Table of Contents 1 Introduction P.1 2 Basic Principles of Sound P.8 3 The Propagation of Sound P12 4 Modes of Propagation P.18, 5 Ultrasound Generation P22 6 Factors Affecting the Propagation of Ultrasound P.25 7 The Decibel (DB) P27 8 Snell's Law P29 9 Equipment P32 10 Calibration Blocks P44 11 0° Probe Scanning P.50 12 Ultrasonic Equipment Checks P:60 13 Sensitivity Setting P.70 4 Flaw Location P.78. 15 Presentation P94 16 Identifying Flaws in Butt Welds P94 17 Practical Weld Inspection P.98 18 Weld Defects P.101 19 Ultrasonic Testing of Castings P.107 20 —_Ultrasonic Testing of Forgings P.113 en SEES Rev 0 December 2010 Page 21 Introduction Non-destructive testing is the ability to examine a material (usually for discontinuities) without degrading it. The five principal methods, other than visual inspection, are: © Penetrant testing © Magnetic particle inspection © Eddy current testing © Radiography © Ultrasonic testing In all the NDT methods, interpretation of results is critical. Much depends on the skill and experience of the technician, although properly formulated test techniques and procedures will improve accuracy and consistency. 1.1 Penetrant testing Penetrant testing locates surface-breaking discontinuities by covering the item with a penetrating liquid, which is drawn into the discontinuity by capillary action. After removal of the excess penetrant the indication is made visible by application of a developer. Colour contrast or fluorescent systems may be used. Advantages: © Applicable to non-ferromagneties Able to test large parts with a portable kit Batch testing Applicable to small parts with complex geometry Simple, cheap easy to interpret Sensitivity Disadvantages: Will only detect defects open to the Surface Careful surface preparation required Not applicable to porous materials ‘Temperature dependant Cannot retest indefinitely Compatibility of chemicals 2 rr S Rev 0 December 2010 Page 31.2 Magnetic particle inspection Magnetic particle inspection is used to locate surface and slightly subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials by introducing a magnetic flux into the material. ‘Advantages; ( b@"< - oe © Will detect some sub-surface defects Rapid and simple to understand Pre cleaning not as critical as with DPI Will work through thin coatings Cheap rugged equipment Direct test method seantag ( difficulty) Ferromagnetic materials only ‘© Requirement to test in 2 directions © Demagnetisation may be required Odd shaped parts difficult to test Not suited to batch testing ‘Can damage the component under test 1.3. Eddy current inspection Eddy current inspection is based on inducing electrical currents in the material being inspected and observing the interaction between those currents and the material. Eddy currents are generated by coils in the test probe and monitored simultaneously by ‘measuring the coils electrical impedance. As it is an electromagnetic induction process, direct electrical contact with the sample is not required; however, the material must be an electrical conductor. Advantages: Sensitive to surface defects Can detect through several layers Can detect through surface coatings Accurate conductivity measurements Can be automated Lite pre-cleaning required and Portable Disadvantages: © Very susceptible to permeability changes Only on conductive materials Rev 0 December 2010 : Page 4Will not detect defects parallel to surface Not suitable for large areas and/or complex geometries Signal interpretation required No permanent record (unless automated) 14 Radiography Radiography monitors the varying transmission of ionising radiation through a material with the aid of photographic film or fluorescent screens to detect changes in density and thickness, It will locate jnternal and surface-breaking defects, Advantages: © Gives a permanent record, the radiograph © Detects internal flaws © Detects volumetric flaws readily ® Can be used on most materials ® Can check for correct assembly © Gives a direct image of flaws © Fluoroscopy can give real time imaging Disadvantages: © There is a radiation health hazard Can be sensitive to defect orientation and so can miss planar flaws Has limited ability to detect fine cracks Access is required to both sides of the object Skilled radiographic interpretation is required Is a relatively slow method of inspection. Has a high capital cost and running cost 1.5 Ultrasonic testing Ultrasonic testing measures the time for high frequency (0.5MHz-S0MHz) pulses of ultrasound to travel through the inspection material. If a discontinuity is present, the ultrasound reflects back to the probe in a time other than that appropriate to good material, Advantages: * Sensitive to cracks at various orientations © Portability Se Rev 0 December 2010 Page 5© Safety © Able to penetrate thick sections Measures depth and through-wall extent Disadvantages: © No permanent record (unless automated) © Not easily applied to complex geometries and rough surfaces, © Unsnited to coarse grained materials © Reliant upon defect orientation 1.6 Choice of method Before deciding on a particular NDT inspection method it is advantageous to have certain information: © Reason for inspection. (To detect cracks, sort between materials, check assembly, etc). ° Likely orientation of planar discontinuities, if they are the answer to the above question. ‘Type of material. Likely position of discontinuities. Geometry and thickness of object to be tested. Accessibility. ‘This information can be derived from: ® Product knowledge. © Previous failures. Accuracy of critical sizing of indications varies from method to method. Liquid penetrant inspection The length of a surface-breaking discontinuity can be determined readily, but the depth dimensions can only be assessed subjectively by observing the amount of bleed out. Magnetic particle inspection ‘The length of a discontinuity can be determined from the indication, but no assessment of discontinuity depth can be made. Eddy current inspection ‘The length of a discontinuity can be determined. The depth of a discontinuity or material thiniing can be determined by amplitude measurement, phase measurement or both, but the techniques for critical sizing are somewhat subjective. EE Rev0 December 2010 . Page 6aa Ultrasonic testing ree xe ‘The length and position of a discontinuity can be determined. Depth measurements are more difficult but crack tip diffraction or time-of-flight techniques can give good results. Radiography The Jength and plan view position can be determined. Through-thickness positioning requites additional angulated exposures to be taken. The through-thickness dimension of discontinuities cannot readily be determined. 1.7 History of ultrasonic testing (UT) In Medieval times craftsmen casting bells for churches were aware that a properly cast bell rang true when struck and that a bell with-flaws would give out a false note. This principle was used by wheel-tappers inspecting rolling stock on the railways. They struck wheels with a hammer and listened to the note given out. A loose tyre sounded wrong. CThe origin of modem: ultrasonic:testing (UT) ‘is thesdiscovery:by:the Curie brothers in 1880)that quartz:crystals:cut in a’certain way produce an electric potential when subjected to pfessure - the piezo-electric effect, from the Greek piedzein, to press or strike. In 1881, ‘Lippman: theorised that the effect might work in reverse, and that.quartz crystals might change shape if an electric current was applied to them. He found this was so and experimented further, Crystals of quartz vibrate when alternating currents are applied 10 them. Crystal microphones in a’ modem stereo rely on this principle. When the Titanic sank in 1912, the Admiralty.tried to find a way/of locating icebergs by sending out sound waves and listening for an echo. They experimented further with sound to detect submarines during the First World War. Between the wars, marine echo sounding was developed and in the Second World War ASDIC (Anti-Submarine Detection Investigation Committee) was extensively used in the Battle of the Atlantic against the U-boats. In 1929 a Russian physicist, Sokolov, experimented with techniques of passing vibrations ‘through metals to find flaws) this work was taken up by.the Germans. In the 1930s the cathode ray tube was developed and miniaturised in th Second World War to fit small airborne radar sets into aircraft. It made the UT set as we know-it possible. Around 1931 Mulhauser obtained a patent for a system using two probes to detect flaws in solids and following this Firestone (1940) and Simons (1945) developed pulsed UT using a pulse- echo technique. Rev 0 December 2010 Page 7In the years after World War Il, researchers in Japan began to experiment on the use of ultrasound for medical diagnostic purposes. The Japanese Working largely in isolation from the rest of the world until the 1950s, the Japanese developed techniques for the detection of gallstones, breast masses, and tumors. Japan was also the first country to apply Doppler ultrasound, an application of ultrasound that detects internal moving objects such as blood coursing through the heart for cardiovascular investigation. The first flaw detector was made by Sproule in 1942 while he was working for the Scottish firm Kelvin & Hughes. Similar work was carried out by. Firestone in the USA and by German physicists/Sproule went on to develop the shear-wave probe: At first, UT was restricted to testing aircraft, but in the 1950s it was extensively used in the building of power stations in Britain for examining thick steel components safely and cheaply. UT was found to have several advantages over radiography in heavy industrial applications © Did not have the health hazard associated with radiography, and a UT technician could work next to welders and other employees without endangering them or holding up work. © Was efficient in detecting toe cracks in boilers - a major cause of explosions and lack of fusion in boiler tubes. © “Found plana“ défects, like ~lamiiations,”-which--weres-sometimes missed by. radiégraphy. © AUT check ona thick component took no more time than a similar check on a thin component as opposed to long exposure times in radiography. With the construction of nuclear power stations, UT was developed further and was applied to construction and maintenance work in the oil industry as well as the inspection of the huge commercial air fleets built up since the end of the Second World War. Over the years, UT sets have been miniaturised with the availability of transistors and display features improved and the process has automated and computerised. 1.8 Ultrasound used for testing ‘The main use of ultrasonic inspection in the human and the animal world is for detecting objects and measuring distance. A pulse of ultrasound (a squeak from a bat or a pulse from an ultrasonic source) hits an object and is reflected back to its source like an echo.. From the time it takes to travel to the object and back, the distance of the object from the sound source can be calculated. That is how. bats fly in the dark and how. dolphins navigate through water. It is also how warships detected and attacked submarines in the Second World War. Wearing a blindfold, you can determine if you are in a very large hall or an ordinary room by clapping your hands sharply; a large hall will give back a distinct . echo, but an ordinary room will not. A bats echo location is more precise: the bat gives out and can sense short wavelengths of ultrasound and these give a sharper echo than we can es Rev 0 December 2010 Page 8detect. In UT a sound pulse is sent into a solid object and an echo retums from any flaws in that object or from the other side of the object. An echo is returned from a solid-air interface or any solid-non-solid interface in the object being examined. We can send ultrasonic pulses into material by making a piezo-electric crystal vibrate in a probe. The pulses can travel in a compression, shear or transverse mode. This is the basis of ultrasonic testing. But’ a method must be found of Presenting information from the teturning echoes for interpretation. Itis for this purpose that the UT set, or flaw detector as it is frequently called, contains a cathode ray tube. | Jn the majority of UT sets the information is presented on the screen in a display called the A Scan. The bottom of the CRT screen is a time base made to represent a distance - say 100mm. An echo from the backwall comes up on the screen as a signal, the amplitude of which represents the amount of sound returning to the probe. By seeing how far the signal | comes along the screen we can measure the thickness of the material we are examining, screen as a signal in front of the backwall echo as the sound reflected from the flaw has | Tf that material contains a flaw sound is reflected back from the flaw and appears on the not had so far to travel as that from the backwall. vi . : THE Somk Cray Fees weacied ‘epled 2345 6 7 8 9 0 Anything that sends back sound ener be signal on the screen is called a efector. By measuring the distance from the edge of the CRT screen to the signal, We can “calculate how far down in the material the reflector lies, Rey 0 Devember 2010 Page 92 Basic Principles of Sound Sound is made when something vibrates. You can twang a ruler on a table or flick a stretched elastic band to verify this. The stretched surface of the rubber band or the ruler vibrates and sets up a series of vibrations, sound waves, in the air. As the surface of the band or ruler pushes into the air, the air molecules are forced together and a region of high pressure forms: compression. As the surface moves back, the air molecules move apart, forming a low pressure area, or rarefaction. As the surface vibrates, alternate compressions are rarefactions set up in the air and travel out from the surface to form a sound wave. The air molecules don't move with the wave - they vibrate to and fro in time with the vibrating surface. If we plot the displacement of the particle against time it will produce a sine wave as shown below. Particle wse3e0n-v0-0 ‘One cyclo ‘The sound wave so produced travels through the air at a speed of 332m/sec, at O°C. We hear the sound when it hits a membrane in our ear and cause it to vibrate. Sound will travel through any medium that has molecules to move, but it travels faster in more elastic materials because the vibrations are passed on more quickly. Sound travels faster in water or metal than it does in air as liquids and solids are more elastic than air. 2.1 Frequency ‘As sound is a series of vibrations, one way of measuring(it is to count the number of vibrations per second - the freques Frequency is measured in Hertz. One vibration in second is 10 Hertz and 1000 vibrations in one second is 1000 Hertz or one kilohertz, (KH). One million vibrations in a second is one Megahertz (MHz). The higher the frequency the higher the note sounds - the higher the pitch. If you twang the ruler or the rubber band hard, the noise is louder, it has greater amplitude, but the note remains the same. If, however, you shorten the ruler or tighten the rubber band, they Rev 0 December 2010 - Page 10vibrate more quickly and the note given out is higher. The frequency is greater. To raise the pitch of their instrument, guitar players move their fingers down the frets, thus shortening the string and making it vibrate more quickly. We can only hear sounds between certain frequencies - more than 20 Hertz and less than 20,000 Hertz, If you were aBleTo move your arm up and down 20 times a second, it would sound like a very low hum, You cannot, so you cannot hear the vibrations in the air caused by your moving arm, A dog whistle vibrating at 25,000 Hertz cannot be heard by humans, but it can be heard by the sensitive eats of ator: juman Ultrasonic range 16Hz - 20kHz + 20kHz ST eee 0 10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M 10M 100M — <==7esting ==> <16Hz 0.5 - 5OMHz Infrasonic ‘The sound spectrum It rarely occurs to us that there is a whole world of sound that we cannot hear. Some other animals can hear sounds at higher frequencies - bats can hear sound at 100,000 Hertz ~ and some animals, like snakes, have worse hearing than we have. A sound with frequencies above the upper range of human hearing is called ultrasound. ‘Sound below about 16 Hertz is called infrasound. Therefore the definition of ultrasound is “Sound With a frequency greater ian 20 Tloheriz. However, there is an advantage for the lower frequencies. The lower the frequency, the more penetrating a sound wave is - that is why foghorns give out very low notes and why the low throbbing notes from your neighbours stereo set come through the wall rather than the high notes. 2.2 Wavelength A wave in the sea is a vibration of energy. As the wave passes a fixed point it produces a constant rise and fall of energy. A complete vibration is a change in energy from maximum to minimum and back to maximum. The distance over which one complete vibration of energy occurs is called a wavelength, Vibration of energy occurs is called a wavelength. A wavelength is the distance between the highest points of energy. It varieS with the speed of sound and with the frequency. Wavelength is represented by the 02. We can work out wavelength if we know the speed and frequency of a sound wave. ‘Wavelength is the velocity in meters per second divided by the frequency. Rey 0 December 2010 Page 11“LSD™ y pw @r iw AN dace ww el | ioe we Wavelength Velocity Frequency ‘The wavelength of ultrasonic waves is important because the shorter the wavelength, the smaller the flaws that can be discovered, Defects of a diameter of less than half wavelength may not show on the CRT. On the other hand, the shorter the wavelength the less the ultrasound will penetrate the test material. Beam shape is also affected by wavelength. These factors will be discussed later. . 2.3. Resolution: Resolution is the ability of an equipment/oombination proe to distinguish between two echoes from reflectors that are close together. To have good resolution a probe must present two signals on a CRT screen from two sepatate reflectors: if it has poor resolution the echoes from the two reflectors appear as one signal on the screen. In the early days of ultrasonic testing we used the 100, 91 and 85mm steps, at the radius end of the Vi block io TestTesolving power. However, foday this is regarded as too crude a test and BS 4331 Part 3 (now obsolete) recommended that we should be able to recognise two discrete echoes less than two wavelengths apart. By discrete echoes they ‘mean split by more than 64B, or to more than half the total height of the signals. 