Chemistry Synopsis Handouts

BASIC
ASIC CONCEPTS SYNOPSIS HAN

ANDOUT 1
PREPARED BY OSAMA HASAN
Matter: Everything that

at has mass and occupies space.
Mass: The amount of matte
matter present in a body.
Element: A simple substan

ubstance that couldn’t be
divided further into more
re substances.
subs (It’s further “The branch of Physical
Phy Science
classified into metals andd non-metals)
non which studies the e composition,
co
Compound: Two or more elements chemically structure, propertie
erties and changes
combined together in a fixed proportion.
p occurring insidee th
the matter is
Mixture: A substance that ccontains two or referred as Chemis
mistry.”
more elements or compounds
ounds.
Homogenous Mixture ure: A mixture that has
uniform composition through
roughout its mass.
Heterogeneous Mixtu ixture: A mixture that has different composition
ion throughout
thr its
mass.
Chemical Symbols: A oone- or two-letter designation derived from the name n of an
element to represent it conven
onveniently.
Chemical Formulae: iindicates the composition of a compound through rough symbols of
elements present and subscrip
bscripts to indicate the relative number of atomss of each
ea element.
INTERNATIONAL
L SY
SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI):
The modernized metric
tric system
sy using the decimal system as its base is now referred as
SI. It has seven basic quantities.
ities.
S. o. Property
perty Abbreviation Unit Abbrevia
breviation
1. Mass m Kilogram Kg
2. Length L Meter M
3. Time t Second S
4. Electric Current
urrent I Ampere A
5. Temperature T Kelvin K
6. Amount off Subs
Substance n Mole Mol
7. Luminous Intens
Intensity candela cd
Derived Quantities: Th The quantities obtained by the multiplication
n or division
di of SI 1
quantities. Example:
NSTC-6 PREPARATION PR
ROGRAMME | AGA KHAN HIGHER SECOND
NDARY SCHOOL,
KARACHI.
BASIC CONCEPTS SYNOPSIS HANDOUT 1
Mass kg Volume = length x Unit = m x m x m

Density = Unit = breadth x height = m3
Volume m
Temperature Measurements:
Three different scales are widely used for measuring temperature, namely, Celsius
(centigrade), Fahrenheit and Kelvin. The conversion formulae for them are as follows:
°C °F − 32
= K = °C + 273
5 9
UNIT CONVERSIONS:
SI units could be derived by combining prefixes with a root unit. Some basic prefixes are
as follows:
S. o. Prefix Multiple Scientific otation Abbreviation
6
1. Mega- 1,000,000 10 M
2. Kilo- 1,000 103 k
2
3. Hector 100 10 h
1
4. Deka- 10 10 da
-1
5. Deci- 0.1 10 d
-2
6. Centi- 0.01 10 c
-3
7. Milli- 0.001 10 m
-6
8. Micro 0.000,001 10 µ
9. Nano- 0.000,000,001 10-9 n
-12
10. Pico 0.000,000,000,001 10 p
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES: “The reliable digits which are known with certainty.”
Rules:
All non-zero numbers are significant
Zeros placed in between non-zero numbers or after a decimal point are significant.
Zero that locates the decimal point on number less that (1) is non-significant.
Zero that locates the decimal point on number larger than (1) is significant.
NSTC-6 PREPARATION PROGRAMME | AGA KHAN HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL,

KARACHI.
CHEMICAL LANGUAGE SYNOPSIS HANDOUT 2
LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION:

Law of Conservation of Mass (Indestructibility of Matter): “In a
chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants is equal to the total mass of products i.e.
matter can neither be created nor be destroyed.” It was put forward by Lavoiser in 1785.
Law of Definite Proportion: “When elements combine to form compounds, they
do so in definite proportions by weight. A compound always has the same proportion by
whatever method it is prepared.”It was given by Joseph Proust in 1799.
Law of Multiple Proportions: "When two elements combine to form more than
one compound, the different weights of one of the elements combining with a fixed
weight of the other, bears a simple ratio to each other." The law was proved by Berzilius
& Stas.
Law of Reciprocal or Equivalent Proportion: "The weights of two
elements combining separately with a fixed weight of a third element do so with each
other in multiple ratios."
BASIC CONCEPTS:
Mole: “Atomic mass of an element, molecular mass of compounds or formula mass of
an ionic substance when expressed in grams.”

Mole =

Avogadro’s number: “The constant number (6.02 x 1023) atoms, molecules or ions
contained by one mole of any substance.”
Atom: the basic building block of an element that retains the properties of that element
and can enter into a chemical reaction.
Molecule: The smallest particle of a substance that retains the physical and chemical
properties of that substance.
Empirical Formula: The simplest formula of a compound which represents the
elements present in a compound and the simplest ratio between them.
DETERMINATION OF EMPIRICAL FORMULA:

S. No Steps
1. Elements present in the compound
2. Mass of each Element

3. Percentage of Each Element ( × )
!
4. Mole Ratio ("# !) 1
5. $ %#
Atomic Ratio (& $ %#)

KARACHI.
Molecular Formula: The formula which represents the elements present and the
exact number of atoms of different elements present in a molecule of that compound.
DETERMINATION OF MOLECULAR FORMULA:

Molecular formula = [Empirical Formula] n
'(
Where n =
) *(

Molar Concentrations: The molar concentration (M) is the number of moles of the
solute contained in one cubic decimeter (dm3) or litre of solution.
No. of moles of solute

Molarity = M =
1 litre of solution
Molal Concentrations: A molal concentration (m) is the number of moles of the

solute per kilogram of solvent.
No. of moles of solute

Molality = m =
1 kilogram of solvent
% Aqueous Solutions of Compounds: A 10 % aqueous solution of a solute

contains 10 g of solute per 100 g solution i.e. 10 g of solute mixed with 90 g water.
Percentage Concentrations: The general formula is:

No. of grams of solute
% Concentratiions = x 100%
No. of grams of solvent
Stoichiometry: the study of relationship between the amount of reactant or product

involved in a chemical equation based on balanced chemical equation.
DIRECTIONS FOR STOICHIOMETRY:
Mass-Mass Mass-Mole Relationship Volume-Volume Mass-Volume

Relationship Relationship Relationship
E $ Formula Mass Formula Mass
× F## × CoefHicient
E $ No. of Moles Formula Mass Mass → Moles 2
× F## → No. of Moles Required × CoefHicient → Moles Required
→ $ J# → Volume → Volume

KARACHI.
Limiting Reactant: “The reactant which is consumed first of all during the
chemical reaction is called Limiting Reactant.”
DIRECTIONS FOR LIMITING REACTANT:
O" + QR + SF → T
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
O" → T QR → T SF → T
Mass of A → Mole of A Mass of B → Mole of B Mass of C → Mole of C
→ Mole of D → Mole of D → Mole of D
The source that yields the least quantity of moles would be the limiting reactant.
SOME FACTS TO REMEMBER:

1. 1 mole of a substanceYelement, compound\
= 6.02 × 10_` particles Yatoms, molecules\
2. 1 mole of a gas = 22.4 dm` at S. T. P Y0°C and 1 atm pressure\
3. 1 mole of an ionic compoundYNaCl\

= 6.02 × 10_` Na ions and 6.02 × 10_` Cl ions
= 2 × 6.02 × 10_` ions
4. 1 mole of covalent compound YHCl\ = 6.02 × 10_` molecules of HCl

= 6.02 × 10_` atoms of H and 6.02 × 10_` atoms of Cl
= 2 × 6.02 × 10_` atoms.
5. 1 atm = 14.7 psi gpounds per square inch, lbiin_ j

=760 mm of Hg=29.921 in. of Hg
= 760 torr = 20 tons = 1.01325 bar
= 13.6 mm of H20

KARACHI.
CHEMICAL TECHNIQUES SYNOPSIS HANDOUT 3
SEPARATION TECHNIQUES:
The separated products could differ in chemical properties or some physical property, such as
size, or crystal modification or other separation into different components.
“A separation process is used to transform a mixture of substances into two or more distinct
products.”
Separation # Technique Explanation

Between
Solute Solvent
S S 1 Destructive Pyrolysis conducted in a distillation apparatus (retort) to
O O Distillation allow the volatile products to be collected.
L L 2 Melting Alloys can be separated by melting them on their
I & I respective temperatures.
D D 3 Wind winnowing An agricultural method developed by ancient cultures for
S S separating grain from chaff.
1 Crystallization A chemical solid-liquid separation technique, in which
mass transfer of a solute from the liquid solution to a pure
solid crystalline phase occurs.
2 Filtration Mechanical or physical operation which is used for the
separation of solids from liquids by interposing a medium
to fluid, through which it can pass.
L 3 Decantation Process for the separation of mixtures, carefully pouring a
S I solution from a container, leaving the precipitate
O Q (sediments) in the bottom of the container
L & U 4 Distillation Used for separating solids dissolved in liquid
I I 5 Dissolved Air Water treatment process that clarifies wastewaters (or
D D Floatation other waters) by the removal of suspended matter such as
S S oil or solids.
6 Solid-phase A separation process that is used to remove solid or semi-
extraction (SPE) solid compounds from a mixture of impurities based on
their physical and chemical properties
7 Flocculation Process by which fine particulates are caused to clump
together into floc or flakes. The floc or flakes may then
float to the top of the liquid, settle to the bottom of the
liquid, or can be readily filtered from the liquid
8 Cyclonic Removing particulates from water stream, without the use
Separation of filters, through vortex separation.
S 1 Cyclonic Removing particulates from an air or gas, without the use
O G Separation of filters, through vortex separation.
L & A 2 Filtration Mechanical or physical operation which is used for the 1
I S separation of solids from gases by interposing a medium
D to fluid, through which it can pass.

