Chapter 8: Dynamic Ecosystem

The Abiotic and Biotic Components of

the Environment
Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions of living
organisms with other living organismsand with the physical
environment. Every living organism and every component of an
environment cannot exst as a separate entity. Instead they are
interrelated and form a complex system. Ecological studies on
dynamis ecosystems provide us with the understanding and
knowledge of how to manage, preserve and conserve the
Earths diverse ecosystems.
An environment consists of living organisms and non-living
components. The lving organisms in the environment are called
biotic components and the non-living components are called
abiotic components. In any ecosytem, abiotic components such
as pH,temperature, light intensuty, humidity, topography and
microclimate determine the population size and distribution of
the biotic components.

The Abiotic Components

The pH Value
1. Organisms live in habitats that can be acidic, neutral or
alkaline.
2. The pH value influences the growth and distribution of
aquatic and land organisms.
3. The soil can be acidic(pH < 7), neutral(pH = 7) or
alkaline(pH > 7).
4. Many organisms live in soil neutral conditions that are/or
near neutral.
5. Some plants grow well in slightly acidic soil while other
plants thrive in slightly alkaline soil.
Example
a) Slightly acidic soil is suitable for plants such as maize,
soya bean, tomato, barley and potato. This is because
1

nutrients, iron and magnesium are easily absorbed by the

plants in acid conditions rather than in alkaline conditions.
b) Slightly alkaline soil on the other hand is suitable for the
growth of ferns, coconut and casuarina.

Temperature
1. Affects the physiological activities of plants and animals.
Most livimg organisms can only tolerate temperature
ranging from 0C to 45C.
2. A drop in temperature within a certain usually results n a
decrease in the
metabolic activities.
3. Temperature higher
than 45C usually
cause enzymes to be
denatured.
4. However there are
some species of
organisms that can
live under extreme
temperature. For example, thermophilic bacteria can
survive in hot springs.
Thermophilic Bacteria

Light Intensity
1. Light is important as an energy source for photosynthesis
in green plants. All other animals depend on the food
synthesised by the green plant.
2. Light intensity influnces the rate of photosynthesis. Hence,
the distribution of green plants is denser in areas of high
light intensity.
3. Light is also important to animals and it affects animal
behaviour. Many organisms such as wood lice and other
soil animals are either attracted to or avoid light by
crawling towards or moving away from a light source
respectively.

Humidity
2

1. The humidity of the air influences the rate of water loss

from plants and animals. The rate of water loss is low
when the humidity is high.
2. Many animals and plants thrive in the humid ecosystems
of sheltered caves or jungles
3. The distribution of plants and animals that can control the
rate of water loss, is more widespread.

Topography
1. Is the description of the surface features of a place, e.g.
the position of rivers, mountains and such.
2. Topographic features such as altitude, gradient of a slope
and other physical aspects are factors that determine the
amount of sunlight reaching the surface of the Earth.
3. As the altitude of an area ncreases, its relative humidity
and atmospheric pressure decreases correspondingly.
4. Furthermore, changes in temperature and humidity at the
peak of a mountain are hugher than those of a valley.
5. Aspects:
a) The slope of a mountain in the direction of incoming
wind receives more rain while the protected part of the
slope receives little or no
rain.
sunlight
B

A
north

Topography (Slope A receives more sunlight than

slope B)

b) In the Northern Hemisphere, mountain slopes that face

the south receive more sunlight for a longer periods of
time than the mountain slopes facing the north
6. When studying the population distribution of riverine
organisms, we need to be aware that there are differences
between populations found in the middle of the river and
3

those found near the river bank, between rock surfaces

and beneath the rocks.
7. Therefore topographic differences produce differences in
terms of light intensity, temperature, humidity and other
factors.

Microclimate
1. Refers to the climate of a small place or habitat.
2. It involves dfferences in terms of the quantity of rain,
relative humidity, light intensity, change in temperature
and etc.
3. The microclimate below a tree, for example, is different
from the microclimate in a cave or below a rock.
4. Microclimate influences the number and distribution of
living organisms.

