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ReynoldsnumberWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Reynoldsnumber
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Influidmechanics,theReynoldsnumber(Re)isa
dimensionlessquantitythatisusedtohelppredictsimilarflow
patternsindifferentfluidflowsituations.Theconceptwas
introducedbyGeorgeGabrielStokesin1851,[2]butthe
ReynoldsnumberisnamedafterOsborneReynolds(1842
1912),whopopularizeditsusein1883.[3][4]
TheReynoldsnumberisdefinedastheratioofinertialforcesto
viscousforcesandconsequentlyquantifiestherelative
importanceofthesetwotypesofforcesforgivenflow
conditions.[5]Reynoldsnumbersfrequentlyarisewhen
performingscalingoffluiddynamicsproblems,andassuchcan
beusedtodeterminedynamicsimilitudebetweentwodifferent
casesoffluidflow.Theyarealsousedtocharacterizedifferent
flowregimeswithinasimilarfluid,suchaslaminarorturbulent
flow:
laminarflowoccursatlowReynoldsnumbers,where
viscousforcesaredominant,andischaracterizedby
smooth,constantfluidmotion
turbulentflowoccursathighReynoldsnumbersandis
dominatedbyinertialforces,whichtendtoproduce
chaoticeddies,vorticesandotherflowinstabilities.
Inpractice,matchingtheReynoldsnumberisnotonitsown
sufficienttoguaranteesimilitude.Fluidflowisgenerallychaotic,
andverysmallchangestoshapeandsurfaceroughnesscanresult
inverydifferentflows.Nevertheless,Reynoldsnumbersarea
veryimportantguideandarewidelyused.

Theplumefromthiscandleflame
goesfromlaminartoturbulent.The
Reynoldsnumbercanbeusedto
predictwherethistransitionwilltake
place.

Avortexstreetaroundacylinder.
Thiscanoccuraroundcylindersand
spheres,foranyfluid,cylindersize
andfluidspeed,providedthatthe
flowhasaReynoldsnumberinthe

Reynoldsnumberinterpretationhasbeenextendedintothearea
ofarbitrarycomplexsystemsaswell:financialflows,[6]
nonlinearnetworks,[7]etc.Inthelattercaseanartificialviscosity
isreducedtononlinearmechanismofenergydistributionin
range~40to~1000. [1]
complexnetworkmedia.Reynoldsnumberthenrepresentsa
basiccontrolparameterwhichexpressesabalancebetween
injectedanddissipatedenergyflowsforopenboundarysystem.Ithasbeenshown[7]thatReynolds
criticalregimeseparatestwotypesofphasespacemotion:accelerator(attractor)anddecelerator.High
Reynoldsnumberleadstoachaoticregimetransitiononlyinframeofstrangeattractormodel.
TheReynoldsnumbercanbedefinedforseveraldifferentsituationswhereafluidisinrelativemotionto
asurface.[n1]Thesedefinitionsgenerallyincludethefluidpropertiesofdensityandviscosity,plusa
velocityandacharacteristiclengthorcharacteristicdimension.Thisdimensionisamatterof
conventionforexampleradiusanddiameterareequallyvalidtodescribespheresorcircles,butoneis
chosenbyconvention.Foraircraftorships,thelengthorwidthcanbeused.Forflowinapipeora
spheremovinginafluidtheinternaldiameterisgenerallyusedtoday.Othershapessuchasrectangular
pipesornonsphericalobjectshaveanequivalentdiameterdefined.Forfluidsofvariabledensitysuchas
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compressiblegasesorfluidsofvariableviscositysuchasnon
Newtonianfluids,specialrulesapply.Thevelocitymayalsobea
matterofconventioninsomecircumstances,notablystirred
vessels.TheReynoldsnumberisdefinedbelowforeachcase.
[8]

where:

visthemaximum[9]velocityoftheobjectrelativetothe

fluid(SIunits:m/s)
Lisacharacteristiclineardimension,(travelledlengthof
thefluidhydraulicdiameterwhendealingwithriver
systems)(m)
isthedynamicviscosityofthefluid(PasorNs/m2or
kg/(ms))
(nu)isthekinematicviscosity(= )(m2/s)
isthedensityofthefluid(kg/m3).

