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Micrometer screw gauge ( 0.

01 mm)
CHAPTER 1 : INTRO

Base Quantities
Quantities that cannot be defined in any
other physical quantity.
B.Qty

Symbol SI unit

Symbol

Length

meter

Mass

kilogram

kg

Time

second

Temperature

Kelvin

Current

Ampere

Zero error = + 0.04 cm

Zero error = - (0.1 0.07) cm


= - 0.03 cm

Derived Quantities
Quantities derived from base quantities (through
mathematical combinations).

Scalar & Vector


Scalar Qty that has magnitude only
Vector Qty that has magnitude and direction

Correct reading = observed reading zero error


(** Zero error must state + or symbol)

Systematic Error

Random Error

Why error = due to


instruments, the effects
of surrounding
conditions and
physical constraints of
the
observer.

Why error - due to


the carelessness of the
observer when
making a measurement.

(i) Zero errors or end


errors
(ii) Personal error of
the
bserver. Physical
constraints or
limitations of the
observer can cause
systematic errors.
An example is the
reaction time.

Examples of random errors are:


(i) Parallax errors occur when
the position of the eye is not
perpendicular to the scale.
(ii) Different pressures are
applied when closing the gap of
the micrometer screw gauge
when it is used to measure the
diameter of a wire.
(iii) Changes in the temperature
during an experiment.
(iv) Recording the wrong
reading.
(v) Mistake in counting

Systematic errors can


be eliminated or
reduced by improving
the procedure of taking
the measurements ,
using a different
instrument or getting
somebody else to make
the measurements.

To eliminate or reduce random


errors , repeated reading are
taken.
To avoid parallax errors:
(a) The position of the eye must
be perpendicular to the plane
of the scale.
To overcome parallax errors in
instruments with a scale and
pointer, e.g. an ammeter often
have a mirror behind the
pointer.
The correct reading is
obtained by making sure that
the eye is exactly in front of the
pointer, so that the reflection of
the pointer in the mirror is
behind it.

Apparatus

Sensitivity

Ruler
Low, 1 mm (0.1cm)
Vernier caliper

Micrometer
screw gauge

Medium, 0.1 mm
(0.01cm)
High, 0.01 mm

Correct reading = observed reading zero error


(** Zero error must state + or symbol)

********************************
Cara Hafal

Gradient = Acceleration

Velocity

CHAPTER 2 : FORCE & MOTION

AB &
CD

uniform(steady) acceleration. But


acc of CB > acc of AB. Steepness
on the graph is showing that the
object is having more acceleration.

BC

Uniform(contant) velocity {gradient


=0)

DE

Uniform Decceleration
= - acceleration)

(- gradient

When the graph is coming down, it


shows that the moving object is
slowing down.

Area under graph = displacement


AB, BC, CD DE= + displacement, If below x axis, going opposite ( - displacement)

DISPLACEMENT, s

Gradient = Velocity
B3

AB

uniform(steady) velocity

AB2

uniform velocity that is


faster than AB

If the graph is steeper, it shows


that the motion of the object
would be faster. (VAB2 > VAB

B2

CD

rest (v = 0)
If the graph is horizontal,
it means that the object
is at rest.

DE

uniform velocity in
opposite direction(gradient) towards the
starting point

AB3

Gradient keep on
increasing velocity
increasing (hv
acceleration)

TIME, t

Vertical Motion (assuming no air


resistence)
Object thrown :g = - 10 ms 2, v max = 0,
Object thrown :g = -10 ms 2 u = 0
Vertical motion displacement = y
v2 = u2 + 2gs
y = ut + gt2
v = u + gt
(g is positive going , and ve going )

TIPS

Mat

Materials

Arab

Arrangement

TIDUR

Thickness //
Diameter of
wire
Diameter of
coil // Area
Length of
spring

DALAM
LORI

CHAPTER 3 : PRESSURE

Forces in Equilibrium

Conditions :
The object will either be
1. at rest
2. move with constant
velocity.
The height, h will remains unchanged
when
(i) the diameter of the glass tube
increases
(ii) the glass tube is tilted
(iii) the glass tube is lowered further
into the dish
(iv) the glass tube is lifted up from the
dish
(v) the quantity of mercury in the dish
is increased
The height, h will decreases when
(i) the vacuum space in the glass tube is
filled with gas
(ii) the barometer is carried out to a
mountain

In addition to its use in airplanes,


aerofoil is also used in racing
cars. In this case, the downward
force helps to stabilize the car at
high speeds.

_____________________________

It is to ensure that
a ship is loaded
within safe limits

Equation
for buoyant 1. Buoyant force = Weight of fluid displaced
2. Buoyant force = Vg
force
3. Buoyant force = Weight object in air weight in water

CHAPTER 4 : HEAT

increase the sensitivity of


a mercury thermometer?
1. Thin capillary tube
2. A glass bulb with
thinner wall
3. Large bulb

What are
characteristics of
mercury that makes it
suitable as a liquid-inglass thermometer?

1. It is a good conductor of heat


2. it has a high boiling point, 357C
3. it expands uniformly when heated
4. it is opaque (does not allow light to
pass through) and it can be seen easily.

CHAPTER 5 : LIGHT

Natural
Phenomenon
involving
Total Internal
Reflection

FOCUS THIS ON DRAWING


RAY DIAGRAM. WE ARE
INTERESTED TO DRAW RAY
DIAGRAM FOR CINVERGEING
PART ONLY *MOST OF TIME

Application
involving Total
Internal
Reflection

1. Mirages
2. Rainbow
3.Sunset

Prism
Periscope,
Prism
Binoculars,
Optic fiber

Optical
fibers

Advantage

The external wall of a fiber optic is


less dense than the internal wall.
Optical fiber is widely used in
telecommunication cables to transmit
signal through laser.
Optical fiber is also used in an
endoscope for medical emerging.

(a) they are much thinner and lighter


(b) a large number of signals can be sent through them at one time.
(c) They transmit signals with very little loss over great distances.
(d) The signals are safe and free of electrical interference
(e) The can carry data for computer and TV programmes

Simple Microscope
Application : to magnified the image
Lens : a convex lens
Object distance: less than the focal length of the lens, u < f
Characteristics of image: virtual, upright, magnified
The magnifying power increases if the focal length of the
lens is shorter

Compound Microscope
Application: to view very small objects like microorganisms
Uses 2 powerful convex lenses of short focal lengths.
Objective lens:
Eyepiece lens:
Focal length fo for objective lens is shorter than the focal
length for eyepiece lens, fe
Object to observed must be placed between F0 and 2F0
st
Characteristics of 1 image: real, inverted, magnified
The eyepiece lens is used as a magnifying glass to magnify
the first image formed by the objective lens.
The eyepiece lens must be positioned so that the first
image is between the lens and Fe, the focal point of the
eyepiece lens.
Characteristics of final image formed by the eyepiece lens:
virtual, upright and magnified.
Normal Adjustment: The distance between the lenses is
greater than the sum of their individual; focal length (fo + fe)

Telescope
Application : view very distant objects like the planets and
the stars.
Made up of two convex lenses :Objective lens and
eyepiece lens
Focal length fo for objective lens is longer than the focal
length for eyepiece lens, fe

The objective lens converges the parallel rays from a


distant object and forms a real, inverted and diminished
image at its focal point.
The eyepiece lens is used as a magnifying glass to form a
virtual, upright and magnified image.
At normal adjustment the final image is formed at infinity.
This is done by adjusting the position of the eyepiece lens
so that the first real image becomes the object at the focal
point, Fe of the eyepiece lens.
Normal adjustment: The distance between the lenses is f0
+ fe

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