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METROLOGY AND MACHINE TOOLS

ASSIGNMENT-2
NIKHIL LINCOLN
ROLL NO -47
S6 ME

TOOL MAKERS MICROSCOPE


The tool makers microscope is a versatile instrument that measure by optical means
with no pressure being involved, thus very useful for measurement on small and delicate parts.
It is designed for:
a) Measurement on parts of complex form e.g. - profile of external thread, tool,
templates, gauges, etc.
b) Measuring centre to centre distance of holes in any plane.
c) A variety of linear measurements.
d) Accurate angular measurements

Tool makers microscope is shown in fig. The optical head can be moved up or

down the vertical column and can be clamped at any height by means of clamping screw.
The table which is mounted on the base of the instrument can be moved in two mutually
perpendicular horizontal directions (longitudinal and lateral) by means of accurate
micrometer screw having thimble scale and venires.

1)
2) Principle of measurement: .

A ray of light from a light source fig. b is reflected by a mirror through 90 It then
passes through a transparent glass plate (on which flat parts may be placed ). A shadow
image of the outline or counter of the workspaces passes through the objective of the
optical head and is projected by a system of three prisms to a ground glass screen.
Observations are made through an eyepiece. Measurements are made by means of cross
lines engraved on the ground glass screen. The screen can be rotated through 360; the angle of
rotation is read through an auxiliary eyepiece
PROFILE PROJECTOR

A profile projector is an optical measurement tool that magnifies a samples surface


features to allow measurement on a linear/circular scale. A profile projector is also referred to as
an optical comparator, or even known as a shadowgraph. A profile projector projects a magnified
profile image of an area or feature of a work piece onto a screen most commonly using diascopic
illumination. Dimensions can be measured directly on the screen or compared to a standard
reference at the correct magnification. For accuracy, it is important that the magnification does
not change with perspective, i.e. its position or the view point of the operator. Telecentric lenses
are, therefore, highly desirable. The screen often has a grid and this grid can often be rotated
through 360 degrees to align with an edge as displayed on the screen. Point positions,
measurements, and calculations may also be performed using a simple digital read out device. A
computer may be added to a profile projector system for edge detection, thereby eliminating
some human error.

APPLICATION
Profile projectors are robust measuring tools commonly used in machine shops, quality
assurance departments and occasionally on assembly shop floors. They are suitable for
measuring and quality control for a wide range of size and weights of objects. The most basic use
of a profile projector is to identify a point or edge on the shadow and from this point to calculate
a length. By magnifying the image, the operator is less likely to make a mistake when deciding

where the edge or point starts.

Profile images can also be used to make simple stop / go decision


by, for example, matching an image against a standard to determine whether a part has been
made correctly.
OPTICAL MICROSCOPE
The optical microscope, often referred to as light microscope, is a type of microscope
which uses visible light and a system of lenses to magnify images of small samples.
Optical microscopes are the oldest design of microscope and were possibly invented in
their present compound form in the 17th century. Basic optical microscopes can be very
simple, although there are many complex designs which aim to improve resolution and
sample contrast.
The image from an optical microscope can be captured by normal light-sensitive cameras
to generate a micrograph. Originally images were captured by photographic film but
modern developments in CMOS and charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras allow the
capture of digital images. Purely digital microscopes are now available which use a CCD
camera to examine a sample, showing the resulting image directly on a computer screen
without the need for eyepieces.
Alternatives to optical microscopy which do not use visible light include scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM).

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces images of
a sample by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in
the sample, producing various signals that contain information about the sample's surface
topography and composition. The electron beam is generally scanned in a raster scan pattern, and

the beam's position is combined with the detected signal to produce an image. SEM can achieve
resolution better than 1 nanometer. Specimens can be observed in high vacuum, in low vacuum,
in wet conditions (in environmental SEM), and at a wide range of cryogenic or elevated
temperatures.
The most common SEM mode is detection of secondary electrons emitted by atoms excited by
the electron beam. The number of secondary electrons that can be detected depends, among other
things, on the angle at which beam meets surface of specimen , i.e. on specimen topography. By
scanning the sample and collecting the secondary electrons that are emitted using a special
detector, an image displaying the topography of the surface is created.

