavating.)
Lepsius
Engel.
Chorus.
Solo.
I
gm wg-^
U
--f
es^J^
'^
"
w-^^^
nw:
Courland,* Russia.
Engel.
i^^
g=P
-^^t:
-e-T
=#P=
^^^^^1|^^^^^
* The alternative version is the original air which was introduced into Courland, and
was heard being sung by the peasants shortly afterwards as altered above, c!fi vjith the
See Engel's " Introduction to the Study of National
addition of the second part.
Music."
APPENDIX
Norway.
Sailors'
281
Song, " Opsang."
Vivacf.
=ft-4s
L. A. Smith.*
MP
4S>-
i^^:^^
^,
K-
rlÊ
^^^^^^^^^^^^M
^=^-^=^
^^^^m
^^^^^1
^fi=^-
Holland.
Sailors'
^
1
Song, " De Kabels Los."
L. A. Smith.
I
L-it-i=(?:
i>
^Sr-^^--fc
-m-^^L
Christmas Carol.
-m-'
-9-'
:^=^
^^^^
^d^î^
Germany.
:^=d^
I.
Wichern.
-m-'
te^
" Opsang," " De Kabels Los," and " Haul on the bowlin," from "The Music of the
Waters," by Laura A. Smith, are transcribed by permission of Messrs. Kegan Paul,
Trench, Trubner & Co.
APPENDIX
282
Section H.
Vocal
Harmony on Pedal
Bass.
Wilkes.
Tongatabu.
m
Bushmen,
P^
rrr
S. Africa.
BURCHELL.
The Company.
m^
ltiZ3fc]
Aye
aye
The Dancer,
i^
aye
aye
aye
i.
:h=}v:
*
-*
Wawakoo
:jE=Jt
tK * -I:
\-
:*-=^
::l5r:t5:
3t=3t
wawakoo, &c.
^m
Water-drum.
^1|-4-
=t?=P=
i
f-
i^s
Lok
lok
Round (Three
tea.
1^
?S3^
^
England.
tea
lok
tea
Voices).
zii=
^^
Turn
zir-zir
a - gain, Whit
ting- ton,
Thou wor
Harmony
thy
i=f^
Lord Mayor
Section
England.
Go
ET
-
<!
It F=ggEF=g-
don.
(Four Voices).
Joan Glov-er, And
tell
her
love her,
And
at
i-_
J.
the
Harmony
J'
of
the
moon
zen,
Vocal Harmony on Two Bass-Notes.
i.
Round
to
Lon
of
of Round.
1.
3:
:S^^
cit
will
come
to
her
>
mid
APPENDIX
Round
283
2 (Five Voices
=N
ho
Ileigh,
no
ft
bo-dy
at
home meat nor

;
drink nor
money have
none,
Harmony.
It:
Yet
Round
be mer
will
ry.
(Four Voices).
:t^
Lov'st thou
me?
fif:
2E3:
O
my
love!
-4
Then quick -ly
Harmony.
i^^fS
him
that dies
Bachapins, S. Africa.
come and
^ -J
?=Nif^
rr:=^
save
for
thee.
Dance-song.*
BURCHELL.
^^^^^^^^^^.
k=^Ê^^ÊA
T r
Engel.
Russia.
/I
if
lUgretto
Sung
for
an hour without pause, occupying twenty-nine seconds
in repetition.
APPENDIX
284
Germany.
Engel.
" Drei Sterne."
Andantino,
fi!
a^^k- ^-^:::g^
}
Section
J.
Vocal Harmony on Three, Four, or more

Bass-Notes.
Spain.
" Je n'aimerai."t
jff-.:-
England.
^
Round. J
* This passage
is
" Burner
icumen in."
"Burden."
is
a doubling of the second part
Four Voices with Two-part
in the octave,
and not a Harmonic
Bass.
f In MS. de Montpelier (12th or 13th century), deciphered by Coussemaker.

From Harl. MS. 978, in British Museum; written by John Fornsete, a monk of
:J:
Reading, 1228.
APPENDIX
Harmony
of
Round with
285
addition of " Burden."
Bass on three notes.
'^^^m^^^^^m
Pa or Burden.
===|!t
isiE:
Round (Four
England.
Voices).
i^^
Jack boy, ho
r
wr z=m
The
boy, news
cat
1-
^-.
is
in
=*?={=
the
well,
Let us
now
Harmony.
JJ^"krztc
:or
her knell Ding dong, ding dong

;
England.
Sailors'
Song.
Allamarcia.
bell.
'I*"
Capstan Shanty, " Haul on the bowlin'."

L. A. SMITH.
Chorus.
^>
England.*
We
^m
fe
Three-men's Song
bee
(in print, 1609).
soul-diers three,
.:ftl-
Par-don-nez
moi
* "Three-men's Songs"
prie.
^^^-
Late-lycomeforthof the low country With never a
are mentioned in the time of the
connection with Hereward the Wake.
vous en
je
pen
ny of money.
Norman Conquest,
in
APPENDIX
286
Section K.
Instrumental
Harmony on Pedal
Bass.
England. Played on Concertina.

A llegro.
Dongola.
Song with Accompaniment of Kissar (Nubian
Lyre).
Villoteau.
^^^^^
L.H. fingers
t -oi-J-s-
m-ii-m-.
--'-J of-
-^-Ami-
-M^^-.
^-35^,
-'-^-^
R.H. plectrum.
(tt
^^^^1
3=*=^=^^*
J^^?^s#^;
Germany,
-J
i^pspl
L-TT" c;:r'
:^rrj-i-g'
-
^-i-g^
Conrad Paumann,
15th Century,
Organ.
^ *-ir iSr-*-
-^s*^--
?%^
APPENDIX
Section L.
England.
Instrumental
"The Hunt
Cittern.
is
287
Two
Harjiony on
Bass-Notes.
" Musick's Delight," 1666.
up."
U)
"
The Whish."
(2)
=K=l=s;
^^^Wwf'^^wm^^f'-^
Wales*
area iioo.
Harp.
-C^
-b
^r^-
-.
^^
ba
1
m.
-I*
^^
"S^
:t-
JB.
JR.
..
*-
:fr
*-
ij?-
.*.
_j|_*_Jl
t-.i_;SL
j.
.*.
-I
.*.
.0.
.m.
.m.
bl
lym^^^^jj^jA^fegfyy
* Transcribed by the Author from the original letter notation printed in " Myvyrian
ArchjEology of Wales," taken from Add. MS. 14905, in the British Museum.
APPENDIX
288
M. Instrumental Harmony on Three, Four,
Section
OR more Bass-Notes.
Wales.*
" White Piper."
Harp.
T ^ T T
^^^
:g
r -g=g^g
^îir-m-^.
J-
:il:
" Prelude of David Athraw
P^
^*^
-ss
.
Cossack Dance
Russia.
^~
y-
=^
U-.
(for
Kraus.
Four Pipes).
Vivace.
d3
*
i^
tK^-T-f-
:^
E^S
fe*=^
England.
" Green Sleeves."
Lute.
3J&
| r-igniK
^^*^H"==f^
ê*8
J'-fe^-P^
-F=^^^
'-
^^'
ij
* From Add. MS.
14905, in British
g?
Museum.
s^
APPENDIX
"
The
Irishe
Air from "
France.
Ho-Hoane."
Le
Fitzwilliam
Balet comique de la
^ ^
^_:i
^FJ-
J.
im=mz
1
w~
-^
J.
=^
J-
J.
'
289
Virginal Book," 17th Century.
Royne "
(for
Five Viols.), 1581.
^^
-i
^s^^^=^
"f
J.
J.
r-
^^
J-
=F=^P
APPENDIX
290
From Morley's
England.
"
Viol.
Flute.
Mistris
" Consort Lessons," 1599.*