The Biotic Components

1. The biotic components of an ecosystems are all the lving
organisms found in an environment.
2. Biotic components interact with each other directly or
indirectly under different kinds of relationships.
3. The type of relationship between biotic components are:
a) Competition
b) Paratism
c) Symbiosis
d) Saprophytism
e) Prey-predator interaction

Plants
Biotic
compone
nts

Man
Animals

Abiotic
compone
nts

Ecosyst
em
pH

Light
Intensit
y

Temperat
ure
Humidit
Microclima
Topograp

Biotic and abiotic components

of the environment

Food Chain, Food Web And Trophic Levels

A food chain shows a sequence of organisms through which
energy is transferred. It usually starts with a producer and ends
with a top consumer. Each organism is the food of the next

organism in the chain. Each stage in a food chain is known as a

trophic level.
Most organisms may feed on more than one organism and thus
belong to more than one trophic level. The food chains in an
ecosystem are usually interconnected to form a food web.

A food web consists of many food chains

In a food web, the source of energy is sunlight. Green plants

convert solar energy into chemical energy which is stored in
food durng photosynthesis. When a primary consumer feeds on
the producers, some of the energy stored in the plants is passed
onto the primary consumer, which later passes its energy to the
secondary consumer. In this way, energy flows through a food
web. However, not all the energy is transferred to the next
trophic level in a food web. Some is lost as heat.

The Interaction Between Biotic Components

in Relation to Feeding
1. Biotic components interact with each other.

2. Their interactions may either be a temporary or a longlasting one.

3. There are four types of biotic interactions:
symbiosis, saprophytism, prey-predator, and
competition.

Symbiosis in Plants and Animals

1. Means living together.
2. It is close and permanent relationship between two or
more different species interacting with each other.
3. There are three categories of symbiotic relationships:
commensalism, parasitism and mutualism.

Commensalism
1. Commensalism is a
relationship between two
species that benefits one
species(the commensal) but
neither benefits nor harms
the other species(the host).
2. Two types of commensalism
are the epiphytes and
epizoics.
An epiphytic bromeliad

Parasitism
1. Parasitism is a relationship between two organisms where
by the parasite benefits, but the host is harmed.
2. The parasite gets food and shelter from the host.
3. There are two types of parasites:
a) Endoparasites which live in another organism(the
host).
b) Ectoparasites which live on another organism(the
host).

4. Examples of endoparasites are: roundworms,

tapeworms,flukes, plasmodium(which causes malaria).

Tapeworm

Roundworm

5. Examples of ectoparasites are: ticks, fleas, lice(on human

and animals),plant lice and mealy bugs.

Ticks

Mutualism

Lice

Mealy bugs

1. Is a symbiotic relationship between two species of living

organisms in which both benefit.
2. Examples of mutualism:
a) Lichens
i)
Lichens grow on tree barks, stone and walls.
ii)
A lichen is a combination of a green alga and a
fungus.
8

iii)
iv)

The green alga cells get shelter, water, mineral

salts, and nitrogenous compounds from the fungus.
The fungus gets food and oxygen from the alga
cells which carry out photosynthesis.

b) Mutualism between the sea anemone and the

hermit crab
i)
The sea anemone (Calliactis parasitica) which lives
ion top of the shell(of a marine snail) inhabited by
the hermit crab shows a symbiotic relationship.
ii)
The hermit crabs get protection from the tentacles
of the sea anemone. The sea anemone gets free
transport and leftover food from the hermit crab.

Lichens

Sea anemone on top of a hermit

crab

Saprophytism
Saprophytes
1. Saprophytic bacteria and fungi are organisms that secrete
enzymes to digest dead organisms before absorbing the
digested compund.
2. Examples: Bread mould, mushrooms and bracket fungus.

Bread mould

Bracket fungus

Mushroom fungi

Saprozoites
1. Are animals that feed on dead organic matter that has
been digested.
2. Examples: Protozoa in intestine of frog (Opalina sp. and
Balantidium sp.) and in the rectum of frog (Nyctotherus
sp.)

10

Opalina sp.

Balantidium sp.