SirGeorgeStokes,introduced
Reynoldsnumbers

Lv
v2L2
yields
Lv
vL ,whichisthe
ratiooftheinertialforcestotheviscousforces.[10]Itcouldalsobeconsidered
theratioofthetotalmomentumtransfertothemolecularmomentumtransfer.
NotethatmultiplyingtheReynoldsnumberby

Contents
1
2
3
4
5

Flowinpipe
Flowinawideduct
Flowinanopenchannel
Flowaroundairfoils
Objectinafluid
5.1 Inviscousfluids
5.2 Sphereinafluid
5.3 Oblongobjectinafluid
5.4 Fallvelocity
5.5 Packedbed
5.6 Stirredvessel
6 Transitionandturbulentflow
7 Pipefriction
8 Similarityofflows
9 Smallestscalesofturbulentmotion
10 Inphysiology
11 Derivation
12 Relationshiptootherdimensionlessparameters
13 Seealso
14 Notes
15 References
16 Furtherreading
17 Externallinks
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reynolds_number

OsborneReynolds
popularisedthe
concept

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Flowinpipe
Forflowinapipeortube,theReynoldsnumberisgenerallydefinedas:[11]

where:

DHisthehydraulicdiameterofthepipeitscharacteristictraveledlength,L,(m).
Qisthevolumetricflowrate(m3/s).
Aisthepipe'scrosssectionalarea(m2).
visthemeanvelocityofthefluid(m/s).
isthedynamicviscosityofthefluid(Pas=Ns/m2=kg/(ms)).
(nu)isthekinematicviscosity(= )(m2/s).
isthedensityofthefluid(kg/m3).
Forshapessuchassquares,rectangularorannularductswheretheheightandwidtharecomparable,the
characteristicaldimensionforinternalflowsituationsistakentobethehydraulicdiameter,DH,defined
as:

whereAisthecrosssectionalareaandPisthewettedperimeter.Thewettedperimeterforachannelis
thetotalperimeterofallchannelwallsthatareincontactwiththeflow.[12]Thismeansthelengthofthe
channelexposedtoairisnotincludedinthewettedperimeter.
Foracircularpipe,thehydraulicdiameterisexactlyequaltotheinsidepipediameter,D.Thatis,

Foranannularduct,suchastheouterchannelinatubeintubeheatexchanger,thehydraulicdiameter
canbeshownalgebraicallytoreduceto

where

Doistheinsidediameteroftheoutsidepipe,and
Diistheoutsidediameteroftheinsidepipe.
Forcalculationsinvolvingflowinnoncircularducts,thehydraulicdiametercanbesubstitutedforthe
diameterofacircularduct,withreasonableaccuracy.

Flowinawideduct
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Forafluidmovingbetweentwoplaneparallelsurfaceswherethewidthismuchgreaterthanthespace
betweentheplatesthenthecharacteristicdimensionistwicethedistancebetweentheplates.[13]

Flowinanopenchannel
Forflowofliquidwithafreesurface,thehydraulicradiusmustbedetermined.Thisisthecross
sectionalareaofthechanneldividedbythewettedperimeter.Forasemicircularchannel,itishalfthe
radius.Forarectangularchannel,thehydraulicradiusisthecrosssectionalareadividedbythewetted
perimeter.Sometextsthenuseacharacteristicdimensionthatisfourtimesthehydraulicradius,chosen
becauseitgivesthesamevalueofRefortheonsetofturbulenceasinpipeflow,[14]whileothersusethe
hydraulicradiusasthecharacteristiclengthscalewithconsequentlydifferentvaluesofRefortransition
andturbulentflow.

