Pagei

NutritionforSeriousAthletes
DanBenardot,PhD,RD
TheLaboratoryforEliteAthletePerformance
GeorgiaStateUniversity

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LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData
Benardot,Dan,1949
Nutritionforseriousathletes/DanBenardot.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN08801183341.AthletesNutrition.I.Title
TX361.A8B451999
613.2'024'796dc21
99046572

ISBN0880118334
Copyright 2000byDanBenardot
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Myfamilyissimplywonderful.Ilovethemandappreciate
allthebigandlittlethingstheydoforeachotherandforme.
Deborah,Jacob,andLeahthisbookisforyou.

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CONTENTS
Foreword

vi

Preface

viii

Acknowledgments

xi

Credits

xiii

PartI
TheNutritionToolbox

Chapter1
BalancingEssentialNutrients
Findingtherightmixfortrainingandracing

Chapter2
StayingHydrated
Drinkingguidelinesbefore,during,andafterexercise

73

Chapter3
AssessingBodyComposition
Achievinganoptimalbodyfatlevelforyoursport

99

Chapter4
TrainingWithSupplements
Determiningwhichergogenicaidscanimproveperformance
PartII
TailoringNutritiontoYourTraining

123

Chapter5
EatingforAnaerobicPower
Strategiesforstrength,speed,andexplosiveness

141

Chapter6
EatingforAerobicPower
Strategiesforendurance,stamina,andlongtermgains

159

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Chapter7
TimingofMealsandSnacks
Keepingyourenergylevelshighwhenyouneedthemmost

179

Chapter8
EatingontheRoad
Planningmealsawayfromhome
PartIII
PerformanceNutritionPlans

201

Chapter9
PowerSports
PlansforBaseball,Bodybuilding,Football,Gymnastics,Hockey,Trackand
Field,Swimming,andWrestling

213

Chapter10
EnduranceSports
PlansforDistanceRunning,Triathlon,LongDistanceSwimming,and
Cycling

249

Chapter11
CombinedPowerandEnduranceSports
PlansforBasketball,FigureSkating,Soccer,andTennis

273

AppendixA
SampleMealPlans

289

AppendixB
FoodSourcesofEssentialNutrients

296

Endnotes

312

Index

331

AbouttheAuthor

337

Pagevi

FOREWORD
Rarelyisabookwrittenbyanauthorwhohastheacademictrainingandpracticalexperiencenecessarytobecalledarealexpert.Dr.DanBenardotistheexception.
FromhisearlydaysoftoilinginnutritionandexerciselaboratoriestohismorerecentsuccessesonthefloorofthegymnasticsvenueduringtheOlympicGames,Dr.
Benardothasproventobetheworld'sforemostauthorityonsportsnutrition.Fromchapter1tothefinalappendix,athletes,coaches,students,andteacherswillfind
thisbooktobetheauthorityonsportsnutrition.
Onthisdawnofanewmillennium,scholarswilllookbackonthe20thcenturyasatimeofgreatadvances.Duringthelasthalfofthecentury,astronautstookoffinto
spaceandevenwalkedonthemoon.TheBerlinWallcrumbledandwithitsodidCommunism.WesawthebreakupoftheSovietUnion.WesawtheAtlantaBraves
winaWorldSeries.WeexperiencedagoldmedalperformancebytheUnitedStatesWomen'sArtisticGymnasticsTeamduringthe1996AtlantaOlympicGames.
Advancesinthediagnosisandtreatmentofdiseasearefartoomanytolisthere.Onethingthathasnotchanged,however,isthewayathletescontinuetosearchfora
winningtrainingprogram,whichincludesnutrition.
Thereismuchconfusionaboutpropernutritionandhowimportantitistothesuccessfulathlete.Itseemsthatthereisadailyintroductiontothemarketofsomenew
enduranceproducing,powerenhancingmeganutrientthatwilltransformanaverageathleteintoasuperstar.Thisbookmakesnosuchclaims.Instead,thereaderis
introducedfirsttothescienceofnutritionandwhatweknowaboutthevalueofvitamins,minerals,andabalanceddiet.Eachchapterconcludeswitheitherpractical
applicationsorrecommendations.Youwillseenocommercialsheremarketingasingleproductclaimingtoenhanceperformance.Youareintroduced,however,tothe
realstory(basedonscientificfactasweknowittoday)ofsuccessfulnutrition.

Pagevii

Asanaddedbonus,Dr.Benardotincludesintheappendixesasectionhelabels"SampleMealPlans."Thissectionaloneisworththepriceofthebook!Itisamust
readfortheseriousathlete.
Forthebetterpartoffourdecades(myprofessionallifeandthatsegmentIwascalledan"athlete"),Ihavehadaninterestintherelationshipbetweenphysicalactivity
andnutrition.Asaprofessor,Ihavebeenaskednumeroustimestorecommendagoodtextthatwasreadable,understandable,andcouldanswerthetoughquestions.
ThisisthebookthatIcanfinallyrecommendwithoutanyhesitation.
WALTERR.THOMPSON,PHD,FACSM,FAACVP
PROFESSOROFKINESIOLOGYANDHEALTH
PROFESSOROFNUTRITION
DIRECTOR,CENTERFORSPORTSMEDICINE,SCIENCE&TECHNOLOGY
GEORGIASTATEUNIVERSITY
ATLANTA,GA

Pageviii

PREFACE
Thisbookismeantforallathleteswhotaketheirsportseriouslyandthosewhoworkwiththem.Thenumberofpeopleinvolvedinorganizedsportsisswelling,and
theageatwhichpeopleareinvolvedattheelitelevelsofsportisexpandingatbothendsoftheagecontinuum.Asthisinvolvementgrows,sodoesthequantityof
misinformationaboutwhatshouldbedonetoassurethatnutritionalneedsaremetforbothathleticperformanceandhealth.Youdon'thavetolooktoofartofind
"nutritional"productsthataremarketedwiththeideathattheirconsumptionwillleadtoimprovedperformance.Thesportsmedicineliteratureisfilledwithcasesof
athleteswhohaveusedsomeoftheseproductswithdisastrous(attimesfatal)results.Tocompoundthepotentialforproblems,thereisatendencyformanybeginning
athletestotrytoachievetoomuchtooquickly,withtrainingparadigmsthatmimicthoseofthemosthighlytrainedandseasonedprofessionals.Elitegymnastsoften
reachtheirperformancepeakataroundage16,and5yearoldboysareinfullfootballuniformbeingcheeredonbyequallyserious5yearoldgirls.Women'ssoccer
intheUnitedStates,followingtherecentgoldmedalofthepopularU.S.Women'steamatthe1999WorldCup,islikelytocreateasoccerboomforgirlsofallages
andmayevenincreasetheinvolvementofboysinsoccerprograms.The1998HawaiiIronmanTriathloncompetitionhadathletesintheir60sand70swhowere
seriousagegroupcompetitors.Thiswouldhavebeenunheardofseveralyearsago,andtherapiditywithwhichthisphenomenonhasoccurredhascreatedaneedfor
informationinsportsnutritionforthesediversepopulationsthatwouldnothaveexistedjustafewshortyearsago.
Therecertainlyismoreinformationavailableforathletes,butthereliabilityofmuchofthisinformationisinquestion.Itisdifficultforanathleteinterestedinoptimizing
performancetobecompletelyrationalindeterminingwhatconstitutesinformationandwhatconstitutesmisinformation.Walkingintoa"nutrition"centerthatsells
vitaminsandotherhealthproductscanleaveapersonmoreconfused(certainlymore