100% 50% - 64B. hom fay Accept Reject Rev 0 December 2010 age 12 Qo —T ~\Oe ao - 8 Ve \es FE = [92.4 Signal amplitude ‘The amplitude of an ultrasonic signal is defined as the maximum displacement of the | molecules from theit equilibrium position. The energy of an ultrasonic wave is in turn expressed as the square of the amplitude. The relative amplitude of ultrasonic signals is expressed using the decibel, a logarithmic | unit of comparison, When we compare the height of two signals on the CRT screen, we are in fact comparing the electric voltage that is being sent to the Y plates, and electric voltage is proportional to the square of the current. To compare two signals we must use a formula that takes account of this fact: | Difference in db = 20 * logo x For example, if we want t Compare signal of 80mm with one of 40mm on the CRT screen: Difference in db= 20 x logyo $2 = 20 logyy 2 Find the logyg of 2 in tables or a calculator 20x 0.301 = 6.024B So the answer is 6 decibels and this can be tested on a CRT screen. Obtain a signal from a backwall echo on a test block and increase or decrease the gain until the signal touches the top of the screen, Take out 64Bs with the gain control and the signal should drop to 50% full screen height (FSH). If it does not, the vertical linearity of the UT set is out, the signal height is not changing in accordance with energy from the probe. Using the formula, we can discover that: + 124B difference means that one signal is 4 times bigger than another’ bo + 10dB difference means that one signal is 3 times bigger than another \2> ~~ * 20dB difference means that one signal is 10 times bigger than another] 2.0 - wo Remember that dBs are only a means of comparing signals, All UT sets are different, so a defect may be at FSH with a gain control reading of, say 36dB on one set and be at FSH on another set with a gain control reading of only 28dB on another set. The Gain control allows us to set sensitivities and forms the basis of ultrasonic sizing techuitqUes- re yen Rev 0 December 2010 Page 133 The Propagation of Sound dead zone beam edge (0% intensity) aT . half andle of divernence beam centre (100% Intensity) exystal beam edge far zone (0% intensity) The Ultrasonic beam 3.1 Dead zone: Seen on the CRT as an extension of the initial pulse, the dead zone is the ringing time of the crystal and it is minimized by the damping medium behind the crystal. Flaws or other reflectors, Iying in this dead zone region of the beam will not be detected. The dead zone can be seen at the start of the trace on the CRT displaying A scan, but only with single crystal probes. 3.2 Near zone or Fresnel zone: In this region of the beam, the sound intensity is variable owing to wave interference, therefore, reflectors or flaws lying in this zone may appear smaller or larger than their actual size. The signal heights displayed on the CRT are unpredictable so it is desirable to keep the near zone length to a minimum, Near zone length conf ott as Rev 0 December 2010 - Page 14| | | ‘Where; D = diameter of the crystal (mm) = wavelength (mm) f= probe frequency (Hz) jest material velocity (min/s) velocity sometimes denoted asc’ Itcan boaeen Hoare Reve ona tat oe zone decreased by decreasing crystal diameter and/or decreasing the probe frequency. 3.3. Far zone or Fraunhoffer zone: Beyond the near zone the far zone exists, in this region the beam divergence occurs, resulting in decay in sound intensity as the distance from the crystal increased. For example just a beam of light from torch gets weaker the further it travels. The amount of beam divergence depends upon the crystal diameter and probe frequency. Beam divergence Rev 0 December 2010 Page 15Angle of beam divergence; 6dB or 50% intensity edge = 0. 20dB or 10% intensity edge =1.08 “D= diameter oF the crystal (nim) “F= probe frequency (Hz) ‘Thaterial velocity aman It can be seen from the above beam spread formula, that the beam divergence can be decreased by increasing the crystal diameter or increasing the probe frequency. Unfortunately this will extend the length of the near zone. So in probe design there is a compromise to obtain a minimal beam spread and shorter near zone. In the far zone of the ultrasonic beam there is no wave interference therefore the sound intensity is predictable. The sound intensity reduces 100% in the centre to 0% at the edge of the beam, therefore when the centre of the beam hits the reflector/flaw the amplitude of the signal on the CRT will be at maximum, The sound intensity also decreases with ‘greater distance it travels, Large reflectors ‘Small reflectors Rev 0 December 2010 Page 160123656759 0 ba amt Bex AL Ads Dox AL AQ In the far zone the amplitude of reflected sound from large and small reflectors follow different laws, Large Reflectors (larger than the width of the ultrasonic beam) follow the INVERSE LAW - The amplitude is inversely proportional to the distance, i.e. if the distance is doubled then the signal amplitude is halved (ie, reduced 6dB). Small Reflectors Smaller than the width of the ultrasonic beam) follow the INVERSE SQUARE LAW ~ The amplitude is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. ic. if the distance is doubled then the amplitude from the second reflector is one quarter of the amplitude of the nearer (ic. reduced 124B). It is shown in the above figure. 3.4 Side Lobes: ‘The side lobes are secondary lobes to the primary ultrasonic beam or main lobe that are formed at the face of a transducer and radiate away from the main lobe. They represent areas of high and low acoustic intensities and may cause unwanted echoes to be received by the probe, especially on the rough surfaces, which may be mistaken for flaws on the CRT. For shear wave probes, the minimum refracted beam angle is approximately 33° to 35°, but at these relatively acute angles, side lobes may formed which, although usually Rev 0 December 2010 Page 17negligible, may cause spurious indications on the CRT. For this reason it is usually safer to set the minimum beam angle for shear wave probe in steel at 40° ‘The narrower the main lobe, i.e. the smaller the half ~ angle of the beam, the weaker and more numerous the side lobes. 3.5 The Ultrasonic Pulse: In a modem ultrasonic pulse echo flaw detector the pulse of ultrasound is created by charging a capacitor in the circuitry then suddenly releasing this charge of electrical energy, about IKv to 2Ky, in to the probe, This electrical energy is converted in to,a scaler BYU le Se fobs Te toni aos we food fi ultrasonic vibrations are formed by i¢ collapse of the cryst fer the electrical energy removed. The behavior of the crystal, ‘on collapse can be linked to the behavior of a spring when it is stretched then released. The spring will return to its former shape. This cycle of expansion and contraction is what form ultrasonic pulse. ‘Maximum expansion Original size time Maximum contraction Rev 0 December 2010 : Page 183.6 Pulse length and Damping A pulse of ultrasound from a piezo-electric crystal has a length or width of several vibrations or wavelengths. When you strike a bell it continues to ring for several seconds as the metal continues to vibrate. The vibrations get steadily weaker and the sound dies away. If you put your hand on the bell you stop the vibrations and the sound dies away ‘more quickly - you dampen the sound. A piezo-electric crystal continues to vibrate after it is hit by an electrical charge. This affects sensitivity, as the longer the pulse length, the worse the resolution. In most probes a slug of tungsten loaded Araldite is placed behind the crystal to cut down the ringing time and to shorten the pulse length: Pulse length (or width) is also sometimes called tave train Jength. EN 1330 Part 4 which defines it as the leading and trailing edges of a pulse measured at a defined level below the peak amplitude. oo net eto oy oy y Maximum = == == 10% of maximum Pulse length The length of pulse is unacceptable since in order to show separate, clear reflected signals on the CRT then the pulses must be short and sharp. To shorten the pulses the ultrasonic crystal must be damped with backing medium which absorbs the sound energy, for example in much same way as a shock absorber fitted to a spring on a motor vehicle Rev 0 December 2010 SD Page 19dampens the vibration of the suspension. In this way the pulse length can be reduced to between 3 and 5 cycles. 3.7 Pulse Repetition Frequency (P.R.F.): ‘The pulse repetition frequency (P.R.F.) or pulse prepetition range (P-R.R,) is the number of pulses ultrasonic energy that leaves from the probe in a given time (usually per second). The P.R-E is someti as time base Juency. Each pulse of energy that leaves {om the probe must retum before the next pulse leaves otherwise they collides each other iid sausing. ghost Of spurious indication appesr-on the CRY. The Gime taken Between for the pulsewravel from the probe~and return is known as transit time. THe time taken Seven pes ling omni oe tnosteacapo nan There x in te itvan be stated that the transit time must be shorter than the clock interval or ghosting occurs. Practically speaking the clock interval should be around five times the transit time. <_ Distance travelled (mm) velocity (™/sec) ‘Transit time (usec) = z Clock Interval (see) = 5 >> Gaara; Clock Interval; Minimum = Transit time; Practical = 5 X Transit time 4 Modes of Propagation: Sound waves propagate due to the vibrations or oscillatory motions of particles within a material. Within a freely vibrating medium each particle is subject to both inertial and ~ elastic forces. These forces cause particles to exhibit oscillatory motions. 4.1 Compression or longitudinal waves: Probes that produce compression waves will normally have an incident and refracted angle of, or close to, 0°. These waves travel through a medium causing the particles of the material to oscillate parallel to the direction of wave propagation and consist of alternate compression and dilation pressure waves, Rev 0 December 2010 . Page 20— o@oocmM000 0 0 G6 0 2 0 — > Compression Dilation (rarefraction) ‘Compression wave Sound travels through air in the compressional mode at 332m/sec. It travels through water, at TaB0isec, through Perspex at Z730m/sec, through steel at5920m/seo and through | “Similan at abies Brahe. Sound” can only travel through air and water in the ‘compressional Thode. can travel through Perspex, steel and aluminium in modes other than the compressional modes. 4.2 Shear or Transverse waves: Particles vibrate at 90° to the direction of propagation. In the shear or transverse mode, molecules of a solid move rather like beach balls floating on the surface of the sea - they move up and down as a wave passes. This mode travels in solids only. Because solid has rigidity as well as elasticity. Air and water: HKG other Gases and guid, do not have rigidity. Shear or transverse waves cannot travel in gases of liquids for this reason. mE zw Sr Rev 0 December 2010 Page 21‘The speed of sound in the shear or transverse mode is less than it is in the compression or longitudinal mode. speed of sound in steel is3250 meters per second and in aluminium 3130m/see. obvi re is NOS ‘Speed for air or water: Shear Wave 4.3. Boundary Waves: These forms of propagation can only occur when a solid to gas interface is present. If the objects were immersed, these modes would be fully attenuated. 4.4 Rayleigh or Surface Waves: Surface waves are formed when shear waves refract to 90°. The whip-like particle vibration of the shear wave is converted into an elliptical motion by the particles changing direction at the interface with the surface. Pies waves sse-nat often used in industrial NDT. although they do have applications in the aerospace industry. Their mode of propagation is elliptical along the surface of a material, penetrating to a depth of one wavelength. They will follow the contour of a surface and they travel at approximately 90% the velocity of shear waves. Where sharp changes in contour occur, such as a corner edge, reflected energy will return to the probe. Rev 0 December 2010 > Page 22Surface wave 4.5 Lamp or Plate Waves: Lamb or plate waves propagate in thin plate materials when the plate thickness is about the same as the wavelength. Lamb or plate waves travel at velocities which vary with the plate thickness and the wavelength. Particle motion is elliptical, as with surface waves. ‘They are a combination ofCompression and surfacé)or shear and surface, ‘Waves causing the plate material to flex by totally saturating the material s Rev 0 December 2010 Page 23Symmetrical combination of compression and surface wave Asymmetrical combination of shear and surface wave 5. Ultrasound generation: ‘Sound is created when something vibrates. It is a stress wave of mechanical energy. The first people to observe the piezo-electric effect were the Curie brothers who observed it in the piezo-electuic effect were the Curie brothers who observed it in quartz crystals. _guentz crystals. 5.1 The piezo Electric Effect: ‘The piezo-electric effect changes mechanical energy into electrical energy. It is reversible, so electrical energy - a voltage - can be changed into mechanical energy or sound, which is the reverse piezo-electric effect. Electrical Piezoelectrical energy crystal Ultrasonic wave — Page 36Electrical connector Casing Damping ‘material Crystal -} index point Perspex shoe Single crystal probes have one crystal that transmits and receives ultrasound, The flaw detector controls the process by transmitting a pulse of energy then switching the circuit to receive, listening for any returning sound, in between pulses. The circuitry can be switched quicker than the crystal can be damped. So the receiver picks up the last few vibrations of the crystal, as it switches in, and displays them on the screen as the dead zone. This eliminates the Possibility of detecting near-surface defects, Angle probes have a Perspex shoe, on which the crystal sits, that can be machined to any angle. The angle of the wedge determines the angle that the ultrasound strikes the interface (incident angle), This in turn, according to Snell's law, controls the angle that the sound will propagate through the test material (refracted angle). Damping material on the back of the crystal (also known as a backing slug) controls the length of the ultrasonic pulses by absorbing the sound energy, producing short sharp pulses. The length of the pulse is the main factor in determining the resolution of the equipment. The most common damping backing medium is Tungsten Araldite. SHORT PULSE LENGTH/WIDTE/DURATION MEANS GOOD RESOLUTION. 9.1.4 Immersion probe: These types of probes are designed for use where the test part is immersed in water, ‘They are typically used inside a water tank or as part of a squirter or bubbler system in scanning applications. Immersion transducers usually have an impedance matching layer that helps to get more sound energy into the Water and in tum, into the component being inspected. Immersion transducers can be purchased in a flat, cylindrically or spherically focused lens. A focused transducer can improve sensitivity and axial resolution by concentrating the sound energy to a smaller area, Rev 0 December 2010 Page 379.1.5 Delay line probes: Delay line probe, this name implies, introduce a time delay between the generation of the sound wave and the arrival of any reflected waves. This allows the erystal to complete its transmission function before it begins to receive returning signals. Delay line transducers are recommended for applications that require a contact transducer with good near-surface resolution and are designed for use in applications such as high precision thickness gauging of thin materials and lamination checks in composite materials. They are also useful in high-temperature measurement applications since the delay line provides some insulation to the piezo-electric element from the heat. Hletrealennneciors it Rev 0 December 2010 Page 389.1.6 Wheel type probe: In this probe the crystal is within the axle of the wheel and the sound travels through the soft tyre into the test material. The spring loaded joint allows the probe to follow the contour of the surface so it can be used on rough or uneven surfaces. It is used in 40 a similar way to the water gap probe. The main advantage of this type of probe is that it removes the requirement of externally applied couplant, mainly used in aerospace industries. Spring Lone "elnt Sound art cops wit tm me ate | Srectautnce 9.1.7 Water gap or gap scanning probe: This consists of a water jacket with a nozzle at the end and a probe inside. Water is fed into the jacket and flows out through the nozzle, forming a column of water, to the test surface, through which the sound can travel. Because of the flexibility of the coupling 90 medium, (water) the probe can be used on rough or uneven surfaces. These probes are usually used in automated ultrasonic scanning systems and can be set up, using a guide wheel to follow the contour of a component. They can also be used in arrays to scan a wider area, et Rey 0 December 2010 Page 39Electread {-Waterin ‘Comector Probe None ‘Colmen of water act as couplant 1 Test mater Soma Path 9.1.8 Magnetostrictive or Electromagnetic acoustic Transducers (EMATs): ‘ A feature of probes using piezo-electric crystals is that they require mechanical coupling between themselves and the solid under inspection. This is achieved either by immersing them in a tank filled with a fluid (usually water) or directly by the use of a thin (less than one quarter of the wavelength) fluid layer between the two. When shear waves are to be transmitted, the fluid is also generally selected to have a significant viscosity. The acoustic impedance of the couplant layer should also have a value somewhere between that of the probe and the material being tested. Electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATS) rely upon a totally different physical principle. When a wire is placed near the surface of an electrically conducting object and a current of the required ultrasonic frequency is applied, eddy currents will be induced in a near-surface region of the object. EMAT probes are used for the detection of flaws and the determination of material properties such as precise velocity or attenuation measurement. They do not require the use of couplant and as such can operate without contact at elevated temperatures and in remote locations. EMAT probes are, however, inefficient and require strong magnetic fields and large currents to produce ultrasound that is often weaker than that produced by piezo-electric transducers. Rare-earth materials such as samarium-cobalt and neodymium-iron-boron are often used to produce sufficiently strong magnetic fields, which may also be generated by pulsed electromagnets. ‘Rev 0 December 2010 > Page 40Used for detecting defective bar stock, the transducer coil has a magnetic field that is switching at ultrasonic frequency. This field causes the bar stock to vibrate at an ultrasonic frequency and the vibrations travel along the length of the bar. When the vibrations reach the other end of the bar, they reflect back and are then picked up by the transducer (in receive mode) and register on the detector. The equipment is calibrated off a defect free piece of bar stock to register a specific value on the detector and defective bar stock is recognized by a change in thie value. 