Material
1. Introduction
1.1 Mechanical Vibration
1.2 Machinery Preventive and Predictive Maintenance
1.3 Evolution of maintenance philosophies
1.4 Vibration analysis a key predictive maintenance technique
1.5 Vibration Analysis and Measurement Equipment
No. of hours
2
6. Advanced Techniques
6.1 Transient Analysis
6.2 Dual and Multi-Channel Analysis
6.3 Machine Run-up/Coast-down
7. Field Balancing
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Procedure of Field Balancing
Total
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1
1. Introduction
1.1 Mechanical Vibration
What is vibration? simply speaking, it is the motion of a machine or its part back and forth from its
position of rest. The most classical example is that of a body with mass M to which a spring with a
stiffness k is attached. Until a force is applied to the mass M and causes it to move, there is no
vibration.
Mechanical vibration is the term used to describe the movement produced in
mechanical parts due to the effect of external or internal forces on that parts.
Each part can be considered composed of one or more spring-mass-damper
system subjected to an exciting force. The amplitude of vibration is a function
of system parameters and severity of the exciting force. When the machine is
new, vibration level is low since there is no looseness or wear, i.e., the
stiffnesses and damping factors are high. Also, the exciting forces are low in
general because there is no mechanical problem yet. As the machine
deteriorates, wears and looseness are produced and also, there may be exciting
forces produced due to some faults such as unbalance and misalignments.
Therefore, mechanical vibration becomes high. Maintenance procedure should
be carried out to bring vibration low again and obtain smooth and trouble-free
operation.
1.2 Machinery Preventive and Predictive Maintenance
If we were to do a survey of the maintenance philosophies employed by different process plants,
we would notice quite a bit of similarity despite the vast variations in the nature of their
operations. These maintenance philosophies can usually be divided into four different categories:
determine ways to improve the reliability of the machine. All of these aspects lead to a substantial
increase in production capacity. The disadvantage is that extremely knowledgeable employees in
preventive, predictive and prevention/proactive maintenance practices are required. It is also
possible that the work may require outsourcing to knowledgeable contractors who will have to
work closely with the maintenance personnel in the RCFA phase. Proactive maintenance also
requires procurement of specialized equipment and properly trained personnel to perform all
these duties.
1.3 Evolution of maintenance philosophies
Machinery maintenance in industry has evolved from breakdown maintenance to timebased
preventive maintenance. Presently, the predictive and proactive maintenance philosophies are the
most popular. Breakdown maintenance was practiced in the early days of production technology
and was reactive in nature. Equipment was allowed to run until a functional failure occurred.
Secondary damage was often observed along with a primary failure. This led to time-based
maintenance, also called preventive maintenance. In this case, equipment was taken out of
production for overhaul after completing a certain number of running hours, even if there was no
evidence of a functional failure. The drawback of this system was that machinery components
were being replaced even when there was still some functional lifetime left in them. This
approach unfortunately could not assist to reduce maintenance costs. Due to the high
maintenance costs when using preventive maintenance, an approach to rather schedule the
maintenance or overhaul of equipment based on the condition of the equipment was needed. This
led to the evolution of predictive maintenance and its underlying techniques. Predictive
maintenance requires continuous monitoring of equipment to detect and diagnose defects. Only
when a defect is detected, the maintenance work is planned and executed. Today, predictive
maintenance has reached a sophisticated level in industry. Till the early 1980s, justification
spreadsheets were used in order to obtain approvals for condition-based maintenance programs.
Luckily, this is no longer the case. The advantages of predictive maintenance are accepted in
industry today, because the tangible benefits in terms of early warnings about mechanical and
structural problems in machinery are clear. The method is now seen as an essential detection and
diagnosis tool that has a certain impact in reducing maintenance costs, operational vs repair
downtime and inventory hold-up. In the continuous process industry, such as oil and gas, power
generation, steel, paper, cement, petrochemicals, textiles, aluminum and others, the penalties of
even a small amount of downtime are immense. It is in these cases that the adoption of the
predictive maintenance is required above all. Through the years, predictive maintenance has
helped improve productivity, product quality, profitability and overall effectiveness of
manufacturing plants. Predictive maintenance in the actual sense is a philosophy an attitude that
uses the actual operating conditions of the plant equipment and systems to optimize the total plant
operation.
It is generally observed that manufacturers embarking upon a predictive maintenance program
become more aware of the specific equipment problems and subsequently try to identify the root
causes of failures. This tendency led to an evolved kind of maintenance called proactive
maintenance. In this case, the maintenance departments take additional time to carry out precision
balancing, more accurate alignments, detune resonating pipes, adhere strictly to oil check/change
schedules, etc. This ensures that they eliminate the causes that may give rise to defects in their
equipment in the future. This evolution in maintenance philosophy has brought about longer
equipment life, higher safety levels, better product quality, lower life cycle costs and reduced
emergencies and panic decisions precipitated by major and unforeseen mechanical failures.