Pageix

financiallystrained)thanbeforetheywalkedin.Whenthere'samoneymotive,youcanbevirtuallycertainyou'renotgettinganunbiasedaccountofwhat'sright.When
you'retoldthattheactivefootballplayerneedsmoreprotein,you'relikelytobelieveitbecauseit'sbecomecommonknowledgethatthereisarelationshipbetween
highproteinintakeandhighachievementinsport.Thenextleapofjudgmentissimple.Ifmoreproteinisneeded,thenwhynotthebuildingblocksofprotein,amino
acids.Andthenit'sashortleaptohearing,"TheaminoacidsIsellarebetterthantheaminoacidstheysell...."Thetruthis,thecommonlyheldbeliefsaboutprotein
arebigmyths,andmostofthemoneyspentonproteinandaminoacidpillsismakingsomeonericherbutprobablyisn'tmakingtheathleteanybetter.
Partoftheproblemisthatsportsnutritioninformationisexpandingsorapidlythatwhatwemayhaveassumedtobefactafewshortyearsagowenowknowtobe
fiction.AreviewofpositionpapersfromtheAmericanDieteticAssociationandtheAmericanCollegeofSportsMedicineunderscoresthispoint.Afewshortyears
agotheseorganizationsproperlyrecommended(itwasthestateoftheartatthetime)thatsportsbeveragesshouldhaveanenergyconcentrationthatdidnotexceed
2.5percent.Thesesameorganizations,givenmoreandbetterinformation,nowbothrecommendthatsportsbeveragesshouldhaveanenergyconcentrationthatdoes
notexceed8percent(athreefoldincreaseinenergyconcentration!).Thefirstrecommendationwasbasedongastricemptyingtime(thestandardtechniqueusedinthe
past),whilethecurrentrecommendationisbasedonintestinalabsorptiontime(thecurrentandbettermeansofdeterminingthisissue).Tocompoundtheconfusion,
manyathletestoleratehigherconcentrationsofenergyinsportsbeveragesthanthecurrentrecommendations,andmanyhavedifficultiesconsumingtherecommended
level.Therecommendationsgivenaretypicallybasedonthecommonresponsetoasubstanceorprotocol,butthereisahugeindividualdifferencearoundthat
commonresponse.Therefore,whengeneralrecommendationsareprovidedinthisbookandothers,theyshouldbeconsideredthestartingpointindeterminingwhat's
rightforyouortheathleteyou'reworkingwith.Alltoooftenthesegeneralrecommendationsaretakenassetinconcretefact.
Relyingonthelaymediaasthesolesourceofinformationmayalsobedangeroustoyourhealth.Thisisnotbecausetheinformationprovidedisnecessarilywrong,but
itmaynotrelatespecificallytoyou.Itiscommonforthemediatoprovideacasestudyofwhata

Pagex

singlesuccessfulathletedoestostayhealthyandstrong,buttransferringthatinformationtoothersmaybeabigmistake.Here'sthatathletewhohastrainedforsix
hourseachdayforyears,hasaterrificcoach,andtakesanutrientsupplement.Weare,ofcourse,ledtobelievethatthissuccessisattributabletothenutrient
supplement.I'llputmymoneyonanexcellenttrainingregimen,afavorablegeneticmakeup,andwhatmustalsobeaprettyterrificfoodintake.
Despiteaboominsportsnutritioninformationinrecentyears,therestillaremanyquestionsthatarenoteasilyanswered.Are15yearoldelitegymnastslikelyto
experiencethesameproblemsasthe19yearoldswhohavebeencompetinglonger?Aretheyatthesameordifferentdevelopmentalstages?Shouldadolescent
femalesfearnotachievingmensesuntiltheyreachtheageof16,17,or18?Isitappropriatefora5yearoldtoconsumeasportsbeverageduringagame,justlike
thebigboys?Isthereaproblemwiththeenergyrestrictionshighschoolwrestlersundergotomakeweight,whenmanyofthesesamewrestlersareinwhatshouldbe
theiradolescentgrowthspurt?Whathappenstothebonesofayoungskaterwhensheeatsjustenoughtosatisfyherimmediateneeds,butnotenoughtosatisfyher
developmentalneeds?Doesthehighproteinintakecommoninbodybuilding,weightlifting,andfootballrepresentapotentialforprematurekidneyfailure,sincethere
isaninevitableincreaseintheamountofnitrogenouswastethatmustbeexcreted?Ordoesitjustrepresentanothersourceofenergythatisburnedwithoutshortor
longtermdifficulty?Wheredorunners,whogooutfortheirmorningrunbeforebreakfast,getthefueltomaketheirmuscleswork?
Thesequestionsshouldnotleadyoutomisunderstandthethrustofthisbook.Exerciseandinvolvementinsportcanbe,shouldbe,andusuallyarewonderfulthings.
Thephilosophicalbasisforthisbookisthatsportinvolvementshouldleadtoanenhancementoflifetimehealthratherthanalifetimeofproblems,andthatwhatisdone
nutritionallycanmakeatremendousdifferenceinseeingtoitthatthisiswhathappens.Doingthingsrightnutritionallywillalsomakeanenormouslypositivedifference
inaseriousathlete'sabilitytotrainandcompete.Theaimhereistoprovideyouwithinformationthatcanmakeyoumoreassuredthatnutritionisnotalimitingfactor
inperformanceandhealthandtoprovideyouwithaframeworkformakingtherightnutritionaldecisions.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ThelongerIstayinacademethemoreIhavecometorealizethatnothingIdoisdonealone,evenifithasonlymynameonit.Ihavemanycolleagueswhoarealways
therewithgoodscience,innovativeideas,solutionstoproblems,andexperiencesthatcomplementmyown.
Dr.DavidMartin,withwhomIcodirecttheLaboratoryforEliteAthletePerformance,hasanencyclopedicknowledgeofdistancerunningandrunners.Our
collaborationhaslinkedDavid'sexperienceandknowledgeofcardiopulmonaryphysiologyandaerobicathleteswithmybackgroundandexperienceinnutritionand
anaerobicathletes.Theresulthasbeenalaboratorythatbringsabroadspectrumofexperienceandinnovationtoeveryathlete,regardlessoftheathleticdiscipline.
Besidesthepositivenatureofworkingcloselywithsomeonewhoisanextraordinaryacademicianandscientist,workingwithDavidhasbeenpurefun.
Dr.WalterThompson,theauthoroftheforwardforthisbook,hasthewonderfulabilitytobringscientistsfromdifferentdisciplinestogether,and,inhiscapacityas
DirectoroftheCenterforSportsMedicine,Science&Technology,hedoesjustthat.Hismultidisciplinarycapabilitiesareillustratedbyhisprofessorialstatusintwo
departments(KinesiologyandHealthandNutrition),andhisinclusiononnumerousnationalcommittees.Ihaveneverheardhimsaynotoagoodidea,regardlessof
thebarrierstogettingitaccomplished.Ifitneededmanpower,equipment,space,orsomeonetoselltheideatoahigherpower,hehasalwaysfoundawaytogetit
done.
Dr.Mildred(Missy)Codyisafoodscientistwithoutrival,andshe'smanagedtocouplethisexpertisewithanunderstandingofelectroniccommunicationsthatis
simplyastounding.Theseskillsareusefultoallofusworkingoninformationdissemination,butMissyisalsoascientist'sscientist.Whenweneedasolid,balanced
viewofthebestprocedurestolearnmoreaboutaproblemourathleteshavebeenexperiencing,Missyhasalwaysbeentherewithatreasureofideas.IfIneedto
brainstormwithsomeone,she'stheoneandshe'sthebest.

