IMChap 007

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement
CHAPTER 07
WORK DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT
Teaching Notes
The main topics covered in this chapter are job design and work measurement. You may choose to focus
on one and exclude or de-emphasize the other without affecting material in later chapters. Job design is
qualitative while work measurement is quantitative. Work sampling can be deleted from work
measurement if desired. However, if you intend to cover simulation, you may want to include work
sampling because it introduces use of a random number table.
I find that good class discussions usually occur on job design topics such as automation and fear of job
loss, the use of industrial robots, specialization and productivity, repetitive jobs, efficiency versus
behavioral approaches to job design, and working conditions.
Some instructors like to make this chapter one of the main parts of the course while others de-emphasize
or omit the material. A lot will depend on possible coverage in a management or behavioral science
course that the students may be required to take.
There is a good case at the end of the chapter. Making Hotplates involves job enlargement. It is a
qualitative case.
Answers to Discussion and Review Questions

1.
Job design is concerned with specifying the contents and methods of jobs. It is important because
it has a significant impact on the efficiency and productivity of workers.
2.
From the standpoint of management, having workers with specialized skills can substantially
lower the total cost of a product and also requires less training. The disadvantages for
management include the following: a) Workers may be somewhat inflexible in terms of the
functions they can perform. b) They are more likely to have less motivation, and higher
absenteeism. From the standpoint of workers, the advantages include clearer job responsibility
and requirements that are easier to understand. The disadvantage for the workers is that the
specialized tasks can become monotonous and boring, causing a lack of fulfillment.
3.
a. Job enlargement involves assigning a larger portion of a task to a worker (i.e., horizontal
loading). Job enrichment involves an increase in the level of responsibility for planning and
coordinating tasks (i.e., vertical loading).
b. Both job enlargement and job enrichment are intended to motivate workers and improve
morale by making work more interesting and challenging to workers, and helping them to
feel they have an important part in the work system.
4.
a. Ergonomics is the profession that applies theory, principles, data, and methods to job design
to optimize human well-being and overall system performance. Poor ergonomics can cause
fatigue and injury, and negatively affect quality and productivity.
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Copyright 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill
Education.
b. With poor ergonomics, workers can be in pain, fatigued, or otherwise uncomfortable.
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5.
A knowledge-based pay system is a pay system used by organizations to reward workers who
undergo training that increases their skills. A portion of a workers pay is based on the knowledge
and skill that the worker possesses. Knowledge-based pay has three dimensions: Horizontal skills
reflect the variety of tasks the worker is capable of performing; Vertical skills reflect management
tasks the worker is capable of; and Depth skills reflect quality and productivity results.
6.
a. Self-directed work teams, or self-managed teams, are designed to achieve a higher level of
teamwork and employee involvement. They are typically empowered to make changes in the
work processes under their control because they are closer to the process and have more
knowledge of the day-to-day operations than management has.
b. Potential Benefits
1. Fewer managers
2. Better quality
3. Greater productivity
4. Higher levels of employee satisfaction
7.
Specialization is advantageous in the sense that it allows one to focus concentration on a narrow
aspect of work, and presumably develop an in-depth knowledge of that area. The disadvantage of
that approach is that these specialists may lack an understanding and appreciation for other
aspects of the work system due to lack of involvement. Rotation among different managerial jobs
would tend to remedy this, although perhaps lessen the ability to develop in-depth knowledge.
(Personally, I feel the benefits of rotation outweigh the disadvantages. In fact, the greater
awareness due to rotation may give later specialization more meaning.)
8.
Motion study principles are guidelines for designing motion-efficient work procedures (see the
list of Motion study principles in the chapter). They are classified according to principles that
apply to the human body, principles that apply to the workplace, and principles that apply to tools
and equipment.
9.
The need for methods analysis can come from changes in tools and equipment, changes in
product or service design, the introduction of new products, changes in methods or procedures,
and from changes in government regulations or contractual agreements. Methods analysis
involves studying a job with the objective of improving the way it is done. To the extent that this
leads to increases in output and/or decreases in input, productivity will be increased. If the focus
is too narrow, the result may be an improvement in efficiency more than productivity (which is
usually a more global concept).
10.