Nyctotherus sp.
Prey-Predator Relationship

1. Is a relationship where an organism which is smaller(the

prey) is hunted and eaten by a stronger animal(the
predator).
2. Predator usually has long canine teeth and sharp claws to
hold and kill the prey.
11

3. Whereas the prey relies on speed or camouflage to avoid

being caught by the predators.
4. Prey-predator relationship helps to control the population
of organism in an ecosystem and maintain balance in
nature.
5. Examples:
i)
Predator: Eagle, tiger, lion, owl and any other
carnivore and big animals(usually).
ii)
Prey
:Rats, rabbit, squirrel and any other
small animals(usually).
6. The prey-predator cycles are self-regulating and keep the
population of both the predator and the prey in a dynamic
equilibrium.

The dynamic equilibrium between the populations of rats and owls

120

100

80

Population size

Owls

60

Rats

40

20

0
1

10 11 12

Months

12

The Interactions Between Biotic

Components in Relation to Competition
1. Competition is an interaction between organisms living
together in a habitat and competing for the same
resources that are in limited supply.
2. Occasionally, one species is more successful than the
other.
3. Species that are stronger and have better adaptations are
the successful species.
4. While the weak species will either migrate to different
areas or die.
5. There are two types of competition which is:
i) Interspecific competition
- Competition between individuals of the same
species
ii) Interspecific competition
- Competition between individuals of different
species

13

Colonisation and Succession in An

Ecosystem
Ecosystem
1. Ecosystem is a system formed by the interactions of a
community of organisms with their non-living
environment(of a particular area).
2. It is a dynamic(continuously changing) system where all
the biotic components are in balance with one another and
with the abiotic components.
3. It can be small or large such as: a stream, a pond, the sea
or the tropical rainforest.

An Ecosystem

14

Niche, Habitat, Community and Population

of an Ecosystem
Niche
1. Niche is the role that an organism plays in the ecosystem.
2. To put it simply, it is the way of life of an organism in its
natural surroundings.
3. If two organisms occupy the same niche, they will
compete.

Habitat
1. Habitat is a place where an organism with resources such
as food, shelter, light, water, nesting sites and mates.
2. Simply put, it is the addressof an organism where you
can find it.

Community
1. Community consists of all the different populations of
plants animals living together and interacting within a
defined area or habitat.
2. The various populations of a community live
interdependently, and a change in any of the populations
affects the other populations of the community.
3. Interactions between all different communities(biotic
components) and the environment(abiotic components)
give rise to an ecosystem.

Population
15

1. A population is a group of organisms of the same

species living in the same habitat at the same time.
2. An example is a wood lice population under a decaying
piece of wood.

Colonisation and Succession

Ecosystem undergo changes intheir structure and function as
time passes. These changes can be caused by changes in
climate, external factors such as fires, pollution and
development.

Colonisation
1. Human activities(forest clearing and tin mining and etc.)
and natural phenomena(forest fires, tsunamis,
earthquakes and volcanic eruption) constantly reform our
environment, leaving behind bare rocks, sand, earth or
ashes with no life.
2. Colonisation is the process whereby living organisms
move into this newly formed area which is completely
devoid of life.
3. They are called pioneer species.
4. Pioneer species usualyy are hardy plants. They have
special adaptations to enable them to survive on dry or
nutrient-poor area.

Succession
1. Succession of a habitat happens when successor species
move into the modified environment, compete and
gradually replace the pioneer species.
16

2. Successor species growlarger than the pioneer species,

thus cutting off light, nutrients and space of the pioneer
species and finally eliminating the pioneers.
3. This process continues gradually, with better adapted
successor species replacing those lesser adapted.
4. The final stage after many levels of succession happens
when balanced and stable community called the climax
community is formed.