Pagexii

Dr.SatyaJonnalagadda,althoughrelativelynewtothefaculty,hasestablishedherselfasapowerfulassetindeterminingthenutritionalneedsoftheathleteswework
with.Ifthere'salimitationinassessmenttimeoranassessmentsettingthatmaynotbeideal,sheknowsthetechniquetousetogettheinformationweneed.What
makesherevenbetteristhateveryonelikestoworkwithher.Havingapleasantworkenvironmentisakeytogettingworkdone,andherpresencemakesgetting
moreworkdoneeasy.
Ihaveothercolleagues,includingMs.MerylSheard,Dr.JeffreyRupp,Dr.AndrewDoyle,Dr.JerryBrandon,andMs.DeborahRuppwho,ontheoccasionswe've
hadtoworktogether,havealwayscontributedmorethantheywereaskedto.Theyhavebeenwonderful,andtheircollegialityhasmademyworkthatmucheasierto
do.Thephysician/scientistsIworkwithontheF.I.G.MedicalCommission,Dr.KostasMarkou,Dr.NeoklisGeorgopoulos,andDr.MichelLeglisehavebeen
extraordinaryintheircommitmenttoyoungathletesandtheenergytheyputintomakingthingsbetterforthem.Ofcourse,Ialsohavehadnumerousgraduatestudents
(toomanytonamehere)whohaveassistedineveryaspectofthelabandwhomakedoingwhatIdopossible.They'vealwaysbeenagreatgroup.
TheathletesIhavehadthepleasureofworkingwitharenotonlyfirstclassathletes(literally!),butthey'realsofirstclasspeople.Bright,energetic,enthusiastic,and
inquisitive,theseathletesarethemotivationbehindwhatIdo.Therearenobetterpeopleontheplanet,andIamthankfulsomanyofthemhaveletmegetaglimpseof
theiruniqueworld.
ThestaffatHumanKineticshasbeenwonderfultoworkwith.Particularly,MartinBarnard,whooriginallyproposedthatIwritethisbook,andCassandraMitchell,
whohasdonesomuchtoguidemealongtheway.
Thereisnoquestionthatmanyoftheideasinthisbookoriginatedfromthesepeople.Theideasmayhavecomewhilehavingadiscussionoveracupofcoffee,froma
questionatadissertationdefense,orwhenlisteningtooneofthemdiscussanissuewithanathlete.OnewayoranotherIknowforcertainthesepeoplewerewithme
everystepofthewaywhenevermyfingerstouchedakeyboardtoworkonthisbook,andIamprofoundlythankful.

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CREDITS

Figures
Figure2.1isreprintedbypermissionfromM.Hargreaves,1996,''Physiologicalbenefitsoffluidandenergyreplacementduringexercise,"Australianjournalof
nutritionanddietetics53(4Suppl):S3S7.
Figure2.2isreprintedbypermissionfromM.Hargreaves,1996,"Physiologicalbenefitsoffluidandenergyreplacementduringexercise,"Australianjournalof
nutritionanddietetics53(4Suppl):S3S7.

Tables
Table1.5isadaptedfromB.W.TobinandJ.L.Beard,1997,Iron.InSportsNutrition,editedbyI.WolinskyandJ.A.Driskell,(BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress),148.
CopyrightLewisPublishers,animprintofCRCPress.
Table2.3isadaptedbypermissionfromH.O'Connor,1996,"Practicalaspectsoffluidreplacement,"Australianjournalofnutritionanddietetics53(4Suppl):
S27S34.
Table3.1isadaptedbypermissionfromJ.H.WilmoreandD.L.Costill,1988,Trainingforsportandactivity:thephysiologicalbasisoftheconditioning
process,3rded.(Champaign,IL:HumanKinetics),appendix.
Table4.1isadaptedfromL.Bucci,1993,Nutrientsasergogenicaidsforsportsandexercise(BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress),11.CopyrightLewisPublishers,an
imprintofCRCPress.
Table5.1isadaptedbypermissionfromB.Saltin,J.Henriksson,E.Nygaard,P.Anderson,andE.Jansson,1977,"Fibertypesandmetabolicpotentialsofskeletal
musclesinsedentarymenandendurancerunners,"Ann.NYAcad.Sci,301:329.
Table5.3isadaptedbypermissionfromM.H.Williams,1993,"Nutritionalsupplementsforstrengthtrainedathletes,"SportsScienceExchange47(6):6.
Table5.4isadaptedbypermissionfromM.H.Williams,1993,"Nutritionalsupplementsforstrengthtrainedathletes,"SportsScienceExchange47(6):6.
Table6.2isadaptedfromR.MurrayandC.A.Horswill,1998,Nutrientrequirementsforcompetitivesports.InNutritioninexerciseandsport,3rded.,editedby
I.Wolinsky(BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress).CopyrightLewisPublishers,animprintofCRCPress.
Table6.4isadaptedbypermissionfromK.FosterPowellandJ.B.Miller,1995,"Internationaltableofglycemicindex,"Americanjournalofclinicalnutrition62:
871S893S.