9.2 Probe Frequency, Bandwidth & Damping: An ultrasonic probe transmits sound at a range of frequencies, not just at the stated frequency, this is known as the bandwidth. For example a SMHz probe may produce a frequency range of 4 to 6MHz. The bandwidth is also an indication of the damping factor. Broad Band Probes Narrow Band Probes re Rev 0 December 2010 Page 41‘They are highly damped They have low damping A short ringing time (dead zone) A long ringing time (dead zone) Have a short pulse length Have a longer pulse length (typically 1 to 2 cycles) (typically 3 oF 4 cycles) Better resolving power Poor resolution Poor penetration Good penetration 9.2.1 Probe Selection The selection of probes for ultrasonic inspection is influénced by various aspects of the test and the particular material under test. These may include; the type and size of defect being sought, the type of material under test and the distance the sound has to travel through the material. Probe angle is another consideration when searching for defects at different orientations throughout the material. Below is a table of properties of probes using the two criteria that we can select, i.e. frequency and diameter. Effects of frequency xX ‘ Low Frequency High Frequency ‘Long Wavelength Short wavelength ‘More beam spread Less beam spread Shorter neat zone Longer near zone Better penetration Less penetration Less attenuation More attenuation Less sensitivity Higher sensitivity Longer dead zone - Shorter dead zone Effects of Diameter Large Diameter Small diameter Less beam spread More beam spread Longer near zone Shorter near zone Rev 0 December 2010 ° Page 42Better penetration Less penetration Less attenuation More attenuation Difficult coupling on curved Surfaces | Easier coupling on Curved Surfaces More coverage on flat surfaces Less coverage on flat surfaces | Another consideration is whether to use a single crystal or a combined double crystal probe. The advantages of a single crystal probe are; better penetration, for the same size probe as a double, because the effective transmitter crystal diameter is larger, no focal point, i.e. it works effectively over a longer range and cost (cheaper). The main advantage of a double crystal probe, is that there is no dead zone on the screen, this means better near surface resolution can be achieved. It can be seen from the tables that higher frequency probes have a higher sensitivity. In this context, sensitivity refers to the ability to detect small defects. ‘The higher the probe frequency the smaller the wavelength and the smaller the size of reflector the probe can detect. It is generally accepted that the smallest reflector a probe can detect is half the probe's wavelength. Soa probe with a long wavelength (low frequency) will not detect small reflectors, such as small defects or grain boundaries and so the sound will penetrate further through the material because it is not reflected at these small interfaces, 9.3 The Ultrasonic Flaw detector: 931 Principles ‘The ultrasonic flaw detector, the UT set, sends a voltage down a coaxial cable, sometimes called the lead to a probe. The piezo-electric crystal in the probe is hit by the voltage and vibrates. The vibration creates an ultrasonic pulse which enters the test material, The pulse travels through the matetial until it strikes a reflector and is reflected back to the probe. It re-enters the probe, hits the crystal and vibrates it, causing it to generate a voltage. The voltage causes a current which travels back to the flaw detector along the cable. The set displays the time the pulse has taken through the test material and back and the strength of the pulse as a signal on the CRT screen. This is basically how a UT set works. It transmits energy into material via a probe and measures the time in microseconds that the sound pulse takes to retum to the probe. The controls on the UT set are almost entirely concerned with presenting a display on the CRT sereen for the operator to interpret. Rev 0 December 2010 ‘Page 439.3.2. Cathode ray tube ‘The cathode ray tube is a device for measuring very small periods of time. The CRT displays electrical pulses on a screen in a linear time/distance relationship. That is, the longer the distance on the sereen time base, the longer the time that has been measured. How the CRT works A filament is heated in a vacuum tube. The heat causes the particles of the filament to vibrate and electrons start boiling out of the surface, a process known as thermionic emission. A positive potential electric charge in position further down the vacuum tube and the negatively charged electrons from the filament are attracted towards it. The electrons pass through a negatively charged focusing ring which pushes them towards the centre of the tube, forcing them into a fine stream. This stream of electrons hits a phosphor covered screen at the end of the tube. The electron bombardment forces the phosphor to give out light and a green dot appears on the screen, ‘The X and Y plates above, below and beside the electron stream cary potentials that move the electron stream from side to side and up and down, moving the green dot on the sereen, ‘The X plates control horizontal movement and the Y plates control vertical movement. By altering the potential of the X and Y plates, the dot can be moved on the screen. 9.3.3 The Pulse Generator: Se Rev 0 December 2010 > Page 44The pulse Generator is also known as the clock or timer this circuit controls the synchronization of the flaw detector. It sends an electrical signal to the timebase generator and to the pulse transmitter simultaneously. These electrical signal frequencies are known as PRE/PRR alse Repetition Frequency/Pulse Repetition Rate). It is usually controlled automatically by the range (coarse) control setting, this in turn ultimately controls the maximum depth of inspection and the ultimate scanning speed. 9.3.4 The Timebase generator: The timbase generator is also known as sweep generator, upon receiving the electrical signal from the pulse generator this circuit controls the voltage or charge on the X-plates causing the electron beam in the cathode ray tube to sweep across the screen in a linear motion. 9.3.5 The Pulse transmitter: The pulse transmitter or pulser circuit, the electrical signal from the pulse generator triggers this circuit to send a burst of electrical energy, about 1 to 2Kv, to activate the probe. 9.3.6 The probe or search unit: It converts the electrical energy, sent by the pulse transmitter, into pulses of ultrasound by means of a piezo electric crystal (Tx). The returning ultrasound from the test material is converted back into electrical energy by the probe (Rx) and sent to the amplifier, 9.3.7 The Amplifier: The receiver amplifier circuit accepts and amplifies the incoming electrical pulses. The amplification required is about 10,000 to 100,000 times and the Output must be linear with the input. The amplifier must also be capable of accepting a range of different frequency signals to accommodate the range of probe frequencies used, Broad band amplifiers, accept a very wide array of frequencies producing an accurate representation of signal shape. This enhances defect interpretation (type) but the signal to noise ratio will be poor, so defect detection may be adversely affected, i.e. a reduction in sensitivity, because of high noise (or grass) levels. Narrow band amplifiers, on the other hand, suppress the parts of the signal Rev 0 December 2010 Page 45that are outside the frequency band that it operates at (the pass frequency). This creates a cleaner signal (although not a true representation of the inpat signal), which means that the gain (amplification) can be increased which in turn enhances defect detectability (sensitivity), The disadvantage of this is that the altered shape of the signal means that defect interpretation is more difficult. 9.3.8 The Attenuator or gain It controls reduces the amplification from the amplifier by controlling the voltage or charge on the Y-plates in the C.R.T., which will control signal heights, bringing them down to a readable level. The controls works on a logarithmic base and it does not affect the linearity of the amplifier. 9.3.9 Suppression or reject It reduces the grass or noise level on the display by effectively 10 raising the time base, but in doing this it destroys amplifier linearity. Usually reserved for taking thickness measurements. Some modem digital flaw detectors have a "linear reject" function which does not destroy amplifier linearity and shows the amount of reject in use as a percentage of display height, e.g. 50% reject indicates that all signals below 50% screen height have been removed but the remaining signals are still the same height as before. ® sions should be + 0.1 im carbon ferritic steel H 5 structure throughout. 10.1 The international institute of welding (I. IW.) block Also referred to as Block No.1, A2, V1, DIN54/120 or dutch block. See EeneTSRe Tree Rev 0 December 2010 z Page 46300mm TOtmm ‘Boonia 0° COMPRESSION PROBE USES 10.1.1 Calibration: 0° probe calibration can be set using back wall echoes (BWE) off the various thicknesses available, ic, 5, 10, 25, 100 and 200mm. It can also be checked (rough) on the 23mm thick perspex insert which gives a reading of 50mm when calibrated on steel (the ratio of sound velocity in steel to the velocity in perspex is 5960m/s to 2740m/s = 50:23). A minimum of two echoes are required for calibration with 0° probes. The 91mm step in the block serves to calibrate the screen for use with shear wave probes by using a compression probe. If a 0° probe is placed over the 91mm and the echoes placed at 5 and 10 on the graticule then the screen is calibrated for a range of 0 to 182mm compressional. This is equivalent to 0 to 100mm shear, the ratio of the velocities of compression to shear waves is 1.82:1 (5960m/s:3240m/s). 10.1.2 Dead zone measurement (single crystal probe): Place the probe over the 5mm section. If the signal is visible outside the dead zone then the dead zone is less than 5mm. If the signal is not visible then place the probe on the I Omm section. If the signal is now visible then the dead zone is greater than Smm but less than 10mm, If the Rev 0 December 2010 Page 47‘on to the 15mm deep hole. This procedure can be carried out with an uncalibrated screen. An alternative method would be to calibrate the screen and read the length of the dead zone off the flaw detector graticule. 10.1.3 Resolution: The resolution of a 0° probe can be checked by using the three different thickness sections around the slot below the centre of the 100mm radius. Place the probe above the slot and with a calibrated screen note the separation between the 85, 91 and 100mm signals. 10.1.4 Probe output: Place the 0° probe on the perspex insert and note the number of BWEs. A good probe should give three BWEs. 10.1.5 Finding the probe index ‘The point at which the centre of the beam leaves the probe and enters the test material is called the probe index or emission point. It should be marked on each side of the probe and checked regularly. As the probe surface wears down, the probe index can change. Stand-off measurements are taken from the probe index and are used to check the probe angle, another check that the UT technician must perform regularly, so it is the master reference point or datum. To find the probe index place the probe on a V1 block and obtain an echo from the 100mm radius and establish at more than S0%ESH using the gain control. Maximise the echo by moving the probe backwards and forwards, Mark a line on each side of the probe directly above the slots which indicate the centre of the 100mm radius. This is the probe index, where the axis of the beam leaves the perspex shoe. © /I\ 10.1.6 Checking the probe angle Rev 0 December 2010 - Page 48For a 45 or 60° probe place it on the V1 block approximately adjacent to where the appropriate angle is inscribed, and directed at the plastic insert. Obiain a signal on the sereen from the plastic insert and maximise it, Find the position where the probe index coincides with the angle indicated on the side of the V1 block and this will tell you the probe angle, This procedure can be repeated for a 70° probe but reflecting the energy from the plastic insert radius is unreliable. Therefore we suggest you use the 1.5mm hole asa target. «+ @- ° JIN 10.1.7 Shear probe output: Maximise the signal from the 100mm radius and adjust to full screen height, using the gain, and note the dB figure indicated on the controls. This figure can be used to compare different probes or to check the probe in use, daily, for deterioration. , 10.2 BLOCK No.2, A4, V2, DINS4/122 OR KIDNEY BLOCK Sr ec re Rev 0 December 2010 Page 4925mm i radius a Tada LSor3mm ral ‘dia, ole => 12% mm or 20 mm 10.2.1 Calibration: This block can be obtained in various thicknesses, although the current standards in use for ultrasonic calibration blocks may only mention 12.5, 20 or 25 mm. The repeat signals secured from this through thickness can be used to calibrate the 0° probe. 10.2.2 SHEAR PROBE USES: Probe calibration: With the probe aiming towards the 25mm radius, signals occur at; 25mm, 100mm, 175mm, 250mm, 325mm, 400mm, etc. With the probe facing the other way, toward the SOmm radius, the signals occur at; 50mm, 125mm, 200mm, 275mm, 350mm, 425mm, ete. To calibrate; the radius which gives the easiest signals, within the range selected, to align on the graticule should be selected. 10.2.3 Index or sound exit point: Using the 25mm or the 50mm radius, maximise the reflected signal and mark the position of the central graduation (the centre of the radiuses) onto the probe. (It is recommended however that block no.1 is more accurate for this check). 10.2.4 Probe angle check: Maximise the echo from the drilled hole and check the angle from the position of the index point. Rev December 2010 - Page 5010.3 INSTITUTE OF WELDING (1.0.W.) /A5 BLOCK: ‘This block contains four transverse holes of 1.5mm dia, drilled at depths of 13, 19, 25 and.43 mm from the tap, each one drilled 22mm deep Side View 305mm Plan View Dead zone measurements, resolution and shear probe angle checks can only be approximated on the A2/A4 blocks, Specific blocks such as the A5, A6 and A7 should be used for more accurate reproducible results as quoted in associated standards, i, e, BS EN 12668: Part 3. This block can be used as a calibration block with a compression probe, however, its main use is as a reference block with either compression or shear wave probes. Its two most common uses are for plotting the beam profile and for setting test sensitivity, using the various individual side drilled holes as reference reflectors. ‘The five side drilled holes on one side of the 10.3.1 Beam spread Example: 20 dB drop beam spread (vertical) Although the beam spread can be calculated, it is usually plotted out practically using the AS block and a range of different depths of reference holes. Before plotting the beam profile the probe index point should be checked. The probe is placed above one of the holes, then by moving the probe back and forth, the re re noon ee FOTN the, Rev 0 December 2010 Page 51signal from the hole is maximised and the gain adjusted to give a signal at 100% full screen height. The position of the index point is then marked onto the block. The probe is then moved forward until the signal falls to 10% screen height and again the position of the index point is marked onto the block. The hole is now in the 10% (-20dB) intensity trailing edge of the beam and the distance between the two marks on the block represents the distance from the centre to the 20dB trailing edge of the beam at the depth of the hole. The procedure is then repeated in the opposite driection (backwards) to find the leading edge of the beam. This is repeated on several (a minimum of three) different depths of hole to find the profile of the beam. The marks on the block can be transferred to a graph to give a pictorial representation of the beam and/or transferred to a plotting system for use in plotting and sizing defects 10% of maximum signal response 410% of maximum signal response 11.0 0° PROBE SCANNING 11.1 CALIBRATION ‘The initial pulse or main bang is a test signal that the flaw detector creates and has no significance for calibration. It usually lies just off to the left of a calibrated screen. Rev 0 December 2010 : Page 52Initial pulse isible area of CRT O12345670900 When an ultrasonic probe is placed on to a piece of steel, some of the ultrasound in the probe reflects off the interface between the probe shoe and the steel and some is transmitted through into the steel. When the transmitted energy strikes the back surface of the steel it virtually all reflects off the steel to air interface and returns to the steel to perspex interface. Here some energy transmits into the probe and creates the first signal (1) and the rest reflects back inside the steel and the process repeats itself, creating the repeat signals, @ etc.) until the energy decays away. The spacing between the echoes represents the thickness of the steel, so if we place the probe on a A2 block on the 25mm thickness, then the echoes are 25mm apart. Note. If we are using a single crystal probe then the initial energy that reflected back into the probe will er signal at the start of the screen (F) which will be very close to the initial pulse and there will also be a dead zone visible on the CRT. If we are using a double crystal probe (separate transmit and receive crystals) then there will be no signal from the front surface and no dead zone visible. 012365678910 ‘Test material Rev 0 December 2010 Page 33,11,1.2 To CALIBRATE A 0° PROBE TO A RANGE OF: 0 TO 100 MM. Apply couplant to the A2 block and place the probe on the 25mm thickness to obtain multiple echoes. We require a range of 100mm on the screen so four echoes would fit in to this range, so we adjust the coarse range control to give us about four echoes on the screen. We then adjust the delay control to position the first backwall echo a quarter of the way along the screen and the fine range control to position the fourth echo at the end of the screen. This procedure is repeated until all four echoes take up their respective positions (See sketch). The same basic procedure applies to different ranges using different thicknesses. By dividing the range by the thickness we can obtain the number of echoes required and by evenly spacing the echoes on the sereen the desired range is achieved. CALIBRATION EXERCISES Using the VI block: Calibrate the timebase for: 100 mm range using the 25 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE 200 mm range using the 25 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE, 400 mm range using the 25 mm thickness Method: Multiple BW 100 mm range using the 100 mm thickness Method: Delay technique 200 mm range using the 100 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE 400 mm range using the 100 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE 20 mm range using the 10 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE 10 mm range using the 5 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE 10 mm range using the 10 mm thickness Method: Delay technique 1000 mm range using the 200 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE 11.1.3 ACCURATE MEASUREMENT Rev 0 December 2010 7 ot Page 54For accurate beam path measurement, such as thickness surveying using a flaw detector, the achievable accuracy is determined by the range selection. For example if the range is set to 100 mm full screen, then each large graticule division is 10 mm and each small division is 2 mm. This means that the most accurate that you could read the screen, by judging the halfway distance between the divisions, would be 1 mm, However, the manufacturers of analogue flaw detectors using a C.R.T., can only guarantee the horizontal (time base) linearity of the display to be within 2% of the whole time base. This means that cho could be one small division (or 2 mm on the 100 mm range scale) out of position, so the guaranteed accuracy would normally have a tolerance of d2% of the range (the same size as one small division). ‘Timebase range _| Large division _| Small division _| Read accuracy 500 mm 50mm 10 mm Simm 200 mm 20 mm 4mm 2mm 100mm. 10mm 2mm imm 50mm Smm imm 0.5 mm 20 mm 2mm 0.4 mm 0.2 mm 10 mm imm 0.2 mm 0.1mm 11.1.4 MULTIPLE BACK WALL METHOD Another method of reading accurate thickness measurements is to use the multiple backwall method. This involves calibrating the screen to a larger range then reading the nth repeat signal from the thickness and dividing the reading by n, where n is the clearest signal that you can read the furthest along the screen. Rev December 2010 - Page 55200mm Range L lic _ OV IAs ES oT O10 Sed SIGNAL In this example the third signal read off the screen at a beam path of 45mm. x ‘The thickness can be calculated by: 45/3 = 15mm 11.2 Different materials When testing materials other than steel, the velocity of the sound wave may be different. If this is the case, then the difference in velocity between the material under test and the calibration block must be taken into consideration and used to compensate for the difference in readings obtained. Alternatively, a calibration block made of the same material as the test material must be obtained. The following formula can be used to compensate when the CRT is calibrated using a steel calibration block Actual Thickness = Material Velocity x Timbase Reading Calibration Block Velocity If the sound velocity in a material is not known but the actual thickness can be physically measured, then the velocity can be calculated by transposing the above formula thus: Velocity = Actual Thickness x Calibration Block Velocity Timebase Reading 11.2.1 DEFECT DETECTION When using a 0° probe to search for defects we must consider the following. Which range should be used, for accuracy and through thickness coverage? Probe selection, is taking into account material attenuation and defect size. What level of test sensitivity to use to ensure that defects which are considered harmful to the product (not necessarily all flaws are considered harmful), Rev 0 December 2010 56are located and to assure that reproducible test results can be obtained, by different operators, using different manufacturers equipment. Probe and range selection have been covered in previous sections’ of these notes, setting sensitivity is as follows 11.3 SENSITIVITY ‘There are various methods of setting the test sensitivity these include: © Back wall echo level method (0° probes only) © Grass level © Using a reference reflector © Using a graph or curve plotted from reference reflectors 11.3.1 Back wall echo (B.W.E.) The backwall echo method involves coupling the probe to the test material and increasing the gain until the back wall echo is at the pre- determined level. The level can be varied in several ways, e.g. if the second back wall echo (B.W.E) is set to full screen height (FSH) this would be more sensitive than setting the first BWE to FSH. Another way is to set the B.W.E to a lower level (less sensitive) or to set it to a percentage of FSH and add a pre-determined number of dBs to the gain (increase sensitivity). The B.W.E method can obviously only be used with 0° probes since reflections off the back surface, when using angle probes, do not return to the probe. 