Mangrove Swamps
Mangrove swamps are found in tropical and subtropical region
where freshwater meets salt water. They are characterised by
soft an, muddy oil with a high concentration of salt and very low
levels of oxygen. In addition,mangrove swamps are exposed to
a high intensity of sunlight.
1. Profile of a mangrove swamps consist a muddy bank(newly
formed area) followed by three successive flora zones
which is:
a) Avicennia sp. zone and Sonneratia sp. zone,
b) Rhizophora sp. zone,
c) Bruguiera sp. zone.
Avicennia sp. and Sonneratia sp. zone
1. Avicennia sp.(white api-api trees) and Sonneratia sp.
(perepat trees) are pioneers that are successful in
colonising this zone as they can withstand salt water and
the movement of the tides.
2. Sea currents carry the vivaparous seedlings of the
Avicennia sp.to the muddy bank, where they will take root
and grow rapidly.
17

3. The Sonneratia sp. are especially suited for growth in the

thick muddy layer that is rich in organic matter.
Rhizophora sp. zone
1. Gradually, when soil condition improves, the Rhizophora
sp. replaces the pioneer species.
2. Rhizophora sp. has stilt roots for support in the soft and
unstable mud.
3. The stilt roots help the plants to breath, trap and deposit
floating debris, wood, sand and mud brought in by the
tide.
4. Over time, this deposition creates firmer soil, raises the
ground leveland makes it dryer.
Bruguiera sp. zone
1. This species grows well in hard clay-ish soil that is
occasionally flooded by high tides.
2. The buttress roots of this species form loops which
protrude from the soil to trap more silt and mud.
3. This modifies the soil structure gradually.
4. Over time, terrestial plants such as Nypa fruticans and
Pandanus sp. begin to replace Bruguiera sp.

Population Ecology
Population ecology is a branch of ecology hat studies the
structure and dynamics of populations. In the study of
ecosystem, it is often important to study the size of the
populations. A population is defined as a group of
organisms of the same species occupying a particular
habitat.
1. Characteristics of a population:
a) Population size, which is the number of individuals
making up the population.
18

b) Population density, which is the number of individuals

per unit area or volume.
c) Population distribution, which is the general pattern in
which the population members are distributed in the
habitat.
2. Measuring the population size of:
a) Plants by the quadrat sampling technique
b) Animals by the capture, mark, release and
recapture technique

Estimating Population Size

Quadrat Sampling Technique
1. Is suitable for collecting quantitative information about the
structure and composition of land plants and to
studyanimals community that are sessiles(fixed to
oneanother place).
2. A quadrat acts as a sampler for a wide area under study. It
has a square frame made of wood, metal, string or
plastic.

3. Size of quadrat depends on the size and dnsity of the

plants sampled.

19

A quadrat

4. This technique can be used to determine:

a) Frequency
Frequency is the number of times a particular species is
found present when a quadrat is thrown a certain
number of times.
Frequency
=
Number
of quadrats containing the species
x 100%
Number of quadrats
b) Density
Density is the mean number of individuals of a species
per unit area.
Density
= number of individuals of a species in all quadrats
Total
Number of quadrats x quadrat area
c) Percentage coverage
Percentage coverage is an indication of how much area
of the quadrat is occupied by a species. The percentage
coverage is useful when it is not possible to identify
separate individuals.
Percentage coverage
Aerial=coverage of all quadrats(m2)
x 100%
Number of quadrats x quadrat area

20

The Capture, Mark, Release and Recapture

Technique
1. This technique is used to estimate the populations that
move freely inan area.
2. In this method, a number of animals(let it be X) is caught
andmarked with ink or paint, or ringed at its leg the
animals are the released.
3. After a suitable period of time, a second set of traps is set
at random and number of animals is caught(let it be Y this
time).
4. Let the number of marked animals found caught again in
the second sample be Z.
5. Thepopulation size of the animals found in the area can be
estimated using the formula below.

Populatio
n

(Number of individuals in the first

=
sample, X) x (Number of individuals in
Number
of marked
individuals
the second
sample,
Y)
recaptured,Z
= XY
Y

The Abiotic Factors which Influence the

Distribution o an Organism
1. The abiotic components consist of: pH value, surrounding
temperature, light intensity, humidity, topography and
microclimate.
2. Changes in these abiotic components influence the
population distribution of an organism.

21

Biodiversity
Biodiversity
1. It refers to the variety of forms of living things on Earth.
2. Approximately, 1.5 million species of living organisms have
been discovered and there are millions of living organisms
that are yet to be discovered.
3. Since thre are so many of living organisms, classification of
organisms is crucial.

