Ultrasonic Imaging

USI* UltraSonic Imager

UBI* Ultrasonic Borehole Imager
Schlumberger

Ultrasonic Imaging
USI* UltraSonic Imager
UBI* Ultrasonic Borehole Imager

 Schlumberger 1993
Schlumberger Wireline & Testing
P.O. Box 2175
Houston, Texas 77252-2175
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transcribed in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying and recording,
without prior written permission of the publisher.
SMP-9230
An asterisk (*) is used throughout this document to
denote a mark of Schlumberger.

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Cased hole applications (USI tool) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Openhole applications (UBI tool) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
USI and UBI Tool Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Tool principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Differences between USI and UBI tools . . . . . . 4
USI Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
T 3 measurement principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
USI Presentations and Images. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Fluid properties presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Cement presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Corrosion presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Composite presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Acoustic impedance images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Amplitude images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Diagnostic images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Internal radius images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Thickness images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
USI Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

USI Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Cement evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Casing inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
UBI Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
UBI Presentations and Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Image presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Cross-section presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Spiral plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
UBI Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Comparison with electrical images . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Effect of mudcake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
UBI Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Imaging in oil-base muds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fracture detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Borehole stability and stress analysis . . . . . . . . . . 18
Horizontal stress determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Automatic hole shape analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Casing internal corrosion and wear . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
USI measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
UBI measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Recommended Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Ultrasonic
Imaging

Introduction
The USI UltraSonic Imager and UBI Ultrasonic
Borehole Imager tools are new-generation acoustic
borehole televiewers. They are physically similar
to each other but use different transducers depending on the application and the logging environment. Interpretation of the recorded data is also
different and is dependent on the application.
The USI tool was designed primarily as a
plane-faced ultrasonic imaging tool for cased hole
applications, and the UBI tool was developed from
it with a high-resolution transducer for openhole
imaging applications.

Cased hole applications (USI tool)

Cased hole applications of the USI tool include
cement evaluation and casing inspection with
360-degree azimuthal coverage.
Precise acoustic measurements of the internal
dimensions of the casing and of its thickness
provide a map-like presentation of casing condition including internal and external damage or
deformation.
Analysis of the reflected ultrasonic wave
package provides information about the acoustic

impedance of the material immediately behind the

casing. A cement map presents a visual indicator
of cement quality.
A low-resolution transducer is used to obtain
the necessary thickness-mode resonance of the
casing wall; a highly focused transducer would
not achieve casing resonance with an amplitude
sufficient for a reliable measurement.

Openhole applications (UBI tool)

Openhole acoustic images of the borehole with
the high-resolution UBI tool provide a useful alternative to FMI* Fullbore Formation MicroImager
images for borehole imaging, especially in oil-base
muds where microresistivity images cannot be
recorded.
Borehole stability and breakout information
can be derived from the accurate borehole cross
section measured by the UBI tool.
For openhole measurementsand for casing
internal geometry measurements where casing
resonance is not neededthe more focused UBI
transducer gives a much better image resolution.

Ultrasonic Imaging

Specifications
USI and UBI tools
Length (sonde and cartridge only)

248 in. [630 cm]

Diameter (varies according to transducer subassembly)

3.6 to 11.2 in.

Weight
Sonde (varies according to transducer subassembly)
Cartridge

188 to 210 lbm

153 lbm

Maximum temperature rating

350F [175C]

Maximum operating pressure

20,000 psi

Maximum mud weight

Water-base mud
Oil-base mud

16 lbm/gal
11.6 lbm/gal

USI tool
Recommended logging speed
Cement evaluation
Casing inspection

1600 to 3200 ft/hr

400 to 800 ft/hr

Acoustic impedance
Range
Resolution

0 to 10 MRayl
0.2 MRayl

Casing inside diameter

Range
Radius resolution

4.5 to 14 in.
0.002 in.

Casing thickness
Range
Resolution

0.18 to 0.59 in.

0.002 in.

Approximate image resolution

Cement evaluation (azimuthal angle/vertical sampling)
Casing inspection (azimuthal angle/vertical sampling)

5/1.5 in., 10/1.5 in. or 5/6 in.

5/0.6 in.

UBI tool

Recommended logging speed

0.4-in. vertical sampling rate
0.2-in. vertical sampling rate
1-in. vertical sampling rate

800 ft/hr
400 ft/hr
2100 ft/hr

Hole size range

5 12 to 12 12 in.

Approximate image resolution

Operating frequency 250 kHz
Operating frequency 500 kHz

0.4 in.
0.2 in.

Introduction

USI and UBI Tool Descriptions

Tool principle
The sonde includes a rotating transducer subassembly available in different sizes to log all
normal casing and openhole sizes (Fig. 1). The
direction of rotation of the subassembly controls
the orientation of the transducercounterclockwise for the standard measurement mode (transducer facing the casing or the borehole wall),
and clockwise to turn the transducer 180 degrees
within its subassembly (transducer facing a reflection plate within the tool) to measure downhole
fluid properties (Fig. 2).

10 34 in.

9 58 in.

8.543-in. OD

6.496-in. OD

7 in.

5 in.