KARACHI.
1 Decantation Separating a liquid from a solid sediment

2 Heating of solid materials to produce liquid or gaseous
Dry Distillation
L products (which may condense into solids).
Q S 3 Drying Removing liquid from a solid by vaporizing it
U O 5 Expeller Press The liquids in solids are extracted by applying high
I & L pressures.
D I 6 n-hexane Method Separation of liquids from solids by dissolving it in
S D hexane and later performing distillation of the solution.
S 7 Super Critical By exposing the solid to Super Critical Fluid which
Fluid Extraction dissolves the liquid and then separating them by a mere
change of pressure or temperature.
1 Centrifugation Involves the use of the centrifugal force for the separation
of mixtures.
2 Distillation Separating mixtures based on differences in their
volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture.
3 Fractional Process in which a fractioning column is used in
Distillation distillation apparatus to separate components of a liquid
mixture that have different boiling points.
4 Vacuum distillation whereby the pressure above the liquid mixture
Distillation to be distilled is reduced to less than its vapor pressure
L L (usually less than atmospheric pressure) causing
I I evaporation of the most volatile liquid(s) (those with the
Q Q lowest boiling points).
U U 5 Solvent Method to separate compounds based on their relative
I & I Extraction solubilities in two different immiscible liquids.
D D Method
S S 6 Electrophoresis Organic molecules, such as protein are placed in a gel. A
voltage is applied and the molecules move through the gel
because they are charged. The gel restricts the motion so
that different proteins will make different amounts of
progress in any given time.
7 Fractional Process used in process engineering and chemistry to
Freezing separate two liquids with different melting points
8 API oil-water A gravity separation device designed by using Stokes Law
separator to define the rise velocity of oil droplets based on their
density and size.
Liquid & Gas 1 Demister(Vapour) Removing liquid droplets from gas streams.
Gas & Solid ??? ???
Gas & Liquid ??? ???
Gas & Gas 1 Elutriation/ air Process for separating lighter particles from heavier ones
classification using a vertically-directed stream of gas.
GENERAL SEPARATION METHODS:
2

KARACHI.
Chromatography: Involves the separation of different dissolved substances as they travel

through a material. The dissolved substances are separated based on their interaction with the
stationary phase.
Steam Distillation: Special type of distillation (a separation process) for temperature
sensitive materials like natural aromatic compounds.
Evaporation: Process by which molecules in a liquid state (e.g. water) spontaneously
become gaseous (e.g. water vapor).
Sublimation: Conversion of solid molecules to gaseous state.
Precipitation: The formation of a solid in a solution during a chemical reaction
Fusion: Conversion of solid molecules to a liquid state.
Gravity separation: An industrial method of separating two components from a suspension
or any other homogeneous mixture where separating the components with gravity is sufficiently
practical.
Sieving: Separates wanted/desired elements from unwanted material using a tool such as a
mesh, net or other filtration or distillation methods, but it is also used for classification of
powders by particle size
Stripping is a chemical separation process where one or more components are removed from a
liquid stream by a vapor stream.
S. 0o. Technique Respective Property

1. Centrifugation Density difference
2. Cyclonic Separation Rotational Effects/Gravity
3. Elutriation/ air classification Size of the particles
4. API oil-water separator Density & size of oil-droplets
5. Fractional Freezing Melting Point
6. Fractional Distillation Boiling Point
7. Electrophoresis Electric Charge
8. Solvent Extraction Method Relative Solubility
9. Vacuum Distillation Pressure
10. Distillation Volatility
11. Dry Distillation Heating on high temperatures
12. Flocculation Density
13. Expeller Press Pressure
TERMINOLOGY:
Miscible: The liquids that can be dissolved in each other

Immiscible: The liquids that do not dissolved and could be separated.
Alloy: A Solid Solution
Ore: A natural deposit containing a mineral of an element to be extracted
3
Distillate: The material in a distillation apparatus that is collected in the receiver.

KARACHI.
Distilland: The material in a distillation apparatus that is to be distilled.
SOLUBILITY:
SOME FACTS TO REMEMBER:

Soluble Non-Soluble
All compounds of 0itrates (0O3-), Acetates All normal Carbonates (CO3-), Phosphates
(CH3COO-) and Chlorates (???). (PO33-), Silicates (???) & Sulfides (???)
All chlorides. Chlorides of Silver, Mercury and Lead
All sulfates Sulfates of lead, barium, strontium and calcium.
Hydroxides of Ca, Ba, Sr, 0a, K and 0H4. All Hydroxides
Common compounds of 0a, K and 0H4.
TRENDS OF SOLUBILITY:
State Temperature Effect Pressure Effect
Solid Usually increases with Little Effect
temperature increase
Gas Usually decreases with Solubility varies in dirtect
temperature increase proportion to the pressure
applied to it (Henry’s Law1)
FACTOR’S AFFECTING RATE OF SOLUBILITY:

The following procedures INCREASE the rate of solubility:
Pulverizing Increases surface exposed to solvent
Stirring Brings more solvent that is unsaturated into contact with solute.
Heating Increases molecular action and gives rise to mixing by convection currents.
(This heating affects the solubility as well as the rate of solubility)
4
1
Henry’s Law: “The solubility of a gas (unless the gas is very soluble) is directly proportional to the pressure
applied to the gas”
KARACHI.
QUALITATIVE TESTS FOR GASES:
Gas Tests Observations

Ammonia Smell Cautiously Sharp Odour
0H3 Test with Litmus Red litmus turns blue
Expose to HCl fumes White fumes (NH4Cl) formed
Carbon Dioxide Pass through lime water White precipitates formed
CO2 (Ca(OH)2)
Carbon Monoxide Burn it and pass product White precipitates formed
CO through lime water
Chlorine Smell Cautiously Irritating Odour
Cl2 Observe color Yellowish Green
Allow it to mix with some Gas explodes
Hydrogen air, then ignite
H2 Burns with blue flame- product H2O turns
Burn it- trap product
cobalt chloride paper from blue to pink.
Smell Cautiously Choking Odour
Hydrogen Exhale over the gas Vapour fumes form
Chloride Dissolve in water and test Blue litmus turns red
HCl with litmus
Add AgNO3 to the solution White precipitate formed
Hydrogen Sulfide Smell Cautiously Rotten Eggs’ Odour
H2 S Test with moist lead acetate Turns brown black (PbS)
paper
0itric Oxide Expose to air Colourless gas turns reddish brown
0O
0itrous Oxide Insert glowing splint Bursts into flame
02O Add Nitric oxide gas Remains colourless
Oxygen Insert glowing splint Bursts into flame
O2 Add Nitric oxide gas Turns Reddish Brown
Smell Cautiously Choking Odour
Sulfur Dioxide Allow it to bubble into purple
SO2 potassium permanganate Solution becomes colourless.
solution

KARACHI.
QUALITATIVE TESTS FOR METALS:
Method Procedure Observations

Na+ Golden Yellow
Clean a platinum wire by dipping it into dilute HNO3 and K+ Violet
heating in the Bunsen flame. Repeat until the flame is Ca 2+
Orange Red
Flame colorless. Dip a platinum wire into the substance being 2+
Sr Bright Red
Test tested (either solid or solution), and them hold it in the hot 2+
outer part of the Bunsen flame. Ba Yellowish Green
Cu2+ Bluish Green
Li+ Crimson
Pb Brown Black
Cu Black
Ag Black
Hg Black
Hydrogen Bubble Hydrogen Sulfide gas through the solution of a salt
Sulfide of the metal being tested. Check the color of the precipitate Ni Black
Test formed. Fe Black
Cd Yellow
As Light Yellow
Sb Orange
Zn White
Bi Brown
Add a few drops of cobalt nitrate to the saturated solution Al3+ Blue
Ash Test sample of the salt. Dip a piece of filter paper in the solution. Zn2+ Green
Dry it and then burn it gently in the Bunsen flame. Mg2+ Light Pink

