ASSIGNMENT-2
NIKHIL LINCOLN
ROLL NO -47
S6 ME
Tool makers microscope is shown in fig. The optical head can be moved up or
down the vertical column and can be clamped at any height by means of clamping screw.
The table which is mounted on the base of the instrument can be moved in two mutually
perpendicular horizontal directions (longitudinal and lateral) by means of accurate
micrometer screw having thimble scale and venires.
1)
2) Principle of measurement: .
A ray of light from a light source fig. b is reflected by a mirror through 90 It then
passes through a transparent glass plate (on which flat parts may be placed ). A shadow
image of the outline or counter of the workspaces passes through the objective of the
optical head and is projected by a system of three prisms to a ground glass screen.
Observations are made through an eyepiece. Measurements are made by means of cross
lines engraved on the ground glass screen. The screen can be rotated through 360; the angle of
rotation is read through an auxiliary eyepiece
PROFILE PROJECTOR
APPLICATION
Profile projectors are robust measuring tools commonly used in machine shops, quality
assurance departments and occasionally on assembly shop floors. They are suitable for
measuring and quality control for a wide range of size and weights of objects. The most basic use
of a profile projector is to identify a point or edge on the shadow and from this point to calculate
a length. By magnifying the image, the operator is less likely to make a mistake when deciding
A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces images of
a sample by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in
the sample, producing various signals that contain information about the sample's surface
topography and composition. The electron beam is generally scanned in a raster scan pattern, and
the beam's position is combined with the detected signal to produce an image. SEM can achieve
resolution better than 1 nanometer. Specimens can be observed in high vacuum, in low vacuum,
in wet conditions (in environmental SEM), and at a wide range of cryogenic or elevated
temperatures.
The most common SEM mode is detection of secondary electrons emitted by atoms excited by
the electron beam. The number of secondary electrons that can be detected depends, among other
things, on the angle at which beam meets surface of specimen , i.e. on specimen topography. By
scanning the sample and collecting the secondary electrons that are emitted using a special
detector, an image displaying the topography of the surface is created.
Transmission electron microscopes are often used in electron diffraction mode. The advantages
of electron diffraction over X-ray crystallography are that the specimen need not be a single
crystal or even a polycrystalline powder, and also that the Fourier transform reconstruction of the
object's magnified structure occurs physically and thus avoids the need for solving the phase
problem faced by the X-ray crystallographers after obtaining their X-ray diffraction patterns of a
single crystal or polycrystalline powder. The major disadvantage of the transmission electron
microscope is the need for extremely thin sections of the specimens, typically about 100
nanometers. Biological specimens are typically required to be chemically fixed, dehydrated and
embedded in a polymer resin to stabilize them sufficiently to allow ultrathin sectioning. Sections
of biological specimens, organic polymers and similar materials may require special treatment
with heavy atom labels in order to achieve the required image contrast.
STRAIGHT EDGE
A straightedge is a tool with an edge free from curves, or straight, used for transcribing
straight lines, or checking the straightness of lines. If it has equally spaced markings along its
length, it is usually called a ruler.Straightedges are used in the automotive service and machining
industry to check the flatness of machined mating surfaces.True straightness can in some cases
be checked by using a laser line level as an optical straightedge: it can illuminate an accurately
straight line on a flat surface such as the edge of a plank or shelf.A pair of straightedges called
winding sticks are used in woodworking to amplify twist (wind) in pieces of wood.
SURFACE PLATE
A surface plate is a solid, flat plate used as the main horizontal reference plane for
precision inspection, marking out (layout), and tooling setup.The surface plate is often used as
the baseline for all measurements to the workpiece, therefore one primary surface is finished
extremely flat with accuracy up to 0.00001 in or 250 nm for a grade AA or AAA plate. Surface
plates are a very common tool in the manufacturing industry and are often permanently attached
to robotic type inspection devices such as a coordinate-measuring machine. Plates are typically
square or rectangular. One current British Standard includes specifications for plates from 160
mm x 100 mm to 2500 mm x 1600 mm.
There are varying grades used to describe the accuracy of some metrology equipment such as:
AA, A, B and Workshop grade. While workshop grade is the least accurate, the plates are often
held to a high degree of flatness.
Surface plates must be calibrated on a regular basis to ensure that chipping, warping or wear has
not occurred. A common problem with surface plates are specific areas or a section that is
frequently used by another tool (such as a height gauge) that will cause wear to a specific point
resulting in an uneven surface and reduced overall accuracy to the plate. Tools and workpieces
may also cause damage when dropped on the surface plate or when material chips have not been
removed. This will result in erroneous measurements and can only be fixed by resurfacing the
plate.
OPTICAL SQUARENESS
Squareness of any two machined surfaces canbe easily checked by using the auto-collimator. The
axis of the incident beam from the auto-collimator forms the measuring datum. An optical square
is utilised for turning the incidentbean through exactly 90. In this test, it is assumed that the two
surface faces are perfectlystraight. A stainless steel mirror block with a flat base is used for the
horizontal surface foraligning the collimator with the surface. A reading is thus taken in
collimator at position A
Measurement of Squareness
The angle of 90 is probably the most important angle in engineering applications. It is assigned
several names as square, normal, right angle and it is represented for most practical purposes by
squares, rectangular blocks etc. Probably the achievement of modern sciences would have not
reached the present state of advancement if right angle was unattainable to within a close degree
of accuracy. Its importance is realized from the following applications. The cross slide of lathe
must move exactly at 90 to the spindle axis in order to produce a flat face during facing
operation. The spindle of depth micrometer
must be square to the locating face in order to avoid any errors in measurement. The column and
table of milling machine must be at 90 to each other. For most of the purposes where high
degree of accuracy is not desired, the workpiece can be tested against an engineers square or
square block. It simply shows whether the two surfaces of a workpiece are at right angle or not
and judgement is purely based on eye. In order to know the amount of error and for checking
squares and square blocks, the following methods
can be used.
Condition
Test set up
Method in brief
Squareness of two planes 1
and 2 is checked by placing the
square on one plane and then
checking the parallelism of
at 90 to each other
axes of rotation.
(iii) An axis at 90 to a
plane.
of rotation.
described.
(iv) An axis at 90 to
the intersection of two
planes.
explanatory.
planes is at 90 to
another plane.
planes, are at 90 to
each other.
Parts
Coordinate-measuring machines include three main components:
The main structure which include three axes of motion. The material used to
construct the moving frame has varied over the years. Granite and steel were used in
the early CMM's. Today all the major CMM manufacturers build frames from
aluminium alloy or some derivative and also use ceramic to increase the stiffness of the
Z axis for scanning applications. Few CMM builders today still manufacture granite
frame CMM due to market requirement for improved metrology dynamics and
increasing trend to install CMM outside of the quality lab. Typically only low volume
CMM builders and domestic manufacturers in China and India are still manufacturing
granite CMM due to low technology approach and easy entry to become a CMM frame
builder. The increasing trend towards scanning also requires the CMM Z axis to be
stiffer and new materials have been introduced such as ceramic and silicon carbide.
Probing system