Classification of Organisms
1. Taxonomy is a branch of Biology connected with
identifying, describing and naming organisms.
2. It is a systematic method of classifying plants and animals
with the similarities in their characteristics.
3. A good universal system of classification is necessary as it
enables organisms to be identified and easily and
accurately.
4. It also enables communication among scientists and allows
information about a particular organism to be found more
readily.
5. Organisms are classified into five major kingdoms:
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Animalia and Plantae.
Monera
1. The only kingdom composed of prokaryotic organisms.
2. They are unicellular and have cell walls but lack of both
membrane-bound nuclei and organelles.
3. They can be photosynthetic or non-photosynthetic.
Examples: bacteria and cyanobacteria(blue-green algae)
Prostista
1. Is the kingdom which includes a variety of unicellular and a
few multicellular eukaryotes.
22

2. The cells have nucleius and organelles that are surrounded

by membranes. It can be either heterotrophic or
autotrophic or even both.
Fungi
1. Are a heterotrophic multicellular eukaryotes.
2. Thecell walls of fungi contain a material called chitin.
3. Their main bodies consist of a network of thread-like
hyphae called mycelium.
4. Do not contain chlorophyll and may feed saprotrophically
by absorbing nutrients from decaying organic matter.
5. Example: Fungi or moulds
Plantae
1. Is the kingdom which includes all land plants.
2. Plants are immobile, multicellular eukaryotes that produce
their own food through photosynthesis.
3. Plants are importan source of oxygen, food and clothing as
well as pigments, spices, dyes and drugs.
Animalia
1. Are ,ulticellular heterotrophic eukaryotes.
2. Most animals can move from place to place and some are
permanently attached to surface, for examples, sponges
and barnacles.

The Hierarchy in the Classification of Organisms

Living organisms are classified according to certain basic
features and are classified into seven hierarchical levels as
shown.

23

S
i
K
y
h
P
l
C
d
r
O
m
a
F
n
G
e
p
o
g
u
s
c
Each kingdom is a group of organisms sharing certain basic
features. Kingdom is the largest unit of classification
andcontains the largest number of organisms. It is divided into
smaller units called phyla. Each phylum isdivide into classes.
Each class is divided into orders. Each order is divided into
families. Each family is divided into genera. Each genus is
divided into species.

The Importance of Biodiversity

24

Sh
e lt
er

Econo
m ic
re s o u r
ces

C le
an
a ir
S o u rc
e of
m e d ic i
ne

C le a n
d r in k in
g
w a te r
Im p o rta n
ce of
B io d iv e r s
ity

Sour
ce of
fo o d

The Impact of Microorganisms on Life

Microorganisms are tiny organisms that can only be seen under
the microscopes. Most microbes are harmless and useful to
human. But there are also some that can cause diseases in
plants, animals and also human.
Microorganisms are divide into five which known as:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

Virus
Bacteria
Algae
Protozoa
25

v)

Fungi

Bacteria
1. Are unicellular organisms which have a basic cell structure.
2. Certain bacteria form spores under unfavourable
conditions
3. Their shape may be spherical(coccus), rodshaped(bacillus) or spiral(spirillum).
4. Examples: Lactobacillus sp. and Staphyloccocus sp.

Algae
1. Photosynthetic eukaryotic plabt-like organisms in the
kingdom of Protista.
2. Their call walls are made of ce,,ulose
3. They do not have leaves, stems, or roots.

Fungi
1. Are heterotrophic multicellular or unicellular eukaryotes
which do not have chlorophyll.
2. The cell walls are mad up of chitin
26

3. Feed by secreting enzymes that break surrounding organic

material down into simple molecules before they are
absorbed.

Protozoa
1. Are unicellular organism that have nucleus, cytoplasm and
plasma membrane.
2. They can carry out living processes such as repiration,
reproduction and excretion.
3. They use flagella, cilia or pseudopodia to move.

Viruses
1. They are the smallest microorganisms which can only be
seen under an electron microscope.
2. It is not a living cell because it cannot survive or reproduce
on its own outside the host.
3. It must infect and use living cells to reproduce to
reproduce
4. A virus is composed of DNA or RNA, surrounde by a protein
coat. They also can be crystallised.