11.3.2 Grass ‘The grass or grain interference method involves coupling the probe to the test surface and increasing the gain until the reflections from the grain structure of the material reach a pre-determined level. This is often quoted as 2 mm 3 mm in height at the maximum test depth but ideally should be referenced as a percentage of full screen height as not all flaw detectors use the same dimension screen The sensitivity can be adjusted by increasing or decreasing the level or by adding or subtracting dBs to or from the gain. 11.3.3 Reference reflectors A common method of setting sensitivity is to set a maximised signal from a reference reflector, at target depth, to a predetermined level, for example full screen height. The reference reflector could take the form of a known reflector, e.g. A transverse side drilled hole, a flat bottom hole, a slot or a vee notch, or it could be a real, or simulated, defect of known size and type. Rev 0 December 2010, Page 5711.3.4 Distance amplitude curve All reflectors in the reference block are scanned before the test, their maximum echo heights marked on the attachment scale of the display and joined by a curve, ‘The curve produced is called the Distance Amplitude Curve, or DAC for short. When a discontinuity echo appears, an immediate assessment can be made whether or not the discontinuity echo exceeds the DAC. In addition to this a determination is made, by a comesponding gain change, to see by how many dBs an echo exceeds the curve. This excess recording echo height (EREH) is our reproducible measure for the evaluation and reporting of the discontinuity. Postion 1 2 3 4 Reference block with side drilled holes and resulting echoes ‘The advantages of the reference block method with a DAC are: 1. That it is no longer necessary to compare each discontinuity echo with the corresponding reference echo from the reference block but to directly make the evaluation with the DAC. 2. That the heavy reference block need not be transported to the testing location. ncn? Rey 0 December 2010 > Page 583. That the recording of a DAC for certain applications is only required once becausethe curve is documented on’a transparency or in the memory of a modem ultrasonic test instrament, By recording the curve using reflectors in a test object comparable to the work piece, this curve contains all the influences in the test object (distance law, sound attenuation, and surface losses). Corresponding corrections are therefore not necessary. Regarding the evaluation results, we must understand here that the effect of the discontinuity (geometry, orientation and surface quality) is not taken a great deal into account the same as the DGS method. Therefore, the result of a discontinuity evaluation with the reference block ‘method has the same uncertainty as the DGS method. ‘The preference regarding which method to use is subjective. The corresponding national test specifications normally state the test method to be used so that the operator is not able to make his own decision. If no data is available, the test situation should be analyzed in order to decide which method be best used: Fisstly, it must be established whether a reference block exists which corresponds to the test object. If yes, then the test can be carried out simply and reproducibly with the reference block method. If no reference block is available then the DGS method can be used, or a reference block must be subsequently produced comparable to the test object. However, in many cases the DGS method can be used without difficulty, namely when the lest object is made of low alloy steel, has a simple geometry, a low sound attenuation and an even surface quality. The test should be carried out with a narrow band standard probe with a frequency between 1 MHz and 6 MHz for which there is a DGS diagram or a DGS scale, ‘The new computer controlled instruments normally support the program controlled recording of DACs. With the USD 10 the recorded DAC is automatically converted to a horizontal line. This is known as time corrected gain (TCG). ‘The recording curve is therefore an horizontal line so that the evaluation can be visually and acoustically supported using a monitor gate (flaw alarm), Fig. 70a-c. At the same time for each echo, the excess recording echo height is displayed in dB (DBR value in the measurement line of the USD 10) in addition to the data for discontinuity location. Rey 0 December 2010 Page 59"inne conecied gan 3 Of course, the recorded curves, including the complete instrument settings, can be stored. It is therefore guaranteed that any later tests can be carried out with the same settings. By storing the instrument settings, including the active A-Scans with the discontinuity echo, the operator has all the data available for producing a test report at any time. 11.4 SCANNING PATTERNS 0° PROBE, When scanning for defects the scanning pattern to be used is sometimes dependant on the size of defect sought. The two main factors to consider are the pitch (distance between scans) or overlap (the amount, if any, that the cach scan overlays the next) and the pattern or direction of scanning, If the pitch is less than the size of the probe then the scans will overlap. If the pitch is greater than the size of the probe then there will be a gap between the scans. Whether there is a gap between the scans or not may depend on the size of defect sought and the size of the test piece. For example on a large test piece looking for defects over 100mm the pitch may be 75mm between scans, regardless of the probe size, because scanning every 75mm will locate defects over 100mm in size. The pattern may require scanning in one direction or in two directions at 90° to each other. Overtap prove 1 t Sean Lines 5 Piten Rev 0 December 2010 Page 60115 SIZING METHODS 0° PROBE ‘There are four main sizing techniques used with 0° probes: * 6dB drop + Bqualisation * Maximum amplitude * DGS 11.5.1 dB drop technique Used to size large defects, i.e. defects that are bigger than the beam spread, such as laminations, this is where the probe is moved off the edge of the reflector until the signal amplitude is reduced by 50% (6dB). The position of the centre of the probe is then marked onto the material surface. The probe is now in a position where the beam is half on and half off the defect. If this is repeated along the edge of the reflector the reflector’s size and shape will be marked out onto the material's surface. ' Probe ‘Maximum signal respenso Holt ampitude response 11.5.2 Equalisation technique ‘The equalisation technique is very similar in operation to the 6dB drop except that the probe is moved off the edge of the reflector until its signal is equal in amplitude to the rising B.W.E. At this position the centre of the probe is marked onto the surface, again continuing along the edge of the reflector to map out the shape and size Rey 0 December 2010 Page 61| ier ‘Maximum signal response Halt ampittueo reepenso Both the 6dB drop and the equalisation methods only work accurately on large reflectors and will grossly oversize small ones. The flaw must also be along the centre line of the plate or again sizing accuracy will be adversely affected. 11.5.3 Maximum amplitude (max. amp) technique: Hage of marked Last response elther end ‘This is used to size areas of small defects, such as inclusions, or to size multi - faceted defects, such as cracks. The technique involves moving the probe off the defect area until the signals disappear, then slowly bringing the probe back, watching the whole signal group, to the first position where one of the signals maximises. The probe position is then marked as in the other methods to mark out the edge of the defect area. This technique will pick out the last individual inclusion of a group or the last facet of a crack giving the overall size of the defect orarea. Rev 0 December 2010 : Page 6211.8.4 Distance gain sizing (D.G.S.) DGS uses the reflections from flat bottom holes or disc reflectors, of different sizes and over a range of depths, plotted on a graph. Signal amplitudes from defects are compared to the graph to give the minimum size or, more correctly, the minimum reflective size to the defect. These graphs are provided by the manufacturer of the probe, are illustrated in some reference standards or can be plotted. To size a reflector with the DGS diagrams: With a calibrated screen and the DGS diagram for the type of probe being used, maximise the signal from the reflector and set the amplitude to a pre-determined reference level, using the gain control, and record the gain setting. Move the probe to an area of the material, where the back wall is the same distance as the previously recorded reflector, there are no reflectors and the surface condition and curvatures are the same as the previous area. Set the B.W.E to the same pre-determined reference level as before and note the difference between the previous and the new gain settings. Using the DGS diagram look on the infinity line, at the B.W.E distance, for the dB figure and add this figure to the previously noted dB difference. Read the total dB figure (the two just added), at the reflector beam path (depth), off the graph, to give the equivalent size of the reflector, 12.0 Ultrasonic Equipment Checks 12.1 Linearity of time base General This check may be carried out using a standard calibration block e.g. A2 and a compressional wave probe. The linearity should be checked over a range at least equal to that which is to be used in subsequent testing. Method a) Place the probe on the 25mm thickness of the A2 block and adjust the controls to display ten BWEs, b) Adjust the controls so that the first and last BWEs coincide with the scale marks at Land 10, ©) Increase the gain to bring successive backwall echoes to 80% FSH. The leading ‘edge of each echo should line up with the appropriate graticule line. 4) Record any deviations at approximately half screen height. Deviations should be expressed as a percentage of the range between the first and last echoes displayed (ie, 225mm). Rev 0 December 2010 ‘Page 63Tolerance Unless otherwise specified by the testing standard, a tolerance of 42% is considered acceptable. Frequency of checking ‘This check shall be carried out at least once per week. 100 aol. 60] 49] 20}, AMPLITUDE MA, Rev 0 December 2010 : Page 64loo 80] 60 4g} 20) if a Usd dl laa Nat AMPLITUDE Wak 97% CURRENT 61% © AMPLITUDE Wal 97% CURRENT 99x MIN DEPTH 25.00" EDGE 7-50 ma Yay DEPTH 37.50. eDGE 50.90 mn 9 to0 80} 80 60 60 4a} a 20h ttl. I 20 0 0 AMPLITUDE Max 97% CURRENT 64% © AMPLITUDE Ma 97% CURRENT 61% MEN DEPTH 50.00 EDGE 62.81 xn MDW DEPTH 62.51. EDGE 75.01 an 12.2 Linearity of equipment gain General This is a check on both the linearity of the amplifier within the set and the calibrated gain control. It can be carried out on any calibration block containing a side-drilled hole and should be the probe to be used in subsequent testing. Reject/suppression controls shall be switched off. Method * Position the probe on a calibration block to obtain a reflected signal from a small reflector eg 1.5mm hole in the A2 block. * Adjust the gain to set this signal to 80% FSH and note the gain setting (dB). ‘++ Increase the gain by 24B and record the amplitude of the signal. Rev 0 December 2010 Page 65) - Remove the 2B and return the signal to 80% FSH. | - Reduce the gain by 6B and record signal amplitude, - Reduce the gain by a further 124B (18 in total) and record signal amplitude. 1 - Reduce the gain by a further 64B (24 in total) and record signal amplitude. Tolerance Gain, B Expected Recorded ‘Acceptable limits amplitude, % amplitude + 100% ‘Not less than 0 80% NA 6 10% 812% 40% 35-45% ! 3% Visible above base line j Frequency of checking . ‘The check shall be carried out at least once per week. | ino} 10) Bo 80 60} 60 40 40 aoe 20} 0 0 AMPLITUDE ax 92% CURRENT ax MIN DEPTH 75.01 EDGE 97.51 am Rev 0 December 2010 AMPLITUDE UAK- 97% CURRENT 80% MEW DEPTH 87,51 EDGE 99.98 mm Page 66(oo) 80 60) 4o 20} 0 ‘i AMBLITUDE MAX 97% CURRENT 00% WOW DEPTH 99.99 EDGE 111.9 an 12.3 Probe index and beam alignment Index point General The check for probe index applies only to shear wave proves, and is the first probe characteristic to be checked on a shear Wave probe. The probe index may be checked on the standard A2 calibration block. Method ) Position the probe on the appropriate side of the block to obtain a reflection from the quadrant. b) Move the probe backwards and forwards to maximise the amplitude of the reflected signal. ©) When the signal is at maximum, the probe index will correspond to the engraved line on the block. Mark this position on the side of the probe. Tolerance Tolerance will depend on application but for plotting of defects it is recommended that probe index is accurate to within 1mm, Frequency of checking When a probe is in continuous use, it is recommended that the check be carried out every few hours; otherwise, a daily check is recommended. ee Rev 0 December 2010 Page 67Beam alignment (squint) ‘With the probe still in position, a check on beam alignment can be performed. If the probe beam is correctly aligned, the edge of the probe will be parallel to the edge of the block. If this is not the case, measure the squint angle between the two edges. Tolerance depends upon the accuracy of defect plotting required. The check should be carried out once per week. 100 19) ea] ao} 60] 60 9 40 20 20 a Dheainsid ‘ auprrtabe Max 900 CURRENT 60% \wenrTbe wake" 100% CORRENT 99: Me Beem O75 "peak ae.77 an. REF "30.09 0-0d8 RANGE 50.03 am ter "50 0+" 3 0am RANGE 50-02 an 190 z 120 20) 30 60] t 6o}-|? 0] “9 20}. 20 ol : 5 ° H ayprrTipe WAX 100% CURRENT 01% auprifibe Ax too CORRE Tax San Darra S170. Peak “26-02 an In berra G78. peak 28.82 na REF "30,0- 6.008 RANGE $0.03 mm Rar 50,0-13-048 RANGE 50-03 m= 100 109} eal : a0] 60] Sot 69] so] 44] 20 2 ° 0 auotrtipe war ioe CURRENT “itx ayn Tp MA S00k GumiannT oe Mane DEPTH 6.75" pmax “26.77 mm REE 30 -0-18 048 RANGE 60.03 mn Rev 0 December 2010 San barn @.7= REF "30-0-24,0am RARGE $0.03 PEAK 28.77 nm Page 6812.4 Beam angle General Beam angle can be checked on several calibration blocks eg A2 or AS. The beam angle check shall preferable be made on a probe in conjunction with the flaw detector to be used in subsequent testing. Method a) Place the probe in such a position as to receive a reflected signal from the selected transverse hole in the calibration block (eg 19mm deep hole in the AS block). 5) Maximise the signal from the hole and mark the index point of the probe on the block, ©) Measure the distance from the marked point on the block to the edge of the block. Knowing the position of the drilled hole will allow the beam angle to be calculated (see below). Note If only a rapid check is required, maximise the signal from the $0mm hole in the A2 block. The angle can then be assessed by visual interpolation between the reference markings on the block. Tolerance ‘The accuracy by the described method is +1.5°. ‘The accuracy in this case can only be assumed to be 43°, Frequency of checking. When a probe is in continuous use, it is recommended that the check be carried out at least every few hours; otherwise, a daily check is recommended. 12.5 Sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio General ‘The main objective of this check is to provide the operator with a simple method which will identify deterioration in sensitivity of the probe and flaw detector in combination. Method a) Place the probe on the A2 calibration block and adjust its position to maximise the signal from the 1.5mm diameter hole. b) Adjust the gain control to set this signal to 20%FSH and note the dB setting. ©) Increase the gain until the overall system noise (electronic noise and grain structure grass) at the same range as the target hole reached 20%FSH and note the new dB setting. ' EE Rev 0 December 2010 Page 694) The first gain measurement noted provides a check on the sensitivity of the probe and flaw detector, and the difference between the first and second measurements (AB) gives the S/N ratio. Note 1 A demonstration of the sensitivity of probe and flaw detector on a calibration block does not guarantee that the same size of reflector could be detected in the workpiece, Note 2 If it is desired to check the sensitivity as a function of range, the use of the standard AS block is recommended for longer ranges. Tolerance Tolerance will depend on application. Any deterioration in the sensitivity value will indicate a problem with the probe or flaw detector. A low S/N ratio would be typical of a coarse-grained material. Frequency of checking Unless otherwise agreed, the check shall be carried out once per probe per day. 12.6 Pulse duration General This check on the probe and flaw detector in combination, measures the effect on the displayed signal of probe damping, amplifier bandwidth, builtin suppression and smoothing circuits. The standard A2 calibration block may be used for this check. Method. a) Calibrate the time base in millimetres to a range that is to be used in subsequent testing. b) Maximise the signal from the 1.5mm side-drilled hole for shear wave probes or a BWE for compression wave probes and set its peak to 100% screen height. ©) Measure the width of the signal in millimetres at the 10% screen height position. 