KARACHI.
THE PERIODIC TABLE SYNOPSIS HANDOUT 4
PERIODIC DEVELOPMENT:
1. 1817 Germany Law of Triads J. W. Dobereiner
2. 1865 England Law of Octaves A. R. Newland
3. 1864-69 Germany Meyer’s Hypothesis Lothar Meyer
4. 1870 Russia Mendeleev’s Periodic Law Dimitri I. Mendeleev
5. 1911 England Modern Periodic Law Henry Mosely
PERIODIC LAWS:
Law of Triads: “If three elements are arranged in according to their atomic weights,
such that the atomic weight of the middle element is mean of the other two, then they will
exhibit similar properties.”
Law of Octaves: “If elements are arranged according to increasing atomic weights,
a given set of properties recurs at every eighth place, by analogy with the musical scales.”
Meyer’s Hypothesis: “The physical properties of elements are the periodic
function of their atomic weights.”
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law: “The properties of the elements as well as the
formulae and properties of their compounds depend in a periodic manne on the atomic
weight of elements.”
Modern Periodic Law: “The physical and chemical properties of elements are
periodic function of their atomic numbers.” OR “The physical and chemical properties of
the elements are periodic function of their electronic configuration, which vary with
increasing atomic numbers in a periodic manner.”
DOBEREINER’S TRIADS:
Expected Mass Triads with Atomic Masses
7 + 39 Li (7) Na(23) K(39)
= 23
2
35.5 + 127 Cl (35.5) Br(80) I(127)
= 81.25
2
NEWLAND’S LAW OF OCTAVES: The properties of every eighth element were
similar to those of first.
Li Be B C O F
7 9 11 12 14 16 19
a Mg Al Si P S Cl
23 24 27 28 31 33 35
K Ca
39 40
LOTHAR MEYER’S CLASSIFICATION: 1
Meyer plotted atomic volume (mass + density) against atomic weight and obtained the curves, in
which elements with similar physical properties occupied similar position in the curve. i.e.:

KARACHI.
• Alkali Metals occupied the peak positions

• Inert gases, halogens and elements giving acidic oxides occur on ascending positions
• Elements giving basic oxides occur on descending positions.
• Elements producing amphoteric oxides occupy the curves.
MODERN PERIODIC TABLE:

• So far, 110 elements have been discovered.
• Out of which 92 are naturally occurring and 18 are artificially made elements.
1 2
H He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C O F e
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
a Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co i Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr b Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
Fr Ra Ac Ku Ha
Lanthanide 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Series Ce Pr d Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Actinide 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Series Th Pa U p Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md o Lr
PERIODIC TRENDS:
Atomic Radius: The half of the distance between
two nuclei present in a homo-nuclear diatomic molecule.
It’s measured in Angstrom A°.

Atomic Radius ∝
!"
Atomic Radius ∝ Electron Shell 2
Ionic Radius: The distance between the nucleus of an

KARACHI.
ion and the point upto which nucleus has influenced

electron is called Ionic Radius. Or the radius of a
spherical ion. In f-block, atomic radius decreases
It’s also measured in Angstrom A°. with the increase in atomic number
Cations have smaller radii than neutral atom. vertically because in this case,
Anions have larger radii than the neutral atom. electrons are added to the inner d or
Ionic Radius ∝ Electron Cloud f sub-shells.

Ionic Radius ∝
!"
Ionization Potential: The amount of energy
required to remove most loosely bonded electron from
the outer most shell of an atom in its gaseous state.
Its unit is Kilo-joules per mole (KJ/mol) and is also
measures in electron volts (eV)

Ionization Potential ∝
./012 34 132 435 20

Ionization Potential ∝
!"
The removal of electron becomes easier towards
f-shell > d-shell > p-shell
Electron Affinity: The negative of the energy
change that occurs when an electron is accepted by an
atom in the gaseous state to form an anion.
A + e6 → A6 + (Energy released)
It’s measured in Kilo-joules per mole (KJ/mol).

Electron Af=inity ∝
>135/ ?@/0

Electron Af=inity ∝
!"
Elements with stable electronic configuration have zero
electron affinity.
The large values of electron affinity show that the
elements are very strong oxidizing agents.
Chlorine has the highest value of electron affinity.
Electronegativity: The force of attraction by which
an atom attracts a shared pair of electrons.
It’s measured in electron volts (eV)
Electronegativity of Fluorine is fixed as 4, which is the
highest value.

Electronegativity ∝
>135/ B/C
Electronegativity ∝ Valence Electrons
Electronegativity ∝ Ionization Potential
3
Electronegativity ∝ Electron Af=inity

KARACHI.
STATES
TES OF MATTER SYNOPSIS HANDOUT
HAN 5
Matter
Gases Liquids Solids Pla

Plasma
KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY In different

rent states
st of matter,
“Kinetic molecular theory explain
plains the physical properties of particles off any given substances
different states
tes oof matter.” differ only
nly in the manner in
To be noted that: which they ey are
ar arranged and
The molecules of a gas are re in ssuch rapid motion that they are nott different
diffe in kind.
seem to resist the force of grav
gravity.
The speed and direction of mo motion of any given molecule
are at all times unpredictable
ble.
FOR GASES:
All gases consist of tiny partic
particles called molecules except inert gases which
ich consist
co of atoms.
The molecular size is nearly
arly ne
negligible as compared to the distances between
ween the
t molecules.
The gas molecules are in conti
continuous motion in straight paths but in random
om directions,
di
Molecules collide with one ne ano
another and with the walls of container, elastically
tically.
Gas pressure is the collision
ion of gas molecules with the walls of container.
In an ideal gas, no attractive
tive or repulsive forces exist in between molecules.
Average kinetic energy of molmolecules depends upon the absolute temperature.
ture. (K.E)
( avg T
FOR LIQUIDS:
In a liquid, molecules aree fairly randomly arranged.
They consist of clusters in whi
which they are very close together.
Molecules constitute 70 % of tthe total volume.
They have a definite volume
ume bbut do not have any definite shape.
FOR SOLIDS:
In a solid, molecules are closel
closely packed.
The forces of attraction betwee
between them are very strong.
They are arranged in a fixed
ixed pa
pattern, forming a lattice of vibrating masses.
They have a definite shape.
GASES:
GAS LAWS:
Boyle’s Law: “The volume me of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional
ional to
t the pressure
exerted on it provided that tempera
emperature is kept constant.”

Mathematically, V V k PV k

On plotting volume of a gas ag
against the total pressure, a parabolic curve is obtained.
obt
While, on plotting volumee of a gas against the reciprocal of total pressure,
re, a straight
st line is 1
obtained.
NDARY SCHOOL,
KARACHI.
STATES OF MATTER SYNOPSIS HANDOUT 5
Charles’s Law: “The volume of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
Temperature, provided that pressure is kept constant.”

Mathematically, V T V k T k

When the volume is plotted against the temperature, a straight line is obtained.
At absolute zero the volume of gases is considered to become zero and all the motion ceases
to exist.
For each Celsius degree rise in temperature, the volume of a gas expands by 1/273 of it’s
volume at 0°C
Avogadro’s Law: “The volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of molecules
of the gases at constant pressure and temperature.”
Mathematically, (at constant temperature and pressure)
Graham’s Law of Diffusion: “The rates of diffusion of gases are inversely proportional
to the square root of their densities under same conditions of temperature and pressure.”

Mathematically, r r
√ √
!"#$% &#'( !"#$% )*&(
For Effusion,
!"#$% &#'( !"#$% )*&(
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure: “The total pressure of a mixture of non-reacting
gases is the sum of the partial pressures of various gases in the mixture.”
Mathematically, P = + + +- + +. + ⋯ + +0
*&#*1 (""!( $ * 2*" $1(" $ &3( 4*"

$&*1 (""!( $&*1 $1("
Gay-Lussac’s Law (Law of Pressures or Law of Combining Volumes):
“At constant volume, the pressure of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature.”