The Effects of Abiotic Components on The

Acticity of Microorganisms
Temperature
1. High temperatures are not suitable for the growth of plants
and microorganisms. It will denature them.
2. Optimal range of bacterias growth is between 35C to
45C.

27

3. Many types of bacteria can withstand temperatures

exceedig 60C by forming spores that can tolerate
temperatures above 100C
4. To destroy the bacteria, the temperature must reach 121C
5. Low temperatures will only slow down the activities of the
microbes.

Humidity
1. All microorganisms require water to live.
2. Under dry conditions, microbes form spores to protect
themselves until there is water for the dormant bacteria
become active again

pH Value
1. Distribution of microorganisms is also affected by th pH
value of the substrate and each group of microorganisms
has its ownoptimum value.
2. In general, a slightly alkalinecondition is more suitable for
growth and reproduction of bacteria, while a slightly acidic
condition fvours the growth of fungi

Light
1. Ultraviolet(UV) radiation can slow down the growth or
destroy microorganisms.
2. When the intensity of light is high, the activity of
microorganisms slow down. In the dark or in dim light,
microorganisms grow and reproduce actively.

Nutrients
1. The nutrients are needed to ensure the life of
micoorganisms and the nutrients neede are starch, fats,
glucose, amino acids and inorganic salts.
2. Microbes may be saprophytes, parasites or
autotrophs, depending on the way they obtain the food.

The Role of Useful Microorganisms in the

Ecosystem
Decomposition
28

1. Decomposition of dead organic remains is carried out by a

group of saprophytic bacteria and fungi, called
decomposers.
2. They break down the dead remains and waste products of
animals and release nutrients into the soil.

Nitrogen Cycle
1. Nitrogen is one of the elements in the proteins and nucleic
acids ofall living organisms.
2. Nitrogen is the interrelationship between atmospheric
nitrogen, nitrite, nitrate and ammonium ions found in soil
and organic nitrogen compounds found in living organisms.
3. Microorganisms play major roles in the four major
processes of the nitrogen cycle:
a) Decomposition
b) Nitrification
c) Nitrogen fixation
d) Denitrification

Digestive System in Humans

1. Useful symbiotic bacteria are found in the human colon.
2. They synthesise vitamin B12 and vitamin K.
3. A deficiency in vitamin B12 can lead to anemia while
vitamin K for blood clotting.

Anaemia

It succeed in entering our body

The Harmful Microorganisms

1. These types of microorganism can cause disease and
spoilage of food as well as substances.
29

2. Microorganisms that cause disease are called pathogens.

3. It can only cause disease if It succeed in entering our body
cells
4. Fortunately, our skin is protected by a layer of cells
through which pathogenst cannot penetrate, unless if we
had an open wound or cut on our skin.

Transmission of Diseases
1. Microorganisms can enter through food and water that
we take. Eating or drinking unclean sources can lead to
several diseases such as typhoid and cholera.
2. They can also gain entry into our body through the
respiratory tract and cause diseases such as cold and
tuberculosis. They are spreaded through droplets which
came from an infectious person when he sneezes or
coughs. It is called droplet transmission.
3. Other way is, the pathogens change into spores and
transmitted through the air. It is known as airborne
transmission.
4. They are also transmitted by other organisms such as
mosquitoes and flies. This transmission came to know as
vectors transmission.

Controlling Pathogens
30

ADVA anni sctitii cnbs feeni opectitistsc c s s

The Uses of Microorganisms in
Biotechnology
Microorganisms are widely used in the field of biotechnology.
Biotechnology is defined as the application of organisms or
biological processes in the manufacturing and servicing
industries.

31

Appreciating Biodiversity
Conservation
Means the wise use of natural resources with the least
disturbance to the living things and their environment. This
includes the protection management and renewal of natural
resources.

Preservation
Refers to the management of ecosystems and the environment
to ensure a healthy and balanced natural environment.
Individuals, organisations and the government of the country
play a very important role in conservation and preservation of
bidiversity.