4.488-in. OD

3.543-in. OD

The distance traveled by the ultrasonic sound

pulse in the borehole fluid is optimized by selecting the most suitable transducer subassembly to
reduce attenuation in heavy fluids and to maintain
a low signal-to-noise ratio.
The transducer is both a transmitter and a
receiver, transmitting an ultrasonic pulse between
195 and 650 kHz and receiving the reflected
pulse. In a cased hole (USI operation), the actual
frequency of transmitted energy is controlled by
the acquisition software according to the casing
thickness and fluid type. For UBI operations in
openhole, mud weight and type influence the
manual selection of either 250 or 500 kHz for
the transducer frequency.

Figure 1. The rotating transducer subassembly is available in different sizes to provide optimum standoff
from the casing or borehole wall.

Ultrasonic Imaging

Differences between USI and UBI tools

For full cement evaluation and casing inspection,
the USI tool is used with an unfocused plane-faced
transducer operating at a software-selected frequency, initially selected according to nominal casing and fluid parameters and later refined
according to the actual measurements.

A USI tool can be converted into a UBI tool by

exchanging its plane-faced transducer for a highresolution focused openhole transducer. For openhole applications and for high-resolution imaging
of the internal surface of the casing, the UBI tool
is logged more slowly with the high-resolution
transducer operating at one of two fixed frequencies selected according to the transducer standoff,
and the mud type and weight.

Sonde

Transducer Positions

Transducer

Measurement
position

Casing
Compensating device
Motor assembly
Gear box assembly
Direction of rotation

Target

Rotating electrical connection

Transducer

FPM
position

Centralizer

Casing

Rotating shaft with

built-in electronics
Rotating seal

Direction of rotation

Transducer
Interchangeable
rotating sub

~7.5 rps

Figure 2. The direction of rotation of the transducer subassembly controls the transducer position
(facing the casing or borehole wall for measurement, or facing the internal target for fluid properties
measurements).

USI and UBI Tool Descriptions

USI Measurement
The cement evaluation measurement principle
is similar to that of existing ultrasonic tools.1
A plane-faced transducer emits a short acoustic
pulse, which excites a thickness-mode resonance
in the casing, and the reflected pulse or echo is
received by the same transducer and then analyzed
and interpreted.
Like the CET* Cement Evaluation Tool, the
USI tool analyzes the decay of the thickness-mode
resonance signal contained in the reflected acoustic
pulse, but the analysis is performed in a different
manner. The CET tool has eight fixed transducers
in a helical array, 45 degrees apart azimuthally,
each seeing only a small segment of the casing.
The USI tool has a single rotating transducer that
looks all around the casing.
Unlike cement bond tools that have no
azimuthal resolution, both the CET and USI
tools provide measurements with some lateral
(azimuthal) resolution to detect channels and
inconsistencies in the cement. CET and USI radial
sound pulses minimize the effect of a microannulus between the casing and the cement on the
cement evaluation.

Mud

The transducer sends an ultrasonic impulse,

between the frequencies of 195 and 650 kHz, and
then switches to receive mode. The sound impulse
travels through the well fluid and strikes the casing
(Fig. 3). Most of the energy is reflected back
toward the transducer. The remaining energy
enters the casing, undergoing multiple reflections
between the casing/annulus surface and the casing/wellbore surface. At each surface some of
the energy is reflected and some is transmitted,
depending on the acoustic impedance contrast
at the interface.
As the acoustic impedance of the casing
material and of the borehole fluid are essentially
constant, the signal inside the casing decays at a
rate that is dependent on the acoustic impedance
of the material outside the casing.
The transducer, now acting as a receiver, sees
a high-amplitude initial reflection followed by an
exponentially decaying signal with peak-to-peak
times equal to twice the time required for the
signal to travel through the casing.

Casing

Cement

Transducer

Figure 3. A sound impulse from the transducer travels through the well fluid and strikes the inner
surface of the casing. Some energy is reflected back to the transducer, and some undergoes multiple
reflections within the casing thickness, suffering attenuation related to the acoustic properties of the
adjacent materials.

Ultrasonic Imaging

T 3 measurement principle
3

A new technique known as T processing

(traitment trs tt, which means very early
processing) has been developed to derive reliable
information from the USI acquisition measurements. This frequency-based processing is
accomplished in three phases: the actual tool
measurement, a modeling phase and a calibration
phase.
In contrast to CET processing, which uses traditional energy windows, T 3 processing of USI data
derives acoustic impedance directly from the fundamental resonance to measure the following:
The acoustic impedance of the cement, zcement
(or whatever material is between the casing
and the formation).
Casing thickness, thcasing. The casing wall
normally has natural resonant frequencies
approximately inversely proportional to the wall
thickness.

USI Measurement

Internal casing radius. The time between the

firing and the major peak of the echo is measured by locating the waveform peaks. Time
is converted to a measurement of the internal
radius using the Fluid Properties Measurement
(FPM) to compute the velocity of sound in
mud, taking into account the transducers
own dimensions.
Casing inspection. The inside and outside
diameters are determined from the transit time
and casing thickness measurements. The maximum amplitude of the waveform provides a
qualitative measure of the internal surface
rugosity of the casing.
In the measurement phase, the time-based
return signal is converted into the frequency
domain, through a fast Fourier transform, for processing. The group delay spectrum, a derivative of
the phase with respect to the angular frequency, is
analyzed to find and characterize the fundamental
casing resonance.