Flowaroundairfoils
Reynoldsnumbersareusedinairfoildesignto(amongotherthings)manage"ScaleEffect"when
computing/comparingcharacteristics(atinywing,scaledtobehuge,willperformdifferently).[15]Fluid
Vc
dynamicistsdefinethechordReynoldsnumber,R,likethis:R= whereVistheflightspeed,cisthe

chordlength,andisthekinematicviscosityofthefluidinwhichtheairfoiloperates,whichis
1.460 105m2/sfortheatmosphereatsealevel.[16]Insomespecialstudiesacharacteristiclengthother
thanchordmaybeusedrareisthe"spanReynoldsnumber"whichisnottobeconfusedwithspanwise
stationsonawingwherechordisstillused.[17]

Objectinafluid
TheReynoldsnumberforanobjectinafluid,calledtheparticleReynoldsnumberandoftendenoted
Rep,isimportantwhenconsideringthenatureofthesurroundingflow,whetherornotvortexshedding
willoccur,anditsfallvelocity.

Inviscousfluids
Wheretheviscosityisnaturallyhigh,suchaspolymersolutionsandpolymermelts,flowisnormally
laminar.TheReynoldsnumberisverysmallandStokes'Lawcanbeusedtomeasuretheviscosityofthe
fluid.Spheresareallowedtofallthroughthefluidandtheyreachtheterminalvelocityquickly,from
whichtheviscositycanbedetermined.
Thelaminarflowofpolymersolutionsisexploitedbyanimalssuchasfishanddolphins,whoexude
viscoussolutionsfromtheirskintoaidflowovertheirbodieswhileswimming.Ithasbeenusedinyacht
racingbyownerswhowanttogainaspeedadvantagebypumpingapolymersolutionsuchaslow
molecularweightpolyoxyethyleneinwater,overthewettedsurfaceofthehull.
Itis,however,aproblemformixingofpolymers,becauseturbulenceisneededtodistributefinefiller
(forexample)throughthematerial.Inventionssuchasthe"cavitytransfermixer"havebeendeveloped
toproducemultiplefoldsintoamovingmeltsoastoimprovemixingefficiency.Thedevicecanbe
fittedontoextruderstoaidmixing.

Sphereinafluid
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Forasphereinafluid,thecharacteristiclengthscaleisthediameter
ofthesphereandthecharacteristicvelocityisthatofthesphere
relativetothefluidsomedistanceawayfromthesphere,suchthat
themotionofthespheredoesnotdisturbthatreferenceparcelof
fluid.Thedensityandviscosityarethosebelongingtothefluid.[18]
NotethatpurelylaminarflowonlyexistsuptoRe=10underthis
definition.
UndertheconditionoflowRe,therelationshipbetweenforceand
speedofmotionisgivenbyStokes'law.[19]

Oblongobjectinafluid
Theequationforanoblongobjectisidenticaltothatofasphere,
withtheobjectbeingapproximatedasanellipsoidandtheaxisof
lengthbeingchosenasthecharacteristiclengthscale.Such
considerationsareimportantinnaturalstreams,forexample,where
therearefewperfectlysphericalgrains.Forgrainsinwhich
measurementofeachaxisisimpractical,sievediametersareused
insteadasthecharacteristicparticlelengthscale.Both
approximationsalterthevaluesofthecriticalReynoldsnumber.

Creepingflowpastasphere:
streamlines,dragforce Fdand
forcebygravity Fg.

Fallvelocity
TheparticleReynoldsnumberisimportantindeterminingthefallvelocityofaparticle.Whenthe
particleReynoldsnumberindicateslaminarflow,Stokes'lawcanbeusedtocalculateitsfallvelocity.
WhentheparticleReynoldsnumberindicatesturbulentflow,aturbulentdraglawmustbeconstructedto
modeltheappropriatesettlingvelocity..