Flow process charts and man-machine charts are useful in reviewing and analyzing operations in
terms of sequence and workflow. They provide a visual model of the work.
11.
A time standard reflects the length of time that a given task should take a qualified worker who
works at a sustainable rate using given methods and equipment, material inputs, and workplace
arrangement.
12.
The information provided by the time study is useful for scheduling, budgeting, labor planning,
cost and time estimation, designing incentive systems, and so on.
13.
No, a group of workers might all be slower or faster than average; there is no reason to expect
that performance of a group will average out.
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14.
Studying an average worker would involve the least amount of adjustment for performance.
However, it may not be obvious who the average worker in a group is. Moreover, there may
only be one worker on a job.
15.
Performance rating is subjective, and therefore, open to criticism. In addition, creative and
intellectual jobs are difficult or impossible to study, and it is not usually cost-efficient to study
irregular or infrequently occurring jobs.
16.
a. At any given time, standard times for many jobs will not be strictly correct because of minor
changes in methods, equipment, product design, and so on, which continually occur.
b. The fact that standards are only approximate does not mean that they are invalid. It is
important, though, to update the standards periodically, and to take care that they do not get
too far out of line before they are updated.
17.
Workers may feel that management is trying to increase their workloads, or is trying to maintain
closer control over them. Moreover, some workers may be nervous or feel that they are being
singled out for study for unknown (but ominous!) reasons.
18.
[See Table 7.1]
19. Work sampling measures the proportion of time that a worker or a machine spends on various
activities. It merely requires an analyst to make a brief observation of the work activity at random
intervals and to note the nature of the activity (e.g., typing, filing, and answering the phone for a
secretary). Work sampling is used to estimate the proportion of time that an employee spends
doing a certain task; therefore, it is not suitable for short repetitive tasks. On the other hand, time
study involves estimating time standards for doing a task. Work sampling involves less
interruption to work and less worker stress and resentment than time study does. Unlike time
study, work sampling does not require continuous observation or timing of the activity. Work
sampling is less time consuming and less costly.
Taking Stock
1. a. Self-directed work teams is a participative management approach that encourages
workers to take on many roles formerly held only by managers. Teams are empowered to
make certain changes in their work processes. They also have a vested personal interest in the
implementation of the changes that they may suggest. Self-directed teams have been
successful in many situations because the workers performing the functions are indeed in the
best position to make the most effective changes to improve the process. However, when selfdirected teams are employed, the managers may feel threatened because of the power given to
the self-directed teams. Hence, the strained relationship between the self-directed team and
the managers can hamper the success of the project. In addition, if an appropriate level of
control is not exercised over a self-directed team, the team may make decisions or perform
functions not congruent with the overall goals and objectives of the firm.
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Education.
b. If the standard times are not updated enough, the estimated completion time of many jobs
will be wrong and the resulting plan and the production schedule will be erroneous.
Therefore, errors in standard times may eventually affect customer service and efficiency
adversely. On the other hand, if the standard times are updated too frequently, the cost of
updating may become unnecessarily large without providing any benefits because updating
did not result in any significant change in estimating the standard time.
c. The trade-offs when choosing between time study and work sampling involve cost, time,
effort, disruption, detail on the elements of a job, and the nature of the job for which each is
appropriate. Time study costs more, requires more time, requires more effort (analysts must
time workers), and disrupts the work (possibly making the workers resentful). However, time
study provides more detail on the elements of a job and is more appropriate for repetitive
jobs.
2.
The operations function uses work study information to balance production lines, for workforce
planning, for productivity estimates, for input into incentive plans, for coordinating activities and
deliveries of suppliers, and so on. Accounting uses that information to estimate costs and for
budgeting purposes. Unions are also interested in that information for evaluating workloads.
3.
Technology affects design in two major ways. One relates to processing technology and the other
relates to technology-based products and services. Both must be taken into account. Thus, as
processing technology evolves, or new processing technology is introduced, those changes
generally require new ways of working. Similarly, as product or service technology evolves or
new technology is introduced, those changes generally affect how work is performed, as well as
packaging.
Critical Thinking Exercises