Mathematically, P T P kT k

Ideal Gas Equation or Equation of
State: PV = nRT. Units of Universal Gas Constant
Value of R When
This equation is called the equation of state because
0.082058 L.atm.mol-1.K-1 P is in atm
when the four variables – pressure, volume,
62.364 L.torr. mol-1.K-1 P is in torr
temperature and number of moles are specified, we
8.3145 J. mol-1.K-1 P is in
can define the state of gas. Pa;V is m3
BEHAVIOUR OF GASES:
Real gases deviate from ideal behavior at low
temperature and high pressure.
Real gases obey the ideal behavior at high temperature and low pressure.
GAS DENSITY:
Gases are less dense than liquids and solids.
2
Gas Density Pressure Gas Density 1CT
Gas Density Molar Masses

KARACHI.
PRESSURE:
Pressure is measured by a device named “Manometer”. ∆P,
the difference in barometric pressure Pbar and the pressure of
gas Pgas is given by the difference in mercury levels in open
and closed arms of the device.∆P = ∆h = hopen - hclosed
If Pgas is greater Pbar, Pgas = Pbar + ∆h
If Pgas is less Pbar, Pgas = Pbar – ∆h
P=g.d.h
Where g = 908m/s2;d= density, h= height of column
LIQUIDS:
VISCOSITY (η): The force of internal friction which opposes the displacement of different
layers relative to one another.
The S.I unit of viscosity is (N. sCm- )
Viscosity is an intensive property.
Viscosity Molecular Size
Viscosity Intermolecular Attraction
Viscosity 1CTemperature
Viscosity Molecualr Shape
The grading of motor oil is done on the basis of viscosity, e.g. grade 30 oil is less viscous
than the grade 40 oil.
SURFACE TENSION (γ): The force per unit length or energy per unit area of the surface
of a liquid.
Its units are N/m, J/m2, Dynes/cm, erg/cm2
Surface Tension is an intensive property.
Surface Tension Intermolecular forces
Surface Tension Hydrogen Bonding
Surface Tension 1CTemperature
VAPOUR PRESSURE: The pressure exerted by the vapours when they are in equilibrium
with the liquid phase.
It’s constant at constant temperature.
Vapour pressure depends upon the nature of liquids.
Vapour Pressure Temperature
Vapour Pressure 1CIntermolecular Forces
The vapour pressure of an aqueous solution is always lowered by addition of more solute.
On lowering of vapour pressure, the freezing point is also lowered, while the boiling point is
raised.
3

KARACHI.
STATES
TES OF MATTER SYNOPSIS HANDOUT
HAN 5
SOLIDS:
Solids
Crystalline Solids
olids Amorphous Solids
lids
Characteristic Geometrica
etrical Shape Non repeitive 3-D struct
tructure
Sharp Melting Point Melting Point varies
aries
Different phy.prop. in dif. di
directions Same phy. prop. in alll directions
direc
Posses Symmetry
etry Non-symetrical
TYPES OF CRYSTALS:
Crystal Structural Pri Principal Properties Example
Particles Fo
Forces
Ionic Electrostatic Hard, Brittle
Cations and Elect NaCl, CAF2,
Crystals Anions Attractions High M.P
Attr K2S, MgO
Nonconductors as solids but good
ood
conductors as liquids
Indefinite growth of crystal.
Many are soluble in polar solvents.
ents.
Covalent Atoms Cov
Covalent Very hard Graphite,
Crystals Bond High Melting Point or Sublime Diamond, Silica,
Low Density Carborundum,
High Refractive Index SiC, AlN, SiO2
Most are non-conductors of
electricity
Metallic Metallic Bond Lustre, Malleable, Ductile
Cations and Metal Metallic
Crystals delocalized High M.P Crystals
electrons Conductors of Electricity and Heat
Molecular Atoms or non- Disp
Dispersion M.P (Extremely low to moderate, Ice, I2, CO2,
Crystal polar molecules Fo
Forces varying with mol. Wt.)
(#on-polar) Readily sublime in some cases
Soft
Soluble in non-polar solvents
Molecular Polar Dispersion Low Melting Point
Disp HCl, H2S,
Crystal Molecules for
forces & Non-conduction of heat and CHCl2,
(Polar) dipol
dipole dipole electricity (CH3)2O,
attractions Soluble in other polar and some
attra (CH3)2CO
non-polar solvents
Hydrogen Molecules with Hyd Hydrogen M.P (low to moderate) H2O, HF, NH3,
Bonded H bonded to N, Bo
Bonds Soluble in other hydrogen bonded
ded CH3OH,
O or F liquids and some polar liquids. CH3COOH 4
NDARY SCHOOL,
KARACHI.
ISOMORPHISM: The phenomenon in which two substances have the same crystal structure.
E.g. CaCO3 & NaNO3 exist in trigonal crystals|ZnSO4 & NiSO4 exist in Orthorhombic Crystal
Properties:
They have different physical and chemical properties.
They have same empirical formula.
Their solutions on mixing form mixed crystals.
POLYMORPHISM: The phenomenon in which the substance can exist in more than one
crystalline form. E.g. CaCO3 occurs in two crystalline forms (i) Calcite (trigonal) (ii) Aragonite
(orthorhombic)
UNIT CELL: The basic structural unity which when separated in three dimensions generates
the crystal structure.
CELL DIMENSIONS:
#ames Sides Angles Examples
Cubic V W X Y Z [ 90 ° NaCl, ZnS
Tetragonal VW≠X Y Z [ 90 ° SnO2
Orthorhombic V ≠ W ≠ X Y Z [ 90 ° FeSO4.7H2O
Trigonal VWX Y Z [ ≠ 90 ° CaCO3, NaNO3
Hexagonal VW≠X Y Z 90 °; [ 120° Graphite, snow flakes
Monoclinic V≠W≠X Y [ 90 °; Z ≠ 90° CuSO4.5H2O
Triclinic V≠W≠X Y ≠ Z ≠ [ ≠ 90 ° K2Cr2O7
CHANGE OF STATE:
Critical Pressure: The minimum pressure to liquefy a gas at its critical temperature.
Triple Point: The only temperature and pressure at which three phase a pure substance can
exist in equilibrium with one another in a system containing only the pure substance.
Boiling Point: the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid equals the outside
pressure.
Boiling Point Pressure
Effect of Concentration on Boiling Point and Freezing Point:
Type Concentrations Boiling Freezing Examples
Point Point
Molecular #on-ionizing 1 100.51°C -1.86°C Sugar, Urea
Molecular Ionizing 2 101.02°C -3.72°C HCl
Ionic dissociated 2 101.02°C -3.72°C NaCl
Ionic dissociated 3 101.53°C -5.58°C CaCl2, Cu(NO3)2
This indicates that in a 1 m solution of molecules that do not dissociate, boiling and 5
freezing point differs with a change of (0.51°C) and (-1.86°C) respectively.

KARACHI.
Melting Point: the temperature at which there is equilibrium between solid and liquid phases.
Effect of Pressure on Melting Point:
Condition Situation
Substance Expands on Melting bcdefg +hfe +icjjkic
Substance Contracts on Melting bcdefg +hfe 1C+icjjkic
LATENT HEAT VALUES:

Latent Heat of Fusion: The amount of heat required to transform 1 kg of ice into water
completely at O°C.
Its value is 80 cal/g or 3.34 x 102 J/g.
Latent Heat of Vaporization: The amount of heat required to transform 1 kg of water
into gas (steam) completely at 100°C.
Its value is 540 cal/g or 2.26 x 103 J/g

KARACHI.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE SYNOPSIS HANDOUT 6
ATOMIC DEVELOPMENT:
1. England Michael Faraday Indicated the existence of electrons
2. America Robert Millikan Measured the charge on an electron
3. Germany William Crookes Showed the existence of electrons in atoms.
4. Goldstein Showed the existence of protons in atoms.
5. Henry Becquerel Through Radioactivity confirmed the presence of electrons
and protons
6. England James Chadwick Showed the presence of neutrons
PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS:

Produce sharp shadows Carry a negative charge
Emerge normally from cathode Easily deflectable by an electrostatic field
Penetrate small thicknesses of matter Easily deflectable by a magnetic field
without any perforations Can exert mechanical pressure
RADIOACTIVITY:
“The spontaneous breakdown of an atom by emission of particles and radiations”
Types:
α- particles (doubly charged He2+ nuclei) β- particles
γ- particles (very short wavelength Positron emission
electromagnetic rays) Electron Capture
PROPERTIES OF:
Properties α- Rays β- Rays γ- Rays
4
1. Nature 2He Nucleus Fast moving electrons very short wavelength
electromagnetic rays
2. Charge Positive Negative Neutral
3. Velocity 3 x 10 to 3 x 107 m/s
6 7 7
9 x 10 to 27 x 10 m/s 3 x 108 m/s
4. Penetration Power Very less Intermediate Very high.100 times of β
5. Ionization Energy Very high Very Small Poor ionizers
6. Fluorescence Few substance only Many substance Not possible
X-RAYS:
“The high energetic radiation emitted by metals and glass on bombardment with cathode rays,
that cause fluorescence in a variety of substance is called X-rays or Rontgen Rays ( amed after
the discoverer W. Rontgen).”
Characteristics:
Short Wave Radiations Extremely high penetration power
High Ionization Energy
X rays ∝ ଵ
Electromagnetic in nature
Arise from anode as a result of cathode
1
୞ rays’ bombardment.