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Table6.5isadaptedfromR.MurrayandC.A.Horswill,1998,Nutrientrequirementsforcompetitivesports.InNutritioninexerciseandsport,3rded.,editedby
I.Wolinsky(BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress).CopyrightLewisPublishers,animprintofCRCPress.
Table8.1isadaptedbypermissionfromJ.MielcarekandS.Kleiner,1993,Timezonechanges.InSportsnutrition:aguidefortheprofessionalworkingwith
activepeople,D.Benardot,ed.,(Chicago:TheAmericanDieteticAssociation),195196.
Table8.2isadaptedbypermissionfromE.R.BurkeandJ.R.Berning,1996,Trainingnutrition:thedietandnutritionguideforpeakperformance(Carmel,IN:
Cooper),134.
Table9.1isadaptedbypermissionfromD.R.Lamb,1995,"Basicprinciplesforimprovingsportperformance,"SportsScienceExchange55(8):2.
Table10.1isadaptedbypermissionfromF.I.Katch,V.L.Katch,andW.D.McArdle,1993,Introductiontonutrition,exercise,andhealth,4thed.(Philadephia:
Lea&Febiger),179.
Table11.2isadaptedbypermissionfromC.WilliamsandC.W.Nicholas,1998,"Nutritionneedsforteamsport,"SportsScienceExchange11(3):70.

Photos
ClausAndersen240,281
EricBerndt/NewEnglandStock198
GusBower67
BrianDrake/SportsChrome34,224,284
JayForeman/UnicornStockPhotos21
RichardB.Levine171,244
DennisLight/LightPhotographic220
CraigMelivin/SportsChrome234
JohnMora203
VictahSailer105,207,229
RobertSkeoch/ThePictureDesk147
RobTringali/SportsChrome215
TrozzoPhotography117
RonVesely151
AnealS.Vohra/UnicornStockPhotos259
TerryWild129

Page1

PART1
THENUTRITIONTOOLBOX

Page3

1
BalancingEssentialNutrients
SheTookSoManySupplementsThatSheForgottoEat
Shewasyoung.Shewassmart.Shewasstrong.Shewasfast.Shewasgoodlooking.
Shehadbigcompanysupport.Shewastheenvyofthetrackworld.Inspiteofallofthis,
shewasmiserablethatshewasgettingolderandbigger,thatherbreastsandhipswere
larger,andthatshedidn'tsmashanyrecordsatherlastmeet.So,inspiteofherhistory
ofsuccesses,shedidwhatalltoomanyathletesdotogaincontroloverthebiological
clockthatneverstopsticking.Shestarted"dieting."Bythetimeshecamethroughmy
lab,hertimeshadslippedawaywithherweight,andshefoundherselfinadownward
funnelofeatingthatkeptsuckingherlowerandlower.Thefirstthingshesaidwhenshe
walkedintothelabwas,"ThedayIgraduatedfromhighschoolmymetabolism
stopped!"Shehaddecidedthatthebestwaytogaincontroloverheragerelated
biologicalchangeswastoeatless(bigmistake),andtotakesupplementstoobtainthe
nutrientssheneededtostayhealthyandstrong(anotherbigmistake).
Theresultsweredisastrousonmanylevels,mainlybecauseshehadchangedmuchof
whathadmadehersuccessful.Shehadbeenaneater.Sheateallthetime.Sheate
beforehermorningrun,afterhermorningrun,atmidmorning,atnoon,atmidafternoon,
beforeherlateafternoonrun,afterherlateafternoonrun,intheearlyevening,andinthe
lateevening.Shelearnedfromtheverybeginningthatthiswastheverybestwaytoget
theenergyandnutrientssheneededtomeettheneedsofherexplosivepowerand
magnificentendurance.Butshehadforgottenwhathealthwouldn'tsufferbecauseshe
wastaking"supplements."
WhenIaskedherwhatsupplementsshewastaking,shebroughtinagymbagfullof
everythingfromBcomplextoaminoacidpowders.WhenIexplainedthatmostofthese
supplementswereuselesswithoutsufficientenergyintake,sheaskedwhatsupplement
sheshouldtaketogettheenergysheneededforthesupplementstoworkon!Andthen
astunnedlookappearedonherface,asifshehadjustawakenedtowhatshehadbeen
doingtoherself.Itwaslikethesuddenrealizationthatsmokerssometimesgetwhen
they'repuffingonacigaretteandcomplainingofmakingitupthestairs.It'sjustoneof
thosemomentswhentherealityofthesituationhitsyou.Fromthatmomenton,itwas
easytogetthisworldclassrunnertodotherightthingandstarteatingagain,andshe's
happierandmoresuccessfulasaresult.

Page4

Foodisthecarrierofnutrients,andtogetthenutrientsweneed,werequiretherightfoodexposure.Itisthisbasicfactthatisthebasisofthemostelementary
nutritionalprinciple:eatawidevarietyoffoods.Whilethismayappeartobeasimpleandeasytoaccomplishprinciple,mostpeopletendtoconsumethesamefew
foodsoverandoveragain.Thisoccursbecauseofhabit,timelimitations,workconditions,andbasicfooddesiresanddislikes.However,itisclearthatmonotonous
intakesofthistypewilleventuallyleadtosomedegreeofmalnutritionand,fortheathlete,somelossofperformancepotential.Perhapsitisduetothisgeneral
understandingthateatingawidevarietyoffoodsiscriticaltooptimalnutrition,alongwiththerealizationthatdoingthisisdifficult,thatsomanyathletesresortto
nutrientsupplementsandothernutritionalproducts:theyaretryingtodiminishtheirunderlyingfearthattheysimplydon'teatrighttoperformwell.Athletes,thus,
commonlygofrombeingundernourishedfromfoodstobeingovernourishedfromsupplements.Neitherconditionwillhelpthemaccomplishtheirgoals.However,itis
clearthatmanycoachesandathletesdon'tknowhownutrientsworkandhowthehumanbodydealswithnutritionalmistakes.Thischapterwillreviewtheessential
elementsofnutrients,whattheydo,andhowtheywork.
Thegoalhereistodemonstratetheimportanceofnutritionalbalance,becauseitisalltooclearthatnutritionalimbalance(eithertoomuchortoolittle),isamajor
culpritinpoorathleticperformance.Thebestwaytothinkaboutoptimalnutritionalstatusisbyanalogywithsupplyanddemandmicroeconomicstheory.Everycell
hasanutritionalrequirement.Ifyouprovidetoomuch,itmustexpendenergyandefforttogetridoftheexcess.Ifyouprovidetoolittle,thecellmalfunctions.Every
cellhasanutrientdemand,andit'syourjobtosupplywhatitneedsatthetimeitneedsit.
SixClassesofNutrients
Everyonehasheardofvitaminsandmineralsandknowsthatthesearenutrients.Butthesearenotallthenutrients.Therearesixclassesofnutrientsthatincludewater,
vitamins,minerals,proteins,fats,andcarbohydrates.Weareabletoderiveenergy(fuel)fromfoodsthatcontainthreedifferentcompoundscarbohydrates,proteins,
andfats.Wecanalsoderiveenergyfromalcohol,butregularconsumptionofalcoholcreateshavocwithnormalenergymetabolicprocessesandincreasesthe
potentialfordehydration.Whilemanypeopleattributeenergyprovidingpropertiestovitaminsandminerals,they