In the processing phase, a very short normalization window, centered on the initial casing
reflection, selects the initial reflection without
the effect of casing resonance (Fig. 4). The system
response established from this normalization
window is used to compensate for spectral variation due to pressure and temperature effects on the
transducer and to changes in mud characteristics.
The longer process window, including the
initial reflection and the early part of the resonant
signal, is used to characterize the fundamental
casing resonance for initial estimates of casing
thickness and annular acoustic impedance.
T 3 modeling begins with the initial estimates
of thickness and impedance to create an impulse
response spectrum that is multiplied by the

normalization to produce a pseudoprocess spectrum. The group delay of this model is calculated
and normalized in the same manner as the group
delay of the actual measurement. The resonance
of the resulting group delay spectrum is again
analyzed to derive a new set of characterizing
parameters (thcasing and zcement). These parameters
are compared to the measurement-derived parameters. If they do not match, an iteration is performed
and the parameters are again passed through the
model to produce an improved set. The iteration
process concludes when the model-derived parameters match the measurement-derived parameters
(usually in three iterations). Corrections are then
applied to the planar T 3 results for nonplanar
effects of the cylindrical casing surfaces.

Normalization
window
Process
window

Amplitude

50

60

70

80

90

100

Time (sec)

Figure 4. A normalization window is used to establish the

measured response spectrum without casing resonance and to
calculate the model response. Fundamental casing resonance
and initial estimates of thickness and acoustic impedance can
be derived from data within a process window.

Ultrasonic Imaging

USI Presentations and Images

Several presentations are available to address
specific applications. Negative conditions are
indicated by the color red. For example, red curves
represent outputs for tool eccentering, minimum
amplitude, maximum internal radius, minimum
thickness, gas index, and so on. Increasing intensity of red in the images represents increasingly
negative conditions such as low amplitude, metal
loss and the presence of gas in the cement map.
The following log presentations are available
from USI recordings:

Cement presentation
Cement measurements and lateral casing profile
Synthetic bond index and minimum, maximum
and average values of acoustic impedance
Two cement imagesone with and one without
impedance thresholds

Corrosion presentation
Casing profile
Casing reflectivity (AWBK)

Fluid properties presentation (Fig. 5)

Casing internal radii (IRBK)

Log of fluid velocity (FVEL), acoustic

impedance of fluid (AIBK) and thickness of
reference calibrator plate (THBK)

Thickness image (THBK)

Internal and external radii curves
Average and maximum thickness curves

Visual indicator from which to select cement

log parameters

Figure 5. Cement log parameters can be selected from this presentation of fluid properties
measurements displayed versus depth.

USI Presentations and Images

Composite presentation (Fig. 6)

Cement, corrosion measurements and
processing flags
Acoustic casing collar locator
The USI cement, corrosion and composite
presentations provide planar images of the
cylindrical casing.

amplitude at that depth. Normalized minimum

amplitude (AWMN) and maximum amplitude
(AWMX) curves are plotted (Fig. 6).
Linear color scale
Black = low signal (6 dB)
Colors from dark red to white represent steps
of 0.5 dB.

Acoustic impedance images

White = high signal (0 dB)

Two acoustic impedance images are presented:

one on a linear scale and one with thresholds
corresponding to the acoustic impedance of gas
and mud (Fig. 6).

Diagnostic images
Processing flagsdiagnostics for the field
engineer (Fig. 6).

Linear color scale

White < 0.5 MRayl
Colors from yellow to brown represent steps
of 0.5 MRayl.
Black < 8 MRayl
With thresholds
Red < 0.3 MRayl (acoustic impedance
indicates gas)
Blue < 2.6 MRayl (acoustic impedance
indicates fluid)
Yellow < 3 MRayl
Colors from yellow to brown represent steps of
0.5 MRayl and indicate solids (usually cement).
Black < 8 MRayl.
These thresholds can be varied for conditions
such as light cement (where lower acoustic impedance indicates lower fluid cutoff) and heavy mud
(with a higher fluid threshold cutoff).

Amplitude images
The amplitude image, derived from the amplitude
of the main echo of each waveform, represents the
reflectivity of the internal surface of the casing.
The image is normalized with respect to the maximum value at a given depth, and all points are presented in terms of attenuation from the maximum

Figure 6. A composite presentation of cement evaluation and

casing inspection information.

Ultrasonic Imaging

Internal radius images

Thickness images

The internal radius image shows the variations

around IRAV, the average radius at each depth.
Two color scales are usedblue to white for
internal radii less than IRAV and white to red for
internal radii greater than IRAV. Each color step
represents 0.008 in. (Fig. 6).

The thickness image shows the variations around

THAV, the average value of the thickness at each
depth. Two color scales are usedred to white for
thicknesses less than THAV and white to blue for
thicknesses greater than THAV (Fig. 6).
Alternate images that plot internal radius and
thickness versus API specifications of the casing
are available.

USI Interpretation
The T 3 processing model is influenced by environmental and processing parameters:
The acoustic impedance of the mud must be
accurately known to within 10 percent in order
to obtain a 0.5-MRayl accuracy in cement. The
acoustic impedance of the mud is provided by
the downhole fluid properties measurement,
which is normally acquired while tripping into
the well.
A microannulus affects the apparent cement
acoustic impedance. Laboratory experiments
show that a l00-micron [0.004-in.] microannulus results in a 50 percent loss in apparent
impedance. Even the smallest liquid-filled
microannulus causes the loss of shear coupling
into the cement and a drop of approximately
20 percent in impedance. Whenever the presence of a microannulus is suspected, the USI
tool should be run under pressure to obtain an
improved acoustic impedance measurement.
Because of the difference in shear coupling at
solid-solid versus solid-liquid interfaces, the
physical state (liquid or solid) of the medium
behind the casing should be known to accurately determine its acoustic impedance. If the
material behind the casing is a liquid, the USI
tool generates a correct value for liquid impedance. If the material is a solid, the USI tool
calculates an acoustic impedance that is 10 to
20 percent higher than its actual value. This
conservative approach enhances the contrast
between mud/cement slurry and cement.