4) If desired, the measurement in millimetres can be converted into microseconds by dividing it by the relevant sound velocity. Tolerance Tolerance will depend upon application. A long pulse duration will limit range resolution and indicate the need for a resolution check (A resolution check is described in Clause No.7), and a short pulse duration may indicate the flaw detector has built-in suppression that could prevent the observation of small signals. ee Rev 0 December 2010 7 Page 70Frequency on checking Unless otherwise agreed, the check should be carried out daily. 1 100 a0) 80] 40} 20] : 0 J AMPLITUDE WAX 21% CURRENT 20% AMPLITUDE MAX 29% CURRENT | 20% MIN DEPTH 22.01 PEAK | 22.01 an MIN DEPTH 18.51 PEAK 22.51 an REF 51.74 0.0dB RANGE 100.0 nm REF 82.64 0.0aB RANGE 100.0 xm 12.7 Resolving power (resolution) General This check determines the ability of an ultrasonic flaw detection system to give separate indication of discontinuities situated close together and simultaneously within the sound beam. Method a) Calibrate the time base to a range of 0-100mm for either the compression or the shear wave probe. ) Place the probe sa that the axis of the beam impinges upon the 2mm step in the A7 calibration block for shear wave probes, or the 3mm step for compression wave probes, ©) Adjust the position of the probe so that the echoes from the two targets are of the same height and approximately half full graticule height. 4) The steps are said to be resolved when their echoes are clearly separated at half maximum echo height or lower. Note The 3mm step between the 9 and 3mm drilled holes in the A6 calibration block may also be used when checking compression probes. Frequency of checking ‘The check shall be carried out monthly, or when too long a pulse duration is suspected. rt Rev 0 December 2010 Page 71AMPLITUDE WAX 100% CURRENT © % © AMPLITUDE MAX 100% CURRENT MIN DEPTH 23.51 EDGE an MIN DEPTH 23.51. EDGE an REF 52.44 0.04 RANGE 100.0 na REF 52.14 0.048 RANGE 100.0 wm wo a 60: 80° 60: 60 : 40: 20: AMPLITUDE HAX 100% CURRENT = % © AMPLITUDE MAX 100% CURRENT. = % MON DEPTH 23.51 EDGE an MIN DEPTH 23.51 EDGE an REF §2.6+ 0.0dB RANGE 100.0 an REF 52.64 0.0dB RANGE 100.0 n= SE Rev 0 December 2010 - Page 7213.0 Sensitivity Setting Setting a sensitivity level is essential to provide reproducible results from the same inspection carried out by different operators using different probe set combinations and maybe working in different locations. They must all see the same flaw giving the same signal height and therefore have the same data on which to base their acceptireject decisions, There are several systems for setting sensitivity. We have already met one of them, first backwall ech (BWE) to FSH for lamination checks. However, when checking plate adjacent to a weld, the second BWE should be to FSH. When setting sensitivity we must be sure that a signal from a defect will be visible on the CRT screen and that we will be able to distinguish the defect signal from background noise or grass. All UT sets differ slightly, so we cannot say, ‘Set the sensitivity to xdB’, as different probes and equipment will give entirely different signals from the same reflector. It is to attain some uniformity that the different methods have evolved. Different methods are used in different places. ‘The IOW block is used and it is the recommended method for PCN examinations. On North Sea contracts the distance amplitude correction curve (DAC) method or ASME curves is used, The DAC method is recommended in EN 1714, and in Germany the distance gain size (DGS) system is usually applied, especially when evaluating small reflectors. ‘The purpose of sensitivity setting is to find a gain level sufficient to find a flaw and depends on the: a) Probe used, in particular its frequency b) Flaw detector ©) Properties of the test material 4) Ratio of noise to BWE or flaw echo 13.1 The Institute of Welding (IOW) block We met the Institute of Welding block when studying beam profiles. The block contains 1.5mm side-drilled holes at different depths and allows the holes to be detected from different angles with angle probes. To use it is siraple and straightforward. Find a hole on the block that approximately coincides with the thickness of the material you are testing, Double the thickness if you are examining at full skip, i.e. bouncing your sound beam off the backwall. Obtain a signal from the hole and tum the gain control until the signal is at FSH. Work out transfer correction, You have now set sensitivity and can be assured that flaws having the equivalent reflectivity of 1.5mm side-drilled holes will appear on the screen. ge ie Rev 0 December 2010 Page 73,‘This method has several advantages: | + Simple to use +» Provides @ uniform system of reference 4 +A fairly large and visible echo is assured from small flaws | + Side-drilled hole reflectors are independent of angle 1 But some disadvantages | * Block is heavy and expensive * Only refers to 1.5mm side drilled holes 1 + Not a reliable method for sizing defects 1 . [Seasitiyi 13.1.1 Distance amplitude correction (DAC) curves | EN 1714 and all US specifications recommend this method. A special reference block of the same material as the test object is usually necessary, though the curves can be constructed from an IOW block. , Rev 0 December 2010 . Page 74‘The type of block recommended by EN 1714 and an ASME block is shown below ‘The procedure described in EN 1714 for constructing a DAC curve is as follows: * Calibrate the time base for the maximum sound path length to be used. + Adjust the gain so that the amplitude from the series of reflectors falls between 20 and 80% FSH + Without altering the gain setting, maximise the amplitude of each reflector in turn and mark the tip of the signal, either on the screen or on a transparent overlay. + Record the gain setting used for plotting the DAC curve and reference this to some other reflector such as the radius in a V calibration block. This later action enables gain to be reset without the reference block. Note: Should the difference in height between the largest and the smallest echoes exceed the range of 20 to 80%FSH the line shall be split and separate curves plotted at different gain settings. The difference in gain between the two curves shall be noted. Examine the test material as instructed in the specifications, comparing the signals from discontinuities to the curves on your screen. ‘Any signal above the curve shows a reflector larger than the reference hole. Accept or reject discontinuities as instructed in the specification you are working to. Advantages + A quick way of accepting or rejecting discontinuities without too much time consumed in sizing reflectors. * Some idea can be gained of the discontinuities size in relation to reference holes. * Uniformity provided by all technicians constructing their curves from the same test block. se Rev 0 December 2010 Page 75Disadvantages * Curves must be constructed for each probe in conjunction with each set. + Transfer correction must be worked out. 13.2 Flat-bottomed holes (FBH) Blocks are drilled with flat-bottomed holes to precise diameters and set distances from the top of the blook, These diameters and distances are stamped on the side of the block. When setting sensitivities the specification or technique will specify the block to be used and the amplitude of signal to be obtained from the FBH. Blocks are cut for use with 0° probes or angle probes in different materials and this method is mostly used in aerospace. Advantages + Easy to use * Uniformity assured when different technicians use the same blocks + Blocks can be made from different materials Disadvantages + Fairly rigid system for specific applications * Large number of blocks needed for different settings * Transfer correction usually needed * Blocks for angle probes are rarely cut exactly normal to the beam. You may hear these blocks called HITT or ALCOA blocks, after the originators. Using noise Work out the maximum range at which you will be examining test material. Place the probe on the material with couplant applied. Turn up the gain until you have 2mm grass on the screen at the maximum range. You will now have the assurance of knowing that any discontinuity larger than the grain size will show up on the screen. Advantages . * Quick and easy + No reference block is needed + Any-defect larger than the material grains will show up * No transfer correction needed Disadvantages + No accurate sizing of the defect + Discontinuities near the surface of the test material may be hidden in the grass Rev 0 December 2010 . age 76‘Transfer correction Reference blocks usually have smooth machined surfaces while test objects frequently have rougher, more uneven surfaces. Also the attenuation of sound in the reference block might be different to that in the test material. Usually attenuation in the reference block is Jess than the test material but not always. This means that allowance must be made for the differences in sound energy transfer between probe and test material and probe and reference block, More energy can be passed into a reference block than into a rougher surfaced component. Hence the artificial defects in a reference block may give higher amplitude signals (anything up to 6B or even more) than signals from similarly sized discontinuities in the test materials. Allowances have to be made for this and corrections made for different surfaces. This allowance is named transfer correction or transfer loss. ‘There are several methods of determining transfer correction, some requiring the construction of separate DAC curves and some requiring calculation according to formulae, We explain two simple methods. Compression probe method Place the probe on the reference block and tum the BWE up to FSH. Note the gain settings. Now place the probe on the test material and at a similar range bring the BWE to FSH. Again note the gain setting. The difference between them is the transfer correction. S oninry.deut SEH Uimaemennninminnieeee eee eee Rev 0 December 2010 Page 77Angle probe method As you cannot get a BWE with angle probes from a plate or pipe wall, you have to use two probes with the same angle. Place the two probes opposite each other on the reference block with one probe transmitting and the other receiving, so that the sound energy is bounced off the backwall and caught by the receiving probe (pitch and catch). Maximise the signal and adjust the gain until it is at FSH. Place the two probes on a piece of test material of the same thickness as the reference block and repeat the process. Note the difference between the two gain settings. This is the transfer correction needed. Other methods of transfer correction are described in EN 1714 and in literature concerning the distance gain size (DGS) system. 133 The distance gain size (DGS) method The DGS system relies on the laws of large and small reflectors in the far zone and was developed to relate the amplitude of a signal to various sizes of perfect disc reflectors, flat- bottomed holes, so it does not actually size flaws but relates them to an equivalent, reflector. The relative heights of signals from different sizes of flat-bottomed holes at different distances were plotted as curves. Reflector sizes ate expressed in terms of the probe diameter and distances from the probe are expressed as multiples of the near zone. Now if you have a signal from a flaw at a certain depth, you can compare the signal size to what the signal of a BWE should be at that depth and estimate the size of flat bottomed hole that would give such a signal at that depth. The defect can then be sized according to a flat bottomed hole equivalent. The attenuation factor for the test material must be taken into consideration when using the DGS system. Example: You are using a SMHz 10mm diameter compression probe on 100mm steel plate and you find a defect at 60mm depth which gives a signal at FSH with a 30dB gain setting. What is its flat-bottomed hole equivalent? First, work out the probe near zone. It is 21mm, so the defect is at a distance of three near zones. Now get a BWE and find what the dB reading is. Say it is 204B when the BWE is at FSH. 100mm is five near zones. What will it be at 60mm, three near zones? Refer to the DGS curves. If the BWE is FSH with 20dB at 100mm, by the law of large reflectors and according to the BWE line on the DGS curves a BWE at 60mm should reach FSH at 16dB, 44B less than at 100mm. The signal height from the flaw is 30dB, 14dB more than the BWE. Look down the scale 14dB at 3 near zones from the BWE and you find that the nearest line is 0.5 of the probe diameter. The probe diameter is 10mm so the nearest equivalent flat bottomed hole to the flaw had a diameter of Smm. By similar working, a sensitivity setting can be worked out for a flat bottomed hole of a certain diameter at a given range to a given screen height and the flaw detector gain set accordingly. Rey 0 December 2010 . Page 78Advantages + You can choose a gain level for sizing + Tells you the smallest defect you can find at a given range * Provides the basis for an accept/reject system + Itgives a rough equivalent to the size of a flaw * Uniformity between results from different technicians Disadvantages * Operators must keep referring to a chart and making calculations * Attenuation must be taken into account * No account is taken of flaw orientation * Most effective on small defects «+ An equivalence system not a sizing system * Flaw surfaces and shapes are not ideal reflectors, therefore signal amplitudes are not the same as a comparative flat-bottomed hole For angle probes, plastic slides have been manufactured by Krautkramer to fit over the CRT screen. The set is calibrated and gain setting is made by bringing the BWE or the echo from the 1.5mm hole on the V2 block up to marks on the slide. Flat bottomed hole equivalents for flaws can then be read straight off the slide. The DGS system is widely used in Germany. 134 Signal-to-noise ratio thas been mentioned elsewhere that frequency and wavelength have a major influence on flaw detection. In fact, however, the detection of a defect is influenced by many other factors. The amount of sound that reflects from a defect is, for example, dependent on acoustic impedance mismatch between the flaw and the surrounding material, A gas filled defect such as a lack of fusion is generally a better reflector than a metallic inclusion because the difference in acoustic impedance is greater between air and metal than between metal and another metal. ‘The nature of the surrounding material also greatly affects the detection of defects with coarse-grain structure reducing defect detectability, A measure of detectability of a flaw and the effect of the many factors involved is its signal-to-noise ratio (S/N), The S/N ratio ‘is a measure of how the signal from the defect compares to other background reflections (Categorised as noise). A S/N ratio of 3 to 1 is often required as a minimum, The absolute noise level and the absolute strength of an echo from a small defect depends on a number of factors: + Probe size and focal properties. + Probe frequency, bandwidth and efficiency. + Inspection path and distance (water and/or solid). i seer peniet ES TFS iniineeeemnmniaeeeiee ee Rev 0 December 2010 Page 7913.5 Notche: For evaluating incomplete penetration in welds or discontinuities forming a comer, such as a surface crack or weld undercut, machined surface notches may be employed for sensitivity calibration and size comparison, since they more nearly represent the actual discontinuity. A Vee shaped notch is an useful reference for evaluating side wall lack of fasion in vee welds. Square notches are useful for evaluating Lack of penetration. These notches are best produced by Electric Discharge Machining process. ‘The notches are usually at least one inch long [min two times the probe crystal width is recommended], with a depth [ ¢ ] of 2 to 10 % of thickness of the part for weld inspection. The width [w] of the cut is usually 1/16". For base material examination of tubular products, axial and circumferential notches on the outside and the inside surfaces, in a calibration block made from the product being examined is used. For base material pipe body, the Notches used are lesser of the 0.004 “or 5% of material thickness deep, with an width of two times the depth of cut. For plates, 3% of thickness is used. [always refer applicable test procedure for notch Details} Rev 0 December 2010 > Page 8014.0 Flaw Location: ‘You can calculate the location of a flaw by using trigonometric formulas as shown below. ‘You need to know the angle of the probe and the stand-off measured from the centre of a weld. Depth = Cos @ x range Stand-off = Sin 00) x range A general rule of thumb used to calculate the depth of an indication from the range on the screen is 45° probe - range is approximately 1.5 x depth 60" probe - range is exactly 2.x depth 70° probe - range is approximately 3 x depth Itis quicker and easier, however, to use a flaw location slide and a beam plot or even a piece of clear plastic film with the probe angle drawn on it. Use the slide as follows: ‘Draw a cross section of the weld on the transparent outer envelope of the slide. Draw a mirror image of the weld cross section immediately under it if the sound energy is going to bounce off the backwall, i.e. using full skip. Use the printed datum line on the plat envelope as the centre of the weld and measure all stand-off from it. Maximise the echo from a defect and mark where the index point falls on the parent metal. Measure its distance from the centre of the weld. Note the defect on a sketch and note the stand-off and range of the centre of the defect. Move the datum line on the plastic envelope to the stand-off distance. Look along the centre of the beam plot until you come to the range shown on the screen. Make a mark on the envelope, this represents the centre of the defect. It shows the defects position in the weld body. Stand-of Rev 0 December 2010 Page 8114.1 THE IRRADIATION FACTOR When testing tubular materials around the circumference with angle probes, it is possible that due to the curvature, wall thickness and probe angle, that the beam will not strike the inside surface of the material. We can calculate the minimum probe angle that will strike the inside surface of the material (at a tangent). This is known as. the irradiation factor. A probe angle that will reach the bore is calculated by the following formula. Inside Diameter of the pipe ida diameter of the pipe = in# of maztmum angle te Rev 0 December 2010 Page 8214.2 Flaw Sizing: SIZING METHODS ANGLE PROBES ‘There are three main sizing techniques used with angle probes: + 6dB drop + 204B drop + Maximum amplitude 14.2.1 64B Drop technique Used to size defect dimensions which are larger than the beam, such as the length of a lack of sidewall fusion in a weld. The probe is moved off the end of the defect until the signal amplitude is reduced by 50% (6dB). The position of the centre of the probe is then marked onto the material surface. The probe is now in a position where the beam is half on and half off the defect. If this is repeated at the other end of the defect then the distance between the marks represents its length. Rey 0 December 2010 Page 8314.2.2 204B Drop technique ‘This technique is used for defects that are less than the width of the beam, such as the cross-sectional size of a lack of sidewall fusion in a weld. It requires the use of a 20dB beam profile, plotted out for the probe in use, drawn onto a plotting system. The signal from the defect is first maximised and the position of the defect plotted down the main beam on the plotter as in fig. 1. The probe is then moved forwards, off the defect, until the signal drops to 10% of its original height. As the probe has moved forward the defect is now in the trailing edge of the beam, so we now plot the signal down the trailing edge on the plotter, see fig.2. This should give a point plotted just above the previous plot and this represents the top edge of the defect. If we now move the probe backwards, past the maxim, to a position where the signal is again 10% of the maxim, then plot the signal down the leading edge of the beam, as in fig.3, this should give us the bottom edge of the defect and thus the overall size. figa fig.2 figs 14.2.3 Maximum amplitude (max. amp) technique This is used to size areas of small defects, such as inclusions or porosity, or to size multi-faceted defects, such as cracks. The technique involves moving the probe off the defect area until the signals disappear, then slowly bringing the probe back, watching the whole signal group, to the first position where one of the signals maximises. The defect is then plotted using the main beam on the plotting system, If this is carried out in both directions then the cross-sectional extremities of the defect are plotted out. The technique is repeated moving the probe laterally to size the Iength of the defect by marking the position of the centre of the probe. ee Rev 0 December 2010 . Page 84This technique will pick out the last individual inclusion of a group or the last facet of a crack giving the overall size of the defect or area. It can also be used to plot the shape of a defect and for condition monitoring where critical sizing is required by plotting each individual signal in the group as it maximises. 