(Lute and Bass Viol parts missing.)
Myne."
fe^g^B^y^^^f^g^B=^^^'î?^
Treble
(Recorder.)
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Cittern.
igii^^^Pr^^^^
Pandoee.
^1
^fi'r
i[
^^
4=1::
7^
p=
^t
Mf^^fJ^!^=fMf^
m^^^
^^^^^^^
:g7
F^^^
^s~^
^m
^
*^
4=:= =4
^s.
Ed=
'
I
S
--m-
Transcribed from the original parts in tablature by the Rev. F.
beat- value
is
changed from
tsi
to
<
1^1
1^^
W. Galpin.
The
APPENDIX
THE EVOLUTION OF
The
291
ASIATIC TONALITY
following sections are designed to
show something
tonality from its rise in microtonal conditions to its

in the
Hindu
raga.
In sections O. and P.
of Asiatic
development
is essential to
the pitch of the
This is the tone
it
distinguish between the tonic and the scale-tone
is stated and tlie scale-tone used is C.

adopted invariably by the Raja Sir S. M. Tagore in translating
Hindu music into European notation. It does not mean that the
actual pitch of C is necessarily used, but it represents a system of
tonic
relative pitch notation for the use of singers.
The
original
Hindu
the counterpart of our Tonic Sol-fa, but the
Raja
adapted it to the European letters of the scale of C.
The
advantages of using this scale only in stave notation are evident.
Since there is no key in Eastern music, the use of key-signatures
to represent absolute pitch may be misleading, and elaborate
notation
modal
is
inflections are far
more
easily studied
and compared when
reckoned from the one scale-tone. In sections N. and Q., the

examples are in their original notation. The specimen of Javanese
discant was written down by native musicians who had learned
European notation, but must be regarded as somewhat of an
approximation rather than an exact reading. The tuning differs
considerably from the European scale, but the time-outline is
probably correct, the preponderance of equal outline being due to
With the exception of the
the type of instrument employed.
rebab and the tjelempoeng (a kind of harp), all the instruments are
The nature of the type of form
of the bell or gong species.
cannot be understood from this small extract, but it possesses
Each piece opens with an introduction of
features of interest.
seven to twenty-six beats unbarred, in unison and somewhat after
the manner of a Gregorian chant. Then follow several phrases in
the tala-bar, of eight-bar length, all more or less alike and followed
by a coda which is sometimes in longer notes. The nature of the
melody is that of one formed upon the tala-unit, being mostly in
equal outline with occasional changes of value. Pitch-figures are

found extending to a bar in length, four or five of which may be
repeated in an irregular order embedded in promiscuous pitchoutline.
Only
fifteen differing talas are in use,
each of which
is
recognised by name. It should be borne in mind that this music

is an extemporisation, and is naturally of an elastic nature
at the
same time the basis of strict form usually to be found in the
East is here unmistakable.
;
APPENDIX
292
Section N.
New
Zealand.
Primitive
Microtonal Types.
Maoris,
(I)
z]z^=z|5~lv.^ : &c.
0S=F=^
l:=i:^lW=|it|i:|S=^^t^^=i|it-|SJ=:^*rît|it=
j=z:^z:^zx
2.
Solo.
(2)
:^.=\J.
'
^^
Chorus.
ii-
iy^;^^^4i-^=^^^^^^^^^^:S^Si^Ê^:^^;z2
:
-=^-:^
^-^^g^^^
^^^#^g^^^#^^^g#=
Washington
Island.
Solo.
Cannibal Song
Engel.
..i.
:&c.
Section OChina.
Tonic
Tetrachordal
and Modal Types.
Davies.
Java.
Tonic
(I)
l^^^^^gg
Tonic G.
(2)
APPENDIX
New
Wilkes.
Tonic G.
South Wales.
p^3^î^^^^0^^r,m^~j^
Tonic F.
Japan.
El
$m
Tr
I
- tar:
:=g=l= L
-r
1?^
=t
^^^^
-i^
Ir-
"
fr^r=^T=rrf^^^^^^^^f^^
China.
Van Aalst.
Tonic G.
^.pj3^k^J5ff^j3:^;jjvJ^/J ^-^j=^
Hindu Ragas and Melodies.*
Section P.
Sexatonic Mode.
Ragini Bhupali.
|=j=j^j^^'=f=^
* J J ~^=^
^^
Tonic E.
First Strain.
feig^^^^P3^=^
gE32i3ES:
I
* From "The Musical Scales of the Hindus,"
S.
I.I.
Tagore.
APPENDIX
294
Second
Melody.
Strain.
Rsgini Bhupali.
Tala Madhyamana.
^3^^^î^;=?^^Ê^^^r"grr^
^^^^^^^TT^^^s^g:
Complete Mode.
Melody.
Ragini Pilu.
Tonic B.
First Strain.
Ragini Pilu, Tala Thoongree.
">
bit
APPENDIX
Song of
Salutation.*
295
Tonic G.
Adagio.
Section Q.
Discant.
Japan. f
Andantino,
fz|frr Cft'LSnilTrrF^rsT^'^tr^
^
\Jf
>^
=&
APPENDIX
296
Java.*
Rebab.
^3J^^
-JjJ^=i=^-~i^-^
Gambang Kadjeng.
Gender.
.L-
trrnm.
:t==
Saron.
Demobng.
f=^ =F"=^=r
&
Bonang
I.
BONANO
III.
i-
^ ^=:=E
i
II.
Tjelempoeng.
Kendang.
E
j-^-
.1
JJ
Ketock, &c.
^^^
From
"
De Gamelan
te Jogjakarta," Drs.
Groneman and Land,
1890.
APPENDIX
297
ANALYSIS OF TIME-OUTLINE IN ENGLISH

FOLK-SONG
For purposes of analysis it has been thought well to separate
the outlines of time and pitch, in order to facilitate a new study.
The time-features of the previous examples were left unclassified,
because these were chosen as illustrations of pitch, and in the
following tunes the conditions are reversed.
The bulk of our English tunes would appear to fall into the class
based upon equal outline and that of the strict figure. The manner
in which a folk-singer will introduce variety while maintaining an
equal outline is as interesting as it is instructive. By changes of
time, by a shortening of the cadence bar, by free phrase-form, by
a frequent use of five-beat time, the monotony of the equal outline
is broken;
Where it is strictly maintained pitch characteristics
have naturally the main interest, but by far the larger number of
songs show equal outline with figure variation. These time-figures
are indicated above each tune, and also the phrase-form, in order
to assist analysis. The question of how far syllabic outline may
have conditioned the time-outline of each individual song is one
which cannot be entered into here in detail. This is the class
of song in which the influence of language is at its strongest, and
verbal suggestion is likely to appear in the figure-variations,
though by no means does it invariably control them. The cadential
pause-note which frequently terminates a phrase is a prolongation
only, and does not constitute variation of the outline.
The classes of the strict and free figure contain the finest tunes
of English folk-song. The leading figure is given first, and the
others form variations upon it, and priority is here of great
importance.
It does occasionally happen, however, that the
leading figure is not to be found in the first bar, as in ' The Seeds
of Love," and in all probability this is due to verbal influence.
The free figure at the close of *' The Trees they do grow high " is
a frequent characteristic in this position, or at the end of a phrase.
basis of the free figure is perhaps less congenial to the English
folk-singer than is that of the strict, but in three-beat time a fairly
strict idiom with a pause on the second beat of each bar presents
The
a characteristic type, familiar to us in " Barbara Allen," and here
APPENDIX
298
by the fine tune of " Bruton Town." " Lord Bateman "
It is considered by the author to
is a somewhat similar example.
be in six-beat time which brings the characteristic pause on to the
third beat instead of the second, and adds dignity to the tune
illustrated
without altering the free nature of the
figure.
immense variety
which cannot possibly be
eclipsed, if equalled, by the folk-song of any other country.
Also
noteworthy are the freedom of phrase and the ease with which
change of time is made. It is thought that this may be considered
on the whole a typical collection, although it represents but a few
out of the many tunes published by Mr. Cecil Sharp, by whose
Throughout
these examples there exists an
all
of detail in the treatment of figure,
permission these are here reproduced.
Section
R. The
The Banks
Basis of
of the Sweet Dundee.
Equal Outline.
1.
Unvaried.
4.4.4.4.*
p^P^^^g^^^g
i J J
-rff-fz
ff=i=i=i
.
ft^r=f= -j4J=J-i^^hNm=r^g^^
J
ipr-
r^T^^
=t=:
The Broken Token.
^j^^-^î^gsj;^^^
2.3.3.3
The Bold Fisherman,