32

Chapter 9: Endangered Ecosystem

Human Activities that Endanger an
Ecosystem
Development that is carried out without good planning has the
following effects on the ecosystem:
a) Soil erosion
b) Flash floods
c) Landslides
d) Eutrophication
e) Deforestation
f) Water, air, thermal and noise pollutuion
g) Global warming
h) Thinning of the ozone layer
i) Climate changes
j) Extinction of wildlife
Soil Erosion
1. Is the thinning of the soil layer due to the removal of the
surface soil by the agents of erosion such as wind, water
flow and uncontrolled human and animal activities.
2. With vegetation removed, the topsoil is exposed to the
elemnts.
3. The thin layer of the topsoil is easily eroded by flowing
waters.

Soil erosion
33

Flash Floods
1. Means sudden and rapid flood of low-lying area, rivers and
streams that is caused by a thunderstorm.
2. It happens when the rain water is not absorbed into the
ground fast enough causes surface runoff.
3. Causes of flash floods
a)Poor drainage system
b)Rubbish clogging the drainage system
c) Sedimentation of the rivers due to deforestation

Flash floods

Landslides
1. A land slide is a sudden fall of rocks on Earth down a hill
slope.
2. It is caused by:
a) Mining activities
b) Heavy rains on adenudes hill slopes
c) Unstable construction projects on hill slopes
d) Earthquakes
3. Heavy and prolonged raining over steep hill slopes may
lead to the accumulation of soil water which subsequently
causes a large amount of Earth toslide downhill.

34

Landslide

Deforestation
1. Deforestation is the permanent removal of trees from the
forest.
2. Its purpose are commercial logging, shifting cultivation,
more agricultural and commercial land, construction of
roads and housing and for othe human development
3. Deforestation
causes:
a) Soil erosion
b) Flash floods
c) Landslides
d) Global warming
e) Climate changes
f) Loss
of
biodiversity
g) Extinction
Deforestation

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Pollution
Can be defined as any unwanted change in the
physical,chemical or biological characteristics of the natural
environment, brought about when harmful substances are
released by human activities. There are four types of pollution
which is air, water, thermal and noise pollution.

Air Pollution
Takes place when gases or particles accumulate in the air in
high concentration that can harm living organisms and the
environment.
1. The source of air pollution are varied, such as, smoke
coming out of vehicles(mainly carbon monoxide), electric
power stations and factories(cement, wood, chemical and
others) and through open burning(haze).
2. Effects of this pollution are:
a) Bronchitis
b) Emphysema of the lungs
c) Silicosis and dark lungs
d) Cancer of the lungs

Air pollution

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Water Pollution
Water pollution mostly caused by the indicriminate disposal of
domestic,industrial and agricultural waters.
1. Types of water pollutants
a) Biological agents
b) Chemical fertilisers
c) Chemical toxins
d) Physical agents
e) Disposal of radioactive wastes
2. Sources of this pollution are usually disposal of rubbish
into the rivers by the rural area community. Other than
that, some factories also will dumped chemical wastes
into therivers and the sea causing the aquatic lives to be
dead. Even the modern agriculture can lead to this
pollution as the modern farmers tend to use chemical
fertilisers, insecticides and much more to make the
plants grow well. The chemical than will be abdorbed into
the ground and will mix with the underground water,thus
making them polluted.

Water pollution

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Thermal Pollution
Thermal pollution is the release of excess heat into the
environment.thermal pollution happens when used air or water
coolant is returnel to its environment at a higher temperature
than it was before. This upsets biological systems and
endangers lives.
1. Source of the pollution are:
a) Factories
b) Nuclear reactors
c) Electric power station
d) Tall glass building
2. Many factories, electric power stations, nuclear reactors
are built near the lakes or rivers to facilitate the supply of
water as a cooling medium for the machines.
3. This causes the average temperature of the water to rise
above its normal value because the water is recycled
through a cooling condenser system.

Thermal pollution

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Noise Pollution
Takes place when the noise of the surrounding become
excessive and disturbs the comfort living.
1. Sources:
a) Aeroplanes
b) Trains
c) Construction works
d) Wheels and factory machines
e) Vehicle along the roads
2. It can affect human in two ways, physiological and
psychological
3. Persons who are exposed to prolonged noisy situations at
their work place have a high risk of hearing loss. This
hearing loss usually takes place gradually and the person
may not be conscious about it.