14.3 Pulse echo Ulirasonic inspections are largely performed by the pulse echo technique in which a single probe is used to both transmit and receive ultrasound. In addition to the fact that access is required from one surface only, further advantages of this technique are that it gives an indication of the type of defect, its size and its exact location within the item being tested. ‘The major disadvantage is that pulse echo inspection is reliant upon the defects having the correct orientation relative to the beam in order to generate a returning signal to the probe and is not therefore considered fail safe. If the sound pulse hits the flaw at an angle other than 90° much of the energy will be reflected away and not return to the probe with the result that the flaw will not show up on the screen, 144 Through-transmission ‘Through-transmission was used in the early days of UT and is still used in plate and bar production. A probe one side of a component transmits an ultrasonic pulse to a receptor probe on the other side. The absence of a pulse coming to the receiver indicates a defect. en Rev 0 December 2010 Page 85No Defect Defect Transmission signal reduced Transmission signal ‘The advantages are + Less attenuation of sound energy + No probe ringing * No dead zone on the screen * Orientation of a defect does not matter as it does on the pulse echo display. The disadvantages are + Defect cannot be located * Defect cannot be identified * Component surfaces must be parallel * Vertical defects do not show * Process must be automated + Must be access to both sides of the component Rev 0 December 2010 7 Page 8614.5 Tandem scanning ‘Tandem scanning is used mainly to locate defects lying perpendicular to the surface. It involves the use of two or more angle probes of the same angle of incidence and facing the same direction with one probe acting as the transmitter and the other(s) as receivers 14.6 Contact scanning Contact scanning is defined by EN 1330 as scanning by means of an ultrasonic probe(s) in direct contact with the object under examination (with or without couplant). Normal a thin film of couplant between the probe and the test surface serves to both transmit ultrasound and to lubricate the surface and reduce wear on the probe face. Ideally the acoustic impedance of the couplant should be between that of the probe (perspex) and the material under test Rev 0 December 2010 Page 8714,7 Gap scanning In accordance with EN 130 gap scanning is a technique in which the probe is not in direct, contact with the surface of the specimen but is coupled to it through a column of liquid, not more than a few wavelengths thick. eam y, soma Fats 14.8 Immersion testing Immersion testing involves the test object being submerged in a liquid, usually water and the probe being scanned at a fixed distance above the component: The water serves to provide constant coupling conditions and amounts to a long fluid delay line. Although the probe itself must be a compression wave, shear waves can be produced within the sample by angulations of the probe. This technique frequently uses high frequency probes (25-50 MHz) and focused probes for automated inspections and is suited to the inspection of complex components. The use of wheel probes, squirter and bubbler systems are also considered to be immersion systems. FrontSuer Bask Serer Defect —> WaerPadDistnce Rev 0 December 2010 : Page 8814,9 Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing An array transducer is simply one that contains a number of separate elements in a single housing, and phasing refers to how those elements are sequentially pulsed. A phased array system is normally based around a specialized ultrasonic transducer that contains many individual elements (typically from 16 to 256) that can be pulsed separately in a Programmed pattern. These transducers may be used with various types of wedges, in a contact mode, or in immersion testing. Their shape may be square, rectangular, or round, and test frequencies are most commonly in the range from 1 to 10 MHz, Phased array systems pulse and receive from multiple elements of an array. ‘These elements are pulsed in such a way as to cause multiple beam components to combine with each other and form a single wave front traveling in the desired direction. Similarly, the receiver function combines the input from multiple elements into a single presentation, Because phasing technology permits electronic beam shaping and steering, itis possible to generate a vast number of different ultrasonie beam profiles from a single probe assembly, and this beam steering can be dynamically programmed to create electronic scans Rev 0 December 2010 Page 89‘This enables the following capabilities: 1. Software control of beam angle, focal distance, and beam spot size. These parameters can be dynamically scanned at each inspection point to optimize incident angle and signal-to-noise for each part geometry, 2. Multiple-angle inspection can be performed with a single, small, multi-element probe and wedge, offering either single fixed angles or a scan through a range of angles. 3. These capabilities provide greater flexibility for inspection of complex geometries and tests in which part geometry limits access. 4, Multiplexing across many elements allows motionless high-speed scans from a © single tansducer position. More than one scan may be performed from a single location with various inspection angles. Advantages Ultrasonic phased array systems can potentially be employed in almost any test where conventional ultrasonic flaw detectors have traditionally been used. Weld inspection and crack detection are the most important applications, and these tests are done across a wide range of industries including aerospace, power generation, petrochemical, metal billet and tubular goods suppliers, pipeline construction and maintenance, structural metals, and general manufacturing. Phased arrays can also be effectively used to profile remaining wall thickness in corrosion survey applications. ‘The benefits of phased array technology over conventional UT come from its ability to use multiple elements to steer, focus and scan beams with a single transducer assembly. Beam steering, commonly referred to sectorial scanning, can be used for mapping components at appropriate angles. This can greatly simplify the inspection of components with complex ‘geometry. The small footprint of the transducer and the ability to sweep the beam without moving the probe also aids inspection of such components in situations where there is limited access for mechanical scanning. Sectorial scanning is also typically used for weld inspection. The ability to test welds with multiple angles from a single probe greatly increases the probability of detection of anomalies. Electronic focusing permits optimizing the beam shape and’ size at the expected defect location, as well as further optimizing probability of detection, The ability to focus at multiple depths also improves the ability for sizing critical defects for volumetric inspections. Focusing can significantly improve signal-to-noise ratio in challenging applications, and electronic scanning across many groups of elements allows for C-Scan images to be produced very rapidly. ‘The potential disadvantages of phased array systems are a somewhat higher cost and a requirement for operator training, however these costs are frequently offset by their ‘greater flexibility and a reduction in the time required to perform a given inspection. Rev 0 December 2010 Page 9014.10 Time of Flight Diffraction Introduction ‘The Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) technique is rapidly gaining importance as a stand-alone inspection technique. The TOFD technique is an advanced ultrasonic inspection technique that fulfils a need for reliable inspections. It is a powerful technique because it can simultaneously detect and size defects. TOFD is now routinely used in a wide range of applications such as inspection of piping and pressure vessels, ‘What type of information will TOFD generally provide? A routine inspection provides the ‘operator with the following information: + location of indications along the weld + position of indications with respect to the scanning surface (depth information) + through thickness extent, if exceeding a certain value (typical 2-mm), which means that porosity and slag will generally be detected as "indications without measurable height" * information on “embedded” or "surface breaking" character of a defect Information on the type of defect is limited, similar to both manual and mechanised ultrasonic inspection. This is not necessarily a problem, because from a fracture mechanics point of view, many defects that are normally regarded as volumetric, such as slag inclusions, may be sharp enough to be able to act as crack initiators. Also, this aspect is compensated, to a certain extent, by the ability of TOFD to distinguish between "defects without measurable height" and "defects with measurable height". This, in combination with the high probability of detection (POD) and a low false call rate (FCR), makes TOFD @ valuable tool for routine NDT, in the sense of "Good Workmanship evaluation supported by fracture mechanics considerations" Recent developments of codes and defect acceptance standards for use with the technique support this tendency and is resulting in a wider acceptance every year. Apart from the growing realisation by the market that TOFD offers unique advantages, these developments are also stimulated by the realisation of the five main topics: + Equipment improvement + Transducer performance improvement + Initiatives to establish the qualification of TOFD operators + Acceptance of TOFD in weld and vessel inspection + Implementation of new codes and standards Se Rev 0 December 2010 Page 91Short introduction to the technique The principle of the TOFD technique is based on mapping of the position of the edges of defects. This is in marked contrast with conventional ultrasonics, which relies on the amplitude of specular reflections received from defects, To determine the position of the defect edges, a wide-beam transmitter probe is placed on one side of the weld under inspection. An identical receiver probe is placed on the other side of the weld (figure 1). In the case of a flawless weld, the relevant ultrasonic signal will consist of a so called “lateral wave", coresponding to the direct surface path between transmitter and receiver, and a back wall echo. Between the lateral wave and the back wall echo there will be no signals. If defects are present in the weld, however, the ultrasonic waves will be diffracted by the edges of the defects, The depth of the defect edge can be calculated from the time of flight of the corresponding ultrasonic wave. Defect height can be readily measured by subtraction of the depth of lower and higher defect edge. the principle of TOFD inspection on a| welded plate Like any other technique, TOFD also has its limitations. In general the technique is less suitable for coarse grained materials such as many types of austenitic steel. Inspectability with TORD is usually assessed on a case-by-case basis. In addition, inspection reliability close to the scanning surface is hampered by the presence of the lateral wave, which may obscure defects present in this area. Specialised software algorithms can be used to minimise this effect. Similarly, small defects located very close to the root of the weld may sometimes be obscured by isregular-ities in the root sch as mismatch. General acceptance of the TOFD technique will only be possible if it is also properly embedded in codes and standards. With more and more experienced gathered the potential Rev 0 December 2010 Page 92for the technique is rapidly increasing. Present developments in the codes, defect acceptance standards and personnel qualifications support this tendency. Fig. 5- TOFD Dacen of butt wold ‘nd detect ® Two angle beam probes (usual 45°) are placed as a transmitter-receiver arrangement and are connected together ( fig ). The distance of the probes is calculated according to the wall thickness, © Longitudinal waves are usually applied. The sound beam spread is large to maximize the extent of the scan. © The A-scan in the above figure shows the so-called lateral wave, the back wall echoes and between both signals other signals can possibly appear, which can occur due to inhomogeneity. The A-Scan is not rectified in the TOFD technique. © TOFD technique is always applied with imaging methods (Figure attached above). re ‘Rev 0 December 2010 ‘Page 9315.0 Presentation ‘The flaw detector or UT set sends ultrasound energy into test materials and some of this return to the set to be presented as information on a CRT screen. This is an A scan display with the amplitude of signals displayed as a function of time or distance. There are other ‘ways of presenting the information, A,B, C& D SCANNING SYSTEMS 15.1 A-scan This is one of the most common systems in use for manual ultrasonic inspection. It displays the reflected energy as signals on a CRT. The horizontal axis on the CRT represents elapsed time or distance and the vertical axis represents signal amplitude or sound energy returning to the probe. This system can provide an indication on the size of a defect from signal amplitude, the defect location, from the position of the signal on the timebase, and the signal shape and behavior, on movement of the probe, can indicate defect type. ‘The disadvantages of this system are that the signals require interpretation, which means that more skill is required for operation. The advantages of this system are its portability and less time involved in setting up. Amplitude O12 3 45 67 89 10, rimesdistance Rev 0 December 2010 : Page 9415.2 B-scan system The B-scan system provides us with a cross-sectional view of the material under test by scanning the probe across the surface (sometimes at high speed). The image is retained using digital recording, giving a permanent record of the ultrasonic data. The amplitude of the receiver received signal is represented by the brightness of the image and the synchronisation of the movement of the probe and the display can give a true representation of the size of the defect. Plan view End view Corrosion pit Side view 15.3. C-sean system This system gives us a plan view of the scanned area, showing defects as contrasting areas, on a printout or plotting system that is synchronised with the probe's movement as it traverses over the material. ‘The big advantage of the system is an instant permanent record. The disadvantages are there is no indication of defect depth or orientation and setting up the system can be time consuming Rev 0 December 2010 Page 9515.4The D scan ‘The D scan gives a side view of the defect seen from a viewpoint normal to the B sean, It is usually automated, and shows the length, depth and through thickness of a defect. The D scan should not be confused with the delta technique, Le? | SIDE VIEW Side BD VIEW Side ECHO UIE Upper Level Teen 216-693.1 Rev 0 December 2010 Page 96ing flaws in butt welds tis not always easy to identify a defect, but by noting its position in the weld and moving the probe around the defect and watching the changing signal on the screen you can come to a reasonably accurate conclusion. Knowledge of the welding process is essential, as is knowledge of the weld preparation, weld dimensions, size of the gap and other factors. Slag is unlikely in a TIG weld and lack of sidewall fusion is not likely in the middle of the weld metal. Cracks are more likely in thicker welds than in thinner welds and fusion defects are more likely in automatic welding processes than in manual. In addition the shape, amplitude and time-spread of a reflector as represented on the screen, can give clues as to the identity of a flaw. We talk of a Specular reflector, that is with a mirror like face, where all the sound is reflected back to the source of energy. Providing that is, the probe and flaw are correctly orientated. A sidewall fusion flaw is nearest to this ideal. However, at the other extreme, porosity can be considered as a large number of small spherical reflectors which cause the energy to reflect everywhere. Rather like the light reflecting from a disco ball hanging from the ceiling. Porosity is a diffuse reflector. By combining these movements and watching the movement of the signal on the screen you can draw conclusions. Characteristics of different defects are shown in the accompanying diagrams, with explanations adjacent, Guidance in the classification of ultrasonic indications can be found in; EN 1713 Ultrasonic testing Characterisation of indications in welds EN 583 Part 5 Ultrasonic examinations Characterisation and sizing of discontinuities EN 1713 contains a flowchart to be followed in order to determine the exact nature of any indications. The stages involved are: + Echo amplitude + Directional reflectivity + Echostatic pattern (A scan) ¢ Echodynamic pattern The first stage of assessing echo amplitude involves comparing the amplitude of an indication to DAC level and classifying it into one of the four categories shown in the table below. SL Sz 83 S4 DAC -10dB DAC +64, ‘DAC -6dB S/15dB Indications falling into the $1 category would be immediately discounted. All other indications would then proceed to be assessed for directional reflectivity, which is defined as the variation in echo amplitude from a discontinuity in relation to the angle at which the Rev 0 December 2010 Page 97ultrasonic beam is incident upon it. An spherical indication would show the same echo amplitude over a wide range of incident angles; 45°, 60° and 70*for instance, and is said to have low directional reflectivity. A large smooth planar reflector would show a great variation in echo amplitude and would therefore be said to have high directional reflectivity. The next two stages of the process analyze firstly the shape of the signal as displayed on the A scan equipment and finally the behaviour of the signal when the probe is scanned at 90'to the discontinuity, traversing. Echostatic patterns are