Putting all this objectively, one can enumerate the benefits in the following way:
2. A signal analyzer
3. Analysis software
4. A computer for data analysis and storage.
These basic parts can be configured to form a continuous online system, a periodic analysis system
using portable equipment, or a multiplexed system that samples a series of transducers at
predetermined time intervals. Hard-wired and multiplexed systems are more expensive per
measurement position. The determination of which configuration would be more practical and
suitable depends on the critical nature of the equipment, and also on the importance of continuous
or semi-continuous measurement data for that particular application.
1.4.2 Vibration analysis (diagnosis mode)
Operators and technicians often detect unusual noises or vibrations on the shop floor or plant
where they work on a daily basis. In order to determine if a serious problem actually exists, they
could proceed with a vibration analysis. If a problem is indeed detected, additional spectral
analyses can be done to accurately define the problem and to estimate how long the machine can
continue to run before a serious failure occurs. Vibration measurements in analysis (diagnosis)
mode can be cost-effective for less critical equipment, particularly if budgets or manpower are
limited. Its effectiveness relies heavily on someone detecting unusual noises or vibration levels.
This approach may not be reliable for large or complex machines, or in noisy parts of a plant.
Furthermore, by the time a problem is noticed, a considerable amount of deterioration or damage
may have occurred.
Another application for vibration analysis is as an acceptance test to verify that a machine repair
was done properly. The analysis can verify whether proper maintenance was carried out on bearing
or gear installation, or whether alignment or balancing was done to the required tolerances.
Additional information can be obtained by monitoring machinery on a periodic basis, for example,
once per month or once per quarter. Periodic analysis and trending of vibration levels can provide
a more subtle indication of bearing or gear deterioration, allowing personnel to project the machine
condition into the foreseeable future. The implication is that equipment repairs can be planned to
commence during normal machine shutdowns, rather than after a machine failure has caused
unscheduled downtime.
1.4.3 Vibration analysis benefits
Vibration analysis can identify improper maintenance or repair practices. These can include
improper bearing installation and replacement, inaccurate shaft alignment or imprecise rotor
balancing. As almost 80% of common rotating equipment problems are related to misalignment
and unbalance, vibration analysis is an important tool that can be used to reduce or eliminate
recurring machine problems. Trending vibration levels can also identify improper production
practices, such as using equipment beyond their design specifications (higher temperatures, speeds
or loads). These trends can also be used to compare similar machines from different manufacturers
in order to determine if design benefits or flaws are reflected in increased or decreased
performance.
Ultimately, vibration analysis can be used as part of an overall program to significantly improve
equipment reliability. This can include more precise alignment and balancing, better quality
installations and repairs, and continuously lowering the average vibration levels of equipment in
the plant.
Advantages
Can collect, record and display vibration data such as FFT spectra, overall trend plots and time
domain waveforms.
Provides orderly collection of data.
Automatically reports measurements out of pre-established limit thresholds.
Can perform field vibration analysis.
Disadvantages
They are relatively expensive.
Operator must be trained for use.
Limited memory capability and thus data must be downloaded after collection.
1.5.3 Handheld Vibration Meter
A handheld vibration meter is an inexpensive and simple-to-use instrument that is an essential part
of any vibration program. Plant operators and vibration technicians carry handheld meters and
analyzers on their routine rounds. When these are held in contact with machinery, they provide a
display of vibration levels (either analog or digital). The readout provides immediate information
that can be used to determine if the overall vibration levels are normal or abnormal. Handheld
vibration meters are typically battery powered and use an accelerometer for sensing. Sometimes a
velocity pickup is used. They are small, lightweight and rugged for day-to-day use. Handheld
meters can provide the following data (depending on the specific model):
o
Advantages
They are convenient and flexible, and require very little skill to use.
8
They also lack data storage capability (however, some instruments are now available with
some limited storage capacity).
X0
1
.
T
v =
dx
= X 0 cos t
dt
On the other hand, acceleration of the mass varies from maximum value at the highest and lowest
positions to zero at the zero position. In fact acceleration is the derivative of velocity:
a=
dv
= X 0 2 sin t
dt
It is clear that when the frequency is high, both velocity and acceleration will be high even
when the displacement is small. At low frequency, the inverse is true. Determining which of the
three parameters, acceleration, velocity or displacement is chosen to measure vibration depends
primarily on two factors, the first is the reason of taking the measurement. Are the readings being
taken for vibration analysis, periodic check, balancing , etc.. The second factor is the frequency of
vibration to be measured, or in other words depending on the running speed and type of machine
element such as anti-friction bearing, gear, etc..
10
The amount of time required to break a machine part is a function of two parameters, the first is
the amount of deformation (displacement) that the part undergoes, and the second is the frequency
of deformation. Vibration severity, thus, appears to be a function of displacement and frequency.
Since velocity is also a function of these two parameters, it is a direct measure of vibration
severity.
Displacement and acceleration may also be used to measure vibration severity,
however, when these parameters are used it is also necessary to know the frequency of vibration.
Displacement may be a better indicator to vibration severity under conditions of dynamic stress
where the property of brittleness tends to fasten the failure or when the stress (deformation)
reaches a given limit even though it is repeated only a few times. Thus displacement measurement
is useful when low frequencies are encountered.