Packedbed
Forfluidflowthroughabed,ofapproximatelysphericalparticlesofdiameterDincontact,ifthe
"voidage"isandthe"superficialvelocity"isvs,theReynoldsnumbercanbedefinedas:[20]

or

or

Thechoiceofequationdependsonthesysteminvolved:thefirstissuccessfulincorrelatingthedatafor
varioustypesofpackedandfludizedbeds,thesecondReynoldsnumbersuitsfortheliquidphasedata,
whilethethirdwasfoundsuccessfulincorrelatingthefludizedbeddata,beingfirstintroducedforliquid
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fluidizedbedsystem.[20]
LaminarconditionsapplyuptoRe=10,fullyturbulentfromRe=2000.[18]

Stirredvessel
Inacylindricalvesselstirredbyacentralrotatingpaddle,turbineorpropeller,thecharacteristic
dimensionisthediameteroftheagitatorD.ThevelocityVisNDwhereNistherotationalspeed.Then
theReynoldsnumberis:

ThesystemisfullyturbulentforvaluesofReabove10 000.[21]

Transitionandturbulentflow
Inboundarylayerflowoveraflatplate,experimentsconfirmthat,afteracertainlengthofflow,a
laminarboundarylayerwillbecomeunstableandturbulent.Thisinstabilityoccursacrossdifferent
scalesandwithdifferentfluids,usuallywhenRex5 105,[22]wherexisthedistancefromtheleading
edgeoftheflatplate,andtheflowvelocityisthefreestreamvelocityofthefluidoutsidetheboundary
layer.
ForflowinapipeofdiameterD,experimentalobservationsshowthatfor"fullydeveloped"flow,[n2]
laminarflowoccurswhenReD<2300andturbulentflowoccurswhenReD>4000.[23]Intheinterval
between2300and4000,laminarandturbulentflowsarepossibleandarecalled"transition"flows,
dependingonotherfactors,suchaspiperoughnessandflowuniformity.Thisresultisgeneralizedto
noncircularchannelsusingthehydraulicdiameter,allowingatransitionReynoldsnumbertobe
calculatedforothershapesofchannel.
ThesetransitionReynoldsnumbersarealsocalledcriticalReynoldsnumbers,andwerestudiedby
OsborneReynoldsaround1895.[4]ThecriticalReynoldsnumberisdifferentforeverygeometry.[24]

Pipefriction
PressuredropsseenforfullydevelopedflowoffluidsthroughpipescanbepredictedusingtheMoody
diagramwhichplotstheDarcyWeisbachfrictionfactorfagainstReynoldsnumberReandrelative

roughness D .Thediagramclearlyshowsthelaminar,transition,andturbulentflowregimesasReynolds
numberincreases.Thenatureofpipeflowisstronglydependentonwhethertheflowislaminaror
turbulent.

Similarityofflows
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Inorderfortwoflowstobesimilartheymusthavethesame
geometry,andhaveequalReynoldsnumbersandEulernumbers.
Whencomparingfluidbehavioratcorrespondingpointsina
modelandafullscaleflow,thefollowingholds:

quantitiesmarkedwithmconcerntheflowaroundthemodeland
theotherstheactualflow.Thisallowsengineerstoperform
experimentswithreducedmodelsinwaterchannelsorwind
tunnels,andcorrelatethedatatotheactualflows,savingoncosts
duringexperimentationandonlabtime.Notethattruedynamic
similitudemayrequirematchingotherdimensionlessnumbersas
well,suchastheMachnumberusedincompressibleflows,or
theFroudenumberthatgovernsopenchannelflows.Someflows
involvemoredimensionlessparametersthancanbepractically
satisfiedwiththeavailableapparatusandfluids,sooneisforced
todecidewhichparametersaremostimportant.Forexperimental
flowmodelingtobeuseful,itrequiresafairamountof
experienceandjudgementoftheengineer.
AnexamplewherethemereReynoldsnumberisnotsufficient
forsimilarityofflows(oreventheflowregimelaminaror
turbulent)areboundedflows,i.e.flowsthatarerestrictedby
wallsorotherboundaries.Aclassicalexampleofthisisthe
TaylorCouetteflow,wherethedimensionlessratioofradiiof
boundingcylindersisalsoimportant,andmanytechnical
applicationswherethesedistinctionsplayanimportant
role.[25][26]Principlesoftheserestrictionsweredevelopedby
MauriceMarieAlfredCouetteandGeoffreyIngramTaylorand
developedfurtherbyFlorisTakensandDavidRuelle.
TypicalvaluesofReynoldsnumber[27][28]
Ciliate~1x101
SmallestFish~1
Bloodflowinbrain~1102
Bloodflowinaorta~1103