Scanning process and image formation


In a typical SEM, an electron beam is thermionically emitted from an electron gun
fitted with a tungsten filament cathode. Tungsten is normally used in thermionic electron guns
because it has the highest melting point and lowest vapor pressure of all metals, thereby allowing
it to be electrically heated for electron emission, and because of its low cost. Other types of
electron emitters include lanthanum hexaboride (LaB\6) cathodes, which can be used in a
standard tungsten filament SEM if the vacuum system is upgraded or field emission guns (FEG),
which may be of the cold-cathode type using tungsten single crystal emitters or the thermally
assisted Schottky type, that use emitters of zirconium oxide.
The electron beam, which typically has an energy ranging from 0.2 keV to 40 keV, is focused by
one or two condenser lenses to a spot about 0.4 nm to 5 nm in diameter. The beam passes
through pairs of scanning coils or pairs of deflector plates in the electron column, typically in the
final lens, which deflect the beam in the x and y axes so that it scans in a raster fashion over a

rectangular area of the sample surface.


When the primary electron beam interacts with the sample, the electrons lose energy by repeated
random scattering and absorption within a teardrop-shaped volume of the specimen known as the
interaction volume, which extends from less than 100 nm to approximately 5 m into the
surface. The size of the interaction volume depends on the electron's landing energy, the atomic
number of the specimen and the specimen's density. The energy exchange between the electron
beam and the sample results in the reflection of high-energy electrons by elastic scattering,

emission of secondary electrons by inelastic scattering and the emission of electromagnetic


radiation, each of which can be detected by specialized detectors. The beam current absorbed by
the specimen can also be detected and used to create images of the distribution of specimen
current. Electronic amplifiers of various types are used to amplify the signals, which are
displayed as variations in brightness on a computer monitor (or, for vintage models, on a cathode
ray tube). Each pixel of computer video memory is synchronized with the position of the beam
on the specimen in the microscope, and the resulting image is therefore a distribution map of the
intensity of the signal being emitted from the scanned area of the specimen. In older microscopes
images may be captured by photography from a high-resolution cathode ray tube, but in modern
machines they are digitised and saved as digital images.

Transmission Electron Microscope


The original form of electron microscope, the transmission electron microscope (TEM)
uses a high voltage electron beam to create an image. The electron beam is produced by an
electron gun, commonly fitted with a tungsten filament cathode as the electron source. The
electron beam is accelerated by an anode typically at +100 keV (40 to 400 keV) with respect to
the cathode, focused by electrostatic and electromagnetic lenses, and transmitted through the
specimen that is in part transparent to electrons and in part scatters them out of the beam. When
it emerges from the specimen, the electron beam carries information about the structure of the
specimen that is magnified by the objective lens system of the microscope. The spatial variation
in this information (the "image") may be viewed by projecting the magnified electron image onto
a fluorescent viewing screen coated with a phosphor or scintillator material such as zinc sulfide.
Alternatively, the image can be photographically recorded by exposing a photographic film or
plate directly to the electron beam, or a high-resolution phosphor may be coupled by means of a
lens optical system or a fibre optic light-guide to the sensor of a CCD (charge-coupled device)
camera. The image detected by the CCD may be displayed on a monitor or computer.
Resolution of the TEM is limited primarily by spherical aberration, but a new generation of
aberration correctors have been able to partially overcome spherical aberration to increase
resolution. Hardware correction of spherical aberration for the high-resolution transmission
electron microscopy (HRTEM) has allowed the production of images with resolution below 0.5
angstrom (50 picometres) and magnifications above 50 million times. The ability to determine
the positions of atoms within materials has made the HRTEM an important tool for nano-

technologies research and development.