1.
High employee turnover could be due to a number of factors. Morale may be low, and pay may be
too low. Employee interviews and managerial observation would be needed to assess the
situation. Possible improvements could come from better training and better job design (perhaps
job enlargement or enrichment). Methods analysis and time study both could be useful in finding
the cause(s) of slow service.
2.
Student answers will vary. Examples of an unethical behavior for each of the five major topics in
this chapter follow:
a. Job Design: If a manager focused too much on efficiency and narrowed jobs so much that
workers became depressed, this action would violate the Utilitarian Principle.
b. Quality of Work Life: If a company paid workers with the same amount of seniority
performing identical tasks different amounts of hourly pay, this action would violate the
Fairness Principle.
c. Methods Analysis: If a manager targeted an operation to study because the manager did not
like an employee, this action would violate the Fairness Principle and the Virtue Principle.
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d. Motion Study: If an analysis made an error in a motion study that actually increased worker
fatigue, this action would violate the Utilitarian Principle.
e. Work Measurement: If a manager used a worker for a time study because the manager knew
some type of dark secret about that worker, and thus expected the worker to provide
management with good results, this action would violate the Rights Principle and the
Virtue Principle.
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Education.
Solutions
1.
Given: Average time = 10.40 minutes. Standard deviation = 1.20 minutes for a worker with a
performance rating of 125%. Assume an allowance of 16% of job time.
Standard Time = Normal Time x Allowance Factor
ST = NT x AF
NT = Observed Time x Performance Rating
NT = OT x PR = 10.4 x 1.25 = 13.00 minutes (round to 2 decimals)
AFjob = 1 + A, where A = Allowance % based on job time
AFjob = 1 + .16 = 1.16
ST = NT x AFjob = 13.0 minutes x 1.16 = 15.08 minutes (round to 2 decimals)
2.
Given: Average time = 1.2 minutes per piece. Performance rating = 95%. Workday allowances =
10%.
a. Observed Time (OT) = 1.2 minutes

b. Normal Time (NT):
NT = OT x PR = 1.2 x .95 = 1.14 minutes (round to 2 decimals)
c. Standard Time:

ST = NT x AF
A = .10 of work time
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Education.
AF day =
1
1
1
=
=
=1.111 (round to 3 decimals)
1A 1.10 .90
ST = NT x AFday = 1.14 minutes x 1.111 = 1.27 minutes (round to 2 decimals)
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Education.
3.
Given: A time study was conducted of a job with four elements. The observed times and
performance ratings for six cycles are shown in the table below. Allowance factor = 15% of job
time.
OBSERVATIONS (minutes per cycle)

Element
PR
.90
0.44
0.50
0.43
0.45
0.48
0.46
.85
1.50
1.54
1.47
1.51
1.49
1.52
1.10
0.84
0.89
0.77
0.83
0.85
0.80
1.00
1.10
1.14
1.08
1.20
1.16
1.26
a. Average cycle time (OT) for each element (round to 2 decimals):

Average
(OT)
(min.)
Element
0.44
0.50
0.43
0.45
0.48
0.46
0.46
1.50
1.54
1.47
1.51
1.49
1.52
1.51
0.84
0.89
0.77
0.83
0.85
0.80
0.83
1.10
1.14
1.08
1.20
1.16
1.26
1.16
b. Normal Time (NT) for each element (round to 2 decimals):

Element
Average
(OT)
NT
PR
(OT x PR)
0.46
.90
0.41
1.51
.85
1.28
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Education.
0.83
1.10
0.91
1.16
1.00
1.16
c. Standard time for this job (round to 2 decimals):

ST = NT x AFjob
AFjob =1 + A = 1 + .15 = 1.15
Element
NT
AFjob
ST
0.41
1.15
0.47
1.28
1.15
1.47
0.91
1.15
1.05
1.16
1.15
1.33
Standard Time for Job: 0.47 + 1.47 + 1.05 + 1.33 = 4.32 minutes
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Education.
4.
Given: A time study was conducted of four elements of a job. The observed times and
performance ratings for six cycles are shown in the table below.
Element
4.1
4.0
4.2
4.1
4.1
4.1
---
1.5
---
1.6
---
1.4
3.2
3.2
3.3
3.2
3.3
3.3
2.7
2.8
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.8
Observed time (OT) = average cycle time for each element (round to 2 decimals):
5.
Element
OT (min.)
4.1
4.0
4.2
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.10
---
1.5
---
1.6
---
1.4
1.50
3.2
3.2
3.3
3.2
3.3
3.3
3.25
2.7
2.8
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.77
Given: A time study was conducted of five elements of a job. The observed times and
performance ratings for six cycles are shown in the table below.
Element
2.1
2.0
2.2
2.1
2.1
---
---
1.1
---
1.0
---
1.2
3.4
3.5
3.3
3.5
3.4
3.3
4.0
---
---
4.2
---
---
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.4
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Education.
Element
OT (min.)
2.1
2.0
2.2
2.1
2.1
---
2.10
---
1.1
---
1.0
---
1.2
1.10
3.4
3.5
3.3
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.40
4.0
---
---
4.2
---
---
4.10
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.4
1.45
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6.
Given: Typical allowance percentages for working conditions are provided on p. 306. A worker
must lift 10 pounds while (1) standing in a slightly awkward position, (2) in light that is slightly
below recommended standards, and (3) with intermittent loud noises occurring. Monotony for the
job is high. Include a personal allowance of 5% and basic fatigue allowance of 4% of job time.
Allowance % for Job Element
Factor
Lifting 10 pounds
Standing
Slightly awkward position
Bad light (slightly below