It is generally accepted that between 10 Hz (600 cpm) and 1000 Hz (60 kcpm) velocity gives a
good indication of the severity of vibration, and above 1000 Hz (60 kcpm), acceleration is the only
good indicator. Since the majority of general rotating machinery (and their defects) operates in the
101000 Hz range, velocity is commonly used for vibration measurement and analysis.
Acceleration is closely related to dynamic forces and relatively large forces can occur at higher
frequencies even though the displacement and velocity may be small. Thus acceleration
measurement is a good indicator to vibration severity for high frequency vibration (above 1000
Hz).
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(2)
(1)
fan
(3)
(4)
motor
Vertical
Horizontal
Axial
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In 1972, the American Gear Manufacturing Association formulated the AGMA standard
Specification for Measurement of Lateral Vibration on High Speed Helical and Herringbone Gear
Unite. This standard is shown in Figure 2.3.
The IRD Mechanalysis Vibration Acceleration General Severity Chart shown in Figure 2.4 can
be used in cases when machinery vibration is measured in units of acceleration. This chart is useful
for evaluating machinery condition for the vibration of relatively high frequencies (above 1000
Hz) such as bearing vibration. It is obvious from the chart that the constant velocity lines are
replaced by constant acceleration lines for the frequencies above 1000 Hz (60,000 rpm).
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14
Classes of machines
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
0.28
0.45
0.71
1.12
1.8
2.8
4.5
7.1
11.2
18
28
45
71
0.28
A
A
0.45
0.71
1.12
A
B
1.8
2.8
B
B
4.5
7.1
C
C
11.2
18
D
D
28
45
A: Good
B: Allowable
C: Just Tolerable
D: Not Permissible
15
16
f s = 1/ T
v
time
time
Analog to Digital Converter: a device used to convert voltage into equivalent integer number.
The size of the integer number (number of bits) depends on the resolution of the ADC. For
example, an ADC with 16-bit resolution produces an integer value between 0 and 65535 (or 32768 to +32767)
Peak Value: the difference between the signal average and maximum absolute value.
Peak to Peak Value: the difference between the lowest and highest values in the signal.
Stationary Signal: a signal which has the same statistical parameters over time such as signal
produced by rotating machinery.
Non-stationary Signal: a signal which has variable parameters over time such as variable
frequencies, amplitudes, power content ...etc. Examples are speech signals.
3.2 Level Detection
Signal level is sometimes referred as magnitude or overall value. As related to vibration, level
can be detected in terms of Root Mean Squares (defined below), Peak value, Peak-Peak value
or simply average value. The RMS, peak and peak to peak detection techniques are mainly
used in the determination of vibration severity for condition monitoring of machines. The
average value has limited applications and can be used to estimate the average rotor position
for example.
The root mean squares value (RMS) is indication for the power content in the signal, or in
other words, the effective value. Therefore, it is commonly used in vibration level detection.
For analog signals, the RMS can be detected by using RMS detector which is sort of complex
circuitry. The voltmeter is a kind of RMS detector. The RMS vlaue is given by;
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1
RMS =
T
[v (t )]
RMS =
1
N
2
i
i =1
To
Get
Multiply by
Scaled Peak
Scaled P-P
RMS
Scaled Peak
0.5
1.414
Scaled P-P
2.828
RMS
0.707
0.3535
18
necessary, the frequency components of the major events in the waveform pattern can be
calculated.
-5
20
40
Time (msec)
transmission power line frequency. If the line frequency is 50 Hz (3000 cpm), the defect frequency
would be 6000 cpm. Now, if the motors physical speed were 2980 rpm, then its second harmonic
would be 5960 cpm. Thus, the two waveforms of 6000 and 5960 cpm will generate beats and
modulation of amplitude.
Another application where time waveform is found to be useful is the identification of bearings
and gears problems. Pulses or spikes are found whenever a localized defect exists with frequency
equal to the number of times that defect excited per a second. For example a pinion gear with
broken tooth will exhibit pulses at frequency equal to 1xRPM of the pinion as shown in Figure 3.4.
The time between any two successive pulses is the reciprocal of the rotation frequency.
Amp.
20
Time (msec)
concerned with the realizability constraints of analog devices. As a result, significantly more
sophisticated algorithms can now be chosen for problem solving. Examples of digital processing
operations are digital filtering, integration and differentiation, FFT (spectrum) analysis, processing
of speech and images, and many other operations.
The digital systems have several advantages when compared with their analog equivalents. The
first of these is that the digital system is inherently more stable, this means that the system is less
susceptible to changes in environment. The second advantage is the improved linearity. The only
significant source of amplitude non-linearity in digital systems is within the ADC. Likewise, their
frequency axes are set by the sampling frequency, which is in turn is referenced to a crystal
controlled oscillator. Hence, the sampling frequency can be controlled to a high degree of
accuracy, to give an exceptional frequency linearity.