Transmission electron microscopes are often used in electron diffraction mode. The advantages
of electron diffraction over X-ray crystallography are that the specimen need not be a single
crystal or even a polycrystalline powder, and also that the Fourier transform reconstruction of the
object's magnified structure occurs physically and thus avoids the need for solving the phase
problem faced by the X-ray crystallographers after obtaining their X-ray diffraction patterns of a
single crystal or polycrystalline powder. The major disadvantage of the transmission electron
microscope is the need for extremely thin sections of the specimens, typically about 100
nanometers. Biological specimens are typically required to be chemically fixed, dehydrated and
embedded in a polymer resin to stabilize them sufficiently to allow ultrathin sectioning. Sections
of biological specimens, organic polymers and similar materials may require special treatment
with heavy atom labels in order to achieve the required image contrast.
STRAIGHT EDGE
A straightedge is a tool with an edge free from curves, or straight, used for transcribing
straight lines, or checking the straightness of lines. If it has equally spaced markings along its
length, it is usually called a ruler.Straightedges are used in the automotive service and machining
industry to check the flatness of machined mating surfaces.True straightness can in some cases
be checked by using a laser line level as an optical straightedge: it can illuminate an accurately
straight line on a flat surface such as the edge of a plank or shelf.A pair of straightedges called
winding sticks are used in woodworking to amplify twist (wind) in pieces of wood.

SURFACE PLATE
A surface plate is a solid, flat plate used as the main horizontal reference plane for
precision inspection, marking out (layout), and tooling setup.The surface plate is often used as
the baseline for all measurements to the workpiece, therefore one primary surface is finished
extremely flat with accuracy up to 0.00001 in or 250 nm for a grade AA or AAA plate. Surface
plates are a very common tool in the manufacturing industry and are often permanently attached
to robotic type inspection devices such as a coordinate-measuring machine. Plates are typically
square or rectangular. One current British Standard includes specifications for plates from 160
mm x 100 mm to 2500 mm x 1600 mm.

There are varying grades used to describe the accuracy of some metrology equipment such as:
AA, A, B and Workshop grade. While workshop grade is the least accurate, the plates are often
held to a high degree of flatness.
Surface plates must be calibrated on a regular basis to ensure that chipping, warping or wear has
not occurred. A common problem with surface plates are specific areas or a section that is
frequently used by another tool (such as a height gauge) that will cause wear to a specific point
resulting in an uneven surface and reduced overall accuracy to the plate. Tools and workpieces
may also cause damage when dropped on the surface plate or when material chips have not been
removed. This will result in erroneous measurements and can only be fixed by resurfacing the
plate.

OPTICAL SQUARENESS
Squareness of any two machined surfaces canbe easily checked by using the auto-collimator. The
axis of the incident beam from the auto-collimator forms the measuring datum. An optical square
is utilised for turning the incidentbean through exactly 90. In this test, it is assumed that the two
surface faces are perfectlystraight. A stainless steel mirror block with a flat base is used for the
horizontal surface foraligning the collimator with the surface. A reading is thus taken in
collimator at position A

HOW TO CHECK INTERNAL RIGHT ANGLE


For this method, we require two steel balls of equal size and slip gauges. First two balls of equal
diameter are placed in each bottom corner of the taper shown in Fig. 9.6 and the space between
the balls is filled with a correct combination of slip gauges. The length of slip gauges which just
fits in the space between the balls must be noted very carefully and let it be l

A word of caution in measurement of small taper measurement by balls should always be


remembered. If ball is allowed to drop in tapered hole, it will wedge in the taper and may be
several thousands of mm lower. The weight of the ball and the measuring pressure exerted over it
can cause appreciable axial movement to give inaccurate readings.

Measurement of Squareness
The angle of 90 is probably the most important angle in engineering applications. It is assigned
several names as square, normal, right angle and it is represented for most practical purposes by
squares, rectangular blocks etc. Probably the achievement of modern sciences would have not
reached the present state of advancement if right angle was unattainable to within a close degree
of accuracy. Its importance is realized from the following applications. The cross slide of lathe
must move exactly at 90 to the spindle axis in order to produce a flat face during facing
operation. The spindle of depth micrometer
must be square to the locating face in order to avoid any errors in measurement. The column and
table of milling machine must be at 90 to each other. For most of the purposes where high
degree of accuracy is not desired, the workpiece can be tested against an engineers square or
square block. It simply shows whether the two surfaces of a workpiece are at right angle or not

and judgement is purely based on eye. In order to know the amount of error and for checking
squares and square blocks, the following methods
can be used.