recommended)
Intermittent loud noises
Monotony high
Personal allowance
Basic fatigue allowance
Total:
7.
18%
Given: Average time (machine) = 3.3 minutes per cycle. Average time (worker) = 1.9 minutes
per cycle. Performance rating (machine) = 100%. Performance rating (worker) = 120%. Midway
through the study, the worker took a 10-minute rest break. Allowance factor = 12% of work time.
Normal times for both (round to 2 decimals):
NT (machine) = Observed Time x Performance Rating = OT x PR = 3.3 x 1.00 = 3.30 minutes

NT (worker) = Observed Time x Performance Rating = OT x PR = 1.9 x 1.20 = 2.28 minutes
Standard times for both (round to 2 decimals):

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Education.
ST = NT x AF
ST (machine) = 3.30 x 1.00 = 3.30 minutes
ST (worker):
A = .12 of work time
AF day =
1
1
1
=
= =1.136 (round to 3 decimals)
1A 1.12 .88
ST (worker) = 2.28 x 1.136 = 2.59 minutes

ST (job) = ST (machine) + ST (worker) = 3.30 + 2.59 = 5.89 minutes
8.
Given: Worker rest time = 24 minutes, personal time = 10 minutes, and delay time = 14 minutes
for each 4 hours worked. Time study average time = 6.0 minutes per cycle for a worker and the
workers performance rating = 0.95.

ST = NT x AF
NT = OT x PR = 6.0 x 0.95 = 5.70 minutes (round to 2 decimals)
We must determine A first:
A=
24 +10+14
48
=
=.20 (round to 2 decimals)
4 hours x 60 minutes per hour 240
AF day =
1
1
1
=
=
=1.250 (round to 3 decimals)
1A 1.20 .80
ST = NT x AFday = 5.70 minutes x 1.250 = 7.13 minutes (round to 2 decimals)
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Education.
9.
Given: An analyst observed a financial managers assistant perform a job with three elements and
observed five cycles for each element. The analyst recorded the times and the performance
ratings for each element in the table below.
Observations (minutes per cycle)
Elemen
t
Performanc
e Rating
0.90
1.40
1.42
1.39
1.38
1.41
1.20
2.10
2.05
2.00
1.85
1.80
1.10
1.60
1.40
1.50
1.45
1.55
a. Given: Allowance = 10% of job time

Observations (minutes per cycle)

OT
(min.)
Element
1.40
1.42
1.39
1.38
1.41
1.40
2.10
2.05
2.00
1.85
1.80
1.96
1.60
1.40
1.50
1.45
1.55
1.50
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Education.
Normal Time (NT) for each element (round to 2 decimals):

NT
Element
OT
PR
(OT x PR)
1.40
0.90
1.26
1.96
1.20
2.35
1.50
1.10
1.65
Standard Time (round to 2 decimals):

ST = NT x AF
AFjob = 1 + .10 = 1.10
ST = NT x AFjob
Standard
1.39 + 2.59 +
Element
NT
AFjob
ST
1.26
1.10
1.39
2.35
1.10
2.59
1.65
1.10
1.82
Time for Operation =

1.82 = 5.80 minutes
b. Given: Desired accuracy for mean time of Element A = within 4% of the true value with a
confidence of 98%.
zs
a x
( )
n=
[use this formula when desired accuracy is a %]
where:
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Education.
z = Number of normal standard deviations for desired confidence

s = Sample standard deviation
a = Desired accuracy %
x = Sample mean
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Education.
We must estimate the sample standard deviation for Element A:
Data
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Compute
Mean
Compute
Differences
Square Differences &