KARACHI
SPECTROSCOPY:
“The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of absorption or emission of radiation is
called Spectroscopy.”
Planck’s Quantum Theory:

The emission of radiation is due to the vibrations of charged particles (electrons) in the body.
The emission is not continuous but in discrete bundles/packets of energy called “Quanta”.
This emitted radiation propagates in the form of waves.
The energy associated with each quantum for a particular radiation frequency ν is given by:
E = hν
Where h = Planck’s constant = 6.625 x 10-35 J.sec = 6.625 x 10-37 erg.sec
A body can emit or absorb either one quantum (hν) of energy or some whole number multiple
of it.
Spectrum: A band of rays of different wavelengths obtained from the decomposition of
radiations is called Spectrum.
Emission Spectra Absorption Spectra
Emission Spectrum:
When the radiation (absorbed by the object from an electric arc) is passed through a prism in a
spectroscope, it is decomposed into component wavelengths to form an image called an
Emission Spectrum.
Continuous Spectrum Line Spectrum
Continuous Spectrum: When a dispersed light is allowed to fall on a photographic plate,
the colors from violet to red (VIBGYOR) are seen without any line of demarcation. Such a
spectrum is called Continuous Spectrum.
Line Spectrum: If dispersed light falling on the photographic plate is sharp, distinct and
well defined by lines of demarcation then such a spectrum is called Line Spectrum.
Hydrogen Spectrum:
Wavelength Series n1 n2 Spectral Region
Less than 4000°A Lyman Series 1 2, 3, 4, … Ultra violet Region
B/w 4000°A to 7000°A Balmer Series 2 3, 4, 5, … Visible Region
More than 7000°A Paschen Series 3 4, 5, 6, … Near Infra Red Region
More than 7000°A Brackett Series 4 5, 6, 7, … Far Infra Red Region
More than 7000°A Pfund Series 5 6, 7, 8, … Radio Waves Region
QUANTUM NUMBERS:
“The numbers that describe the distribution of electrons in atoms are called Quantum
umbers.”
Quantum Numbers are derived from the mathematical solution of Schrodinger’s equation
for the Hydrogen atom. It has following four types:
Principal Quantum Number Magnetic Quantum Number 2
Azimuthal Quantum Number Spin Quantum Number

KARACHI
QUANTUM FORMULA VALUES EXPLAINS ABOUT MISCELLANEOUS

NO.
It was introduced by Bohr.
It has all natural no. values.
Principal Energy State Its values are also designated by
Size of Orbit alphabets K, L, M. N etc.
Principal n All integral 1, 2, 3, 4, … Maximum Number of Electrons in n=1 1st energy K shell
values orbit level
Period of the element in Periodic n=2 2nd energy L shell
Table level
n=3 3rd energy M shell
level
No. of electrons in an orbit
could be calculated by the
formula 2n2.
Azimuthal/ 0 1 2 3 4 Splitting of energy levels
Orbital/ s p d f g Shapes of orbitals
Angular l l = zero > (n- Magnitude of angular momentum It was introduced by
Momentum/ 1) XXX XXX of orbiting electron. Sommerfeld.
Subsidiary/
Orientation (axis of electrons) It has only whole number
Magnetic m M = -l >0 > Max. Values Sub-sub levels inside sub-levels values.
+l (2l + 1) called orbitals Maximum values is equals to (2l
+ 1) e.g. l=3, m can have -3, -2,
-1, 0, 1, 2, 3 (total seven values).
Spinning direction of electron +½ ↑ Clock-wise Spin up
Spin ms or s Spin up & spin +½ or -½ Rotation of electrons besides - ½ ↓ Anti-clockwise Spin Down3
down revolution.
NSTC-6 PREPARATION PROGRAMME | AGA KHAN HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL, KARACHI

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION:
“The arrangement of electrons in an atom is referred as Electronic Configuration”
Electronic configuration of elements is the fundamental property by which they are
placed in the periodic table and exhibit periodic properties.
Electrons are arranged in different energy levels (K, L, M, N) and sub levels (s, p, d, f) according
to their energy state.
n 1 2 3 4
Energy Level K L M N
(2) (2) (6) (2) (6) (10) (2) (6) (10) (14)
Sub Level s s ,p s ,p ,d s ,p ,d ,f
Maximum 2 8 18 32
Electron
Pauli Exclusion Principle: “No two electrons in the same atom can have all the set of
four quantum numbers identical” Or “Only two electrons may occupy the same atomic
orbital and these must have opposite spins.”
Auf Bau or Building-Up Principle: “For any given atom, the electrons are filled to the
orbitals of lowest energy in sequence, two electrons to each orbital”
1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d
7s 7p
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d 7p
(n+l) Rule: “In building up the electronic configuration of the elements, the orbitals with the
lowest value of (n+l) fills first; when two orbitals have the same value of (n+l), the orbital with
the lower value of n fills first.”
Hund’s Rule: “When several orbitals of the same type are available, the electrons first fill all
the orbitals of same energy singly with parallel spins, before pairing in any one orbital takes
place.” 4

KARACHI
CHEMICA
ICAL BONDING SYNOPSIS HAN
ANDOUT 7
CHEMICAL BOND: “Thee attrattractive force that holds atoms together in a compound
com is
known as Chemical Bond.”
Chemical Bond
Secondary Bondsds
Primary Bonds
onds
(Van der Waal forces)
orces)
Hydrogen Dipole-Dipole London

Ionic Bond Covale
ovalent Bond
Bond Attraction Forces
Polar Covalent on

on-Polar Coordinate
Bond Covalen
ovalent Bond Covalent Bond
A chemical bond:
ifferent atoms as a molecule1, which possesses lower
Holds two identical or differen ower energy
e than the
uncombined atoms.
Is formed with the creation
on of attractive forces which result in the releasee of energy.
en
Is formed due to the interaction
raction of valence electrons of the combining atoms.
oms.
Makes atoms attain greatest
test sta
stability when they acquire an inert gas electronic
tronic configuration
(Octet Rule).
IONIC OR ELECTRO
ROVALENT BOND:
“The chemical bond formed as a result of complete transference of valence electrons
elec from one
atom to the other.”
OR
“The electrostatic ons”
tatic attraction between positive and negative ions
In an ionic bond:
If the difference of Electronega
ronegativity ∆E is
greater than 1.7 between two eelements, then the
bond formed is ionic.
Only a low electronegative
ive ele
element (metal) is
held along with a high electron
lectronegative element
(non-metal) and vice versa.
The atom that loses electrons
trons bbecomes positively
charged (called Cations) and ththe atom that gains
electrons becomes negatively
ively ccharged (called
Anions).
1
1
A molecule is defined as the smallest
llest pa
particle of an element or a compound that retains the characteristics
chara of the
original substance.
NDARY SCHOOL,
KARACHI.
CHEMICAL BONDING SYNOPSIS HANDOUT 7
The charged species is called ions, which do not

retain the properties of the original atoms.
The ions do not form an individual molecule in
the liquid or solid phase, but are arranged into a
crystal lattice or giant ion-molecule containing
many of these ions.
The attractive forces in the crystal lattice greatly
reduce the energy of the system, making it stable.
Formation of an ionic bond occurs in a number of
steps, details of these steps are as follows:
PATHWAY FOR IONIC BOND FORMATION:
Metal (s) ───> Metal (g) + ∆H1 Enthalpy of Sublimation
Gas Molecule ───> Gas atom + ∆H2 Bond Dissociation Energy
Metal (g) ───> Metal Ion + ∆H3 First Ionization Potential
Gas Atom ───> Gas Ion+ ∆H4 Electron Affinity
Metal Ion + Gas Ion ───> Ionic Compound+ ∆H5 Lattice Energy2
CONDITION FOR IONIC BOND FORMATION: For solubility, solvation energy3 must be
greater than the lattice energy.
(∆H5+ ∆H4) > (∆H3+ ∆H2+ ∆H1)
CHARACTERISTICS OF IONIC COMPOUNDS:

Each ion is surrounded by a fixed number of oppositely charged ions, so that the strong
electrostatic forces between ions act in all directions through the crystal.
Ionic compound are soluble in water and similar polar solvents because of the strong
electrostatic attractions between the ions and polar molecules of the solvent.
Ionic compounds are insoluble in the organic solvents because there’s no attraction between
the ions of ionic compound and the molecules of non-polar solvents.
In the presence of a polar solvent, such as water,
the inter-ionic forces are so weakened that the ions
are separated and the free ions are able to move
under the influence of electric current i.e. ionic
compounds are electrolytes in molten and aqueous
state.
Ionic compounds have low volatilities and low
vapor pressure or they do not vaporize readily at
room temperature.
Ionic compounds are good electricity conductors in
molten state but their conductivity is smaller than
that of metallic substances.
2
“The energy released when one mole of gaseous ions arrange themselves in definite pattern from crystal lattice is 2
referred to as the lattice energy.”
3
“The surrounding of the ions by the solvent molecules for solvation releases the energy which is known as the
solvation energy.”
KARACHI.
COVALENT BONDING:
“The chemical bond in which two atoms, who tend to gain electrons may combine with each
other by sharing one or more pairs of electrons.”
In a covalent bond:
If the electronegativity difference between two or more atoms
is zero or not greater than 0.5, then a Non-Polar Covalent
Bond is formed.
If the electronegativity difference is between 0.5 and 1.7,
there will not be an equal sharing of electrons between the
involved atoms. Then a Polar Covalent Bond is formed.
The electrons that are shared between the two atoms are the
bonding electrons.
Bonding electrons spend much of their time
between the nuclei, resulting in the attractive
forces between negative charges of electrons and
positive charges of the two nuclei.
In a polar covalent bonded molecule, the shared
pair of electrons is attracted more towards more
electronegative atom, i.e. a polar bond makes one
part of molecules partially negative(δ-) and the
other partially positive (δ+).
Due to polar bonding, the molecule is observed to
enjoy greater stability than expected.
In polar molecules, electron cloud shifts towards
the more electronegative atom.
Characteristics of a Covalent Compound:

Exist as separate covalent molecules, electrically neutral and have little attractive forces for
each other called Van der Waal Forces.
Mostly low volatile liquids or gases or low melting solids.
Non-electrolytes
Insoluble in water and similar polar solvents but soluble in organic solvents.
COORDINATE OR DATIVE OR CO-IONIC COVALENT BOND:

“The covalent bond in which the bonding electron pair is provided by a single atom”
3
The group VA, VIA or VIIA form such type of bond.
Once formed, a co-ordinate covalent bond becomes indistinguishable from a covalent bond.