Allegretto.
2.2 A.
=1
-*
1:
'-
litr* 3l^-
Êg=j=j=^^j^^,^_,
* These numbers
indicate the
number
J=j.=,^^^ Ei
^^ ^^.j3^,
E
of bars in each phrase successively.
^1
APPENDIX
2.
The
299
Varied with Figures, Strict and Free.
Lover's Tasks.
Moderato. 2.2.4. J J j varied
J*
Robin Hood.
7.8.4.
?>
^
I
..
J.^J
j^rTl7=^g^^
^^^^^^
^^^
24^^^
^^^^
*->-
Admiral Benbow.
Allegro moderato. 4.3.4.4. J
..
^pi^^g^^^^^^^:^^
^^
i g=^5^
3c;=it
=il=S=
JS^,
The Hearty Good Fellow.

A/od.r/o.
2.2.2.2.2.2.
jT]
i'-
J,
^^
^^
jTTj
JTj
:^yE^
j:.^j
Jj
J^
APPENDIX
300
Dabbling in the Dew.
Allegro commodo.
^____
2.2.2.2. J J J J
fZ
v.
â
Fj
The
Basis of the Strict Figure varied by

OTHER Figures, Strict, Free, or Equal.
Section S.
Dicky of Taunton Dean.

Allegro moderato. 4.4.2.2.
i ^
-I
:i)=i-
v.
JTjJ
TTZ
s^=^:^g
^^
iS
The Trees
J**
they do grow high.
^^S
i"
/^
^}
b=T=}t=|=Js
3=P=
:f5=T
:*=5t
r-
-r
Allegretto espresiivo. 4tAA.^.
^^
r^n--?"^
y\
v.
J J J
J.
J^ J
^^=^ =^
APPENDIX
As
301
walked through the Meadows.
Andante graxioso. 2.2.2.2.
The Seeds
J^
of Love.
v.
.n
1=
J J j
J. ] J
J*
r-r-r=^
^rf<;<.. 4.4.4.4.
^^^-J
=51=*=
High Germany.
J j j J
y^^
^nrfa<io. 2.2.2.2.2.
i 3EdE
rs
J
r.
?"=
S^
p+n
JJ]
J. 3 J. J J
5^=?BK
The Banks
-\<i
,J^-J| ^J
:f=a:
s)
^
:g^^^
i
:S.T:i.-^--^
of Green Willow
Allegretto. 2.2.2.2.2.
v.
J^
fZ
jTz^-g-^-g,
.m
jTj
uJ
JT] J
^^^gfe^^
APPENDIX
302
Midsummer
Fair.
Allegretto. 2.2.2.3.
,^J
fn
rTi
..
The
Basis of the Free Figure varied by

Section T.
Bruton Town.
^^
JZ
v.
^g
^J
2.2.2.2. j
A^
j=g5g=,^r-^r+J^-J
I
/\
/^
/^
Jl/orfcfa/o maestoso.
fbizth
Lord Bateman.
JTj
^^
Moderafo. 2.2.2.2.
.H
J j j J J
^S !î^^s^ B^^H-^^-^
^^p^^^^^P^^^-^-7^^^
(i)
Cold blows the Wind.

Mod^/o. 2.2.2.2.
2iz:ra!5i=it
/71
>
V.
rn
'
jm
^^^ ^^ ^^^g
^^^^^^^
APPENDIX
A
(2)
'
'
Grazioso.
'^
iA. J J 2
Morris Dance.*
J^-J J J.
^^
w
J
J.J^
Sfj
0000 000
f^^r=gg
Morris Dance.*
Set
/^
000
XXX
000
XXX
'^-.
Shepherd's Hey.
iAAA.fTTj
4.4.4.4. fj..
V.
303
..
i<X=3t
Rigs O' Marlow.
J^
ri
^' T^
:ff'
^r-_
^^
X
By permission of Messrs. Novello & Co., Ltd. From " Morris Dance Tunes,"
The signs O and X signify respectively hand-clapping and stick-rapping.
II,
APPENDIX
304
ANALYSIS OF TIME-OUTLINE
IN ENGLISH DANCE-TUNES OF THE
CENTURIES
17th and 18th
The
following tunes are not given as examples of folk-Song or as
quasi folk-song, and into the question of their origin
Their purpose
here to enter.
people but for the educated classes, and there can be
we
for the
little
doubt
have here the actual tunes to which danced the country
squires and
fact to
more
as interesting and
is at least
These tunes were not printed and published
certain.
that
needless
it is
dames of the seventeenth and eighteenth
which some of
their
names
historical interest, the tunes
testify.
And
centuries, a
apart from their
Upon
have an intrinsic value.
the
whole they represent natural conditions of time-outline that are

instrumental rather than vocal
there
is less
freedom of phrase,
but more elaboration of time-figures uninfluenced by words than
found under purely vocal conditions
unvaried, and the basis of the free figure

as that of the strict.
They
is
equal outline rarely appears

is
common
nearly as
are tunes that will repay thorough
analysis.
"
The Three
Sisters "
and " Helston Furry Dance
date and are tunes that do claim to have

people.
The former has
might well be one, the
come
" are of later
direct from the
the natural grace of a folk-song, and

latter
is
a version of the well-known
Cornish folk-dance which has a lengthened opening phrase of

three bars instead of the usual two-bar one, which
"Songs
of the
West."
It is
more than
likely that
is
found in
we have
here
the original version of the tune, to which the free phrase lends a
considerable
charm.
The
earlier
Gilbert's, 1823, does not contain

stiff
and
inferior tune.
it,
printed
version
of
Davies
but in all respects this is a
APPENDIX
U The
Section
Basis of
305
Equal Outline, varied
WITH Figures, Strict or Free.

Punch
^
"
Alive.
4.4.4.
Jl
V.
J73
^^^
Lady
:pri?t
gfcnMn'-f^^^^^
-
Nevil's Delight.
^<
^
4.4.4.4.
Ju
The
.îia
r.
rr-J
29th of May.
4.4.4.4. J
..
Dancing Master."
JTI3J
-H
J
I
Musick'i Delight," 1666.
J.;*
hn
JIJ
" Dancing Master."