10

USI Interpretation

The USI tool can resolve the impedance of the

material filling a channel down to 1.2 in.
(which is therefore the minimum quantifiable
channel size). The angular resolution improves
for larger diameter casing (from 30 degrees
in 4.5-in. casing to 10 degrees in 13 38-in.
casing). However, interpretation is required
since channels are not always surrounded by
7-MRayl, high-impedance cement, nor are they
always filled with 0-MRayl material. Figure 7
shows the T 3 processing response in two different casings where artificial channels of unequal
widths were created with expanded polystyrene.
Constructive and destructive interference can be
seen as a series of concentric fringes alternating
between high and low impedance. Created
when multiple return reflections alternate in and
out of phase, these fringes are called galaxy
patterns. These patterns are produced when the
second and third interfaces occur close to one
another (for example, in uncentralized casing
overlaps, concentric casings with minimal
annular spacing and uncentralized pipe runs
in openhole sections).
Figure 8 compares a USI composite presentation with a cement bond log/Variable Density*
(CBL/VDL) log presentation in a cemented
section of 18 12-in. casing.
The USI acoustic impedance images clearly
show some channeling in the cement between
85 and 105 m that is barely detectable as poorer
cement on the CBL/VDL log.

Both logs indicate a deterioration of cement

quality above 63 m, but they do not completely
agree. From 63 to 56 m, both show poor bonding,
but from 56 to 38 m, the CBL amplitude is quite
low, indicating moderate cement quality, while the
USI cement map indicates cement as poor as in the
interval just below. The CBL transit time curve
shows that the amplitude reading is low probably
because the tool was not well centralized in the
casing. Cement evaluation with the USI log is
hardly affected by slight eccentralization.
Over the entire interval shown in Fig. 8, USI

tool eccentralization is imperfect and varies

rapidly. The internal radius measurements, therefore, vary, as seen from the noisy internal radius
image. The casing thickness information is, however, unaffected by the varying eccentralization;
this is demonstrated by the clean appearance of
the thickness curves on the log.
The change in the type and quality of the casing
is obvious from the thickness curves, which are
smooth and relatively flat below 38 m and much
less smooth and flat above. This is reflected in the
appearance of the thickness image.

5-in. casing, 5.3 mm thick

10
9
Channel width

8
60 mm

30 mm

20 mm

10 mm

7
Acoustic 6
impedance
(MRayl) 5
4

Figure 7. Artificial channels of different widths

in the cement around the casing illustrate the
USI tool response to channels as narrow as
10 mm.

3
2
1
0

60

120

180

240

300

360

300

360

33 8-in. casing, 10.8 mm thick

10
9

Channel width
20 mm

40 mm

7
Acoustic 6
impedance
(MRayl) 5

140 mm

4
3
2
1
0

60

120

180

240

Azimuth (degrees)

Ultrasonic Imaging

11

Figure 8. Comparison of a USI composite presentation and a cement bond log/Variable Density log
presentation in 18 12-in. casing.
12

USI Interpretation

USI Applications
Analysis of the echo received at the transducer
gives four distinct measurements: internal casing
radius, internal surface roughness, casing thickness
and cement acoustic impedance.
These measurements make the USI tool appropriate for two principal applications: cement evaluation logging and casing inspection logging to
monitor casing damage and wear.
An extension of the casing inspection application is available from the acoustic images, which
is useful for visualizing physical damage to the
casing and for locating perforated intervals.
Better image resolution is available with the
new transducer designed for the UBI tool, and
where a very detailed inspection of only the internal surface of the casing is required, the UBI tool
is recommended.

Cement evaluation
The purpose of cement evaluation logging is to
determine whether there is cement around the
casing and whether the cement provides adequate
support for the casing and hydraulic zonal isolation. Cement acoustic impedance indicates cement
presence and quality.
It has been shown that almost any solid material
in the annulus provides adequate support to the
casing. Therefore, it is usually necessary to determine only whether there is hydraulic isolation
where needed and, if not, whether to repair the
cementation by perforating the casing and
squeezing cement into the annulus.
Hydraulic isolation is achieved when enough
low-permeability material, with sufficient compressive strength to avoid displacement, is present
in the annulus. Cement is an ideal material when
properly placed because it has both very low
permeability and high compressive strength.
To determine whether a zone is adequately
isolated, the type of material in the annulus and
its condition (distribution, contamination, etc.)
must be known.

Most solid material in the annulus consists of

discrete particles, such as sand or drilling mud
solids, and cannot be effectively displaced by
squeezing. Deciding whether to squeeze for
cement repair, therefore, depends on knowing
whether the annular material is solid or liquid.
An often overlooked reason for making a
detailed cement evaluation is to obtain information
that will help in designing a better cement job in
the future. A proactive, well-by-well evaluation
makes it possible to identify which cementing
parameters give the best results for a particular
casing configuration.