Sum the Squares
1.40
1.40 1.40 = 0.00
0.002 = 0.000
1.42
1.42 1.40 = 0.02
0.022 = 0.0004
1.39
1.39 1.40 = -0.01
-0.012 = 0.0001
1.38
1.38 1.40 = -0.02
-0.022 = 0.0004
1.41
1.41 1.40 = 0.01
0.012 = 0.0001
Mean = 1.40
Sum = 0.001
Step 4: Divide the sum of the squared differences by n 1 (n = 5):

0.001 / (5-1) = 0.00025
Step 5: Find the square root of the value from Step 4:
0.00025=0.0158
(round to 4 decimals)
Number of Observations Needed:

2
zs 2 2.33(0.0158)
=
=0.4322
a x
.04 (1.40)
( ) (
n=
(round up to 1)
where:
Using App. B Table A, we look for .98/2 = .49; .4901 is closest to .49 & z = 2.33 for 98%
confidence.
s = Sample standard deviation (0.0158 from above)
a = Desired accuracy % (4% = .04 from above)
x = Sample mean (1.40 from above)

Conclusion: 1 observation is needed.
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Education.
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Education.
c. Given: Desired accuracy for mean time of Element C = within 0.10 minutes of the true value
with a confidence of 90%.
zs
e
( )
n=
[use this formula when desired accuracy is a time]
where:
e = Maximum acceptable amount of time error
We must estimate the sample standard deviation for Element C:
Data
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Compute
Mean
Compute
Differences
Square Differences
&
Sum the Squares
1.60
1.60 1.50 = 0.10
0.102 = 0.01
1.40
1.40 1.50 = -0.10
-0.102 = 0.01
1.50
1.50 1.50 = 0.00
0.002 = 0.00
1.45
1.45 1.50 = -0.05
-0.052 = 0.0025
1.55
1.55 1.50 = 0.05
0.052 = 0.0025
Mean = 1.50
Sum = 0.025
Step 4: Divide the sum of the squared differences by n 1 (n = 5):

0.025 / (5-1) = 0.00625
0.00625=0.0791
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Education.

Using z = 1.64:
2
zs 2 1.64 (0.0791)
=
=1.6828
e
0.10
( ) (
n=
(round up to 2)
Using z = 1.65:
2
zs 2 1.65( 0.0791)
=
=1.7034
e
0.10
( ) (
n=
(round up to 2)
where:
Using App. B Table A, we look for .90/2 = .45; .45 is midway between .4495 (z = 1.64) & .
4505 (z = 1.65).
e = Maximum acceptable amount of time error (0.10 from above)
Conclusion: 2 observations are needed.
10.
Given: The data in the table below represent time study observations for an operation.
a. Given: Allowance = 15% of job time.
Element
PR
1.10
1.20
1.17
1.16
1.22
1.24
1.15
1.15
0.83
0.87
0.78
0.82
0.85
---
1.05
0.58
0.53
0.52
0.59
0.60
0.54
Element
OT (min.)
1.20
1.17
1.16
1.22
1.24
1.15
1.19
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Education.
0.83
0.87
0.78
0.82
0.85
---
0.83
0.58
0.53
0.52
0.59
0.60
0.54
0.56
Normal Time (NT) for each element (round to 2 decimals):

NT
Element
OT
PR
(OT x PR)
1.19
1.10
1.31
0.83
1.15
0.95
0.56
1.05
0.59
Standard Time (round to 2 decimals):

ST = NT x AF
AFjob = 1 + .15 = 1.15
ST = NT x AFjob
Standard
1.51 + 1.09 +
Element
NT
AFjob
ST
1.31
1.15
1.51
0.95
1.15
1.09
0.59
1.15
0.68
Time for Operation =

0.68 = 3.28 minutes
b. Given: Desired accuracy for mean time of Element 2 = within 1% of the true value with a
confidence of 95.5%.
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Education.
zs
a x
( )
n=
[use this formula when desired accuracy is a %]
where:
a = Desired accuracy %
x = Sample mean
We must estimate the sample standard deviation for Element 2:
Data
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Compute
Mean
Compute
Differences
Square Differences &

Sum the Squares
0.83
0.83 0.83 = 0.00
0.002 = 0.000
0.87
0.87 0.83 = 0.04
0.042 = 0.0016
0.78
0.78 0.83 = -0.05
-0.052 = 0.0025
0.82
0.82 0.83 = -0.01
-0.012 = 0.0001
0.85
0.85 0.83 = 0.02
0.022 = 0.0004
Mean = 0.83
Sum = 0.0046
Step 4: Divide the sum of the squared differences by n 1 (n = 5 because one observation
was omitted for Element 2)
0.0046 / (5-1) = 0.00115
0.00115=0.0339

Using z = 2.00:
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Education.