The first digital frequency analysis technique was the digital filtering, but soon it has superseded
by the technique of Fast Fourier Transform. The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is an algorithm or
calculation process for obtaining the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) with a greatly reduced
number of arithmetic operations compared with a direct evaluation. Fourier showed that any
periodic function g(t) with a period T can be represented as a sum of sinusoidal components (or
equivalently rotating vectors) at equally spaced frequencies kf1, with (f1=1/T). The kth component
is obtained from the integral,
G( fk ) =
1 T/ 2
j2 f k t
g
(
t
)
e
dt
T T/ 2
(3.1)
and hence,
g( t ) =
G( fk ) e
j2 f k t
(3.2)
k =
The series of complex values G(fk) are known as the spectrum components of g(t).
When g(t) is sampled in time domain, i.e. it is defined at finite number of instants N, then both the
time signal and frequency spectrum will be implicitly periodic due to sampling process. This
periodicity or circularity leads to some interesting effect. The forward transform for this case takes
the form
2 kn
j
1 N 1
G ( f k ) = g( t n ) e N
N n=0
(3.3)
g( t n ) = G ( f k ) e
2 kn
N
(3.4)
k =0
The direct evaluation of eq. (3.3) requires N2 complex multiplications and additions, and for
moderately large N, say N greater than 1000, this direct evaluation is rather costly in computer
time. Methods for saving computer time are thus be used. The most efficient algorithm for
evaluating DFT is the so called Fast Fourier Transform. In fact, this algorithm results in
dramatic saving in computer time when N is large, however, it can not be directly applied when N
is prime. When N is a power of 2, the FFT requires a number of computations proportional to N
log2 N rather than N2. Thus for N=1024 this is a computational saving of 99 percent.
The FFT algorithm produces an identical result to direct application of the DFT. Thus any
limitations of the FFT process are in fact those of the DFT. These are basically due to the finite
(circular) and discrete nature of the DFT algorithm. Thus, regardless of the actual nature of the
input signal, the analyzed record and results are a finite number, N, of discrete digital sample. In
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theory this represents one period of an infinitely long periodic signal. Generally, three problems
are associated with the FFT processing, they are aliasing , window effect and picket fence effect.
These three problems, and how to deal with them, will now be discussed in a little more details.
3.4.1 Definitions
Number of Points (N): total number of samples in a record
Record Length (T): total record length in seconds, equal to number of points multiplied by T
Frequency Resolution f : reciprocal of record length or sampling frequency divided by number of
points, f = f s / N
3.4.2 Aliasing
The misinterpretation of high frequencies (above half the sampling frequency) as lower
frequencies, as illustrated in Figure 3.5, is termed aliasing. This is obviously one of the pitfalls
to be avoided when digitizing continuous signals.
Time
Time
(a) f = 0 (DC)
(b) f = fs
Time
Time
(c) f = fs /N
(d) f = fs + fs /N
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Window effect, also know as leakage effect, results from fitting the time signal in a finite length.
Generally when the sampling frequency is not direct multiples of signal frequency, window or
power leakage effect will arise.
The window effect results in the sidelobe generation or power leakage from the main frequency
components into adjacent band. This is determined by the type of window function used. For a
rectangular window function, the sidelobe generation is illustrated in Fig. 3.6. When a sinusoid
period or its multiples exactly coincide with the record length, i.e., its frequency coincides with
one frequency line in the spectrum, and due to convolution (in frequency domain) between that
single line and the spectral function of a rectangular window (sin x /x), the zero of the latter will
lie on the frequency lines of the resulting spectrum, and thus, no sidelobe is generated.
h( n) = 0.5[1 cos(2n / N )]
n=0,1,2, .. N 1
(3.5)
Other good window functions are Hamming, Blackman, Flat-top, Kaiser and others. Hamming
window has lower sidelobes than Hamming but sidelobe falloff is small. Flat-top window is used
to obtain minimum amplitude error when picket fence correction technique is not used.
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RMS = 0.707 G 1
+ G2
+ G 3 + ....
(3.6)
Equation (3.6) can not be generalized for other weighting functions. In fact the result should be
corrected for the noise bandwidth (B) inhered to multiplying by the window function. Generally,
for any data weighting function, the RMS value is given by
RMS =
1
0.707 G 1
B
+ G2
+ G 3 + ...
(3.7)
Averaging is useful to obtain more reliable data about the analyzed signal. it is important to
perform averaging over a number of individual FFT transforms, each transform corresponds to a
different time record. Figure 3.8 illustrate averaging for 0% and 50% overlapping.