Page5

arenotasourceofenergy.Theyare,however,neededtoderiveenergyfromcarbohydrates,proteins,andfatsthatareconsumed.Athleteswhodramaticallyreduce
foodintakebutthinktherewon'tbeaproblembecausethey'retakingtheirvitaminsarewrong.Withnoenergysource,vitaminsdon'thavemuchtoworkon.Water,
discussedinchapter2,isanutrientthatliterallytieseverythingtogether.Watercirculatestheothernutrientstothetissueswheretheyareusedandremovestheby
productsofthistissueutilization.Waterisalsoakeyingredientformaintainingbodytemperatureduringhardphysicalactivity.
NutrientBalance
Eachnutrientisequallyessential,andwecan'teliminateanyclassofnutrientfromthefoodsweeatandhopetodowellathletically(muchlesssurviveingoodhealth!).
Criticaltounderstandingnutrientsistheconceptthatnutrientsworktogether,bothwithinnutrientclassesandbetweennutrientclasses.Forinstance,it'simpossibleto
imagineburningfatforenergywithouthavingsomecarbohydratepresentbecause'fatburnsinacarbohydrateflame.'It'salsoimpossibletoimaginehavinghealthyred
bloodcellswithsufficientironintakebutinadequatevitaminB12andfolicacidintake.Havingenoughtotalenergyintake(fromcarbohydrate,protein,andfat)isan
excellentstrategyforoptimizingathleticperformance.However,doingthiswithaninadequatefluidintakewillimpedeyourabilitytoburntheseenergycompoundsby
limitingtheirdeliverytocells,limitingtheremovalofmetabolicbyproductsfromcells,andlimitingyourabilitytocoolyourselffromtheheatcreatedwhenenergy
compoundsareburned.
Ontheotherhand,havingtoomuchofanyonenutrientmaydamagetheopportunityforthenormalnutrientabsorptionandmetabolismofothernutrientsbeing
consumedatanadequatelevel.Forinstance,calciumsupplementsarecommonlytakentohelpensurestrongandhealthybonesthatareresistanttostressfractures(a
commoninjuryinsport)andtoreducetheriskofosteoporosis.However,takingtoomuchcalciumatthesametimeastakingiron,magnesium,andzincmayinhibitthe
absorptionoftheseothernutrients,whichareequallyimportantinmaintaininghealthandathleticperformance.Again,theseareissuesofnutrientbalance.Havingone
nutrientwithouttheothersimplydoesn'twork,andhavingtoomuchofonenutrientmaycausedifficultieswithothernutrients.

Page6

Therefore,whenyoureviewtable1.1andseeasummaryofnutrientsandtheirvariousfunctions,itisdangerousthinkingtobelievethattakingasinglenutrientwill,by
itself,encouragethatfunction.Thinkbalance.
Table1.1NutrientsFunctions
Nutrient

Majorfunctions

Carbohydrate

Energy/muscularfuel(fromstarch,sugars,andglycogen)

Cholesterol/fatcontrol(fromdietaryfiber)

Digestionassistance(fromdietaryfiber)

Nutrient/waterabsorption(fromsugars)

Protein

Energysource(ifcarbohydratesaredepleted)

Deliveryofessentialaminoacids(aminoacidsthebodyneedsbutcan'tmake)

Essentialfordevelopingnewtissue(importantduringgrowthandinjuryrepair)

Essentialformaintainingexistingtissue(helpscontrolnormalwearandtear)

Basicsubstanceinthemanufactureofenzymes,antibodies,andhormones

Fluidbalance(helpscontrolwaterlevelinsideandoutsidecells)

Carrierofsubstancesintheblood(transportsvitamins,minerals,andfatstoand
fromcells)

Fat

Deliveryoffatsolublevitamins(vitaminsA,D,E,andK)

Deliveryofessentialfattyacids(fattyacidsthebodyneedsbutcan'tmake)

Energy/muscularfuel(forlowintensityactivity)

Satietycontrol(helpsmakeyoufeelsatisfiedfromeating)

Substanceinmanyhormones

Vitamins

Tissuefunctionandhealth(vitaminAhelpstheeyeworkcorrectly)

Immunefunction(vitaminsAandCarewellknownforthisfunction)

Energymetabolismcontrol(Bvitamins,inparticular,areinvolvedinhelpingcells
burnenergy)

Nutrientabsorption(vitaminDhelpscalciumandphosphorusgofromthefoodyou
eattoyourbloodstream)

Nervoussystemmaintenace(folicacidandthiaminareimportantinnervesystem
developmentandfunction)

Antioxidants(helpsprotectcellsfromoxidativedamage)

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Page7

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Nutrient

Majorfunctions

Minerals

Skeletalstrength(calcium,phosphorus,andmagnesiumarekeystostrongbones
fluoridekeepsteethstrongbyprotectingthemfrombacterialacids)

Nervefunction(magnesiumandcalciumarebothinvolvedinnerve
communication)

Controlofthebody'spH(aciditylevel)

Oxygentransport(ironisessentialforgettingoxygentocellsandremovingcarbon
dioxidefromcells)

Controlofthebody'swaterbalance(sodiumandpotassiumplayimportantrolesin
bloodvolumemaintenance)

Energymetabolism(zincisinmanyenzymesinvolvedinderivingenergyfromfuel,
andiodinehelpstocontroltherateatwhichenergyisused)

Water

Thebody'scoolant(helpsmaintainbodytemperaturethroughsweatproduction)

Carrierofnutrientstocells

Removerofwasteproductsfromcells

Importantconstituentofmuscle

Involvedinmanybodyreactions(bothindigestionoffoodandinprocessesinside
cells

NutrientIntakeGuidelines
In1995,dietaryguidelineswereestablishedbytheU.S.DepartmentofAgricultureandtheU.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServicestoprovidepeoplewitha
simplesetofrulesforassuringgoodnutritionalhealthandloweringtheriskofhighbloodpressure,diabetes,andheartdisease.Theserulesarealsoexcellentrulesfor
athletestofollow:
Eatavarietyoffoods.
Balancethefoodyoueatwithphysicalactivitytomaintainorimproveyourweight.
Consumeplentyofgrainproducts,vegetables,andfruits.
Keepfat,saturatedfat,andcholesterolinyourdietlow.
Chooseadietmoderateinsugars.
Haveadietthatismoderateinsalt(sodium).
Ifyoudrinkalcohol,dosoonlyinmoderation.