Squareness Testing Using Dial Gauge


This method is particularly suitable for checking the
squareness of a block whose opposite faces are supposed to be parallel. It is assumed that the
squareness of the block has already been assured to a reasonable accuracy by the use of square
etc., as otherwise the full sensitivity of the method cant be obtained. The instrument for this
purpose is designed by N.P.L. and is very suitable for checking squareness while manufacturing a square block. The instrument consists of parallel strip (framework) and a flat base. A
knife edge and some form of indicator is mounted on the framework as shown in Fig. 7.21.
The other tests of squareness of lines and planes are given below in the tabular form.

Condition

Test set up

Method in brief
Squareness of two planes 1
and 2 is checked by placing the
square on one plane and then
checking the parallelism of

(i) Two planes (1 and 2)

2nd plane with the free arm of

at 90 to each other

the square by sliding the dial


indicator (mounted on a base)
along 2nd plane and its feeler
moving against free arm of the
square.

(ii) Two axes at 90 to


each other
(a) Both axes fixed
The dial gauge mounted on
arm and fixed on the mandrel
(b) One axis being axis
of rotation and other
fixed.

is brought into contact with


the cylinder representing fixed
axis at two points 1 and 2,180
apart and deviation expressed
in relation to distance between
1 and 2.
The test is conducted in the
same way as (ii)-(b) but the

(c) Both the axes being

cylinder representing 2nd axis

axes of rotation.

of rotation is brought into the


mean position of the run out in
the plane of measurement.

(iii) An axis at 90 to a

Test set up is self explanatory,

plane.

but the test is carried out in

(a) axis is fixed.

two perpendicular directions.

(h) Axis being the axis

This test has already been

of rotation.

described.

(iv) An axis at 90 to
the intersection of two

The test set up is self

planes.

explanatory.

(a) Axis is fixed.

First reading is taken by


making the feeler of the dial
indicator to touch on a V-block
resting on two intersecting
plane surfaces. (The dial in(b) Axis being the axis
of rotation.

dicator is mounted on the


spindle). The second reading is
noted by rotating the spindle
along with dial by 180 and
moving the V-block so as to
bring the feeler into contact
with the same point on the
block.
In this test, either the square
or the dial indicator fitted with
a suitable base is allowed to

(v) Intersection of two

rest on the intersecting planes

planes is at 90 to

and the dial indicator is moved

another plane.

with its feeler resting against


the arms of dial gauge. The test
is made in two perpendicular
planes.

(vi) Two straight lines,


each formed by the intersection of two

Test is self explanatory.

planes, are at 90 to
each other.

Coordinate-measuring machine (CMM)


A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is a device for measuring the physical
geometrical characteristics of an object. This machine may be manually controlled by an
operator or it may be computer controlled. Measurements are defined by a probe attached
to the third moving axis of this machine. Probes may be mechanical, optical, laser, or white
light, among others. A machine which takes readings in six degrees of freedom and displays
these readings in mathematical form is known as a CMM.

Parts
Coordinate-measuring machines include three main components:

The main structure which include three axes of motion. The material used to
construct the moving frame has varied over the years. Granite and steel were used in
the early CMM's. Today all the major CMM manufacturers build frames from
aluminium alloy or some derivative and also use ceramic to increase the stiffness of the
Z axis for scanning applications. Few CMM builders today still manufacture granite
frame CMM due to market requirement for improved metrology dynamics and
increasing trend to install CMM outside of the quality lab. Typically only low volume
CMM builders and domestic manufacturers in China and India are still manufacturing
granite CMM due to low technology approach and easy entry to become a CMM frame
builder. The increasing trend towards scanning also requires the CMM Z axis to be
stiffer and new materials have been introduced such as ceramic and silicon carbide.

Probing system

Data collection and reduction system - typically includes a machine controller,


desktop computer and application software.

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