J
Oi
r:
fs^-=r-^^}S^^^^y^-p^^g=
APPENDIX
3o6
Dance.
rji
4.4.4.4.
The
^j
Section
O Good
J J
..
" Dancing Master."
-^
M^rir
^^^^^^^êe^
V.The Basis of the Strict Figure, varied by

Ale.
4.6.2.
r^
fe^
i
ry]
}j
Bashful Swain.
4.4.4.
4.4.4.
gi
J,.
:e=|t:
=1=J5
^^==*: =it=*:
The Three
2.2.4.
J.^N
J J
^^f=r=-7^^Q=[J_^n:'iiH:^
^3^
^tJ-^J^
j
r-
,.
;Ê
Sisters.
.rj-]
"Christmas Carols," D.wies Gilbert.
APPENDIX
307
E^
d^J55=^=^^t^^^g5^kEg
Lulle
me beyond
2.2.2.2.2.2. J
thee.
.nH]
v.
j.
rTi
"
^^"^'"^ ^^'^""
^-f"T^=J^CgP^::^
Parthenia.
6.2.2.4. J
^.
J.
J.]
Skill of
JT]
Music," Playford.
fiF=#HF^g^^
The Dame
of Honour.
^îr^rH^^^^ ^^^^f^l^^
4.4.4.4. J
.rfj^
>J
J3j
J^
D'Urfey, 1719.
^^^3^^,j?=^^f7.^j
-K,
I
"I
1
S*^=i^
II
r
,
J^.^^=^Û^^J=4
^^^^^pl
APPENDIX
3o8
Helston Furry Dance.
Con
3.2.3.2.4.4.
spirito.
^^
nfi
^.
" Cornish Itinerary," 1845.
S^^^^^^m
rn
-r
*^.
P=trt=r=c^
Section
1^=W=f^
W. The
"rr
r r
r r r
'-
-t
r-y^
^=ii:^
Basis of the Free Figure, varied by

Red House.
4.4.4.
-N J]
J^
fTi
^^^^^^^^^^
r.
FPj
" Dancing Master."
-^f^.
5^^^ ?3^^^
^^^^^^^
f^î^S^
^ 3^^^^
Windsor Terass.
4.4.4.4.
jij,
^.
jjjnj.
rsjn
" Dancing Master."
APPENDIX
309
^^^m^;^^"^^^^^^
Love
lies.
^^^î^s3s3^
The Whish.
V.
^ ^^
g^^-
g=#;
.N
iSt=t
>i
J.
" Dancing Master."
-ii
j-
.J^^?^:a
J J^=fc;4a.E
Old Simon the King.

4
Sir
fTPl rr^j
^
I
" History of Music," Hawkins.
f^
Roger de Coverley.
2.
2 2
In J
1,1
" History of Music,"
Hawkins.
* This barring is chosen as indicating the natural accents of the tune which
unbarred in this version.
is
APPENDIX
310
TIME-TYPES OF THE EAST

This section illustrates the range of the Hindu tala from simple
conditions hardly to be distinguished from the European bar up to
the most complicated units.
It should be remembered that the
melodies are entirely unaccented; a European time-signature would
Ekdtdla has been rendered into f
thus give a false impression.
and also f and either of these readings is equally incorrect. The

melody here given appears to contradict the tala, but when sung it
would scarcely convey more than an effect of slight variation upon
it.
No attempt has hitherto been made to indicate the more
The difficulty of singing
elaborate talas in European notation.
a melody against the eccentric regularity of Tala Ara will be
appreciated by musicians.
The melody is here noted as in the
;
Hindu record without
reference to bar-beats
the position of each
beat being indicated by the tala-notation.
Hindu Talas and Melodies.*
Section X.
Raga Jogeeah,
Tala Thoongree.
Kaga
Tala Ekatala.
Tala Chawtala,
* From
"
Parajica.
^
r
Itt^1^^
r-
f"
^rfF^-^-fg-^^
Raga Chhayanata.
Hindu Melodies," and
" Seven Principal Musical Notes," S. M.
Tagore.
APPENDIX
311
Raga Kalingara.
Tala Drutatritalee.
r
Tala Madhyamana.
Raga Basanta.
Raga
Tala Slathatrltalee.
Paraja.
i^j
I,
J-J-J-J J-J^J-J
Tala Ara-chawtala.
J
j^J-J-J
Raga Surata.
Tala Surphakta.
J
J^J^J^j
Raga Bibhasa.
r
APPENDIX
312
Raga
Tala Jhanptdla.
J
Jhighiti.
fe^ ^^^*^15
-,
î^
-,
-.
-.
-.
Tala Ara.
J^J-^J^J^,^
^^^
V .*J^J
J-J-->.-^
i^^BEÊ^j^S^ggg^^
.r
g^
THE ELEMENTARY RONDO TYPE

In this section the refrain of the
Rondo
is
indicated by the letter
Sometimes this also forms the opening theme.

rondos have been already described.
R.
Section
Dance-Tune.
Y. English,
The
The Ballad
Chinese, and Hindu Rondos.
Faithful Shepherd.
R.
R.
R.
R,
2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2.
2.
^3^^^g=^g?3=Fi^^^ '^^
:sl=4
R.
-r
^N^^î^
n-c f-r+T-trt"
^^
APPENDIX
313
R.
fefÊ^^^Bî^^^g^
Morris Dance.*
Laudnum Bunches.
R. R.
R. R. R.
R.
4. 4. 4. 4. 4. 4. 5. 4.
^^^^^^^^^^^^m
i--a3a-zK^=iJ:zri,
53z:^"3^^p
^^
-K4-
D.C.
?=^r^f^q;^3=ad^3.g^F^F^^^^^g^^Mi
î^^sgE^;P;Ê3=g=:3^^?=y^j5|,-j=.^=^
R.
^^^lEiEgÎggS^g^g^îg J^^
:ff=p:
ÊEgE^
* By permission of Messrs. Novello & Co. Lid.
From
" Morris
Dance Tunes," Set
I,
APPENDIX
314
Chinese Ballad.
R. Orchestra.
R.
R.
2. 4. 2.
R.
3.
2. 5.
R
Hindu Ballad*
Allegro moihrato.
R. (Pallevi.)
(Svarajota).
2.'2.
Voice.
4.
2 2.' 8
2."
42.
^ ^
From
Deccan."
C. R. Day's, "
R
R
8 6 2.
2.'
(Anupallevi.)
^^^g.^-^
Van Aalst.
Raga
Bilahari.
Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the
By permission of Messrs. Novello &
Co., Ltd.
APPENDIX
315
^v
^^r-^?5-5?^->^^jg=feP^
5.
^^^^^^^^^
* An incomplete
bar.
APPENDIX
3i6
THE ELEMENTARY VARIATION TYPE