Page8

TheFoodGuidePyramid
Themostrecentofthedietaryguidelines,theFoodGuidePyramid,followsinthefootstepsofpastguidesthatarebasedonpatternsoffoodintake.Oneoftheearly
guides(establishedinthe1960s)thatusedfoodpatternswascalledtheBasicFourFoodGroups,whichrecommendedthatpeopleconsumeacertainnumberof
servingsoffoodsfromthedairygroup,meatgroup,fruitandvegetablegroup,andbreadandcerealgroup.ThisbasicconcepthasevolvedintotheFoodGuide
Pyramid,whichusestheshapeofthepyramid(largeratthebasesmalleratthetop)tocommunicatetheamountoffoodthatshouldbeconsumedfromeachofsix
foodcategories.Thenumberofservingsapersonshouldeatdependsontheamountofenergyorcalories*needed,whichisdependentonaperson'sphysicalactivity,
age,gender,andsize.Theminimumnumberofsuggestedservingsineachfoodgroupyieldsabout1,600caloriesperday,andthemaximumnumberofsuggested
servingsineachfoodgroupprovidesabout2,800caloriesperday.
Bread,cereal,rice,andpasta(6to11servings/day)(Aservingisequivalentto1sliceofbread1/2cupofcookedcereal,rice,orpasta1ounceofreadytoeat
cereal1/2bun,bagel,orEnglishmuffin1smallroll,biscuit,ormuffin3to4smallor2largecrackers.)
Vegetables(3to5servings/day)(Aservingisequivalentto1/2cupofcookedorrawvegetables1cupofleafyrawvegetables1/2cupofcookeddriedbeans,
lentils,andpeasand3/4cupofvegetablejuice.)
Fruits(2to4servings/day)(Aservingisequivalentto1mediumapple,banana,ororange1/2grapefruit1melonwedge3/4cupjuice1/2cupberries1/2cup
diced,cooked,orcannedfruit1/2cupofdriedfruit.)
Milk,yogurt,andcheese(2to3servings/day)(Aservingisequivalentto1cupofmilkoryogurt2ouncesofprocessedcheesefoodor11/2ouncesofcheese.)
Meat,poultry,fish,drybeans,eggs,andnuts(2to3servings/day)(Aservingisequivalentto2to3ouncesoflean,cookedmeat,poultry,orfishforatotalof5to
7ouncesperday1egg,1/2cup
*Innutrition,theterm"calorie"isactuallyakilocalorie(kcal)or1000timestheenergyofthephysicscalorie.Inthisbook,theterm"calorie"isthestandardtermandis
synonymouswithkilocalorieandkcal.

Page9

ofcookedlegumes,or2tablespoonsofpeanutbuttermaybecountedas1ounceofmeat.)
Fats,oils,andsweets(usesparingly)(Highfatfoodsincludebutter,margarine,oils,mayonnaise,saladdressings,sourcream,creamcheese,gravy,andsauces.High
sugarfoodsincludecandy,candyfruitrolls,softdrinks,fruitdrinks,jelly,syrup,desserts,sugar,andhoney.)
TheFoodGuidePyramidmakesnodistinctionbetweenthekindsoffatsbutencouragesalowleveloftotalfatconsumption.Otherrecommendationssuggestalow
fatintakebut,withinthecontextofalowerfatintake,arelativelyhigherlevelofoliveoil.1Thisrecommendationisbasedonthe"Mediterraneandiet,"wherepeople
consumemoreoliveoil(amonounsaturatedfat)thanotherfatsandhavelowerlevelsofchronicdisordersthanarepresentinNorthAmerica.
Thebaseofthepyramid(seefigure1.1),bread,cereals,andpasta,indicatesthatthemajorityofconsumedfoodsshouldcomefromthisgroupofhighcarbohydrate
products.Asyougohigheronthepyramid,thenextcategoriesarefruitsandvegetables,followedbydairyandmeatsorlegumes,andendingwithfats,oils,and
sweets,

Figure1.1
FoodGuidePyramid.

Page10

whichshouldconstitutethesmallestpartofaperson'sfoodintake.Withinthecontextofthedistributionoffoodcategories,peopleareencouragedtovarytheintake
offoodsfromeachcategoryandtoselectfoodswithahighnutrientdensity.Thatis,foreverycalorieconsumed,thereshouldbeahighconcentrationofnutrients.
Sugar,forinstance,providesenergybutisassociatedwithnoothernutrients.Therefore,sugarhasalownutrientdensity.Wholegrainandenrichedbreads,onthe
otherhand,providethesameamountofenergy(4calories/gram)assugar,butalsoprovideBvitamins,minerals,andfiber.
Thisisacleardeparturefromtheearlyfoodguides,whichgavealmostequalimportancetotheconsumptionofdairyproducts,meats,andfruitsandvegetables.The
FoodGuidePyramidappropriatelyplacesagreatdealofemphasisoncarbohydrates,with3to5servingsofvegetables,2to4servingsoffruits,and6to11servings
ofbread,cereal,rice,andpasta.Takentogether,thefoodguidepyramidrecommendsbetween11and20servingsofhighcarbohydratefoodsperday!Themessage
withthepyramidisclear:eatmorecomplexcarbohydrates.Thewordcomplexisimportanthere,becausesugars(alsocarbohydrates)arenotcomplexandare
relegatedtothedistanttopofthepyramid.Athletes(regardlessofwhethertheyareinvolvedinpowersportsorenduranceevents)wouldbehardpressedtofind
bettereatingguidelines.Addsufficientfluidstothismix,andyouhaveavirtuallyperfectfoodintakepatternforathletes.
RDA:AppropriateforAthletes?
TheFoodandNutritionBoardoftheAmericanAcademyofSciencesevaluatesclinical,epidemiological,andcasestudydatatoestablishlevelsofenergyand
nutrientsthatmeettherequirementsformosthealthypeople.Theserecommendedlevelsofintakearereferredtoasthe''RecommendedDietaryAllowances"(RDA).
Wherethereareinadequatedatatomakeagooddecisiononrecommendednutrientintakes,theFoodandNutritionBoardperiodicallypublishes"EstimatedSafeand
AdequateIntakes"(ESADI)and"EstimatedMinimumRequirements"(EMR)forspecificnutrients.Currently,therearepublishedRDAsforenergyproteinand,
vitaminsA,D,E,K,B1,B2,niacin,B6,B12,andfolate.TherearepublishedESADIsforbiotin,pantothenicacid,copper,manganese,fluoride,chromium,and
molybdenum.ThereareEMRsforsodium,potassium,andchloride.