2
zs 2 2.00(0.0339)
n=
=
=66.7272
a x
.01(0.83)
( ) (
(round up to 67)
Using z = 2.01:
2
zs 2 2.01( 0.0339)
=
=67.3962 (round up to 68)
a x
.01( 0.83)
( ) (
n=
where:
z = Number of normal standard deviations for desired confidence (95.5%)
Using App. B Table A, we look for .955/2 = .4775; .4775 is midway between .4772 (z = 2.00)
& .4778 (z = 2.01).

Conclusion: 67 observations are needed if z = 2.00 is used; 68 observations are needed if z =
2.01 is used.
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Education.
c. Given: Desired accuracy for mean time of Element 2 = within 0.01 minutes of the true value
with a confidence of 95.5%.
zs
e
( )
n=
where:
We must estimate the sample standard deviation for Element 2:
From part b: s = 0.0339
Using z = 2.00:
2
zs 2 2.00( 0.0339)
=
=45.9684
e
0.01
( ) (
n=
(round up to 46)
Using z = 2.01:
2
zs 2 2.01(0.0339)
=
=46.4292
e
0.01
( ) (
n=
(round up to 47)
where:
Using App. B Table A, we look for .955/2 = .4775; .4775 is midway between .4772 (z = 2.00)
& .4778 (z = 2.01)
Conclusion: 46 observations are needed if z = 2.00 is used; 47 observations are needed if z =
2.01 is used.
7-26
Education.
11.
Given: An operation has a standard deviation of 1.5 minutes per piece. The goal is to estimate the
mean time per piece to within 0.4 minutes of its true value with a confidence of 95.5%.
zs
e
( )
n=
where:
Using z = 2.00:
2
zs 2 2.00(1.5)
=
=56.25 (round up to 57)
e
0.4
( ) (
n=
Using z = 2.01:
2
zs 2 2.01(1.5)
=
=56.8139
e
0.4
( ) (
n=
(round up to 57)
where:
4778 (z = 2.01).
7-27
Education.
12.
Given: An operation yielded times of 5.2, 5.5, 5.8, 5.3, 5.5, and 5.1. The goal is to estimate the
mean time to within 2% of its true value with a confidence of 99%. The standard deviation is
given already as 0.253 minutes per cycle.
Mean Time = (5.2 + 5.5 + 5.8 + 5.3 + 5.5 + 5.1) / 6 = 5.4 minutes per cycle

Using z = 2.57:
2
zs 2 2.57 (0.253)
=
=36.246
a x
.02(5.4 )
( ) (
n=
(round up to 37)
Using z = 2.58:
2
zs 2 2.58( 0.253)
=
=36.5286
a x
.02(5.4)
( ) (
n=
(round up to 37)
where:
z = Number of normal standard deviations for desired confidence (99%)
4951 (z = 2.58).

7-28
Education.
13.
Given: An initial survey found that loaders were idle 6 of 50 observations.
a. Estimated % Idle Time:
6/50 = 0.12 (12%)
b. Given: The goal is to estimate the percentage of idle time to within 5% of its true value with a
confidence of 95%.
p
1 ^
z 2^
n=
p
e
()
where:
^p = Sample proportion
e = Maximum error %
p
1 ^
z 2
n=
^p
e
()
(round up to 163)
where:
Using App. B Table A, we look for .95/2 = .475; z = 1.96.
^p = Sample proportion (0.12 from above)

7-29
Education.
e = Maximum error % (.05 from above)
7-30
Education.
14.
Given: An analyst observed a process and noted whether a customer service representative was
busy (B) or Idle (I).
10
B or I
Observation
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
B or I
Observation
a. Estimated % Idle Time: 5/20 = 0.25 (25%)
b. Given: The goal is to estimate the percentage of idle time to within 6% of its true value with a
confidence of 90%.
p
1 ^
z 2^
n=
p
e
()
where:
e = Maximum error %
Using z = 1.64:
7-31
Education.
p
1 ^
z 2
n=
^p
e
()
(round up to 141)
Using z = 1.65:
p
1 ^
2
z
n=
^p
e
()
(round up to 142)
where:
4505 (z = 1.65).