The following movement has been transcribed by the Author
from the original letter notation as printed in " Myvyrian Archaeology
of Wales."
many respects the most concise, satisfactory and

among many examples, some of which with their
It is in
the least florid
ceaseless reiteration of equal beat-figures of a few notes, suggest

five-finger exercises rather
than variations.
Monotony pervades
the whole range of the music, a fact which goes far to prove
authenticity.
The
reproduction, but the sign which
uncertain interpretation
difficult to see
what
construed by the shake
is
of
the shake appears likely, because
it
is
else could
is
have been intended.
of the opening bars in the original notation

on ' Wales " in Grove's Dictionary.
Section 2.
The Prelude
is
given in the article
An Early Welsh Movement
to the Salt.
Measure
Mac Mwn
Byr.
A reproduction
in Variations.
11001111.
Gosteg yr Haleii.
1^
k-Bz^==z
Sr---
h=^==.^
^^
I.
es
Bj
f,-
its
grace-notes here given are practically a safe
^-
f=f^^=^=^=?[f-TTTff=3=^
APPENDIX
317
P^^
The Bass
-f-M^&Jg^-^
of III. continues.
?^^rff-r
VIII.
jf f f
-r.j^
r r
<.^
-^
1-
..J^r- -p
IX.
^:^:g.d=g=-_g^
ixe:r--E
^^SBt^
ep^^S^^l
gg^ g -^-
APPENDIX
XI.
^-^
P m^
f^r^-f-^^
=p=r=^
tst
--tll^
m. 6*
^ ^^^^^
m^
=g-:rr-=-Tg^
gg
f-^
gE=^g=r_L= r.iL_zc=rEEa
gi^g^^^^3=^gif-T"^Tfai
Here ends " The Prelude
knights of King Arthur,
to the Salt,"
when
the Salter
which used
to be
was placed upon
performed before the
the board.
GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

USED IN THIS WORK
This
mark
(*) indicates jicw
new
or the
Absolute Pitch
or partially ?iew terms,
use of a term.
Actual pitch according to a given number of

vibrations.
Accent
Stress.
Accidental
The written inflection of a note by semitone.

The upper middle part.
Composed of tones other than those of the tonic
Alto
'''Atonic
triad.
....
Augmejited
Aug7nented Triad
One semitone longer than major or perfect.

The triad composed of two major thirds, covering
an augmented
Bar
fifth.
The space between two
*Bar-Jigiirc
The
The
Bar-line
Bass
Beat or Tiine-beat
principal accents.
time-figure that relates to the bar-standard.

vertical line dividing
one bar from the next.
lowest part.
recurring point
marking equal divisions of
duration,
* Beat-Jigtire
time-figure confined to division of one beat.
A point of rest in circling rhythm.

A contrapuntal type of form, based on continuous
Cadence
Cation
imitation.
Proceeding within the key.
^Centering
An obsolete variation-type, founded upon
Chaconne
a dance
same name.
harmonic unit of tone-material.
of the
Chord
Chord of the Ninth
Chord of tJie Sevetith
.
Chromatic
A
A chord of four thirds, covering a ninth.
A chord of three thirds, covering a seventh.
(0
A.
semitonal variation in diatonic outline
(2)
movement by semitone.
'''Circling
Rhythm
Tlie
rhythm
centre.
319
that gravitates to or radiates from a
GLOSSARY
320
Clef
....
*Colotcr-oiitlinc
Concerto
Consonant
sign indicating the absolute pitch of the line

of the stave on which it is placed.
Tone-succession in quality.
A cycle for a solo instrument with orchestra.
Composed of a synchronous third, sixth, or fifth ;
a major or minor triad ; successions of thirds
or sixths
successions of triads in first in;
version.
*Coniitmoiis Style
Music lacking stanza
divisions
and formal con-
tempo.
Parts proceeding simultaneously upon a consonant basis.
A melodic part in the bass.
The science of combining moving parts by retrasts of
....
Contrapuntal
Contrapuntal Bass
Counterpoint
....
lations of intervals.
Any
*Cycle
succession of movements, with or without

stanza divisions, that has contrasts of
tempo
between one movement and another.

Degree
Diatonic
Limited to the melodic key.

The melodic key.
One semitone less than minor or perfect.
Diatottic Scale
Diminished
....
Difninished Triad
*Discant
The
Discord or Dissonance
triad composed of two minor thirds.

combination of moving parts without a consonant basis.
Any
(i)
Dro7ie
*Dual Beat
Duration
Degree of length of a
The
Eleventh
.
An
Figure
Flat
The
*For7H
Fourth
*Free
*Free Form
....
tone.
repetition of the fourth at octave distance.
Successive tones of similar value.
Fifth
*Force-outline
interval that contradicts those of the
consonant triad ; (2) consecutive fifths.

The fifth degree of the scale.
The continuous sounding of one note, usually
against a melody.
The equal division of the beat.
Dominant
*Equal Outline
fixed point in pitch.
interval
composed of two
thirds.
smallest free unit of music.
A sign lowering
the pitch by a
Tone-succession in intensity.
The relation of parts to the
of recurrent (rhythmic)
balance of many varying
The
inversion of the
semitone.
whole by means
combination and
units.
fifth.
Informal, at irregular intervals.
Form based upon
inexact recurrence of units.
GLOSSARY
A
/'i/i^KC
321
coutrapuiiUil type of form, Ixiscd
on imitation
of units.
The normal
*Fii/l-/o/!c
Ground
interval of the diatonic scale.
variation-type, in which a phrase-outline in the
bass formed the unit of repetition.
flannonic Bass
The lowest tone
of each chord in
tlic
normal
position.
Harmonic
Caifcncc
Pause on the tonic triad, or partial pause on the

dominant or other chords.
Harmony
Chord-succession.
Idea
free unit
composed of
figures.
Imitation
The recurrence
The recurrence
Intensity
by transference from part

Degree of force of a tone.
*Idiom
Interval
Inversion
Key
*Key-eircle
Key-note or Key-tone
Key-signature
....
of figures in the
same
part.
of figures (or a coni])letc outline)

to part.
The
The
distance in pitch from one tone to another.
The
The
The
The
relation of tones to a
placing of an upper tone in the bass.
consonant centre.
relations of keys.
tonic note.
indication of the
number of sharps
or flats
required to form a scale upon the pattern of
the scale of C.
Leading-note
....
The seventh degree

below the
Madrigal
Major
The
of the
scale,
a semitone
tonic.
vocal type of form, partly contrapuntal, partly
rhythmitonal.
Major Triad
....
larger of the two normal intervals, hence

applied to the standard type of key depend-
ing on the major third.
Composed of one major and one minor
third,
with the major third below.
The
Mediant
Melodic Cadence
third degree of the scale.
Pause on the tonic
note, or partial pause on other
tones of the scale.
Melody
(0
-^
small circling type dependent upon figure,
phrase, and stanza
(2) an isolated outline

harmonic music.
Changes in time-outline, with repetition of pitch;
in
*Meiamorphosis
outline.
GLOSSARY
322
Â/icrotonal
Minor Triad
Containing intervals smaller than the semitone.

smaller of the two normal intervals, hence
applied to that variation upon the standard
key which depends upon the minor third.
Composed of one minor and one major third,
with the minor third below.
A small stanza movement, founded upon song-
The
Alinor
....
Minuet
type.
"^Mixop/ionic
....
Parts proceeding simultaneously without regard

to
Mode
Modulation
Modulativc
Motett
The
....
....
consonance.
relative pitch of the scale.
change of key.
Passing from key to key.

A vocal type of form, contrapuntal and ecclesiastical.
Movement
(i)
Natural
Ninth
Note
The
The
The
sign revoking the sharp or
Octave
The
point where the pitch of a tone repeats itself
Opera
Motion;
(2) a separate division of a musical

work, corresponding to a canto of poetry or
an act of the drama.
flat.
repetition of the second at octave distance.
written tone
synonym
also
vocal and orchestral
for tone.
composition combined
with the drama, formerly a cycle,
continuous in
Oratorio
now
usually
style.
vocal and orchestral composition, united with

a
religious
text,
of
an
anomalous
cyclic
character.
The succession of tones.