Casing inspection
When the primary objective is to monitor casing
corrosion, wear or damage,3 the USI tool can be
run more slowly to achieve greater resolution both
azimuthally and vertically.
The physical condition of the casing is monitored by measuring its internal radius and thickness and estimating the roughness of its internal
surface. This information is presented as a set of
image maps (see UBI Presentations and Images,
page 14), which can be interpreted in terms of
identification, location and quantification of
casing corrosion
estimation of casing damage caused by milling
or fishing operations, or by plastic formations
corrosion or damage characterized according
to the remaining metal thickness
internal or external metal loss
location and identification of perforated
intervals
holes in the casing
casing profile and casing weight changes
identification of centralizers and other
casing anomalies.

Ultrasonic Imaging

13

UBI Measurement
The UBI tool measures amplitude and transit time.
A completely new processing technique provides
improved accuracy, avoids cycle skips and reduces
echo losses. The UBI transit time measurement is
now as reliable as the amplitude and is often more
accurate.
There is a choice between two operating frequencies (250 or 500 kHz). The higher frequency
gives a better image resolution, but the lower frequency provides a more robust measurement in
highly dispersive muds. The image resolution

mode is selected according to the logging environmentsuch as mud type and densityand the
resolution requirements. The standard resolution
with an operating frequency of 250 kHz is already
very good; the high resolution is slightly better but
requires a slower logging speed.
The tool is relatively insensitive to eccentralization up to 14 in. Even in highly deviated wells, the
UBI centralization system is better, yielding
images that are clean and easy to interpret.

UBI Presentations and Images

Image presentation
The normal UBI presentation consists of an amplitude image on the left and a borehole radius image
on the right, on a 1:40 depth scale. Dynamic normalization, usually over a 1-m interval, is applied
to both images to highlight the features of the
borehole. Dark colors represent low amplitude and
large radii, indicating borehole rugosity, enlargements and attenuative material. Two scaleson
the far left for amplitude and on the far right for

14

UBI Measurement

radiipresent the relation between the dynamic

color scale and absolute value. Three additional
curves indicate the minimum, average and maximum values of the measurement around the hole.
These curves help to rapidly identify intervals with
borehole enlargements.
The images can be oriented with respect to
north, or with respect to the high side of the hole in
the case of a deviated well. If oriented with respect
to the high side of the hole, any casing damage
caused by pipe friction appears at the center of
the image and is therefore easily identified.

Cross-section presentation

Spiral plots

Cross-section displays at specific depths are

essential for interpreting borehole deformation.
The interpretation program fits a circle through
the cross-section diagram to highlight the places
where deformation occurs.
A diagnostic listing is produced to help identify
hole deformation due to keyhole, breakout or
shear sliding (see UBI Applications, page 18).
Pseudo 3D plots can be generated to give a
perspective view of the hole looking down from
the top.

Figure 9 is a spiral presentation of several successive levels of acoustic radius information, like a
stack of cross-section displays at adjacent levels.
The impression of looking along a section of borehole helps to visualize any borehole deformation
and to appreciate how the initial deformation may
have been modified by reaming. This deformation
is difficult to appreciate from the images or from a
few cross-section plots.

Figure 9. A spiral plot of the acoustic radius information gives the visual impression of looking along a section of the hole.

Ultrasonic Imaging

15

UBI Interpretation
Processing software available both in MAXIS*
surface units and at Data Services Centers can
further enhance the UBI images by correcting
amplitude and transit time information for the
effects of logging speed variations and tool
eccentering, and by applying noise filtering.
Transit times are converted to borehole radius
information using the velocity of the ultrasonic
signal in mud, measured by the tool on the way
down. Images are oriented using inclinometry
data from the combinable GPIT* General Purpose
Inclinometry Tool, then enhanced by dynamic
normalization and displayed as an image for
visual interpretation.
Amplitude and radius image data can be
loaded on a geological workstation for analysis
and interpretation using the FracView* fracture
characterization program. Major events can be
automatically extracted from the radius data for
wellbore stability evaluation.

Comparison with electrical images

Borehole surface anomalies have minimal effect
on ARI* Azimuthal Resistivity Imager and FMI
resistivity images. The resistivity of shales is often
different from the resistivity of other rocks, so
resistivity images can show variations in lithology.
The UBI tool measures attributes of an ultrasonic wave reflected at the borehole wall. The
impedance ratio between the formation and the
mud has a slight effect on the amplitude of the
reflected signal, but rugosity of the borehole wall
has a much greater effect and dominates the reflection amplitude. UBI images are therefore strongly
sensitive to surface variations in the borehole wall
but not to variations in lithology. Formation
changes are normally seen on UBI images only
if corresponding borehole surface effects, such as
changes in rugosity, are present. The resolution
of any ultrasonic imaging tool is inadequate to see
pure fractures unless they are very wide. Since

16

UBI Interpretation

the drilling process tends to chip and break the formation at the edge of a fracture, the UBI tool can
often detect fractures because of their associated
surface rugosity.
Drilling-induced fractures normally open up
only after the drill bit has passed, so their edges
are better preserved than the edges of natural
fractures that existed when the interval was drilled,
and the fracture is less likely to be visible on
acoustic images.
Figure 10 compares UBI images with FMI and
ARI images recorded in water-base mud. The FMI
image on the left shows that the formation is fractured. The ARI image shows some of the stronger
features with reduced resolution. From the UBI
image we can distinguish most of the major features that appear on both FMI and ARI images
(38 to 39 mdeep open fractures) and some features that are seen by the FMI tool but not by the
ARI tool (39 to 39.5 mshallow fractures).
Some features that are quite clear on the FMI
images are invisible or barely detectable with the
UBI images. These are mostly subvertical, perhaps
drilling-induced fractures (45 to 49 m) that are not
deep enough to influence the ARI images and may
not have enough associated surface rugosity to
show up on the UBI images.
The rugosity seen by the UBI tool at 42 to
42.5 m is not seen at all by the other two tools.
It is probably a small stress-induced breakout.