Conclusion: 141 observations are needed if z = 1.64 is used; 142 observations are needed if z
= 1.65 is used.
7-32
Education.
15.
Given: An office manager estimates that about 50% of an employees time is spent working on
the telephone. The goal is to estimate the percentage of time on the telephone to within 6% of its
true value with a confidence of 98%.
p
1 ^
z 2^
n=
p
e
()
where:
e = Maximum error %
p
1 ^
z 2
n=
^p
e
()
(round up to 378)
where:
confidence.


7-33
Education.
16.
Given: A hospital administrator estimates that X-ray equipment is in use only about 20% of the
time. The goal is to estimate the percentage of time the X-ray equipment is in use to within 5% of
its true value with a confidence of 98%.
p
1 ^
z 2^
n=
p
e
()
where:
e = Maximum error %
p
1 ^
2
z
n=
^p
e
()
(round up to 348)
where:
confidence.

17.
Given: Use the random number table in Chapter 7 to design a schedule of work sampling
observations in which eight observations are made during one eight-hour day.
Note: The study runs each day from 0:00 7:59.
7-34
Education.
Hours: Looking at the table, use column 4 to obtain the hour of each observation. Beginning at
the top of column 4, use the last digit of each four-digit number going down column 4 for the
hour.
Note: Hours can be between 0 and 7.
Minutes: Use row 3 to obtain the minutes of each observation. Beginning with the first value in
row 3, use digits in sets of two (moving left to right) as the minutes for each observation.
Note: Minutes can be between 0 and 59.
Hours: 1, 7, 4, 4, 6, 3, 1, 9 (throw out because > 7), 1.
Throwing out values leaves: 1, 7, 4, 4, 6, 3, 1, 1.
Minutes: 47, 15, 24, 86 (throw out because > 59), 27, 76 (throw out because > 59), 26, 64 (throw
out because > 59), 38, 56, 00.
Throwing out values leaves: 47, 15, 24, 27, 26, 38, 56, 00.
Combining Hours & Minutes gives:
1:47, 7:15, 4:24, 4:27, 6:26, 3:38, 1:56, 1:00.
Re-arranging in chronological order:
Observation
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Time
1:00
1:47
1:56
3:38
4:24
4:27
6:26
7:15
7-35
Education.
18.
Given: The manager of a large office wants to conduct a work sampling of the time staff spends
on the telephone. The observations will be taken over 50 workdays. The office is open five days a
week for eight hours a day. We need to determine times for 11 random observations.
Note: The study runs each day from 0:00 7:59.
Days: Use sets of two-digit numbers going across row 4 from left to right and do the same in row
5.
Note: Days can range from 1 (Day 1) to 50 (Day 50).
Hours: Use one-digit numbers going down, using the first digit of column 1 and then do the same
in column 2.
Note: Hours can be between 0 and 7.
Minutes: Use two-digit numbers going up column 4 using the first set of two digits and then
repeat using the second set of two digits going up column 4.
In summary, the observations can be taken during the following interval:
Day 1 - Day 50: 0:00 7:59 each day.
Days (throwing out any values < 1 or > 50): 16, 32, 15, 46, 19, 50, 18, 44, 11, 23, 19
Hours (throwing out any values > 7): 6, 3, 4, 1, 3, 7, 2, 2, 0, 2, 7
Minutes (throwing out any values > 59): 30, 46, 10, 37, 02, 23, 18, 26, 39, 49, 11
Combining the values gives the following:
Day
Hour
Minute
16
30
32
46
15
10
46
37
19
02
50
23
18
18
44
26
11
39
7-36
Education.
23
49
19
11
7-37
Education.