Page11

TheenergyRDAisbasedontheaveragerequirementforhealthypeopleofaverageheight,weight,andactivity.Thelevelofnutrientrequirementestablishedforthe
RDAisbasedontheaveragerequirementforhealthypeopleindifferentagecategories,plustwostandarddeviations.ThepurposeofestablishingthenutrientRDAat
alevelthatisabovetheaveragerequirementistohavealevelofintakethatmeetstherequirementfor98percentofallhealthypeople.Theenergyrequirementisset
attheaveragerequirement(nottwostandarddeviationsabovetheaverageaswiththenutrientRDA)becauseexcessiveintakeofenergyisassociatedwithobesity.
ThewaythenutrientRDAisestablishedisanimportantpointtoconsider,sincetheFoodandNutritionBoardrecognizesthatthereareinherentdifferencesamong
people,andthatthesedifferencesexpressthemselvesintherequirementfornutrients.Therefore,mosthealthypeoplehavenutrientrequirementsthatareconsiderably
lessthantheRDA(i.e.,closetotheaveragerequirementandnottwostandarddeviationsabovetherequirement),andasmallproportionofpeoplehavenutrient
requirementsabovetheRDA.InspiteofthewaytheRDAsareestablished,many(ifnotmost)peopleconsidertheRDAtobeaminimumrequirementforgood
healthandhavingmorethantheRDA(whichisalreadyhigherthanmostpeopleneedtomaintaingoodhealth)isevenbetter.Thismindsetis,ofcourse,thereasonso
manypeopletakenutrientsupplements:theybelievethatmorethanenoughisbetterthanenough.However,itisimportanttoconsiderthatnutrientbalanceandenergy
adequacyarethekeystogoodhealth.Havingtoomuchmaybejustasbadashavingtoolittle.
Fortheathlete,theRDAisanexcellentstartingpointtodeterminenutrientadequacy.Becauseathletestendtoburnmoreenergythantheaverageperson,energy
requirementsarelikelytobehigherthanthoseestablishedintheenergyRDA.Sinceburningmoreenergyrequiresmorenutrients(particularlyBvitamins),and
performanceiscloselytiedtoseveralminerals(ironandzincinparticular),consumingthenutrientRDAofthesenutrientsisagoodidea.Seriousathletesshould
periodicallyhaveabloodtesttodeterminewhethernutrientintakeisadequateandtoseeifconsumingtheRDAlevelisrightforthem.Inparticular,checkingadequate
ironintakestatusbyevaluatinghemoglobin,hematocrit,andferritinisimportantandmayalsobeanindicatoroftheintakeadequacyofothernutrients.

Page12

Carbohydrates
Itisimportanttonotethatcarbohydratesareexpressedinthepluralformbecausetherearedifferenttypes,andthesedifferenttypesaretreateddifferentlybyour
bodies.Forinstance,sugarandbranarebothcarbohydrates,butthey'reondifferentendsoftheenergyspectrum.Sugarentersthebloodstreamquicklyandinitiatesa
fastandhighinsulinresponse,whiletheenergyinbrandoesn'tmakeitintothebloodstreamatallandtendstomediatetheinsulinresponsebyslowingtherateatwhich
otherenergysourcesenterthebloodstream.Becausethesedifferenceswithinsubstancesexist,itisimportanttothinkaboutwhatspecifictypeofcarbohydratesmight
bebestunderdifferentcircumstances.Therefore,whileathletesrelyheavilyoncarbohydratesforfuel,notallcarbohydratefoodsaregoodforalloccasions.
Takentogether,athletesshouldobtainabout65percentoftotalcaloriesfromcarbohydratefoods.Theminimumcarbohydraterequirementforathletesis30calories
ofcarbohydrateperkilogramofbodyweight.Thekeytorememberisthatglucoseisthemainsourceoffuelformuscularactivity,andthehighertheexerciseintensity,
thegreatertherelianceonglucoseasafuel.Whenglucoserunsout,theathletestops.Carbohydrates,ifdigestible,provide4caloriesofenergypergramandare
categorizedaseithersimpleorcomplex.
SimpleCarbohydrates
Simplecarbohydrates,commonlyreferredtoassugars,includethemonosaccharides(literally,singlemonosugarsugars),anddisaccharides(twosugarsugars).
Themajormonosaccharidesareglucose(alsocalleddextrose,orbloodsugar),fructose(alsocalledlevulose),andgalactose.Themajordisaccharidesaresucrose
(tablesugar),lactose(milksugar),andmaltose(grainsugar).Assumingallthedigestiveenzymesareavailableandworking,webreakdownthedisaccharidesinto
theircomponentmonosaccharidesinthedigestiveprocess:
sucrose=glucoseandfructose
lactose=glucoseandgalactose
maltose=glucoseandglucose
Ifyouwishtohaveaquickboosttoyourbloodglucoselevel,consumptionofmaltosemightbeabetteroptionthanlactose,becausethedigestionofmaltosegives
youtworeadytousemole

Page13

culesofglucose,whilelactosedigestionresultsinonemoleculeofglucoseandonemoleculeofgalactose.Thegalactosemustgothroughasecondaryconversion
(whichtakestime)toglucosebeforeitcanbeused.Determiningwhatcarbohydratesourcetoconsumeisnoteasy,sincethereareadditionalissuesrelatedto
solubility,sweetness(palatability),andavailability.Forinstance,maltoseprovidesmoreimmediateglucosethantheotherdisaccharides,buthaslessthanhalfthe
sweetnessofsucrose,limitingitspalatability.Therefore,ratherthanbeingremovedfromsomefoodsforuseasasweetenerassucroseis(sucroseisremovedfrom
sugarbeetsandsugarcaneandsoldastablesugar),maltoseistypicallyfermentedfortheproductionofmaltbeverages,suchasbeer.
Thetypeoffoodconsumedinfluencesthetypeofcarbohydrateavailabletothesystem.Simplecarbohydratesarederivednaturallyfrommanyfoods,includingfruits
(fresh,dried,andfruitjuices)andvegetables.Wealsoobtainsimplecarbohydratesfromprocessedfoods,includingcandiesandsportbeverages.
ComplexCarbohydrates
Complexcarbohydrates(alsocalledpolysaccharides)aresubcategorizedasdigestibleorindigestibleandconsistoflongchainedbranchesofmonosaccharidesheld
togetherbytwomajorbondtypes.Thedigestiblecomplexcarbohydrateshavemonosaccharidesheldtogetherbybondsthatcanbedisruptedbythedigestive
enzymesourbodiesproduce,whiletheindigestiblecomplexcarbohydratesareheldtogetherbybondsthatareimpervioustoourdigestiveenzymes.Boththe
digestibleandindigestiblecomplexcarbohydratesareimportantformaintaininghealthbutshouldclearlybeperceivedasdifferentbytheathlete.Digestiblecomplex
carbohydratesarefoundinstarchyfoods,includingpotatoes,pasta,bread,cereal,andbeans,whileindigestiblecomplexcarbohydratesarefoundinthebranportion
ofcereals,infruits,andinvegetables.Somesportsbeveragesuseglucosepolymers,atypeofartificiallyformedpolysaccharide.Thesearechainsofglucose
moleculesthatareeasilyseparatedinthegut,makingalotofglucosequicklyavailabletotheathlete.Indigestiblecomplexcarbohydrateiscommonlyreferredtoas
fiber.Evenfiberissubcategorizedassolublefiber(pectin,mucilage,andgum)andinsolublefiber(celluloseandhemicellulose).Solublefiberisfoundmainlyinfruits,
vegetables,andinsomegrains(particularlyoats),whileinsolublefiberisfoundmainlyinthebranportionofcerealgrains.