categorised a + Single and smooth «Single and jagged * Multiple With respect to echo dynamic pattems indications fall into one of five categories dependant upon the changes observed in the signal on the A scan in response to probe movement. To aid the identification of defects there are four basic probe movements: 16.1 SCANNING PATTERNS For angle probes the scanning pattems describe the way the probe is manipulated as well as the way it is moved. The most common patterns, referred to in some standards and application procedures are: Orbital sean Where the probe is manipulated through an are movement whilst maintaining the beam focused on a fixed reflector. Used often to identify porosity, where the signal can be maintained on an orbital scan. a isso Rev 0 December 2010 - Page 98Swivel sean This is where the probe is rotated on the spot, effectively scanning the beam around it, Used to identify multi-faceted, planar or multiple defects and to ensure complete coverage when performing a limited transverse scan on a weld where the weld reinforcement is still present. Lateral scan ‘The probe is moved sideways along a fixed line. Used in the critical root scan of a single vee weld or for sizing the length of a defect longitudinally. Depth scan This is where the probe is moved back and forth in the direction of the beam, As in locating the position of a defect when plotting or when maximising the signal off a transverse hole to set sensitivity. Other "scans" referred to such as “root scan", "transverse scan" etc. are scans for a particular type of defect or in @ particular area (root scan, in the root area, wansverse scan, for transverse defects). onnita ean COTS CALLS t Depth Lateral + > < > eo QURUR Rev 0 December 2010 Page 9916.2 The Five Echo Dynamic Patterns are Given Below Echo Dynamic Pattern: ‘Vaso asia ame SiS RSOSAy lene oF sian : D ZF Alia Bi ‘Vartions in signa ampise a Tange Gace “Nrerpogte Gea ge 7 thy 1 Veriton in slg ampitvde Rev0 December 2010 Page 10017.0 Practical Weld Inspection: ‘Technique: When searching for defects in welds you should have, as a minimum, the following information, which is usually written on a technique or instruction sheet (see the appendices for an example), ‘The test component identification and area to test. Actions to be taken when defects are found. ‘The purpose of the test (defects sought and acceptance criteria). Equipment required. What method and level of test sensitivity to use (preparations). ‘The method of scanning. oe 00000 The instruction sheet would also contain sections giving details of any relevant safety procedures and post test procedures such as the cleaning of the test area afterwards. It would also have the company name, a unique technical reference number, the originator’s name and signature and an authorising ignature, Test area ‘The test may involve examining the whole, of a component, or just the weld and heat affected zone, this must be specified. Actions to be taken When defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported, ¢.g. on a diagram or as a written description, or the weld, may be accepted or rejected based on the defects found. If defects are to be reported then the defect information that needs reporting would be contained in this section, i Defect type, size, lateral and longitudinal position in relation to datums, ele. Purpose of the test This section tells us the accept/reject criteria for particular defects, i.e, what size and type of defects to report, or which defects render the weld, ot Parent metal, rejectable. Note: Defects in the Parent metal, adjacent to the weld, could limit the weld scans with the angle probes, Equipment The type of flaw detector, types, sizes, angles and frequencies of probes, type of couplant and calibration or reference blocks to be used, should be stated. Rev 0 December 2010 Page 101Sensitivity Method of setting and level of sensitivity need to be quoted for each scan, e.g. using an 80% F.S.H. DAC curve, plotted from 3 mm diameter side drilled holes, add 14 4B to the gain. This information may be contained in a section on preparation for the test, along with things like; lighting conditions, surface cleanliness etc. Scanning method The method of scanning the material is either a written, step by step, instruction or technique sheet, or involves following the steps laid out in the relevant national standard. ‘An example written step by step instruction, for a single vee butt weld, could be: Visually inspect the parent metal and weld surfaces, reporting the surface condition and the presence of any weld cap defects Scan the parent metal with a 0° probe, check and report the thickness and any defects. Where the cap is dressed flat scan the weld metal with the 0° probe for defects and record on a rough report. Draw up full size working diagrams and cursofs (plotting systems), noting surface distances and beam paths for each angle probe on half skip and full skip positions. Mark the centerline of the weld and the surface distance for each probe onto the scanning surface. : using a guide strip behind the probe, perform a critical root scan by scanning laterally on a fixed line parallel with the weld axis, with the probe index point at the half skip surface distance, with each probe (access permitting). Make a note, on a rough diagram, of any suspected defective areas of the root, as they are located with each probe. Assess each suspect area individually to ascertain whether the area is a defect, whether the defect is in the root, if so, what type of defect and its size and position. Record the defects on the rough report. Scan the weld body on full skip, with each angle probe in turn (access permitting), by moving the probe back and forth between the half and full skip surface distances, whilst gradually traversing the length of the weld. Assess each signal that falls within the half skip to full skip beam path range as it is located. Record the defects on the rough report. Scan the weld body on half skip, with each angle probe in turn (access permitting), by moving the probe back and forth between the half skip surface EES Rev 0 December 2010 > Page 102distance and the weld cap, or past the weld centre line if the cap has been removed, whilst gradually traversing the length of the weld. Assess each signal that falls within the zero to half skip beam path range (except the dead zone), as it is located. Record the defects on the rough report. Scan the weld for transverse defects by scanning down the axis of the weld, where the cap is removed, using sufficient scans and different angle probes to ensure full coverage of the weld body, on half and full skip where necessary, Assess and record the defects on the rough report. Transfer the noted defects from the rough report to a pro-forma report sheet and make a note of signal amplitudes in comparison to the DAC curve at the test sensitivity level. All noted indications should be assessed, using the plotting system and changing probes as necessary, as to whether they are in fact defects, not spurious indications. If they are defects then the type, size and position in relation to the datum and the centre line of the weld should be assessed, (The sizing of defects to be caried out as in the "O° scanning" or “angle probe scanning” section of these notes, as appropriate, or as in a relevant national standard) ‘The finished report should be signed and dated by a level two operator, Rev 0 December 2010 Page 10318.0 Weld Defects: Root Flaws The signal from a root flaw will appear on the time base while you are scanning laterally along a straight edge, at a fixed position from the root. Once the signal is maximised by getting the best reflection from the flaw it can be assumed that the centre of the beam is hitting the bottom of the flaw. Fine adjustment of the straight edge will perhaps be necessary. Lack of penetration High amplitude comer signals both sides of the weld, rapidly decreasing in amplitude on rotational scan. Plotting at plate thickness depth, the width of with no cross-over. Lack of penetration Lack of penetration Excess penetration + Echo amplitude between 10 and 90%, dependent on depth and probe angle. * Multi-range signal - echo falls rapidly when traversed with 70° probe, also range increases. * Probe movement - echo falls rapidly when angle probe traversed forward. Rev 0 December 2010 . Page 104+ Measurement - usually by 6¢B. is not possible to measure depth with angle probe. Length difficult but Exess Penetration Root concavity + Echo sharp and large, with reduced range. Often mode conversion with60? probe. + Probe movement - traverse backwards echo falls more rapidly than lack of penetration. + Measurement - use centre of beam and 20dB drop (trailing edge) for height. Not always possible to measure height. Root Concavity Sa i Rev 0 December 2010 Page 105Root crack + Usually bigh amplitude response with fir tree appearance. + Probe movement - orbit, echo held over large angle. Lateral, echo held with multi-range signals and variations on time base. * Measurement - 6dB for length. Traverse forward with 20dB for height, Root Crndke crack Lack of Root fusion » Similar to corner reflector with large, narrow echo from both sides. + Probe movement - confirm with 70° probe, when traversed. Large movement for 204B drop. Orbit, echo falls rapidly. ‘+ Measurement - lateral use 6 or 20dB drop. Traverse use 20 or 104B for70° probe. Lack of Reet Fasiea . Lack of Root Rev December 2010 Page 105Misalignment + Large single echo from one side. No echo from opposite side. ° Probe movement -traverse back echo falls rapidly. * Measurement - lateral for 6dB drop. Misalighnment i. Face and Body Flaws A degree of extra flexibility can be applied when flaws are located at the face or in the body of a weld. The diagrams illustrate the characteristic shape of the screen presentation but are ideal rather an actual, Lack of Sidewall fusion Echo large, single, narrow at time base when sidewall. Poor echo from opposite side, Confirm by skip scan. Probe movement Rotate or orbit, echo falls rapidly. Lateral or traverse echo height held .Measurement: For depth use 20dB. For length use 6 or 20dB. eckorienat Lack of Sidewall oer fusion, Rev 0 December 2010 Page 107Crack: + Multiple peak reflector usually high amplitude, but dependent on type of crack and size, echo with fir tree appearance. + Probe movement. Orbit - echo over larger angle than with fusion defects. Lateral - signal held with varying height. + Measurement. For length use 6 or 20db. For depth use 204B. ‘The below fig. is a example for a centre line crack crack cate g ke + Spherical even reflector single peak echo, narrow profile, similar to drilled hole or radius of calibration block intensity approximately 50% CRT. + Probe movement. Rotate, lateral and traverse echo falls rapidly. Orbit echo height remains. Gas pore + Measurement. Impractical to measure height and length. Report as isolated reflector. Equate reflectivity against disc area or DGS. Gas Pore Gas PorePorosity * Multiple peak echo, Low intensity 20% CRT broad at time base due to numerous ranges. * Probe movement, Orbit - echoes held with amplitude variations. * Measurement. Indicate area by pin-pointing last maximum signal from traverse and lateral scans. Porosity Porosity Linear inclusion (slag) Echo may be wide at time base and will be multi-faceted, due to more than a single range. Height will vary between 20 and 90%. Probe movement, Orbit, echo held with various maxima and minima. Similar with traverse. Rotational, echo will drop quickly. Lateral, will produce large variations in height. Perhaps with total loss of signal for short distances Jess than beam width. Linear Slag Tnchusion Lear Slag Talaten ee er ee Rey 0 December 2010 Page 1095 \ 8) a \ lo) \ 19.0 ULTRASONIC TESTING OF CASTINGS \ S_ AY GENERAL ‘The ultrasonic testing of cast products is limited, to some degree, by the scattering effects of the coarse grain structure and the rough surfaces produced on most casting processes. This scattering effect can be overcome by using lower frequency probes, but this results in a teduced sensitivity. TECHNIQUE When searching for defects in castings you should have, as a minimum, the following information, which is usually written on a technique or instruction sheet (see the appendices for an example). + The test component identification and area to test. + Actions to be taken when defects are found. + The purpose of the test (defects sought and acceptance criteria). + Equipment required. + What method and level of test sensitivity to use, + The method of scanning. The instruction sheet would also contain sections giving details of any relevant safety procedures and post test procedures such as the cleaning of the test area afterwards. It 50 would also have the company name, a unique technical reference number, the originator's name and signature and an authorising signature. ‘Test area ‘The test may involve testing the whole of a casting, or just sections of it, this should be specified. Rev 0 December 2010 Page 110Actions to be taken When, defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported, e.g. on a diagram or as a written description, or the casting may be accepted or rejected according to the defects found. If defects are to be reported then the defect 70 information that needs reporting would be contained in this section, i.e. defect type, size, lateral and longitudinal position in relation to datums ete. Purpose of the test This section tells us the accept/reject criteria for particular defects, ie, what size and type of defects to report or which defects render the casting rejectable. Equipment This section should give information on; the type of flaw detector, type, size and frequency of probes, type of couplant, calibration blocks and reference blocks to use. Sensitivity Method of setting and level of sensitivity need to be quoted for each scan, e.g, For the 0 6 robe set the response from the 3 mm flat bottom hole reference reflector to 40% fsh and scan at this level. For the angle probes; increase the gain until 2 mm to 3 mm of grass is obtained at the full skip beam path. Scanning method The method of scanning the material is either a written, step by step, instruction or technique sheet, or involves following the steps laid out in the relevant national standard. An example written step by step could be: © Prepare the material surface by removing any loose sand, rust, dirt or other debris and visually inspect for surface defects or damage. * Calibrate the screen on the flaw detector, using a 0° probe and the A2 calibration block, for a range of 0 to 200 mm. ® Set the sensitivity (as quoted in the relevant section above) and apply couplant to the test area, ° Scan the designated test area, with a probe overlap between scans of at least 20% of the probe's diameter and at a maximum probe movement rate of 150mmtsec. When defects meeting the criteria in the "Purpose of the test” section are found, Rev 0 December 2010 Page 111record the relevant defect data as in the "Actions to be taken” section. © Defects larger than the ultrasonic beam, i.e. where there is no bwe present, should be sized using the 6 dB drop or equalisation methods. Defects that are smaller than the ultrasonic beam should be sized and positioned using the 20 dB drop method. Multiple or multi-faceted defects should be sized using the maximum amplitude technique. © Prepare a neat concise report giving details of the casting’s identification, test area, equipment used, sensitivity method and settings and a drawing with the defect details as recorded in section 5 above. Sign and date the report and state your relevant qualifications, Post test procedures ‘This would involve cleaning any remaining couplant and dirt from the test area and covering the surface with protective coatings according to client's requirements. DEFECTS IN CASTINGS The interpretation of defects in castings involves knowledge or experience of the expected types of defect and the possible signals from them. In some situations it is a case of reading the signal, evaluating which defects do not give this type of signal, then choosing from the remaining possibilities as to which type of defect is most likely, Here are a few of the types of defects found in castings: Inclusions Inclusions are formed from Iumps of trapped solid non-metallic material in the casting, of various shapes, sizes, orientations and depths. In large groups of small inclusions, the variation, in orientation and shape, has the effect of scattering the sound beam, as it passes through. When using a 00 probe on parallel sided castings, if the sound reaches the back wall and reflects back, then it scatters again on the return journey, This causes a significant drop in the amplitude of the bwe, compared to a defect free area. The amplitudes of the signals from the defects also vary because of the differences in sizes and orientations. The signals we see from multiple inclusions are, a cluster of signals, of various amplitudes and depth, from the defects and a low bwe, or no bwe. The cluster of signals from the defects has a constantly changing pattern when you move the probe across the surface. Larger inclusions will give stronger signals dependant on the shape, size and orientation. a Rev 0 December 2010 Page L12A ate ~ Begs Segregation When alloys are added to the molten material in a cast ingot, some of them may not mix thoroughly and get left as segregated material in the centre of the ingot after solidification. If the acoustic impedances of the alloys and the base metal were different enough ultrasonic reflections may occur. In steel casting they generally have acoustic impedance that is similar to the steel, so they are not usually found ultrasonically unless the sensitivity of the equipment is high. A flake This defect occurs in,the casting process by the material splashing up the sides of the mould, this defect is on but not fused to the surface, This usually leaves a visible “flake" of material on the surface of the casting. Using a 0° probe, scanning from the opposite side of the casting shows a signal appearing just before the bwe. On the defect side of the casting this defect is very easily missed because it is very near the surface and if using a single crystal probe the signals will be in the dead zone.If a double crystal 0° probe is used, in 'B" the defect signal will be near zero on the CRT. In both cases, if the defect is larger than the beam then the bwe will not be present, a Rey 0 December 2010 Page 113,Scabs ‘These are pieces of foreign material, from the inside of the mould that have stuck to the surface of the casting and give signal responses similar to a flake if smooth or may just scatter the beam if rough.. Cold shuts A lack of fusion resulting from splashing (a flake), surging, interrupted pouring or the meeting of two streams of molten metal coming from different directions. This, defect gives a good signal response ultrasonically when favourably orientated to the beam. Pipe or Shrinkage cavities Internal or surface voids in the material, caused by shrinkage during solidification or insufficient filling of the mould. The signal response from this defect varies according to the shape, size and orientation of the defect. The normal rules of ultrasonic testing apply to the signals received, ie. Perpendicular orientation and large defect area give a good signal, oblique orientation and/or small defect area gives poor signals and larger defect area than the beam causes a loss of bwe, etc... Hot tears Surface or near surface cracks in the material due to different cooling rates at changes in section in a casting. Ultrasonic testing gives low amplitude multiple signals from multiple cracks or may