Effect of mudcake
Presence of mudcake also influences the ultrasonic
image. It absorbs some of the signal, thereby
reducing the amplitude, and it slightly decreases
the measured radius. The difference in measured
radius does not represent the actual mudcake
thickness but reflects the reduced transit time
through the faster mudcake. This effect may
make formation layering visible on the UBI
images even in the absence of rugosity.

Figure 10. FMI, ARI and UBI images in a water-base mud show different fracture attributes,
often allowing discrimination between open and closed fractures, deep and shallow fractures,
and even between natural and hydraulically induced fractures.

Ultrasonic Imaging

17

UBI Applications
The UBI tool was originally developed from the
USI tool to provide imaging capabilities in oilbase (nonconductive) muds and to provide an
acoustic imaging alternative to FMI microresistivity images. Experience with high-quality UBI
images has revealed some exciting new applications such as borehole stability determination and
stress analysis.

Imaging in oil-base muds

Although interpretation of electrical images is
more reliable than interpretation of acoustic
images for many applications, electrical images
(for example, ARI and FMI images) cannot be
recorded in nonconductive oil-base muds. If a
borehole image is crucial to the evaluation of the
reservoir, UBI images provide the only solution
in oil-base muds.

Fracture detection
Openhole borehole televiewer data are often
acquired for fracture evaluation. The resolution of
the UBI tool makes it suitable for this application
in many cases. Figure 10 shows a UBI image
compared with FMI and ARI images. This is fully
described in Comparison with electrical
images, page 16.
Sometimes shear sliding along a fracture
plane can be detected with the help of UBI radius
measurements and cross-section plots, providing
strong evidence of both unbalanced tectonic stress
and open fractures (see Shear sliding, page 20).

18

UBI Applications

Borehole stability and stress analysis

Borehole stability problems can lead to stuck pipe,
lost time and perhaps loss of equipment or even
part of the well, resulting in added drilling costs.
The UBI radius and cross-section analysis gives an
accurate report of the shape of the borehole, allowing a clear and detailed analysis of the problem.
Keyhole wear
In deviated wells the rotating drillpipe rests on
the low side of the borehole, gradually wearing a
smooth ovalization or keyhole shape. The keyhole
is often clearly visible on cross-section plots.
Figure 11 shows a characteristic image oriented
with respect to the top of the hole. The keyhole
appears as a dark band in the middle of the image,
corresponding to the low side of the hole. The
other dark band on the high side of the hole results
from incorrect calculation of the center of the hole
because of the existence of the keyhole. Cross-section plots can be used to automatically diagnose
borehole anomalies such as keyholes and determine their severity and orientation (Fig. 12).
Keyhole wear in a borehole can become a
drilling hazard when the size of the enlargement
is sufficient to accommodate the drillpipe or drill
collars but not stabilizers or the bit, and can cause
the drillstring to become stuck while tripping out
of hole.

Figure 11. A UBI openhole image in a borehole section with keyhole wear.

Figure 12. Cross-section plot of the borehole in Fig. 11 clearly showing some keyhole wear on the low
side of the hole (X97 m).

Ultrasonic Imaging

19

Breakouts
Horizontal stresses in the formation are rarely
uniform. They are nearly always compressive and
are usually greater in one horizontal direction than
another because of tectonic forces and faulting.
Drilling a well in a formation with nonuniform
horizontal forces removes a cylinder of material
that was previously helping to support these compressive forces. Without this support, the formation near the borehole is subject to additional
stresses.
If the maximum horizontal stress is in a northwest-southeast direction, the formation near the
southwest and northeast sides of the borehole wall
experiences a higher tangential compressive stress
than before, but still in a northwest-southeast
direction. The increased stress may be enough to
cause compressive failure of the formation, and
rock fragments may break off, causing caving on
opposite sides of the well (Fig. 13). These oval
enlargements are known as breakouts.
At the same time, the formation near the borehole wall on the northwest and southeast sides of
the hole, which are already subject to only minimum horizontal stress, may come under tension. In
extreme cases, tensile failure may occur and fractures develop perpendicular to the borehole wall.

20

UBI Applications

Debris from breakouts can accumulate,

causing the drillpipe to stick, and breakout severity
increases with decreasing hydrostatic pressure.
Increasing the mud weight is usually
recommended to avoid the drilling problems associated with breakouts. The IMPACT* Integrated
Mechanical Properties Analysis Computation
Technique analyzes this phenomenon and predicts
the minimum mud weight needed to avoid breakouts.
The cross-section plot in Fig. 14 clearly shows
breakouts on the northwest and southeast sides of
the hole. The direction of maximum stress, therefore, is in the northeast-southwest direction. The
angle subtended by an arc across the width of
the breakout is related to the stress contrast and
is therefore an important parameter for rock
mechanical studies.
Shear sliding
Amplitude (left) and borehole radius (right)
images in Fig. 15 provide an indication of shear
sliding. The UBI cross section in Fig. 16 more
clearly shows borehole distortion that includes
breakout-like enlargements and a narrowing of the
hole. The smooth parts of the borehole are the
shape of borehole-size circles, one slightly displaced from the other. This shape is caused by the
formations on opposite sides of an extensive fracture sliding with respect to each other along the
fracture plane.