Generally understood to be a single movement
originally a
'in sonata-type for orchestra
cycle of small movements.
Ôutline
Overture
Part
That which
is
composed or
written for a single
voice or instrument, incomplete in
Pedal
The continuous sounding
itself.
of tonic or dominant
tones against atonic chords.

Perfect
*Phrase
"^Phrase-outline
Without variation of major or minor.

The grouping of strict accents.
The time- and pitch-outlines contained within the
phrase.
Pitch
* Pitch-figure
*Pitch-idio)n
....
....
Degree of height of a
tone.
fraction of pitch-outline forming a unit.
The
recurrence of a pitch-figure in one part.
GLOSSARY
*Pitch-iinitaiifln
323
Transference of a pitch-figure from one part to

another.
....
*Pifch-flutlinc
in pitch.
The development
*Polyp/to/iy
*Pulsaiive
Tone-succession
Rhythm
of synchronous pitch-outHne
upon the natural basis of chord-conception.
The rhythm of the beat.
That which distinguishes the tone of one voice or
Quality
instrument from another.
*Raga
Recitative
Rest
* Rhythm
*Rhythmito7ial
type, employing time-outline to

emphasise its pitch-relations.
melodic vocal usage, in which the lingual
element predominates over the musical.
tonalitive
The written sign for duration of silence.

The periodic or recurring quality of all movement.
Composed of tones conditioned by rhythm.
Rondo
Root
Roitnd
The harmonic bass
rhythmitonal type of form with a recurrent

subject.
......
of a chord.
melody, which, sung by several voices in
imitation, phrase by phrase, makes harmony
when all its phrases are heard at once.
The name-order in pitch of musical tones.

The first degree of the scale.
A movement in rapid tempo, frequently in
Scale
*Scale-tonc
Scherzo
song-
type.
Second
The
The
Seinito/ie
Half a
Segteeticc
Seventh
The
Sharp
Sixth
The
The
Score
Slur
written combination of parts.

interval of the scale.
full-tone.
species of pitch-idiom.
inversion of the second.
sign raising the pitch
by a semitone.
inversion of the third.

line that indicates the phrase, or
sometimes
the figure.
A cycle of movements composed of various rhyth-
Sonata
"^Sonata-type
....
The
mitonal types for one or two instruments.

type commonly known as "binary " or "first-
movement
The
^Standard
* Stanza
Stave or
Stafi'.
form."
Consisting of statement, contrast, and re-statement, usually in three divisions.
Song-type
Two
.
fixed tone-material of music.
or
more phrases defined by
The group
a cadence.
of lines on which notes are written.
GLOSSARY
"^strict.
Formal, at regular intervals.
* Strict Accent
The accent of the bar.

Form based upon exact recurrence
The fourth degree of the scale.
Form
^Strict
Subdoininant
Subject
of units.
musical idea.
Subinediant or Super
The
domitiant
Suite
(i)
Supertonic
Suspension
dances
(2) the name for
the orchestral cycle on a small scale.
The second degree of the scale.
A species of melodic discord, formed by retarda-
Symphonic Poem
Music
sixth degree of the scale.
contrapuntal movements
cycle of small
named
after
tion of a tone.
in
continuous style for orchestra, usually
associated with poetry.
Symphony
The name
Syncopation
on a large
for the orchestral cycle
scale, formerly built
upon
types.
Reiteration of a tied figure, which annuls the
Music consisting of the three tones of the tonic
strict accent.
^Syntonic.
triad.
*Tala
The unit of the Eastern time-system.

The bar containing the tala and determined by
* Tala-bar
Tempo
Tenor
The
The
Tenth
* Ternal Beat
Tetrachord
.
it.
Speed.
The lower middle part.
repetition of the third at octave distance.

division of the beat into three parts.
Three or four notes
in
succession, covering a
fourth.
Theme
A musical
Third
The
Tie
idea.
interval of the chord.
sign between two notes indicating that they
are a single tone.
Time
The number
(i)
of beats in a bar
(2)
beat-
division.
* Time-figure
'''Time-idiom
The
fraction of time-outline, not less than one beat
forming a
unit.
Time-signature
in one part.
Transference of a time-figure from part to part.
Tone-succession in duration.
The indication of the number of beats in a bar
Tonality
The
* Ti/ne-imitaiion
* Time-outline
recurrence of a time-figure
and the
* Tonalitive
Tone
beat-division.
relations of all tones to a given centre.
Pertaining to tonality.
The name given
to the
sounds used
in
music.
GLOSSARY
* To/n-tna/en'al
The
;25
variations of tone forming
tlic
material of
music.
* Tone-niovemetit
Tonic
Combination of
Transposition
Treble
Triad.
Triplet
Tritone
Ttveljth
A
A
chord of two thirds, covering a fifth.

group of three notes of equal value.
Three full-tones in succession.
The
A
A
*Type
*7ype of For
.
*Undiilating-
outlines.
The melodic or harmonic centre of pitch-relations.

Change of absolute pitch-level.
The highest part.
or
Free
repetition of the
fifth
at octave distance.
melodic or harmonic formula.
and generally accepted plan

movement.
familiar
The rhythm
for a
of wave-motion.
Rhythm
*Unit
Any
part of musical material that
is
perceived to
recur.
*Va/ue
Variations
The
relative duration of a tone.

rhylhmitonal type founded upon repetitions of
a melodic or harmonic outline.
INDEX
Brossard's dictionary, 128
Buddhist chant, 109, 114
Burma, 107
Absolute music, 141, 216, 21S

Abstract form, 118
Accent, 13, iS, 19,20,62, i qo, 151, 153,
156, 164, 165
Burney, Charles, " History of Music,"

129
Accidental, 28, 31
Accompaniment, 61, 107, 108, 168, 203
Acoustics, 3
Alternation, 13, 14, 85, 137, 196, 23^,
Cadence, 45, 164, 177-180, 205, 211,

212, 221, 237, 241, 242, 247
Canon, 197, 198, 199
Caiitits firiinis, 120, 123, 124
239
Alto, 4
Anibros, " History of Music," 118

Analysis,
Andaman
225-229
Carissimi,
Angouleme,
Monk
of,
244
Centering outline, 93
Cesti, 211
Chaconne, 237, 241
Changing-note, 62
China, 32, 51, 52, 53, 54, 59, 109, 236
Choral ^tyle, 201, 202, 204-207
Chord, origin of term, 128
Chords, illustrations of, triads, 38, 42,
43,63,64 chords of seventh, 73-75
chords of ninth, 74 chromatic chords,
Islands, 112
no
Antiphony, 108, 1 14
Appa'-.sionata (Beethoven), 254
Arabic, 32, 58, 59
Aria, 220
Atonic outline, 86-88

Aul)ry, Pierre, 246, 247
Authentic modes, 116
81-83
Chromaticism, 75, 84, 88, 92, 93, 94,
Bach, J. S., 130, 167, 200, 201-204,

223, 237, 244, 246, 24.S, 249
Balance of strict and free, 136, 161, 164,
190, 253, 257, 268
Bar, European, it, et seq.
Asiatic, 184193
Bar-tigure, 149, 151
Bar-line, 12, 13, 19, 1S4
Barring of song-music, 216
Church-music, 15, 30, 31, 110 ei sci/.,

120-122, 142, 194, 198-199, 205,
265
lOI
Clavichord, 249
Clef, 3,
Bass,
Beat,
4,
7,
evolution
Colour-outline,
of,
i,
4, $2, 145,
263
Concerto, 251, 255