TheMoodydiagram,whichdescribes
theDarcyWeisbachfrictionfactor f
asafunctionoftheReynoldsnumber
andrelativepiperoughness.

Qualitativebehaviorsoffluidflow
overacylinderdependstoalarge
extentonReynoldsnumbersimilar
flowpatternsoftenappearwhenthe
shapeandReynoldsnumberis
matched,althoughotherparameters
likesurfaceroughnesshaveabig
effect

Onsetofturbulentflow~2.3103to5.0104forpipeflowto
106forboundarylayers
TypicalpitchinMajorLeagueBaseball~2105
Personswimming~4106
FastestFish~1x106
BlueWhale~3108
Alargeship(RMSQueenElizabeth2)~5109
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Smallestscalesofturbulentmotion
Inaturbulentflow,thereisarangeofscalesofthetimevaryingfluidmotion.Thesizeofthelargest
scalesoffluidmotion(sometimescallededdies)aresetbytheoverallgeometryoftheflow.For
instance,inanindustrialsmokestack,thelargestscalesoffluidmotionareasbigasthediameterofthe
stackitself.ThesizeofthesmallestscalesissetbytheReynoldsnumber.AstheReynoldsnumber
increases,smallerandsmallerscalesoftheflowarevisible.Inasmokestack,thesmokemayappearto
havemanyverysmallvelocityperturbationsoreddies,inadditiontolargebulkyeddies.Inthissense,
theReynoldsnumberisanindicatoroftherangeofscalesintheflow.ThehighertheReynoldsnumber,
thegreatertherangeofscales.Thelargesteddieswillalwaysbethesamesizethesmallesteddiesare
determinedbytheReynoldsnumber.
Whatistheexplanationforthisphenomenon?AlargeReynoldsnumberindicatesthatviscousforcesare
notimportantatlargescalesoftheflow.Withastrongpredominanceofinertialforcesoverviscous
forces,thelargestscalesoffluidmotionareundampedthereisnotenoughviscositytodissipatetheir
motions.Thekineticenergymust"cascade"fromtheselargescalestoprogressivelysmallerscalesuntil
alevelisreachedforwhichthescaleissmallenoughforviscositytobecomeimportant(thatis,viscous
forcesbecomeoftheorderofinertialones).Itisatthesesmallscaleswherethedissipationofenergyby
viscousactionfinallytakesplace.TheReynoldsnumberindicatesatwhatscalethisviscousdissipation
occurs.

Inphysiology
Poiseuille'slawonbloodcirculationinthebodyisdependentonlaminarflow.Inturbulentflowtheflow
rateisproportionaltothesquarerootofthepressuregradient,asopposedtoitsdirectproportionalityto
pressuregradientinlaminarflow.
UsingthedefinitionoftheReynoldsnumberwecanseethatalargediameterwithrapidflow,wherethe
densityofthebloodishigh,tendstowardsturbulence.Rapidchangesinvesseldiametermayleadto
turbulentflow,forinstancewhenanarrowervesselwidenstoalargerone.Furthermore,abulgeof
atheromamaybethecauseofturbulentflow,whereaudibleturbulencemaybedetectedwitha
stethoscope.