Day
Hour
Minute
11
39
15
10
16
30
18
18
19
02
19
11
23
49
32
46
44
26
46
37
50
23
Schedule for March, April, May (March 1, a Monday, is Day 1)

Day
Hour
Minute
March 15
39
March 19
10
March 22
30
March 24
18
March 25
02
March 25
11
March 31
49
April 13
46
April 29
26
May 3
37
May 7
23
7-38
Education.
19.
Given: A work sampling study is to be conducted on rush-hour traffic (4:00 6:59 PM) five days
per week. The study will encompass 40 days. Determine the day, hour, and minutes for 10
observations using the random number table.
Days: Use sets of two-digit numbers going down the first set of two digits of Column 5 and then
down the second set of two digits of that column.
Note: Days can range from 1 (Day 1) to 40 (Day 40).
Hours: Use one-digit numbers going from left to right across row 1 and then across row 2 (read
only 4s, 5s, and 6s).
Note: Hours can be between 4 and 6. The study shuts down each day at 6:59.
Minutes: Use two-digit numbers going down column 6 using the last two digits and then repeat
using the first two digits of that column.
Days (throwing out any values < 1 or > 40): 20, 38, 11, 01, 21, 39, 40, 21, 27, 23
Hours (throwing out any values < 4 or > 6): 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 4, 5, 5, 5, 4
Minutes (throwing out any values > 59): 17, 08, 37, 44, 57, 18, 07, 38, 52, 18
Combining the values gives the following:
Day
Hour
Minute
20
17
38
08
11
37
01
44
21
57
39
18
40
07
21
38
27
52
23
18
7-39
Education.

Day
Hour
Minute
01
44
11
37
20
17
21
38
21
57
23
18
27
52
38
08
39
18
40
07
Case: Making Hotplates

The case illustrates some benefits of job enlargement.
1.
Originally, workers were bored and morale was low, apparently because of the specialization of
work. Allowing workers to complete entire units rather than just a portion of the work seems to
have improved the situation tremendously.
2.
Because workers were better able to identify with the final product, they became more interested
in their work, and hence, absenteeism decreased and morale increased.
3.
The major change involved giving each worker a greater share of the overall task. This was under
the control of the manager. The workers have control over productivity and absenteeism, to a
certain extent.
4.
If they were to return to the old assembly line, it is conceivable that morale and productivity
would be even lower than before. Once the workers had a taste of the new method, they would
dislike the former setup even more.
Two additional comments: One relates to the last question: Why would management even
consider going back to the old method? The second is that this approach is not always feasible.
For example, in an automobile assembly plant, it would not be possible for one or a small group
of workers to assemble a car completely, or even a major portion of the car.
7-40
Education.

IMChap 007

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Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

Answers to Discussion and Review Questions

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

b. With poor ergonomics, workers can be in pain, fatigued, or otherwise uncomfortable.

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

[See Table 7.1]

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

Critical Thinking Exercises

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

a. Observed Time (OT) = 1.2 minutes

Standard Time = Normal Time x Allowance Factor

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

ST = NT x AFday = 1.14 minutes x 1.111 = 1.27 minutes (round to 2 decimals)

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

OBSERVATIONS (minutes per cycle)

a. Average cycle time (OT) for each element (round to 2 decimals):

b. Normal Time (NT) for each element (round to 2 decimals):

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

c. Standard time for this job (round to 2 decimals):

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

Slightly awkward position

Bad light (slightly below

Intermittent loud noises

Basic fatigue allowance

Normal times for both (round to 2 decimals):

NT (machine) = Observed Time x Performance Rating = OT x PR = 3.3 x 1.00 = 3.30 minutes

Standard times for both (round to 2 decimals):

Standard Time = Normal Time x Allowance Factor

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

ST (worker) = 2.28 x 1.136 = 2.59 minutes

Standard Time = Normal Time x Allowance Factor

ST = NT x AFday = 5.70 minutes x 1.250 = 7.13 minutes (round to 2 decimals)

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

Observations (minutes per cycle)

a. Given: Allowance = 10% of job time

Observations (minutes per cycle)

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

Normal Time (NT) for each element (round to 2 decimals):

Standard Time (round to 2 decimals):

Standard Time = Normal Time x Allowance Factor

Time for Operation =

[use this formula when desired accuracy is a %]

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

z = Number of normal standard deviations for desired confidence

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

We must estimate the sample standard deviation for Element A:

Square Differences &

1.40 1.40 = 0.00

1.42 1.40 = 0.02

1.39 1.40 = -0.01

1.38 1.40 = -0.02

1.41 1.40 = 0.01

Step 4: Divide the sum of the squared differences by n 1 (n = 5):

Number of Observations Needed:

x = Sample mean (1.40 from above)

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

Chapter 07 - Work Design and Measurement

[use this formula when desired accuracy is a time]