Concert-music, 261-264
184
Consonance, 35, 38, 40 ei seq., 60, 61,

142
Continuity, 219, 227, 257 et seq.
Cotton M.S., 123
Counterpoint, 109, 119, 124-126, 132,
Beat-division, 9, 1 1, 14, 16, 17, 18, 154,

172, 18s
Beat-figure, 149, 151, 152
Beethoven, 19, 144, 171, 201, 214, 227,
231, 232, 242, 246, 253, 254, 260,

261
Berlioz, 172
Biwa, 108
B Minor Mass
214,
Colour-analogy, 103, 263
65, 66
8, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 142, 157,
41-43
29
Climax, 138, 229, 231, 242, 254

C Minor Symphony (Beethoven),
160, 194, 238, 262, 264-266

Couperin, 237, 250
Cultured song, 220, 234
Cycle, 243 et seq.
(Bach), 127
327
INDEX
328
D
Dance-song, 210, 219221
Day, Captain C, R., 47, 58
Descanter, 119, 123, 124
Discant, 105 et seq. definition
origin of, 109
Discord, 42, 62-65, 88, 123
;
Discords, preparation
of,
90
89-91
Dominant, 39, 64, 79-81,91
Ground, 237
Gruffydd ab Cynan, 130, 239
Guido d'Arezzo, 116, 117, 118, 120
of,
106
H
;
Iladow, W. H., 226, 227, 228

Handel, 244
Harding, Dr. H. A., 226, 227
Harmony, systems, 37, 70, 128
resolution
of,
origin
;
60, 61 ; instrumental, 68, 69;
primitive, 61, 64, 65; evolution of,
65, 66, 68, 71, 127, 128-131
Gregorian,
of,
114, 115
Dominant 7th, 65,
74
Dot, II
Doubles, 237
Harmonic
Dramatic music,
259, 260, 261
Duration,
174,
211,
principle, 41,
70
Harmonics, 41
Harpsichord, 124, 248-250
Hawkins, Sir J. " History of Music,''
40, no, 116, 123
2x7, 218,
Haydn, 222, 223, 227, 231, 232, 237,

252, 253
Hindu, 32, 48, 59, Tj, 98-103, 106,
IIS, 184-191, 236
Hindu FrtW/ or tonic, 100, 114
Hipkins, A. J., 47
Education, 10, 68, 84, 131, 132, 147
Emotional utterance, 98, 99, 145, 146,

161,
173, 231, 233, 254, 258, 270,
271
Hottentots, 195
Equal figures, 1 50
Equal outline, 157, 158, 203, 209
Equal temperament, 5, 27
Estainpie, 246-247
Esterhazy, Prince, 222
Extemporisation, loi, 106, 119, 120
Hungarian, T7
Hymn-tune, 182, 211
Idea, 139, 144

Idiom, 140, 144, 166
Imitation, 195 et seq., 217, 249
Instruments, 4, 33, 106, 107, 108, 155,
156, 206, 249, 252, 260, 262, 265
False relation, 8
Faiix-bourdon, 1 2
Intensity,
Fifths and fourths, 35, 39, 49

consecutive, 67-68, 109
Figures, pitch, 165; time, 149-154,
imitation in, 199, 200
165
Intervals, 2, 24, 25, 26, 36, 37, 120, 121

Inversion, 25, 26, 42, 43, 75, 121
Folk-song, 38, 158, 177, 181, 182, 197,

198, 210, 233, 241
263
13S-137, 138, 145,
160, 161, 164, 190, 253, 257, 268
Fugue, 200, 203
Force-outline,
Form,
strict
i, 3,
and
13,
free,
Japan, 32, 105, 106

Japanese instruments, 106, 107, 108
Java, 51, 52, 53, 59, 105, 106, 107, 1S7
Full-tone, 2, 25
Keller, Godfrey, 128
Key, evolution
of,
57, 64, 71, 75, 80, 84,
851?^ seq.
Gerbert, iii
Giraldus Cambrensis, 197
Greek music, 51, 113
Gregorian, chant, 11 3-1 15, 117, 118,
121; modes, 114, 116; tonality, 114116, 125
Groneman, Dr. J., 107
Key-board, 4, 3i, 33
Key-hold, 93, 94
Key-note or key-tone, 25, 39, 40, 64,
80, 83, 85, 86, 89, 91
Key-signature, 29
Key-system or key-circle, 27, 31, 57, 92,
93i
97
INDEX
Language, inlluence
et
of,
204-206, 20S
sci].
Law
of evolution, i },6
Leading-note, diatonic, 45, 46, 64, 80,
177, 17.S
dominant, 79, 8r, 82, ?)l
Oratorio. 244
Orchestra, 4, 8, 14, 155,
156,211,260-
262
Organ,
201-203, 248,
14,
116,
155,
24Q, 265
Organum, 1 10-113, 122

Ornament, 240
Outline. I ; standard, 137. 165
Overture. 257
M
Macpherson, Stewart,
19,
227
Palestrina, 123, 205
Tarry, .Sir IL, 23, 36, 53, 113
" Parsifal" (Wagner), 170, 214
Madrigal, 206
Mass, Catholic, 24^
Mittrd, 184
Mazarin, Cardinal, 247
Measures of music, 131, 230

Melodic principle, 60, 61
Melody, Western, origin of, 35, 36,
39, 40,
181,
3.^,
182; evolution of, 44,

50, 62, 148, 149, 191,
45, 46, 49,

221, 222
Eastern, origin of, 47 ; evolution
of, 5'-S4> '9^, 193
comparison of Eastern and Western,
191-193
Part, 4
Part-singing, 61, 64-68, 195, 199
Passing-notes, 62, 125
Pause, 177
Pedal-bass. 65. too, 113
Peii, J.. 21
Phrase, definition and origin, 175, 176
J'hrase-form, 176-179, 181-182, 210-
215. 247
Piggott, E. T.. 107
Pitch, absolute, 4, 5, 21
et seq..
relative, 5, 21
98. 99
Metamorphosis, 173, 174

Micrologos (by Guide), 117
Pilch-figure, 165 et seq.
Microlonal, 47, 48, 51, 54, 96

Minuet, 21Q, 221, 253
Missa Pap^r ^rar<el/i (Palestrina), 127
Missa Soleiitnis (Beethoven), 201
Mixophonic music, 105 et seq.
Mode. See Scale.
Modern music, 222, 232
Modulation, 92-94
Pitch-idiom, 166-170, 203, 241

Pitch-imitation, 200, 203, 241
Pitch-notation, 3, 5, 22, 28 et seq., Ji
Pitch-outline, i, 2, 3,4, 141, 142, 163
Plagal modes, 116, 178
Plain-song. 120
Playford, John, 127, 128
Poetry, 179, 205, 206, 211, 212, 215-
Monotony, 136
Monteverde, 211, 259
Morley, Thomas, 119, 127
Polyphony, 133, 221, 263

Pricked-song, 120
Morris dance, IS7
Primitive music, 7, 8, 10,

96, 12, 1 15, 149, 163
217
Motett, 206
Mozart, 227, 231, 232, 237, 258
13,
36, 37,
Principles, 134 et seq.,
269
Programme music, 264
N
Napoleonic
scientific expedition, 157

Notation, of time, 2, 9, 11, 15 et seq.; of
pitch, 3, 5. 22, 28 et seq., jt, Eastern.
32, loi, 103 ; teaching of, 270
Notes, 3, 10, II, 16
;
Octave, 3, 35, 41. (^6, 67, 109, 123