Noise pollution

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The Greenhouse Effect and the Thinning of

the Ozone Layer
The Greenhouse Effect
Some of solar radiation is reflected back into space when
sunlight enters the Earths atmosphere. As the Earth is warmed,
heat inthe form of infrared radiation is radiated back into space.
Howevermuch of this heat does not escape from the atmospere
but remains trapped by the greenhouse gases. Greenhouse
gases behave a lot like the glass panels of a greenhouse which
trap the heat and warm the greenhouse, hence the term
greenhouse effect is used.
1. Main greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide coming from coalfired power station and vehicles.
2. Other contributor are chlorofluorocarbon(CFC), methane,
nitrous oxide and ozone.
3. The atmosperic concentration of carbon dioxide has
increased by nearly 30% since the Industrial Revolution
begins.
4. Scientists believe that the main cause of this occurence is
due to the human activities such as deforestation and
industrial production.
5. As the concentration of the greenhouse increase, the
effect of greenhouse effect becomes more pronounced.
The earth temperature
rises as more heat is trapped in the atmosphere. And it is
come to known as global warming.

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The Thinning of the Ozone Layer

Ozone layer is a region in the stratosphere, situated between 17
and 25 kilometres above the Earths surface.
1. The thinning of the ozone layer has been recorded by
scientists since the 1970s.
2. The stratospheric ozone concentration in Antarctica had
decreased by 40% in 1985. The low concentration of ozone
in this area has caused a formation of ozone hole.
3. In the Arctic has an ozone hole. Due to this, ultrviolet
radiation has increased by 7% and 10% in a decade in the
northern and southern hemisphere, respectively.
4. The main destructor of the ozone layer is
chlorofluorocarbon(better known as CFC) level which is
increasing over the course of a year. CFCs are a group of
chemical compunds consists of chlorine, carbon and
fluorine. It is used as coolants in air conditioners and
refrigerators, as propellants in aerosol cans and as
foaming agents in the making of styrofoam
packaging.They are so stable that they can persist in the
environment for as long as 75 to 100 years.

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Impact of Global Warming and the Thinning

of the Ozone Layer on the Ecosystem
Both of this phenomenon have humongous effect on the
ecosystem. The average increase in the Earths temperature
could change weather patterns and agricultural output. A
research carried out by scientists has a convincing proof that
links the melting of the polar ice caps to global warming. This in
turn leads to a corresponding rise in sea levels.
By absorbing the UV radiation, the ozone layer protects
living organisms from the damaging effects of the UV. The
thinning of the ozone layer can lead to a diseases like skin
cancer and cataracts.

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The Importance of Proper Management

of Development Activities and the
Ecosystem
The need for development and the effects
of an increased population on the
ecosystem.
1. Increase in population has place a great demands on the
ecosystems in terms of food, housing and public facilities.

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2. In trying to fulfil the need of the community which is

greatly increasing, many development projects are
implemented.
3. There are unplanned developmental projects which will
upset the balance of the ecosystems.
4. The effects of the population increase are:
a) Destruction of natural habitats
b) Pollution of the environment
c) Extinction of animals and plants species
d) Poisoning of the land
e) Upsetting of the food chain of a place

Managing development activities to ensure

a balanced ecosystem
It is obvious that the pollution done to Earth have its
consequences. Th demands of the human community have to
be balanced with the nedd to sustain the resource themselves.
The key of this issue is sustainable development.
1. A country is developing if there is continuous development
and improvement of the lives of the people. This woul
include health, education and other living conditions.
2. To be sustainable, the development act must be done
without the intend of destroying the resources of the
country.
3. Sustainable development depends largely on the rate at
which we use the renewable resources. The mission is to
exploit natural resources in a sustainable maner so that
given time, these resources can replenish themselves and
be available for future generations.
4. The way to exploit the forest in a sustaiable manner is by
making sure that we establish a level of selective
harvesting, so that we do not take more than what has
been selected. The mature trees can be removed and
replace it with a new seedlings.
5. Greater productivity from the existing agricultural lands
will also reduce the pressure to convert more forests to
these uses.
6. By implementing this method,we can continue to farm and
harvest while protecting the Earth biodiversity.
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