give a high amplitude "ragged" signal from a large crack with the orientation of its major plane favourable to the beam. >a a OLE Se Se T so 10 Porosity Rev0 December 2010 Page 114This volumetric defect gives a multiple low amplitude signal from all directions, access permitting. Blowholes ‘These are small holes in the surface of a casting caused by the gas evolving from decomposing grease, moisture, etc, This defect is not readily found ultrasonically because it can be confused with rough surface signals normally obtained on some castings. ' Airlocks Air trapped in the mould during pouring can be located ultrasonically and gives signal responses dependant on its shape, size and orientation, ACCEPT AND REJECT CRITERIA When defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported or the casting may be accepted or rejected according to the defects found. The accept/reject criteria tell us what size and type of defects to report or which defects render the component rejectable, The criteria can be found in a procedure, a written instruction sheet or in a national standard, REPORTING A report should give details of the casting identification, test area, surface condition, equipment used, sensitivity settings and a drawing showing the defects and details such as; defect type, size, lateral and longitudinal positions in relation to datums, etc.. The report should be signed and dated and there may be a requirement to state your relevant qualifications. Alternatively, if accepting or rejecting the casting, instead of a drawing you may be asked to give a written statement of conformity to the relevant acceptance level, or reasons for rejection, to the standard employed. rp Rev 0 December 2010 Page 11520.0 ULTRASONIC TESTING OF FORGINGS GENERAL ‘The ultrasonic testing of forgings of simple geometry, such as bar and billet, there are few limitations, When testing general forgings, such as crankshafts, etc., then the most limiting factor is the shape. On complex shapes, the surface curvatures may not allow good contact or coupling, the angles of the surfaces may prevent back wall echoes with 069 probes and some forgings, simple or complex, may be anisotropic in grain structure (different grain sizes in different directions). TECHNIQUE When searching for defects in forgings you should have, as a minimum, the following 30 information, which is usually written on a technique or instruction sheet (see the appendices for an example). + The test component identification and area to test, * Actions to be taken when defects are found. * The purpose of the test (defects sought and acceptance criteria). + Equipment required. + What method and level of test sensitivity to use, * The method of scanning. * The instruction sheet would also contain sections giving details of any relevant safety procedures and post test procedures such as the cleaning of the test area afterwards. It would also have the company name, a unique technical reference number, the originator’s name and signature and an authorising signature, ‘Test area ‘The test may involve testing the whole, of a component, or just parts, this must be specified. Rev 0 December 2010 ~ Page 116Actions to be taken When defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported, e.g. on a 70 diagram or as a written description, or the component, or material, may be accepted or rejected according to the defects found. If defects are to be reported then the defect information that needs reporting would be contained in this section, i.e. defect type, size, lateral and longitudinal position in relation to datums, etc, Purpose of the test This section tells us the accept/reject criteria for particular defects, i.e. what size and type of defects to report or which defects render the component rejectable, Equipment This section should give information on; the type of flaw detector, type, size and 99 frequency of probes, type of couplant, calibration blocks and reference blocks to use. Sensitivity Method of setting and level of sensitivity need to be quoted for each scan, e.g. Set the bwe from the DGS block to 80% fsh and note the gain setting, Still on the DGS block, maximise the signal from the flat bottom hole at target depth (test material thickness) and set that to 80% fsh and note the difference in dBs between the new gain seiting and the previous one. Set the bwe from the test material to 80% fsh and add the difference noted in the first two gain settings to the present gain and scan at this level. Scanning method ‘The method of scanning the material is either a written, step by step, instruction or technique sheet, or involves following the steps laid out in the relevant national standard. An example written step by step could be: * Prepare the material surface by removing any loose scale, rust, dirt or other debris and visually inspect for surface defects or damage. © Calibrate the screen on the flaw detector, using a 0° probe and the A2 calibration block for a range of 0 to 200 mm. © Set the sensitivity (as quoted in the relevant section above) and apply couplant to the test area. rr EE Rev 0 December 2010 Page 117® Scan the designated test area, with a probe overlap between scans of at least 20% of the probe's diameter and at a maximum probe movement rate of 150mmv/sec. © When defects meeting the criteria in the "Purpose of the test" section are found record the relevant defect data as in the "Actions to be taken" section. © Defects larger than the ultrasonic beans, i.e. where there is no bwe present, should be sized using the 6 dB drop or equalisation methods. Defects that are smaller than the ultrasonic beam should be sized and positioned using the DGS diagram for the probe in use. With a calibrated screen, maximise the signal from the defect and set the amplitude to 20% fsh and record the gain setting. Move the probe to an area of the material, where the back wall is the same distance as the previously recorded defect, there are no defects and the surface condition and curvatures are the same as the located defect area. Set the bwe to 20% fsh and note the difference between the previous and the new gain settings. Using the DGS diagram look on the infinity line, at the bwe distance, for the dB figure and add this figure to the previously noted dB difference. Read the total dB figure (the two just added), at the reflector beam path (depth), off the graph, to give the equivalent size of the reflector. © Prepare a neat concise report giving details of the component identification, test area, equipment used, sensitivity method and settings and a drawing with the defect details as recorded in section 5 above. Sign and date the report and state your relevant qualifications Post test procedures ‘This would involve cleaning any remaining couplant and dirt from the test area and covering the surface’ with protective coatings according to client's requirements. DEFECTS IN FORGINGS ‘The interpretation of defects in forgings involves knowledge or experience of the expected types of defect and the possible signals from them. In some situations it is a case of reading the signal, evaluating which defects do not give this type of signal, then choosing from the remaining possibilities as to which type of defect is most likely. Here are a few of the types of defects found in forgings: Inclusions Inclusions, in forgings, are formed from lumps of trapped solid non-metallic material in the original cast ingot and when forged out the shapes, sizes, orientations and rr Rev 0 December 2010 Page 118depths of the defects vary. The varying orientation and shape have the effect of scattering the sound beam, as it passes through. When using a 0° probe on parallel sided forgings, if the sound reaches the back wall and reflects back, then it scatters again on the return Journey. This causes a significant drop in the amplitude of the bwe, compared to a defect free area. The amplitudes of the signals from the defects also vary because the differences in sizes and orientations. The signals we see then on the screen are a low or no bwe and a cluster of signals, of various amplitudes and depth, from the defects. The cluster of signals from the defects has a constantly changing pattem when you move the probe across the surface, ‘oe ean queer Banding ‘When alloys are added to the molten material in a cast ingot, some of them may not mix thoroughly and get left as segregated material in the centre of the ingot after solidification. These segregations get elongated and reduced in section in the tolling and forging processes, this is known as banding, If the acoustic impedances of the alloys and the base metal were different enough ultrasonic reflections may occur. In steel casting they generally have an acoustic impedance that is similar to the steel, so they are not usually found ultrasonically unless the sensitivity of the equipment is high. A forging lap This defect occurs in the forging process by the material folding over onto itself and it is flattened, but not fused onto the surface, This usually leaves a visible seam on the surface of the forging. Using a 0° probe, scanning from the opposite side of the forging shows a signal appearing just before the bwe. On the defect side of the Rev 0 December 2010 Page 119)forging this defect is very easily missed because it is very near the surface and if using a single crystal probe the signals will be in the dead zone. (However, evidence of this problem would be a total loss of back wall echo, providing the surface area of the lap is larger than the beam). detect at bottom re) ay Ifa double crystal 0° probe is used, for the defect near surface, the defect signal will be near zero on the CRT. In both cases, if the defect is larger than the beam then the bwe will not be present, Slugs These are pieces of foreign material that have been pressed into the surface and give signal responses much the same as a lap. Bursts Internal or surface ruptures of the material, caused by processing at too low a temperature or excessive working during forging. The signal response from this defect varies according to the shape, size and orientation of the defect. The normal rules of ultrasonic testing apply to the signals received, i.e, Perpendicular orientation and large defect area give a good signal, oblique orientation and/or small defect area gives poor signals and larger defect area than the beam causes a loss of bwe, etc. Deciding whether the defect is a burst or not requires careful plotting of the responses received to determine the shape and position, EY Rev0 December 2010 ‘Page 120ACCEPT AND REJECT CRITERIA When defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported, or the material or component may be accepted or rejected according to the defects found. The accept/reject criteria tell us what size and type of defects to report or which defects render the component rejectable. ‘The criteria can be found in a procedure, a written instruction sheet or in a national standard REPORTING A report should give details of the component identification, test area, surface condition, equipment used, sensitivity settings and a drawing showing the defects and details such as; defect type, size, lateral and longitudinal positions in relation to datums, etc.. The report should be signed and dated and there may be a requirement to state your relevant qualifications. Alternatively, if accepting or rejecting the component or material, instead of a drawing you may be asked to give a written statement of conformity to the relevant acceptance level, or reasons for rejection, to the standard employed. Rev 0 December 2010 Page 121TABLE OF ACOUSTICAL VELOCITIES IN DIFFERENT MATERIALS | ‘Material ‘Compressional or ‘Shear or transverse longitudinal wave . velocity (m/s) wave velocity (m/s) ‘ Aluminum 6,400 3,130 i Brass 4,372 2,100 ) Cast iron 3,500 2.200 ’ Copper 4769 235 | "Gold 3,240 1,200 j Tron 3,987 3A : Tead 200 790 i Oi 1,440 ' Perspex 2,740 1320 ' Mild steel 5,960 3,240 | Siainless steel 3740 3,130 ‘Water 1,480 Tungsten ‘Si74 2880 | Zine 4170 2,480 Zirconium 4,650 2,300 ‘The velocity in a medium depends upon the medium's density and elasticity. |e tS Rev 0 December 2010 Page 122‘Compressional ‘Shear Density | Acoustic | Medium velocity velocity | gion 2 Impedance (nis) (ms) Air 330 > 0 0 Aluminum 6400 3,130 27 172 ‘Barium titanate 5260 - 37 30 Beryllium 1,289 888 is 232 ‘Brass 4370 2,100 B45 37 Cast iron 3,500 2,200 72 35 Copper 4,760 2,330 893 425 Glass (plate) 5770 - 25 145 Gold 3240 1,200 193 ra) ron 3,960 3,220 785 468 Lead 2,160 700 1a 246 Lithium sulphate 5450 - 2 iz Magnesium 3.790 3100 V7 TOI Mercury 1,450 > 13.55 19.6 Molybdenum 6,250 3,350 10.2 63.7 Nickel 3.480 2,990 885 a5 Oi 1440 . 09 73 Perspex 2.740 1.320 12 32 Platinum 3,980 1,670 24 85 Quartz 3,730 265 Silver 3.700 1,700 305 Rey 0 December 2010 ST‘Compressional | Shear | Density | Acoustic Medium velocity velocity | yey 2 Tpedance (ns) (mis) Tin 3,380 1610 | 73 Titanium 5,990 3.120 a5 ‘Tungsten 5.170 2,880 193 ‘Tungsten araldite 2,060 > Tos “Tungsten carbide 5.650 3.980 10 Uranium 3370 2,020) 187 Water 180 : i Zine 4370 2,480 7a Rey 0 December 2010Formulas Used in Ultrasonic Testing: Wavelength 2 = : Where, A= Wavelength of the sound (mm) v= Velocity (m/sec) f= frequency (MHz) 2 Nearzone N = 2 D = Diameter of the crystal (mm) d= Wavelength of the sound (mm) 1 KA mot Half Beam angle a = sin=* 2 = constant D = Diameter of the crystal (mm) = Wavelength of the sound (mm) Snell’s law Where, i = angle of incident (°) Sine i _vi og Siner “3 r= angle of refraction (°) v1 = velocity of I medium (m/sec) v2= velocity of II medium (m/sec) Decibel 4B = 20 log,4 @ dB= Decibel Hi= 1*signal height (%) H2= 2™ signal height (%) Crystal thickness t = z t= Crystal thickness (mm) ‘V=Sound velocity in crystal material (mm/s) Fundamental frequency that the Rey 0 December 2010 EE Page 125crystal vibrates at (Hz) Material Velocity V = CV -V=Unknown velocity (m/s) ‘T=Material actual thickness (mm) TB = Time base reading (mm) CV = Calibration block velocity (m/s) Rev 0 December 2010 Page 126British Standard related to Ultrasonic Examination BS EN 1714: 1998 Ultrasonic examination of welded joints (superseding BS 3923: Part 1) BS EN 1712: 1997 Ultrasonic examination of welded joints Acceptance levels BS EN 1713: 1998 Ultrasonic examination of welded joints - Characterisation of indications in welds BS EN 583 Ultrasonic testing Part 1: 1999: General principles Part 2: 2001: Sensitivity and range setting Part 3: 1997: ‘ ‘Transmission technique Part 4: 2002: Ultrasonic examination for imperfections perpendicular to the surface Part 5: 2001: Characterisation of sizing of imperfections Part 6: Time of flight diffraction technique as a method for detecting and sizing of imperfections BS EN 10160:1999 Rev 0 December 2010 Page 127Ultrasonic testing of steel flat products of thicknesses of > 6 mm (reflection method) (superseding BS 5996) BS EN 10079: 1993 Definition of steel products BSEN 10228: Part 3: 1998 Ultrasonic testing of ferritic and martensitic steel forgings (superseding BS 4124) BS EN 10228: Part 4: 1999 Ultrasonic testing of Austenitic stainless steel forgings (superseding BS 4124) BS EN 12668: 2000 Verification of UT equipment 4331 Part 1) : Part 3: combined equipment (superseding BS BSEN 12223: 2000 ‘Non-destructive-testing - Ultrasonic examination - Specification for calibration block no. I (superseding BS 2704) BS EN 27963: 1992 Calibration block no. 2 for ultrasonic examination of welds (superseding BS 2704) BS EN 1330: Part 1: 1998 List of general terms BSEN 1330: Part 2: 1998 ‘Terms common to NDT methods BS EN 1330: Part 4: 2000 Non-destructive-testing terminology: Part 4: Ultrasonic testing (superseding BS. 3683) BS 3923: Part 2: 1972 (obsolete) Automatic ultrasonic examination of welds BS EN 12680-1: 2003 Founding ultrasonic examination Part: Steel castings for general purposes BS EN 4570: 1985 : Fusion welding of steel castings sear sesnnrunre? iin seeeteeeeeenie eee RevO December 2010 Page 128BS 6208: 1990 (obsolete) Ultrasonic testing of ferritic steel castings including quality levels. BS 3923: Part 1: 1986 (obsolete) Ultrasonic examination of welds BS 5996: 1993 (obsolete) Acceptance levels for internal imperfections in steel plate, strip and wide flats, based on ultrasonic testing. BS 4124; 1991 (obsolete) Ultrasonic detection of imperfections in steel forgings. BS 4331: 1978 (obsolete) Assessing the performance characteristics of ultrasonic flaw detection equipment. Part 1: Overall performance: on-site methods. BS 2704: 1978 (obsolete) Calibration blocks for use in ultrasonic flaw detection. BS 3683: Part 4: 1985 (obsolete) ‘Terms used in non-destructive testing: Part 4: Ultrasonic flaw detection. DD 174 (obsolete) Calibration of time of flight diffraction Esa SSSTNETTTaiiennneeneseneiiinsseeaieeese ee Rev 0 December 2010 Page 129EXAMINATION SCHEMES PCN Examinations General The PCN (Personal Certification in Non-Destructive Testing) is an International Scheme for the certification of NDT technicians and supervisors and meets EN473 and ISO 9712 requirements. Level of Qualification ‘See EN473 for a full description for levels of competence. Level 1 ‘The level qualifies personnel to carry out NDT operations according to written instruction under the supervision of a Level 2 or Level 3 person. A level 1 person has demonstrated competence to: © Set up equipment and carry out tests; © Record and classify the results in terms of written criteria Level 2 \ ‘This level qualifies personnel to perfotm and direct NOT according to established or recognized procedures and has demonstrated competence to: * Choose the technique for the test method used; © Perform and supervise the test * Interpret, evaluate and report results according to applicable standards, codes or specifications; ‘© Define the limitations of the testing method for which the qualification covers; ‘* Understand and transform NDT standards and specifications into practical testing instructions adapted to the actual working conditions. Level 3 This level qualifies personnel to direct any NDT operation for which they are certificated and: Assume full responsibility for a test facility and staff; * Establish and/or validate NDT instructions or procedures; ra Rev 0 December 2010 Page 130© Interpret codes, standards, specifications and procedures; © Designated the particular test methods, techniques and procedures to be used. re-examination Requirements Level 1 and Level 2: There are mandatory minimum pre-approval training requirements which are given in the PCN requirements documents, re-examination training courses must be validated by the British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing and need to cover the syllabus over a designated minimum number of hours. Documented in-house training may account for up to one third of the required training hours. The ‘candidate also has to demonstrate practical experience in line with the requirements of PCN. Level 3: The candidates have two access routes available which are shown in the PCN requirements documents. Both training and experience requirements depend upon academic background. Note: A mature candidate route is available Examinations . The examination consists of generel theory, specific theory and practical parts dependant on level and. type of examination, By holding other PCN qualifications candidates may be eligible for exemptions. Following an examination, a results notice will be issued: this counts as evidence of PCN certification for a period of 42 days. The certificate will follow the results notice within 21 days. ‘Where the candidate is unsuccessful, one retest may be allowed providing the percentage grades are not lower than the grades required by PCN, Rev0 December 2010 Page 131