KARACHI.
CHEMICA
ANDOUT 7
MULTIPLE BONDS:
In multiple covalent bonds
bonds, the attraction force is
much stronger than the single
le cova
covalent bonded molecules
making molecules much more re stab
stable. Due to this fact:
Bond energy is higher in multi
multiple covalent bonds and
Bond lengths in multiple coval
covalent bonds are shorter
Multiple bonded compoundsunds aare much stable than single bonded compounds.
unds.
Bond stability ∝ Bond energy
nergy
Bond stability ∝ Electronn Den
Density
1
Bond stability ∝ Bond length
METALLIC BOND:
Atoms in metallic crystals
ystals are bonded together by electron cloud.
“The strong force of attraction

ction between these differently charged particles
es forms
fo Metallic
Bond.”
The valence electrons in a metal

etal ar
are not held
strongly because metals havee smal
small number of
valence electrons. The forcess in mmetallic bonds
are electrostatic in origin. They
hey ca
can be easily
released to the common pooll due tto weak
binding force. The atomic orbitals
rbitals, holding the
valence electrons are assumed ed to m
merge to
produce a delocalized orbitall syste
system
throughout, on which the electrons
ctrons are free to
move.
Characteristics of a Meta etallic Bond:

Ability to act between identica
entical metallic atoms, and at the same time between
ween widely
different metallic atoms.
Lack of direction, as shownwn by the positive retention of properties in the liquid state, and of
saturation to permit largee numb
number of close neighbors.
Attractive force varies inversel
versely as some high power of inter atomic distance.
tance.
Ability to permit electronn trans
transfer from one atom to another atom.
Equilibrium repulsive force, W Which is atomic in nature.
NDARY SCHOOL,
KARACHI.
CHEMICA
ANDOUT 7
PROTONIC BRIDGE
GE OR HYDROGEN BONDING:
“An electrostatic attraction betw
between neighboring molecules is setup when the positive
p pole of
one molecule attracts the negativ
gative pole of neighboring molecule. This type of attractive
a force
which involves Hydrogen is referred as Hydrogen Bonding.”
ves H
Hydrogen bonding is the st strongest of the secondary bonds but is stilll weaker
weak than a
normal covalent bond.
Hydrogen bonding:
Affects the physical properties
erties of the compound.
Increases the melting and boilin
boiling point of the
compound.
Reduces the vapor pressure.
Increases the heat of vaporizatio
rization.
Water has higher boiling
iling ppoint than hydrogen
fluoride. The oxygen atoms have ttwo non-bonded
pairs of electrons and there are two polar hydrogen
atoms (Hδ+) present in three dimen
dimensional bonding.
Conditions:
Hydrogen should be bonded ded to a highly
electronegative element such aas N, O, F etc
Hydrogen bonding ∝ ionic ic cha
character
Hydrogen bonding ∝ ∆EN
DIPOLE MOMENT (µ
µ):
“A dipole (polar molecule) tend
tends to become oriented in an electrical field. The extent of this
ency is referred to as the dipole moment.”
tendency
µ=exd
Where,
e = magnitude of charge
d = distance between the charges.
arges.
The S.I Unit is coulomb meter
ter (Cm
(Cm)
Dipole moment ∝ ∆EN
Dipole moment ∝ geometr
ometry of molecule

NATURURE DIPOLE MOMENT EXAMPLEPLES
Diatomic non--polar Zero H2, Cl2, Br2
Diatomic Polar Greater than Zero HF,, HCl
Tri-atomicc Line
Linear Zero CO2, CS2
Tri-atomicc Ang
Tetra Atomic
Angular Greater than Zero
Appreciable
H2O, H2S, CaC
NH3
Ca 2 5
Penta Atomic Zero CH4, CCl4
NDARY SCHOOL,
KARACHI.
BOND ENERGY:
“The energy required to break a bond between two atoms in a diatomic molecules is known as
the Bond Energy.”
H–H ───> 2H ∆H = 435 KJ/moles

Hydrogen Molecule Hydrogen Atom
O=O ───> 2O ∆H = 435 KJ/moles

Oxygen Molecule Oxygen Atom
OR
“The energy released in forming a bond from the free atoms (not from the atoms in their
standard states.)”
H (g) + H (g) ───> H-H ∆H = - 435 KJ/moles

O (g) + O (g) ───> O=O ∆H = - -498 KJ/moles
Reminder: Breaking of Bonds is endothermic and making of bonds is exothermic.
Bond Energy ∝ Type of Bond

Bond Energy ∝ Ionic Character
Bond Energy ∝ Stability
Bond Energy ∝ 1 Bond Distance
Bond Energy Trend:

Ionic Bond > Polar Covalent Bond > on-Polar Covalent Bond
BONDING ORBITALS:
“A covalent bond is formed as a result of overlapping of atomic orbitals of combining atoms
giving molecular orbitals.”
The overlapping of atomic orbitals is of two types:
Sigma(σ) Bonding Pi(π) Bonding
Sigma Bond:
“A bond which is formed by the axial overlap of two orbitals belonging to different atoms”
It is formed by the axial overlapping of s-s, p-p, s-p orbitals.
6
Pi Bond:
“A bond which is formed by side ways (parallel) overlapping of atomic orbitals”
KARACHI.
Two different theories determine the behavior of electrons in a bonded atom. It is as follows
Valence Bond The bonding electrons occupy the atomic orbitals4 of the
Theory Suggests bonded atoms.
Molecular The bonding electrons occupy molecular orbitals5 which
Orbital Theory belong to the whole molecule.
According to molecular orbital theory, linear combination of atomic orbitals (σ) gives
two molecular orbitals:
σ-Bonding: A molecular orbital with high electron density in the region between two
nuclei having lower energy than either of the parent atomic orbitals from which molecular
orbital is derived.
σ-Anti Bonding: The molecular orbital having high energy and low electron density
between the nuclei, is less stable than either of the parent atomic orbitals from which it is
derived.
HYBRIDIZATION:
“The mixing of various atomic orbitals to produce the same number of equivalent orbitals
having same shape and energy”
Types of Hybridization:
Mixing Orbitals Type of Type of Hybrid Number of
Hybridization Orbitals Hybrid Orbitals
One-s & three-p sp3 sp3 orbitals Four
One-s & two-p sp2 sp2 orbitals Three
One-s & one-p sp sp orbitals Two
sp3 (Tetrahedral) Hybridization:

Possesses the character of both s- and p- orbitals in the ration of 1:3.
sp3 orbitals are directed towards the four corners of a regular tetrahedron in which each angle
is 109°.28’.
Forms the strongest bonds among hybrid orbitals.
Examples: CH4, SiCL4, SnCl4 etc
sp2 (Trigonal) Hybridization:

Possess one-third character of s-orbitals and two third characters of p-orbitals.
7
4
An orbital in which, the electron is influenced by one nucleus (mono-centric)
5
An orbital in which, the electron is influenced by more than one nucleus (poly-centric)
KARACHI.
These orbitals are co-planar and directed towards the corners of an equilateral triangle
(trigonal) at angles of 120° to each other.
Examples: C2H4, C2H6 etc
sp (Diagonal) Hybridization:
Possesses the character of both s- and p- orbitals in the ration of 1:1.
These orbitals are co-linear at an angle of 180°.
Examples: C2H2, BeCl2 etc
Hybrid Orbital Model:

Hybridization Lone Pairs Bond Angle
sp Zero 180 °
sp2 Zero 120°
sp3 Zero 109°.28’
sp3 One 107°
sp3 Two 104.5°
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY:
The geometrical shape of a molecule depends upon the repulsion factor among the electrons
pair of an atom.
There are two types of electron pairs surrounding the central atom:
Bond Pair: These are the result of sharing of unpaired electrons of central atom with unpaired
electrons of surrounding atoms.
Lone Pair: These are the paired electrons, which have not taken part in sharing. They are also
called “Non Bonding Pairs”.
The repulsion factor of these active sets of electrons behaves as follows:
Lone Pair – Lone Pair repulsion > Lone pair – Bond Pair repulsion > Bond – Bond Pair repulsion
The shape of an atom could be predicted by the number of electrons groups6 in a molecule. A
general observation is as follows:
2 Electron Groups: Linear

3 Electron Groups: Trigonal Planar
4 Electron Groups: Tetrahedral
5 Electron Groups: Trigonal Bipyramidal
6 Electron Groups: Octahedral
8
6
An electron group is any collection of valence electrons localized in a region around a central atom that exerts
repulsion on other groups of valence electrons
KARACHI.
THERMO
MOCHEMISTRY SYNOPSIS HANDOUT
HAN 8
Thermochemistry: The bran branch of chemistry which deals with the measurem
surement of heat
evolved or absorbed during a chem
chemical reaction.
Thermodynamics: Thee study based on the principles of conservation off energy.
ener
THERMOCHEMICAL
AL REACTIONS: The chemical reactions
ions which
w are
accompanied by energy changes
nges w
with the material changes.
Thermochemical Reactions
Exothermic
ermic Reaction Endothermic Reaction
ction
EXOTHERMIC REACTI CTIONS: ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS

EAC :
The chemical reactions accomp
ccompanied by the The chemical reactionss accompanied
acco by the
emission of heat energy with th
the formation absorption of heat during
ing the formation of
of product. product.
The chemical reactions which
hich have greater The chemical reactionss which
whic have greater
energy released as compared
ared to activation activation energy than the energy
en released.
energy.
The chemical reactions inn whic
which chemical
The chemical reactionss in which
wh thermal
energy is converted to chemical
chemi energy.
energy is converted to thermal
ermal energy.
Reactants ───> Products ts + H
Heat Reactants + Heat ───> Product
Pro
H1 > H2 H1 < H2
∆H = H2-H1 = [a negative valu
value] ∆H = H2-H1 = [a positive value]
va
Examples: Combustion, Oxida
Oxidation, Examples: Reduction, Electrolysis
Electr etc
Neutralization etc
Exothermic Reac eaction Endothermic Reaction
Re
Reactants Products
Enthalpy H ───>
Enthalpy H ───>
∆H < 0 [negative
tive] ∆H > 0 [positiv
sitive]
Products Reactants
Extent of Reactio
tion───> Extent of Reacti
action───>
1
NDARY SCHOOL,
KARACHI.
THERMOCHEMISTRY SYNOPSIS HANDOUT 8
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES:
Isothermal Process: “The process in which temperature remains constant.” i.e. dT = 0
Isochoric Process: “The process in which volume remains constant.” i.e. dV = 0
Isobaric Process: “The process in which pressure remains constant.” i.e. dP = 0
Adiabatic Process: “The process in which heat remains constant.” i.e. dH = 0
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS: This law was enunciated by

Helmholtz.
“Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, although I may change from one form to
another” OR
“The total energy of a system and its surrounding must remain constant”.
Mathematically, q = (E2-E1) + W → q = ∆E + W → ∆E = q – W→ W = q – ∆E
Facts to remember:
Heat is supplied to the system: q = [positive] Work is done by the system: W = [positive]
Heat is evolved by the system: q = [negative] Work is done on the system: W = [negative]
Units of Heat Energy:

1 Calorie = 4.2 J 1 J = 0.239 Calorie 1 BTU = 1055 J 1 J = 107 erg
HESS’S LAW OF CONSTANT HEAT SUMMATION:

“The heat evolved or absorbed in a given reaction must be independent of the particular manner
in which the reaction takes place”
Let’s consider, for a certain reaction:
Pathway 1: A ──────> D + ∆H
Pathway 2: A ──────> B + ∆H1
B ──────> C + ∆H2
C ──────> D + ∆H3
According to the law, ∆H = ∆H1 + ∆H2 + ∆H3
MEASUREMENT OF HEAT:
Heat Capacity: “The quantity of heat required to change the temperature of system by 1°C
or 1K.”
ܳ
‫=ܥ‬
ΔT
Q = C ∆T
Molar Heat Capacity: “The heat capacity of one mole of a substance.”
Specific Heat: “The heat capacity of a one-gram sample.”
ܵ‫= ݐܽ݁ܪ ݂ܿ݅݅ܿ݁݌‬
‫ݕݐ݅ܿܽ݌ܽܥ ݐܽ݁ܪ‬
=
‫ܥ‬ 2
‫ݏݏܽܯ‬ ݉

KARACHI.
ܳ
ܵ‫= ݐܽ݁ܪ ݂ܿ݅݅ܿ݁݌‬
݉ × ߂ܶ
TERMINOLOGY:
System: “Any specified real or imaginary part of the universe that is under consideration.”
Types of System:
Open System: “The system that interacts readily with the surroundings, exchanging
matter and energy.”
Closed System: “The system that exchanges energy but not matter with
surroundings.”
Isolated System: “The system that exchanges neither matter nor energy with the
surroundings.”
Homogenous System: “The system which is completely uniform throughout i.e.
consisting only one phase.”
Heterogeneous System: “The system which is not uniform throughout i.e.
consisting of two or more phases.”
Surroundings: “The environment of the system or rest of the universe which may act on
the system is known as Surrounding.”
Interactions: “The exchange of energy and/or matter between a system and
surroundings.”
Heat of Reaction: “The quantity of heat exchanged between a system and its
surroundings for a reaction at constant temperature.”
State: “A system is said to be in a certain state when all its properties are fixed.”
State Function: “The macroscopic properties of a system which has some definite value
for each state and independent of path in which the state is reached.”
Example: Enthalpy, Temperature, etc
Enthalpy: “The sum of internal energy (E) and the pressure-volume product of a system”
Enthalpy is an extensive property.
Enthalpy is a state function.
Enthalpy changes have unique values.
Entropy: “The measure of the disorder of the system.”
Disorder of system increases: d (entropy) = [positive]
Disorder of system decreases: d (entropy) = [negative]
Spontaneous changes always occur with an increase of entropy of the universe.
Entropy of a system as a whole is an irreversible process.
Entropy is expressed in cal/°C or J/K (SI Unit). 3
Gibb’s Free Energy (G): The criterion for spontaneity
∆G = [negative] → Reaction is spontaneous and feasible
KARACHI.
∆G = [positive] → Reaction is impossible

∆G = 0 → Reaction is in equilibrium
Internal Energy: “Sum of energies possessed by a system i.e. translational, vibrational,
rotational, chemical, bond energy, electronic energy, nuclear energy of constituent atoms and
potential energy.”
E = Et + Er + Ee + En + EP.E + Ey
Macroscopic Properties: “The properties of s system easily measurable for the
entire bulk of the molecules.”
It is divided into following two groups:
Intensive Properties: “The properties of a system those are independent of the
amount of material concerned.”
Examples: Density, Pressure, Temperature, Refractive index, Viscosity, Surface Tension,
Melting Point, Boiling Point etc
Extensive Properties: “The properties of a system those are dependent of the amount
of material concerned.”
Examples: Mass, Volume, Mole, Enthalpy, Entropy, Internal Energy, Gibb’s Free Energy
etc
Heat of Formation: “The change in enthalpy, when 1 mole of a substance is produced
from its elements in the natural state.”

KARACHI.
HYDROGEN AND WATER SYNOPSIS HANDOUT 13
HYDROGEN GAS:
Hydrogen atom is the simplest of all atoms with 1 proton, 1 electron and zero neutrons. The
element has following specifications:
IVESTIGATIOS OBSERVATIOS
1. State Gas (colorless, odourless)
2. Electronic configuration 1s1
3. Atomic Radius 0.37 A°Å
-
4. Ionic Radius (H ) 1.54
5. Ionization Potential (1st) 1312 KJ mol-1
6. Electron Affinity -37 KJ mol-1
7. Electronegativity 2.1
8. Liquefying Point 20.39 K
9. Solidifying Point 13.98 K
ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN:
NAMES FORMULA PROTON ELECTRON NEUTRON ATOMIC MASS %AGE
1
Protium 1 H One One Zero 1 99.98 %
2 2
Deuterium 1 H or 1 D One One One 2 0.02 %
Tritium* 1
3
H One One Two 3 4x10-15 %
*Tritium is a radioactive isotope with the half life of 12.4 years.
POSITION IN PERIODIC TABLE:
Scientists are still unable to predict the most appropriate position for hydrogen in the
Periodic Table. This is mostly because of the fact that hydrogen is the simplest element of all and
resembles more than one families of the periodic table. A summarized account of its placement
in different groups is as follows:
Group I-A(Alkali Metals) Group IV-A(Carbon Family) Group VII-A (Halogens)
Similarities Dissimilarities Similarities Dissimilarities Similarities Dissimilarities
Outermost Orbit Half Filled Valency Orbit Outermost
Electrons Completion Valence Shells Completion Electrons
Electronic State Thermodynamic Valence Orbit Valency Valence Orbit
Configuration Properties
Oxidation Ion Chemical Bond State Diatomic Oxidation
State Formation Formation Molecule State
Reducing Bond Reducing ature Oxide
ature Formation ature Formation
OCCURRENCE:
By mass, hydrogen makes up only 0.9% of Earth’s crust.
In number of atoms in Earth’s crust, hydrogen ranks third (15.1%) after Oxygen
(53.3%) and Silicon (15.9%).
Hydrogen makes up 89% atoms on the sun and 85 to 95% of the atoms in the atmosphere of
outer planets (Jupiter, Uranus, Saturn and Neptune).
1
In universe, as a whole, 90% of the atoms are Hydrogen, and the rest are mainly Helium.