24
g( t ) =
G ke
j2 f k t
= G 0 + 2 G k sin(2 f k t k )
k =
(3.8)
k =`
where k is the phase angle of the kth sinusoid (frequency component) referenced to the starting
point of the time record. Therefore, when the reading is trigged by a reference signal, all phase
angles will be relative to the reference sensor position;
k = + tan 1
Re(G k )
Im(G k )
(3.9)
However, when the actual frequency lies between two analysis lines, k and k+1, the phase
indicated by these lines will be determined in terms of the phase of the actual component, as well
as the frequency difference between that component and the analysis line. The actual phase can be
determined in terms of the phase of the second analysis line and the frequency difference (x)
which is found by the picket fence correction technique,
actual
1 Re( G k +1 )
x + tan Im(G )
k +1
=
(1 + x) + tan 1 Re(G k +1 )
Im(G k +1 )
x>0
x<0
(3.10)
3.5 Orbit
Orbits are Lissajous patterns of time domain signals that are simultaneously plotted in the XY
coordinate plane of an oscilloscope or vibration analyzer. In this form of display, it is very difficult
to trace the start of the orbit as it appears to be an endless loop. In order for us to determine the
direction of rotation, a phase trigger is employed. The trigger will show the direction of rotation by
looking at the dot on the orbit as the starting point of 1 RPM and the blank space as the end point.
Orbit analysis is the vibration measure of any rotor system in an XY plot (Figure 3.9). In most
applications, the unit of measurement is displacement which is measured directly using proximity
probes. These types of measurements are relative vibration readings. Relative readings are
considered vibration measurements of the shaft with respect to the bearing housing. As the probes
are clamped firmly to the housing, there is no relative motion between the probe and the housing.
Thus, the orbit is achieved. With that in mind, orbit plots give a visual graph of the actual shaft
centerline movement inside the bearing housing. Accelerometers and velocity pickups can also be
used to create orbits. These are external transducers, which require mounting on the outside of the
bearing housing. These types of measurements are called case orbits. Case orbits are useful to
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separate shaft and case vibrations. This can provide absolute shaft motion (relative to space). Orbit
may be done for the overall signals as measured or it can be done for filtered signals where it is
required to show orbit for specific frequency such as the frequency of rotation or its multiples.
simultaneously at specific speed intervals (which can be defined by the user), and the two graphs
are displayed on top of each other.
In rotor dynamics, the Bode plot is mainly used to determine the critical speed of the rotor. In the
plot, the speed at which amplitude of vibration is maximum is noted, and for confirmation the
phase graph is checked to see if it differs from the starting value by 90.
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C AA ( ) = F -1 {log S AA ( f )}
(3.11)
in which the two sided power spectrum, SAA(f), of a time signal g(t) is given by:
S AA ( f ) = F{g(t)}
(3.12)
Where the bar means averaging over a number of records to improve reliability.
The parameter in the definition is actually time, although it is referred to as quefrency. It can
better be thought as a delay time or periodic time rather than absolute time. Since cepstrum
can detect harmonic vibration components as single quefrency component, the application of the
cepstrum analysis in vibration diagnosis is required for machines with gear mesh, anti-friction
bearing and other sources of high frequency vibration containing harmonically related
components. Figure 3.13 shows a cepstrum plot. More details about cepstrum will be given in the
next chapter.
the signal, squaring the signal and then applying FFT analysis. The low frequency vibration will be
rejected during filtration process and only high frequency harmonics are passed. During
harmonics-squaring, difference and sum components are created where the difference components
fold back in the spectrum while most of the sum components are outside the analysis range.
The envelope method separates a repetitive impulse from a complex vibration signal by using a
band pass filter that rejects low frequency components that are synchronous with vibration. Table
3.2 shows filter setting for different machine speeds. Although there are signal enhancements that
result from structural resonances, the envelope method is not solely dependent on local resonance
to isolate rolling element defect signals. Filter criteria selection is based on suitable rejection of the
low frequency sinusoids while optimizing the passband of the defect harmonics
After filtering the vibration signal, the resultant signal is enveloped by means of a circuit that
approximately squares the signal as shown in Figure 3.14. The signal is then passed to FFT
analyzer to display the FFT spectrum.
29
30
Couple Unbalance
In a couple unbalance (Figure 4.3) the FFT spectrum again displays a single 1xRPM frequency
peak. The amplitude at the 1xRPM varies proportional to the square of speed. This defect may
cause high axial and radial vibrations. Couple unbalance tends to be 180 out of phase on the same
shaft. Note that almost a 180 phase difference exists between two bearings in the horizontal plane.
The same is observed in the vertical plane. It is advisable to perform an operational deflection
shape (ODS) analysis to check if couple unbalance is present in a system.
31
Figure 4.4 A belt-driven fan/blower with an overhung rotor the phase is measured in the axial
direction
4.2 Eccentric Rotor
Eccentricity occurs when the center of rotation is at an offset from the geometric centerline of a
sheave, gear, bearing, motor armature or any other rotor. The maximum amplitude occurs at
1xRPM of the eccentric component in a direction through the centers of the two rotors. Here the
amplitude varies with the load even at constant speeds as in Figure 4.5.
32
Figure 4.7 An FFT of a bent shaft with bend near the shaft center
The phase of axial vibration for a bent rotor is shown in Figure 4.8. Note that when the probe is
moved from vertical plane to horizontal plane, there will be no change in the phase reading (Figure
4.8).