Derivation
TheReynoldsnumbercanbeobtainedwhenoneusesthenondimensionalformoftheincompressible
NavierStokesequationsforanewtonianfluidexpressedintermsoftheLagrangianderivative:

Eachtermintheaboveequationhastheunitsofa"bodyforce"(forceperunitvolume)withthesame
dimensionsofadensitytimesanacceleration.Eachtermisthusdependentontheexactmeasurements
ofaflow.Whenonerenderstheequationnondimensional,thatiswhenwemultiplyitbyafactorwith
inverseunitsofthebaseequation,weobtainaformwhichdoesnotdependdirectlyonthephysical
sizes.Onepossiblewaytoobtainanondimensionalequationistomultiplythewholeequationbythe
followingfactor:

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where:

Visthemeanvelocity,vorv,relativetothefluid(m/s).
Listhecharacteristiclength(m).
isthefluiddensity(kg/m3).
Ifwenowset:

wecanrewritetheNavierStokesequationwithoutdimensions:

wheretheterm

1
=
LV Re .

Finally,droppingtheprimesforeaseofreading:

ThisiswhymathematicallyallNewtonian,incompressibleflowswiththesameReynoldsnumberare
comparable.Noticealso,intheaboveequation,asRetheviscoustermsvanish.Thus,high
Reynoldsnumberflowsareapproximatelyinviscidinthefreestream.

Relationshiptootherdimensionlessparameters
Therearemanydimensionlessnumbersinfluidmechanics.TheReynoldsnumbermeasurestheratioof
advectionanddiffusionaffectsonstructuresinthevelocityfield,andisthereforecloselyrelatedto
Pcletnumbers,whichmeasuretheratiooftheseaffectsonotherfieldscarriedbytheflow,forexample

temperatureandmagneticfields.Replacementofthekinematicviscosity= inRebythethermalor

magneticdiffusivityresultsinrespectivelythethermalPcletnumberandthemagneticReynolds
number.ThesearethereforerelatedtoRebyproductswithratiosofdiffusivities,namelythePrandtl
numberandmagneticPrandtlnumber.

Seealso
Reynoldstransporttheorem
Dragcoefficient
Deposition(geology)