KARACHI.
PREPARATION:
By the action of metal on hydrides : Zn + 2 H+ > Zn2+ + H2

By electrolysis of water

: 2 H2 O > 2 H2 + O2
. /
By Steam and Hydrocarbon Process
: CH4(g) + H2O(g) > 3 H2 + CO
°
By Action of Steam on Coke : C + H2O(g) > 3 H2 + CO
°
By Steam Methanol Process : CH3OH(g) + H2O(g) > CO2 + 3 H2
°
Thermal Decomposition of : CH4 > C + 2 H2
°
Hydrocarbons
Catalytic Reforming of Alkane
: C6H14 > C6H6 + 4 H2
Hydrocarbons
Thermal Decomposition of Ammonia
: 2 H3 °
> 2 + 3 H2
ATOMIC HYDROGEN:
“The product obtained as the result of dissociation of molecular hydrogen.”
Preparation:
H2 + 104 K. cal ° > 2 H

H2 >2H
.

Properties:
It’s more reactive than molecular hydrogen. Some of its reactions are as follows:
P + 3 H ──────> PH3
O2 + 2 H ──────> H2O2
S + 2 H ──────> H2S
Cl2 + 2H ──────> 2 HCl
CuO + 2 H ──────> Cu + H2O
AgCl + H ──────> Ag + HCl
BINARY COMPOUNDS OF HYDROGEN:
"The bi-element compounds of

hydrogen with metals and non-metals
non
are termed as hydrides."
Ionic
Hydride
Covalent
Hydride
Complex
Hydride
Metallic
Hydride
Polymeric
Hydride
Borderline
Hydride
2

KARACHI.
Ionic/Saline Covalent Complex Metallic Polymeric Borderline

Hydrides Hydrides Hydrides Hydrides Hydrides Hydrides
Combination s-block metals p-block elementsB and Al with Transition Beryllium & I-B, II-B & III-
except Be and Mg alkali metals elements Magnesium A (In, Tl)
Bonding Ionic Bond Covalent Bond Complex Bonding --------- ???? ????
General M H & M2+H-2
+ -
--------- A + 3+
B H4 nonstoichiometric M2+H-2 ????
Formula
Preparation By passing H2 over Direct and Alkali metal By heating H2 ???? ????
metals at high indirect methods. hydrides + III-A with metal under
temperature hydrides high pressure
Properties Colorless solids Colorless gases Salt like white Hard Solids with Solid, Volatile, Properties are
Non-volatile Volatile liquids solids metallic luster white in color intermediate
High M.P Low B.P Stable upto Electricity Properties are between those
Insoluble in III-A and IV-A 300°C conductors intermediate of metallic and
organic solvents are neutral Soluble in water Possess between ionic covalent
Soluble in water V-A are basic magnetic prop. and covalent hydrides.
Conduct VI-A and VII-A hydrides.
electricity in are acidic.
molten state
Reactions XH + H2O ──> ???? ???? ???? ???? ????
XOH + H2
XH + HCl ──>
XCl + H2
XH+C2H5OH──>
C2H5X + H2
Examples NaH, LiH, KH, B2H6, CH4, NH3, LiAlH4, NaBH4 ???? BeH2 and ????
RbH, CsH, CaH2, H2O, HF, HCl, etc MgH2.
SrH2 and BaH2. HI, HBr, H2S
Uses Reducing Agents ???? Reducing Agent Reducing agents ??? ????
Dehydrating Catalyst Source of Atomic
Agents
Source of H2
Hydrogen 3
NSTC-6 PREPARATION PROGRAMME | AGA KHAN HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL, KARACHI.

USES OF HYDROGEN: Hydrogen is used:

In the manufacture of NH3, in turn, is used in the manufacture of fertilizers, plastics and
explosives.
To convert Benzene to Cyclohexane, a cyclic hydrocarbon used as an intermediate in the
production of nylon.

C6H6 + 3 H2 > C6H12
In the synthesis of methyl alcohol (methanol), an industrial solvent and raw material for
making other organic compounds.
To extract pure metals from metal oxides, i.e as Reducing Agent.
°
WO3 + 3 H2 > W + 3 H2O
Liquid Hydrogen is used a rocket fuel. The fuel tank holds 1.5 x 106 L of liquid hydrogen
which powers the shuttle for about 8.5 min at the rate of consumption of 3000 L/s.
In developing oxyhydrogen welding torch that readily cuts through steel and can be used to
melt tungsten (W), which has a melting point of 3400°C.
WATER:
HARD WATER AND WATER SOFTENING:

HARD WATER: The ground water that contains significant concentrations of ions from natural
sources, principally Ca2+, Mg2+ and sometimes Fe2+ along with associated anions.
Temporary Hard Water: The hard water with HCO3- as primary anion.
Permanent Hard Water: The hard water with Cl- and SO42-as primary anions.
WATER SOFTENING:
Temporary Hard Water: Temporary hard water can be softened by boiling. A better
way is to treat the water with a base, usually Ca(OH)2 that converts HCO3- to CO32-.
Permanent Hard Water: Permanent hard water cannot be softened by boiling.
Addition of washing soda (Na2CO3) softens permanent hard water. But soluble salts, such as
NaCl and Na2SO4 remain in solution.
HEAVY WATER: The water molecule having the Deuterium isotope ‘D’ attached with
Oxygen atom in place of Hydrogen (Protium) ‘H’
The formula for Heavy Water is D2O and its molecular mass is 20 a.m.u.
Uses:
Heavy water is used in nuclear reactors as moderators which absorb the neutrons and slow
down the process.
Heavy water is used in analytical experiments for determining the mechanism of reactions.

KARACHI.

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BASIC

ASIC CONCEPTS SYNOPSIS HAN

Matter: Everything that

Element: A simple substan

Mass kg Volume = length x Unit = m x m x m

NSTC-6 PREPARATION PROGRAMME | AGA KHAN HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL,

LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION:

DETERMINATION OF EMPIRICAL FORMULA:

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DETERMINATION OF MOLECULAR FORMULA:

No. of moles of solute

Molal Concentrations: A molal concentration (m) is the number of moles of the

No. of moles of solute

% Aqueous Solutions of Compounds: A 10 % aqueous solution of a solute

Stoichiometry: the study of relationship between the amount of reactant or product

DIRECTIONS FOR STOICHIOMETRY:

Mass-Mass Mass-Mole Relationship Volume-Volume Mass-Volume

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DIRECTIONS FOR LIMITING REACTANT:

SOME FACTS TO REMEMBER:

2. 1 mole of a gas = 22.4 dm` at S. T. P Y0°C and 1 atm pressure\

3. 1 mole of an ionic compoundYNaCl\

4. 1 mole of covalent compound YHCl\ = 6.02 × 10_` molecules of HCl

5. 1 atm = 14.7 psi gpounds per square inch, lbiin_ j

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Separation # Technique Explanation

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1 Decantation Separating a liquid from a solid sediment

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Chromatography: Involves the separation of different dissolved substances as they travel

S. 0o. Technique Respective Property

Miscible: The liquids that can be dissolved in each other

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Distilland: The material in a distillation apparatus that is to be distilled.

SOME FACTS TO REMEMBER:

FACTOR’S AFFECTING RATE OF SOLUBILITY:

QUALITATIVE TESTS FOR GASES:

Gas Tests Observations

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QUALITATIVE TESTS FOR METALS:

Method Procedure Observations

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NSTC-6 PREPARATION PROGRAMME | AGA KHAN HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL,

• Alkali Metals occupied the peak positions

MODERN PERIODIC TABLE:

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ion and the point upto which nucleus has influenced

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Gases Liquids Solids Pla

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY In different

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LATENT HEAT VALUES:

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PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS:

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Planck’s Quantum Theory:

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QUANTUM FORMULA VALUES EXPLAINS ABOUT MISCELLANEOUS

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Hydrogen Dipole-Dipole London

Polar Covalent on

Polar Covalent on