33
4.4 Misalignment
Misalignment, just like unbalance, is a major cause of machinery vibration. Some machines have
been incorporated with self-aligning bearings and flexible couplings that can take quite a bit of
misalignment. However, despite these, it is not uncommon to come across high vibrations due to
misalignment. There are basically two types of misalignment:
1. Angular misalignment: the shaft centerline of the two shafts meets at angle with each other
2. Parallel misalignment: the shaft centerline of the two machines is parallel to each other and
have an offset.
Angular misalignment
As shown in Figure 4.9, angular misalignment primarily subjects the driver and driven machine
shafts to axial vibrations at the 1xRPM frequency. Misalignment is rarely seen just as 1xRPM
peak. Typically, there will be high axial vibration with both 1xRPM and 2xRPM. However, it is
not unusual for 1x, 2x or 3xRPM to dominate. These symptoms may also indicate coupling
problems (e.g. looseness) as well (Figure 4.10).
34
35
Figure 4.13 Phase Relation of Vertical Vibration Across Coupling for Offset Misalignment
36
This problem is associated with loose pillow-block bolts, cracks in the frame structure or the
bearing pedestal. Figures 4.15 and 4.16 make it evident how higher harmonics are generated due to
the rocking motion of the pillow block with loose bolts.
37
38
39
40
vibrations can assist in identifying the exact defects in an electrical machine. The following are
some terms that will be required to understand vibrations due to electrical problems:
Rotor Problems
Normally, four kinds of problems can occur within the rotor:
1. Broken rotor bars
2. Open or shorted rotor windings
3. Bowed rotor
4. Eccentric rotor.
Along with the stator is a rotor, which is basically an iron following the rotating magnetic field.
As the magnetic field sweeps across the conductor, it creates a voltage across the length of the
rotor bar. If the bar is open-circuited, no current flows and no forces are generated. When the bar is
short-circuited, a current flows. This current is proportional to the speed at which the field cuts
through the conductor and the strength of the field. The field interacts with the stator field to
generate a force on the rotor bar. If everything else remains the same, an equal and opposite force
on the opposite side of the rotor will develop. These two forces generate the torque that drives the
load. In case anything disrupts the current or magnetic fields on either side of the rotor, the two
forces will become unequal. This results in a radial force, which is the cause for vibration.
A cracked or broken bar can cause this category of unbalanced forces. The forces rotate with the
rotor with a constant load plus a load that varies with 2 slip. Therefore, the force acting on the
bearings will have frequency components at 1 RPM and 1 RPM FP. Thus, broken or cracked
rotor bars or shorting rings, bad joints between rotor bars and shorting rings and shorted rotor
laminations will produce high 1 running speed vibration with pole pass frequency sidebands. In
addition, cracked rotor bars will often generate FP sidebands around the 3rd, 4th and 5th running
speed harmonics, see Figures 4.22 and 4.23.
Unequal air gap will produce unbalanced magnetic force which swings in direction twice per line
cycle. It is assumed that the eccentricity of the rotor will line up with the magnetic field. The
closer side of the rotor will be respectively attracted to the positive pole and to the negative pole;
thus the force will vary twice during a single current cycle. This can affect the bearings, and
therefore it can modulate any other frequency present in the system. These effects generally cause
sidebands of 2 slip frequency around the 1 RPM frequency caused by unbalance. Eccentric
rotors produce a rotating variable air gap between the rotor and stator, which induces pulsating
vibrations (it is a beat phenomenon between two frequencies; one is 2FL and is the closest running
speed harmonic). This may require a high resolution spectrum to separate the 2FL and the running
speed harmonic. Eccentric rotors generate 2FL surrounded by pole pass frequency sidebands (FP as
43
well as FP sidebands around 1 RPM). The pole-pass frequency FP itself appears at a low
frequency (Figure 4.25).
Stator Problems
An induction motor comprises a set of stator coils, which generate a rotating magnetic field. The
magnetic field causes alternating forces in the stator. If there is any looseness or a support
weakness in the stator, each pole pass gives it a tug. This generates a 2 line frequency (2 FL) also
known as loose iron. Shorted stator laminations cause uneven and localized heating, which can
significantly grow with time.
Stator problems generate high vibration at 2FL. Eccentricity produces uneven stationary air gaps
between the rotor and the stator, which produce very directional vibration. Differential air gaps
should not exceed 5% for induction motors and 10% for synchronous motors (Figure 4.26).
45
Predominant Frequencies
Cause
Remedy
Inertia forces
Proper design
and balance
masses
Power pulses
N
RPM for 4-stroke engines
2
Increase number
of cylinders
Repair engine
Worn
Connecting rod
bearings
2 x RPM
Repair engine
Worn crankshaft
main bearings
Repair engine
47
Piston slap
2 x RPM
48
Repair engine
Selection of
proper
replacement
parts
49
BPFI =
BPFO =
N
2
N
2
Db
cos RPM
1 +
Dp
1 b cos RPM
Dp
1 D
FTF = 1 b cos RPM
2 D p
2
D p Db
1
cos RPM
BSF =
2Db D p
50
The FFT spectrum for bearing defects can be split into four zones (A, B, C and D), where we will
note the changes as bearing wear progresses. These zones are described as (Figure 5.3):
Zone A: machine rpm and harmonics zone
Zone B: bearing defect frequencies zone (530 kcpm)
Zone C: bearing component natural frequencies zone (30120 kcpm)
Zone D: high-frequency-detection (HFD) zone (beyond 120 kcpm or 20kHz).