Figure 13. A UBI openhole image in a borehole section with breakout.

Figure 14. Cross-section plot of the borehole in Fig. 13 showing the breakout on opposite sides of the
hole.

Ultrasonic Imaging

21

Figure 15. Presentation of an

amplitude image on the left and a
borehole radius image on the right.
Dynamic normalization is applied to
both images to highlight the features
of the borehole. Dark colors represent low amplitude and large radii,
and indicate rugosity, enlargements
and attenuative material. Three
additional curves indicate the minimum, average and maximum values
of the measurement around the hole.

Figure 16. Hole narrowing at

the depth of slippage (3474 m).

22

UBI Applications

d'
d"

Existing fracture
d

d
Borehole geometry
result from shear
displacement along
existing fracture
(general case):
d = Displacement
d' = Strike component
d" = Dip component

Shear displacement
along strike of an
existing fracture
(lefthand shear)

Shear displacement
along dip of an
existing fracture:
a = Reverse movement

When a well is drilled through a fracture,

drilling mud can invade the fracture so that the
hydrostatic pressure of the mud acts on the fracture
surfaces. If the hydrostatic pressure is greater than
the formation fluid pressureas normally required
to avoid a blowoutit reduces the closing pressure on the fracture, lowering friction along the
fracture plane. The formations on opposite sides
of the fracture may then be able to slip with
respect to each other (Fig. 17).
The most likely time for slipping to occur is just
after the drill bit penetrates the fracture and allows
the mud access to the fracture. When displacement
of the formation and the borehole is significant,
there is a risk of the drill bit, bottomhole assembly
or drillpipe sticking. The UBI images in Fig. 18
show borehole displacement along a fracture,
which appears as a dark horizontal band on the
radius image. Sometimes the dark band is not continuous, but the interpretation is usually unambiguous. A cross-section plot at the depth of the dark
band clearly shows the slip (Fig. 19).
The likelihood and size of shear sliding displacement, and therefore the chance of pipe sticking, increase with increasing mud weight. Before
increasing the mud weight to reduce breakout
problems, the existence of fractures or joints in
the formation should be investigated.

b = Normal movement

Figure 17. Variations in the mechanism of slippage along a

fracture plane. (Adapted from Maury V and Etchecopar A,
IGC Kyoto 1992, Session II.17.7)

Ultrasonic Imaging

23

Figure 18. A UBI openhole image in a section of borehole with slippage at a fracture. Without a crosssection plot, it is difficult to visualize what is happening.

Figure 19. Hole enlargement at the depth of slippage in Fig. 18 clarified by a cross-section plot.

24

UBI Applications

Diagnosing shear sliding is extremely important

for predicting and analyzing borehole stability in
hard formations, but until the advent of the UBI
tool there was no effective way of confirming its
occurrence.
It is now recognized that many drilling problems, especially those encountered in deep wells,
can be attributed to shear sliding along fractures.
In one case, repetitive problems in a well in a notoriously difficult area for drilling were solved by
reducing the mud weight from 1.6 to 1.25 g/cm3.
In another case, the casing was crushed while
pumping cement because the increased pressure in
the well reopened a fracture that slipped. The well
was lost and had to be redrilled.
Shale alteration
Some shales hydrate and swell on contact with
water-base mud. The altered shales may then
collapse in the hole causing washouts and other
borehole enlargements. Debris accumulation or
clay balling by further hydration in the mud may
constitute a drilling hazard.
UBI images usually show this effect as a
featureless hole enlargement and a very rugose
borehole wall. The effect is common in soft shales,
especially those containing smectite. The cure
usually consists of changing to a KCl/polymer
or oil-base mud to minimize hydration.

Horizontal stress determination

The displacement along a fracture plane, as
measured by the UBI tool, is a function of the
stress field. If the displacement is known at two

fractures with different orientations, the stress

direction and the ratio of maximum to minimum
horizontal stress can be computed. The stress ratio
can even be obtained from the displacement at a
single fracture if the direction of the maximum
horizontal stress is known (for example, from
breakout orientation).
Horizontal stress information is an important
parameter for mechanical properties evaluations
such as predicting breakout and perforation
stability in unconsolidated sands.

Automatic hole shape analysis

An automatic analysis of the hole shape from
cross-section information can be performed at
Data Services Centers. Breakouts, keyhole wear
(or keyseats) and shear displacement (or slip)
are detected and flagged on a radius image log
(Fig. 20).
Sometimes hole deformation cannot easily
be classified as one of these three types, either
because there is a combination of different deformations or because the borehole is rugose and
irregular in shape. In such cases the hole is
flagged as rugose.

Casing internal corrosion and wear

The UBI tool can be used to monitor corrosion
and mechanical wear of the internal surface of the
casing while pulling out of hole after an openhole
survey. This operation may avoid an additional run
in the hole for casing corrosion monitoring (for
example, with the USI tool).
There are two versions of the new-generation

Ultrasonic Imaging

25

Figure 20. Automatic hole shape analysis, available at Data Services Centers, identifies breakouts, keyhole wear
and shear displacement.