Notes
1.ThedefinitionoftheReynoldsnumberisnottobeconfusedwiththeReynoldsequationorlubrication
equation.
2.Fulldevelopmentoftheflowoccursastheflowentersthepipe,theboundarylayerthickensandthen
stabilizesafterseveraldiametersdistanceintothepipe.
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References
1.Tansley,ClaireE.Marshall,DavidP.(2001)."FlowpastaCylinderonaPlane,withApplicationtoGulf
StreamSeparationandtheAntarcticCircumpolarCurrent"(PDF).JournalofPhysicalOceanography31(11):
32743283.Bibcode:2001JPO....31.3274T.doi:10.1175/15200485(2001)031<3274:FPACOA>2.0.CO2.
2.Stokes,George(1851)."OntheEffectoftheInternalFrictionofFluidsontheMotionofPendulums".
TransactionsoftheCambridgePhilosophicalSociety9:8106.Bibcode:1851TCaPS...9....8S.
3.Reynolds,Osborne(1883)."Anexperimentalinvestigationofthecircumstanceswhichdeterminewhetherthe
motionofwatershallbedirectorsinuous,andofthelawofresistanceinparallelchannels".Philosophical
TransactionsoftheRoyalSociety174(0):935982.doi:10.1098/rstl.1883.0029.JSTOR109431.
4.Rott,N.(1990)."NoteonthehistoryoftheReynoldsnumber".AnnualReviewofFluidMechanics22(1):1
11.Bibcode:1990AnRFM..22....1R.doi:10.1146/annurev.fl.22.010190.000245.
5.Falkovich,G.(2011).FluidMechanics.CambridgeUniversityPress.
6.Los,C.(2003).FinancialMarketRisk:MeasurementandAnalysis.Routledge.
7.Kamenshchikov,Sergey(2013)."ExtendedPrigogineTheorem:MethodforUniversalCharacterizationof
ComplexSystemEvolution".ChaosandComplexityLetters8(1):6371.
8.ReynoldsNumber(http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/BGH/reynolds.html)
9.BirdR.B.,StewartW.E.,LightfootE.N.Transportphenomena
10.Batchelor,G.K.(1967).AnIntroductiontoFluidDynamics.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp.211215.
11."ReynoldsNumber".Engineeringtoolbox.com.
12.Holman,J.P.HeatTransfer.McGrawHill.
13.Fox,R.W.McDonald,A.T.Pritchard,PhillipJ.(2004).IntroductiontoFluidMechanics(6thed.).
Hoboken:JohnWileyandSons.p.348.ISBN0471202312.
14.Streeter,V.L.(1962).FluidMechanics(3rded.).McGrawHill.
15.P.B.S.Lissaman(1983)."LowReynoldsNumberAirfoils,".Annu.Rev.FluidMech.(15):22339.
Bibcode:1983AnRFM..15..223L.doi:10.1146/annurev.fl.15.010183.001255.
16.ISO."InternationalStandardAtmosphere".eng.cam.ac.uk.
17.UweEhrensteinChristopheEloy."Skinfrictiononamovingwallanditsimplicationsforswimming
animals"(PDF).Retrieved11February2014.
18.Rhodes,M.(1989).IntroductiontoParticleTechnology.Wiley.ISBN0471984825.
19.Dusenbery,DavidB.(2009).LivingatMicroScale.Cambridge,Mass:HarvardUniversityPress.p.49.
ISBN9780674031166.
20.Dwivedi,P.N.(1977)."Particlefluidmasstransferinfixedandfluidizedbeds".Industrial&Engineering
ChemistryProcessDesignandDevelopment16(2):157165.doi:10.1021/i260062a001.
21.Sinnott,R.K.Coulson&Richardson'sChemicalEngineering,Volume6:ChemicalEngineeringDesign(4th
ed.).ButterworthHeinemann.p.73.ISBN0750665386.
22.DeWitt,D.P.(1990).FundamentalsofHeatandMassTransfer.NewYork:Wiley.
23.Holman,J.P.(2002).HeatTransfer.McGrawHill.p.207.
24.Shih,MerleC.Potter,MichiganStateUniversity,DavidC.Wiggert,MichiganStateUniversity,Bassem
Ramadan,KetteringUniversitywithTomIP.(2012).Mechanicsoffluids(Fourthedition.ed.).p.105.
ISBN9780495667735.
25.restrictedflowinindustryapplication(http://rheologic.net/en/cfdsimulationlaminarandturbulent
flow#disk_diag)
26.articleaboutflowrestrictions(http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Transition_to_turbulence)
27.Patel,V.C.Rodi,W.Scheuerer,G.(1985)."TurbulenceModelsforNearWallandLowReynoldsNumber
FlowsAReview".AIAAJournal23(9):13081319.Bibcode:1985AIAAJ..23.1308P.doi:10.2514/3.9086.
28.Dusenbery,DavidB.(2009).LivingatMicroScale.Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress.p.136.
ISBN9780674031166.

Furtherreading
Zagarola,M.V.andSmits,A.J.,"ExperimentsinHighReynoldsNumberTurbulentPipeFlow."
AIAApaper#960654,34thAIAAAerospaceSciencesMeeting,Reno,Nevada,January1518,
1996.
JermyM.,"FluidMechanicsACourseReader,"MechanicalEngineeringDept.,Universityof
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Canterbury,2005,pp.d5.10.
Hughes,Roger"CivilEngineeringHydraulics,"CivilandEnvironmentalDept.,Universityof
Melbourne1997,pp.107152
Fouz,Infaz"FluidMechanics,"MechanicalEngineeringDept.,UniversityofOxford,2001,p.96
E.M.Purcell."LifeatLowReynoldsNumber",AmericanJournalofPhysicsvol45,pp.311
(1977)[1](http://jilawww.colorado.edu/perkinsgroup/Purcell_life_at_low_reynolds_number.pdf)
Truskey,G.A.,Yuan,F,Katz,D.F.(2004).TransportPhenomenainBiologicalSystemsPrentice
Hall,pp.7.ISBN0130422045.ISBN9780130422040.

Externallinks
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