Frequency
In the following stage, the fatigued raceways begin to develop minute pits. Rolling elements
passing over these pits start to generate the ringing or the bearing component natural frequencies
that predominantly occur in the 30120 kcpm range (500 2000 Hz). Depending on the severity, it
is possible that the sideband frequencies (bearing defect frequency rpm) appear above and below
51
the natural frequency peak at the end of stage two. The high-frequency detection (HFD) techniques
may double in amplitude compared to the readings during stage one. See Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4 Bearing Defect in Stage 2, Components Natural Frequencies plus HFD
Stage 3 of Bearing Defect
As we enter the third stage (Figure 5.5), the discrete bearing frequencies and harmonics are visible
in the FFT. These may appear with a number of sidebands. Wear is usually now visible on the
bearing and may expand through to the edge of the bearing raceway. The minute pits of the earlier
stage are now developing into bigger pits and their numbers also increase. When well-formed
sidebands accompany any bearing defect frequency or its harmonics, the HFD components have
again almost doubled compared to stage two. It is usually advised to replace the bearing at this
stage. Some studies indicate that after the third stage, the remaining bearing life can be 1 h to 1%
of its average life.
Figure 5.5 Bearing Defect in Stage 3, Defect, Components Natural and HFD Frequencies
Stage 4 of Bearing Defect
In the final phase (Figure 5.6), the pits merge with each other, creating rough tracks and spalling
of the bearing raceways or/and rolling elements. The bearing is in a severely damaged condition
now. Even the amplitude of the 1 RPM component will rise. As it grows, it may also cause
52
growth of many running speed harmonics. It can be visualized as higher clearances in the bearings
allowing a higher displacement of the rotor. Discrete bearing defect frequencies and bearing
component natural frequencies actually begin to merge into a random, broadband high-frequency
noise floor. Initially, the average amplitude of the broad noise may be large. However, it will
drop and the width of the noise will increase. In the final stage, the amplitude will rise again and
the span of the noise floor also increases.
By this time, the bearing will be vibrating excessively; it will be hot and making lots of noise. If it
is allowed to run further, the cage will break and the rolling elements will go loose. The elements
may then run into each other, twisting, turning and welded to one another, until the machine will
hopefully trip on overload. In all probability, there will be serious damage to the shaft area under
the bearing.
Figure 5.6 Stage 4 Shows Merged Defect and Components Natural Frequencies and High HFD
5.3 Gears Problems
A gearbox is a piece of rotating equipment that can cause the normal low-frequency harmonics in
the vibration spectrum, but also show a lot of activity in the high frequency region due to gear
teeth and bearing impacts. The spectrum of any gearbox shows the 1 and 2 rpm, along with the
gear mesh frequency (GMF). The GMF is calculated by the product of the number of teeth of a
pinion or a gear, and its respective running speed:
GMF = number of teeth on pinion pinion rpm
The GMF will have running speed sidebands relative to the shaft speed to which the gear is
attached. Gearbox spectrums contain a range of frequencies due to the different GMFs and their
harmonics. All peaks have low amplitudes and no natural gear frequencies are excited if the
gearbox is still in a good condition. Sidebands around the GMF and its harmonics are quite
common. These contain information about gearbox faults (Figure 5.7).
Tooth wear and backlash can excite gear natural frequencies along with the gear mesh frequencies
and their sidebands. Signal enhancement analysis enables the collection of vibrations from a single
shaft inside a gearbox. Cepstrum analysis is an excellent tool for analyzing the power in each
sideband family. The use of cepstrum analysis in conjunction with order analysis and time domain
averaging can eliminate the smearing of the many frequency components due to small speed
variations.
53
As a general rule, distributed faults such as eccentricity and gear misalignment will produce
sidebands and harmonics that have high amplitude close to the tooth-mesh frequency. Localized
faults such as a cracked tooth produce sidebands that are spread more widely across the spectrum.
54
55
GMF N
No .of teeth in pinion No .of teeth inwheel
In the above equation, N is known as the assembly phase factor, also referred to as the lowest
common integer multiple between the number of teeth on the pinion and gear. This hunting tooth
frequency is usually very low. For assembly phase factors (N > 1), every gear tooth will not mesh
with every pinion tooth. If N = 3, teeth numbers 1, 4, 7, etc. will mesh with one another (however,
gear tooth 1 will not mesh with pinion teeth 2 or 3; instead, it will mesh with 1, 4, 7, etc.). For
example, a gear with 98 teeth is running at 5528 rpm and is meshing with a pinion with 65 teeth
56
and running 8334 rpm. The assembly phase factor is N = 1. The hunting tooth frequency (Fht) can
be calculated as follows:
Fht =
(98 5528) 1
= 85 cpm or 1.42 Hz
65 98
Another formula is the rpm of the gear divided by the number of pinion teeth (5528/65 = 85 cpm).