26

UBI Applications

Summary
ultrasonic imaging tool. The USI UltraSonic
Imager is used mainly for cased hole applications
such as cement evaluation and casing inspection,
and the UBI Ultrasonic Borehole Imager is used
mainly for openhole imaging applications.
Cement evaluation and casing inspection
(internal and external corrosion monitoring, and
casing wear evaluation) require a low-resolution
transducer to induce the thickness-mode resonance
used in the T 3 processing method (USI tool).
The focused transducer developed for highresolution openhole imaging generates both amplitude and transit-time images. It may also be used
for high-resolution casing images (UBI tool).

USI measurement
The USI tool with T 3 processing offers
acoustic impedance of cement and casing
thickness derived from the fundamental mode
of resonancemore reliable measurements

a short process windowminimizes reflections

from the formation or outer casing strings
a short normalization windowallows
correction for borehole fluid, pressure and
temperature effects
iteration of model and model-based estimate
produces robust answers
a correction for nonplanar geometryalso
accounts for mud properties.

UBI measurement
The UBI tool brings unequaled quality of
amplitude and precision of radius measurements
to acoustic imaging:
a completely new processing technique
improves accuracy, avoids cycle skips and
reduces echo loss
choice of operating frequenciesoptimizes
log quality for the mud properties

internal casing radiusa more precise

measurement than previously possible

low sensitivity to eccentralizationreliable

logging in horizontal wells

casing wear and other deformationfrom

thickness and internal dimensions

borehole stability evaluationprovides

information unavailable from any other
borehole measurement.

Features
New T 3 processing for cement evaluation
reduces sensitivity to formation reflections
Rotating transducer
New-generation hardware
Improved transducers
Clear and easy-to-understand real-time
presentations available at the wellsite
Downhole fluid properties measurement
Dynamic image normalization and color scaling
Variable azimuthal and vertical sampling rates

Improved transit time detection technique

Benefits
Improved measurement precision and
interpretation reliability (USI)
Improved cement channel resolution (USI)
100% azimuthal coverage (USI and UBI)
Very high-quality data (USI and UBI)
Can operate in heavy water-base and oil-base
muds (USI and UBI)
Improved on-site interpretation (USI and UBI)
Precise, nonsubjective cement evaluation and
casing inspection answers (USI and UBI)
Improved image resolution (USI and UBI)
Logging speed can be optimized according
to the resolution required (UBI)
Improved casing damage resolution (UBI)
Greater hole image resolution and
accuracy (UBI)

Ultrasonic Imaging

27

References
1. Hayman AJ, Gai H and Toma I: A Comparison of Cementation Logging Tools in a Full-Scale Simulator, paper SPE
22779, presented at the 66th SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, October 6 9, 1991.

3. Bettis FE, Crane LR II, Schwanitz BJ and Cook MR:

Ultrasound Logging in Cased Boreholes Pipe Wear, paper
SPE 26318, presented at the 68th Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Houston, October 36, 1993.

2. Hayman AJ, Hutin R and Wright PV: High-Resolution

Cementation and Corrosion Imaging by Ultrasound,
presented at the 1991 SPWLA 32nd Annual Logging
Symposium, June 16 19, 1991.

Recommended Reading
Froelich B, Pittman D and Seeman B: Cement Evaluation
ToolA New Approach to Cement Evaluation, paper SPE
10207, presented at the 56th SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, October 57,
1981.
Lovell M, Pezard PA, Harvey P: Ultrasonic Borehole Images
of the Subsurface Crust, Geology Today 6, no. 6 (1990):
195198.

Randall CJ and Stanke FE: Mathematical Model for Internal

Ultrasonic Inspection of Cylindrically Layered Structures,
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 83 (1988):
12951305.
Stanke FE, Randall CJ and DAngelo R: Experimental
Verification of Mathematical Model for Internal Ultrasonic
Inspection of Pipes, Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America 88 (1990): 525534.

Nomenclature
Abbreviations
American Petroleum Institute

AIBK

acoustic impedance

KCl

potassium chloride

AWAV

average amplitude

28

USI and UBI standard curve names

API
3

traitment trs tt, very early processing

AWBK

amplitude of echo

thcasing

casing thickness

AWMX

maximum amplitude

zcement

cement acoustic impedance

AWMN

minimum amplitude

AMVIEW

corrected amplitude

Tool and service names

BAMN

minimum of amplitude

ARI

Azimuthal Resistivity Imager

BAMX

maximum of amplitude

CBL/ VDL

cement bond log with Variable Density log

CCL

casing collar locator

CET

Cement Evaluation Tool

ECCE

tool eccentering

FMI

Fullbore Formation MicroImager

ERAV

average external radius

FracView

fracture synergy log

FVEL

sonic velocity of fluid

GPIT

General Purpose Inclinometry Tool

GR

gamma ray

IMPACT

Integrated Mechanical Properties Analysis

and Characterization of Near-Wellbore
Heterogeneity

IRAV

average internal radius

MAXIS

Multitask Acquisition and Imaging System

UBI

Ultrasonic Borehole Imager

USI

UltraSonic Imager

Variable Density

cement bond quality

References

IRMX

maximum internal radius

IRBK

internal radius

THAV

average thickness

THBK

thickness of reference plate

THMN

minimum thickness

TTAV

average transit time

TTMN

minimum transit time

TTMX

maximum transit time

TTVIEW
USGI

corrected transit time

gas index

Ultrasonic Imaging

29

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Schlumberger 1993