Opera, 210, 211, 218, 244, 245, 251,
259, 260
(Quality,
Quarter-tone, 2, 48, 10 1, 103

Quartet, 251, 252, 255
Raga, 56,98-101, 115, 183, 192

Rameau, "Treatise of Harmony," 127130
Reading MS., 122, 198
INDEX
330
Recitative, 211
Relations of time
and
pitch,
10,
Symphonic poem, 262, 264

Sympson, Christopher, 124, 127, 128
.Syncopation, 154. 155, 240
Syntonic outline, 86-88
140,
142, 143, 173, 251

Reproduction, 223
Resolution of discords, 89-91
Rests, II, 177, 237
Rhythm,
138
circling, 138; pulsative, 7, 14,

free or undulating, 2. 138, 144,
145, 241, 258
definition of, 138
Rhythmic principle, 134 e( seq., 146

Riemann, Dr., 23, 113, 116, 12S
Rondo, 234-237
Root, 39, 41
Round, 121, 195-198, 204
Tala, 185-193
Tagore, Raja Sir
Tempo, 2,
Tenor, 4
23,
1
Slur, 153, 170
Sonata-cycle, 224, 251-255

Sonata-type, 225 et seq.
Song- type, 220, 234
Spain, 157
Standards of lime, simple, 7 et seq. ;
compound. 12 et seq., 181
Standards of tonality, simple, 27, 38 et
compound, 27, S5 et seq.
seq.
Stanza-form, 179, 180, 237, 241, 242
;
Stave, 3
Stradella, 211
Style, evolution of, 135, 161, 173, 181,
182, 190-195, 201, 202, 206, 207,
209-211, 216-223, 241, 242, 257 (?/
246-250
" Sumer is icumen
Suite,
in," 121
Suspension, 125, 164
Symphony, 251, 252-255, 260
M., 58, 98, 99, 102,
9, 17,
251
Tetrachord, 25, 49, 76, ^y, 113

Theory, evolution of, in, 112, 120,
121, 122, 124-130
modern, 19, 67, 132
Third, 22, 38, 40, 73
Third-tone, 2, 48
Tie, II, 153
Time-accompaniment, 156, 157
Time-beat, 7, 8, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18,
Sanskrit, 99, 103, 184, 186, 188

Scale, origin of, 22, 36; definitions of,
24 ; mode of, 24, 55 et seq., 76-80,

16 ; degrees of, 2, 5, 24, 25, 28, 59 ;
evolution of, 44 et seq.
chromatic, 4, 21, 75; diatonic,
25, 38, 48, 75-77 ; pentatonic, 45,
50, 52, 53. 54. 63, 64; Gregorian,
114, 116
Scale-tone, 96, 97, 102, 114-116
Scherzo, 221, 253
Schiarky, 235
Schubert, 19, 159, 166, 254
Score, 4, 31
Scotus Erigena, no, in
Semitone, 2, 45, 46, 47
Sequence, 25, 168, 169
Sevenths, diminished, 73 dominant, 65,
74 major, 72 minor, 74
Siam, 52, 53, 105, 106
Singers, 117, 118, 195-198
S.
184, 185, 186
142, 157, 184

Time-figure, 148-155
Time-idiom, 155, 159-162, 164, 209,
217, 218, 263
Time-imitation, 201
Time-notation, 2, 9, 11, 15 et seq.
Time-outline, i, 2, 9, 10, 148 et seq.,
158. 159; promiscuous, 194, 201, 262
Time-signature. 17, 18
Time-standard, simple. 7 et seq. ; com-
pound, 1 2 et seq. ,181

Time-system, European, 7
seq. ; Asiatic, 183 et seq.
of above, 188-190
et seq..
;
12 et
comparison
Tonality, 138, 163, 247

European, 27, 39, 40, 84, 85 <r/
seq., 129, 141-144, 177, 180, 248;
Asiatic, 55, 95 et seq.
Tone,
Tone-movement,
Tonic, 25, 39, 40, 64, 80, iT,, 85, 86,

89, 91 ; Eastern, 96-98, 102
Tonic Sol-fa, 3
Transposition, 55, 58
" Treatise of Cologne," 1 1
Treble, 4, 42
Triad, consonant, 38 et seq., 63, 64;
chromatic, 81, 83
dissonant, 72
Triplet, 185
;
"Tristan" (Wagner), 214

Tritone, yy
Tuning, 5, 27, 33, 49, 107, 108

Turkey, 32, 235
Types of form, evolution of, 195-200,
205, 206, 224-228, 230-232, 233 et
seq..
247, 252-253
INDEX
u
Villoteau, G. A., 157

Viol,
24, 246
Virginal, 238
Vitalianus, Pope, 116
I
Union of strict and
free,
136, 138, 169
Unit, 13s, 137, 139, 199

Unity, 134, 13s. 19s. 243. 244. 24s,
250, 251, 255
W
Wagner. 86, 170, 172, 214. 215, 218,
Value,
p, 10, 16,
194, 247
Variations, 237-242
Variety, 136, 165, I95
Veriic hymn, 1 14
Printed by
251, 259, 260, 261

Waldstein sonata (P)eethoven). 253
Wave-rhythm, 138
Weber. 258
Welsh music, 131, 196-197, 239-240
Rallantvne, Hanson & Co.

Edinburgh &^ London
Date Due
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tj
952
7815 G52.
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ML 448
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Margaret. Henret.-ta,
lass-
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Analysis of The Evolution of Musical Form

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Analysis of The Evolution of Musical Form

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ANALYSIS OF THE EVOLUTION

BY THE SAME AUTHOR

THE RHYTHMIC CONCEPTION

8vo, 3s. 6d. net

LONGMANS, GREEN AND

LONDON, NEW YORK, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA

"THE RHYTHMIC CONCEPTION OF

LONGMANS, GREEN AND

PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON

YORK, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA

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A voice that from on high doth

singing a nenv song.

he nvho fain ivoulcl speak his thought of thee

Falls to a silent tuonder as he hears

The footstep of thy coming

grotus upon thy henlson.

Through soul of man thou

the deep sea thy tide doth leave his shore.

ive cease to speak thy rhythmic tongue

art greater than our thoughts.

general drift of this theory of music has already

be the application of the evolutionary

principle to practical music, the essential motive

possible to produce an analysis which, as promised

theory has arisen not from abstract ideas, but

out of the study of music.

about music as an endeavour to translate into the terms

the musical imagination

themselves the intuitive knowledge

to hold the mirror

following up of rhythmic principles introduces

wider range into musical

In the words of one of the most broadminded

of our musicians, the late Mr. Alfred Hipkins, "

language, but has not yet found

of this Analysis could not be better

arranged under two main headings,

which are a guide to

contents generally rather than

exact divisions of the subject.

much that is already familiar to experienced musicians.

lished, particularly in the present transitional conditions

So much do the new and the

together that controversial matter, though

purposely reduced to the smallest possible

Therefore the ordinary text-

book manner would convey a

also a deeper reason.

expression, art should surely be taught as

and not as pseudo-science.

deal with facts,

not as an end in themselves, but as a means to an end.

the explanation of artistic

technique as the outward form of

merely as wholesale consumers of ordered

not planned to act as a mechanical guide to music,

nor to cram students for examination.

aims at pointing out the lines upon which

ing others to think and study for themselves.

stimulating the exercise of the reasoning powers upon