This is a special case and applies to a hunting tooth combination only when N = 1. If the tooth
repeat frequency is a problem (Figure 5.13), one can usually audibly hear it since it is a beat
frequency. A gear set with a tooth repeat problem normally emits a growling sound from the
driven end.
57
6. Advanced Techniques
6.1 Transient Analysis
Transient analysis is similar in someway to startup and shutdown analysis since both of them deal
with a transient vibration. However, during machine startup/shutdown test, the overall collection
time is much longer and the speed signal is also acquired since it is a parameter of analysis.
Transient analysis is very useful to identify resonance frequency or to estimate Frequency
Response Function (FRF) of a structure. For example, during impact test, the structure or machine
is bumped by a hummer and the corresponding vibration is measured and either analyzed online or
saved as time signal and analyzed later to display FFT waterfall. More than one impact can be
executed during data collection and averaging process is performed over the overall record length
with or without overlapping. In most cases, 50% overlapping is good choice to cover all signal
details as shown in Figure 6.1. Logarithmic averaging may be applied where the log of the
amplitude is used instead of the direct amplitude. Also, the peak amplitude is sometimes used
instead of the averaged amplitude for better identification of the resonance frequencies, but this is
applied when the noise level is low during data acquisition. Figure 6.2 shows an FFT waterfall for
a transient vibration. During transient analysis, integrators or differentiators of the collection
device must be off to eliminate any delay and modification to the measured signal.
58
Ch1
3.12
Unit: Mils
orbit plot can indicate exactly where the shaft is coming into contact with the bearing in question.
Figure 6.5 shows a "non-filtered" orbit plot of the same shaft as discussed above.
Ch2
2.32
Ch1
2.32
Unit: Mils
Ch1
4.22
Unit: Mils
60
Order
Ch1 Amp.
Ch2 Amp
Relative Phase
1X
5.21
2.45
87
2X
3.21
2.12
123
3X
1.23
0.565
165
The run-up and coast-down tests are executed by analyzing vibration signals that vary with the
speed or time as the machine speed goes up or down. One of the most common applications is
detecting resonance related problems in rotors and structures. Not only the resonance frequency
can be detected, but also the order at which it occurs. The results can be displayed as Bode,
Nyquist, FFT waterfall and Spectrogram. During the test, the collecting device can either be
manually or automatically (depending on speed) trigged to start and stop collecting data from the
attached vibration and reference pickups. The data can be saved as time waveform and can be
processed to later to display various analyses. The reference signal is required to measure running
speed and to provide the phase angle information. The overall data record is divided into a number
of analysis records to trace machine speed variation. The analysis record can be set in terms of
time span, number of revolutions or both (whichever first satisfied), speed change or other
parameter.
2 order i
) cos
i =0
N 1
1
2 order i
b=
g (t i )sin
N i =0
N
b
A = a 2 + b 2 , = tan 1
a
1
a=
N
N 1
g (t
(1)
Where N is the number of points in one cycle. All other orders will cancel out during summation
process. If the analysis record possesses more than one cycle, averaging process will be applied
over the number of records available. Figure 6.9 shows a Bode Plot for machine run-up test.
analysis record is shorter than FFT record (depending on FFT options and analysis setting), zero
padding is applied to maintain the number of lines fixed for all spectra. The user can optionally
decrease the number of FFT lines or increase analysis record to overcome this problem. The
resonance frequency and its order can readily be known by inspecting the waterfall, particularly
when the nxRPM (or order) is chosen as frequency unit. Figure 6.10 shows a typical FFT
Waterfall.
63
64
7. Field Balancing
7.1 Introduction
One of the most important features of a portable vibration analyzer is the field balancing
capability. Some equipment have the possibility to do in-place balancing such as fans, blowers,
shafts, couplings, large turbo-machinery and others. Field balancing eliminates the need to
dismantle the machine to perform workshop balancing. Also, field balancing can take into
consideration the effects of the attached parts and thus producing good overall balancing
condition. Many vibration analyzers incorporate one-plane and two-plane balancing scheme based
on influence coefficients method. To perform balancing procedure, a reflecting tape must be
attached at some angle to produce reference mark to measure angles. Vibration pickups of any type
can be attached at the bearings housing to measure vibration signals. The machine is operated at
first to measure initial vibration, then stopped to add trial mass at the first correction plane and
operated again to measure vibration due to the first trial mass. A second trial mass is added at the
second correction plane and the vibration is measured at the third run. The device will calculate the
influence coefficients and calculate the initial unbalance. The influence coefficients are saved for
future balancing procedures where a single run can be executed to measure unbalance
A powerful field balancer must take into accounts the following points:
1. Trial mass may be kept during and after balancing procedure to speed up the process.
2. Setup time of the analyzer must be as short as possible to avoid running for long period of
time at high vibration.
3. The correction masses may be divided in case of fans or other discontinuous parts when the
angle of correction lies in the blank section.
4. The data collector must be capable of saving the influence coefficients to reduce balancing
time in the next maintenance procedure.
65