Page14

Oneofthemostimportantfuelsforathletesisacomplexcarbohydratecalledglycogen.Glycogeniscomposedofmanyglucosemolecules(oftenmorethan3,000)
andisthemainstorageformofglucose.Itisfoundintheliver,whereithelpstomaintainnormalbloodglucose,andinmuscle,whereitisusedasasourceoffuelfor
muscularactivity.Anathlete'sabilitytostoreglycogenismediatedbyconditioning,hydrationstate,andtheavailabilityofglucoseandglycogensynthetase,anenzyme
requiredtoformglycogenfromglucose.
Thereareothercomplexcarbohydrates,includingraffinoseandstachyose(foundinlegumes),whicharecalledoligosaccharides.Oligosaccharidesarelargerthan
disaccharidesandsmallerthanpolysaccharides,containingbetween3and10moleculesofmonosaccharides.Theoligosaccharidesfoundinlegumesareeither
indigestibleoronlypartiallydigestible,andarepartiallyresponsibleforthegasproductionassociatedwitheatingbeans.Gutbacteriathatfeedontheseundigested
carbohydratesproducethisgas.Thisisanimportantconsiderationinthetypeofcarbohydrateconsumed,sinceintestinalgasandbloatingmaymakeanathlete
uncomfortableandpreventtheathletefromperformingattheoptimallevel.SeeappendixBforthecarbohydratecontentofcommonlyconsumedfoods.
Proteins
Proteinsareconsideredbymanyathletestobethekeytoathleticsuccess.It'shardtofindpowerathleteswhodon'ttakesomeformofproteinpowdersorprotein
supplements,andmostwhodoswearthatthesuccessestheyhaveare,atleastpartially,attributabletotheproteintheytake.Infact,mostathletesconsumetoomuch
proteinand,indoingso,arereducingtheirathleticpotential.Interestingly,theathleteswhoneedmoreprotein(asapercentoftotalenergyconsumption)arethose
whotypicallyhavelowerproteinintakes.Ithasbeendemonstratedthatenduranceathletesactuallyhaveahigherrequirement(perpoundofbodyweight)thanpower
athletes.2,3Theenduranceathletesactuallyburnasmallamountofproteinaspartoftheirnormalenduranceactivities,whilepowerathletesdonot.However,itisthe
powerathleteswhoaretypicallytheonesconsumingmoreproteinthantheyneed.46Tomakemattersworse,manyoftheseathletesconsumeproteinpowdersor
aminoacidsupplementstoincreasetheirproteinintake.Whenyoucon

Page15

siderthat1ounceofmeatprovidesabout7,000milligramsofaminoacidsandthatthetypicalaminoacidsupplementprovidesbetween500and1,000milligrams,
noneofthismakesanysense.
AminoAcids
Proteinsareuniquesubstancesthatcontainnitrogen,whichispartofthebondingstructureofproteinbuildingblockscalledaminoacids.Theseaminoacidsarethe
unitsthebodyusestocreateproteinbasedsubstances,whichincludemuscle,hormones,andenzymes.Proteinisalsothebasicfibrousstructureoftheskeleton,onto
whichmineralsaredepositedtodevelopstrengthandrigidity.Wecangetaminoacidsfromthefoodsweeatandfromthebreakdownofourownbodytissues
(mainlymuscleandorgantissue).Someaminoacidscanbemanufacturedfromcarbohydrates,fats,andammonia(anitrogencontainingbyproductofprotein
metabolism).Thesearecallednonessentialaminoacidsbecauseitisnotessentialthatweconsumethemfromfood(sincewecanmakethemfromothersubstances.)
Theotheraminoacids,however,cannotbemanufactured,sotheyarecalledessentialaminoacids.Inotherwords,itisessentialthatweconsumethemfromthefoods
weeat.Thebestfoodsourcesforproteinincludemeats(beef,pork,lamb,poultry,fish,etc.),butdriedbeansandpeas(legumes)arealsogoodsourcesofprotein.
(RefertoappendixBfortheproteincontentofcommonlyconsumedfoods.)
Whileproteinderivedfrommeatsyieldsproteinsthathaveadesirablebalanceofaminoacids,plantproteinsandsoybeansmustbeproperlycombinedtoprovidea
desirableaminoacidbalance.Forinstance,combiningbeansandriceorcombiningbeansandcorn(alegumewithacereal)providesacombinationofaminoacids
thatissuperiortoeatingalegumeoracerealbyitself.Combiningfoodstoprovideagoodaminoacidbalanceisreferredtoascombiningcomplementaryproteins.
Thatis,theaminoacidweaknessinonefoodistheaminoacidstrengthofanotherfood.Whenyouputthemtogetheratonemeal,yougetacompleteorbalanced
protein.
Whenweeatfoodscontainingproteins,theproteinsaredigestedintoaminoacids.Theseaminoacidsjoinotheraminoacidsproducedbythebodytoconstitutethe
aminoacidpool.Thebodytakestheaminoacidsfromthispooltosynthesizethespecificproteinsitneeds(muscle,hair,nails,hormones,enzymes,etc.).However,
thisaminoacidpoolisalsoavailableforuseasenergytobeburnedifasufficientamountofotherfuels(carbohydratesandfat)areunavailable.

Page16

DeterminingProteinNeeds
Proteinyieldsapproximately4caloriespergram,whichisthesameenergyconcentrationascarbohydrates.Therecommendedlevelofproteinintakeforthegeneral
populationis12to15percentoftotalcaloriesprovidedasprotein.Therefore,someoneconsuming2,000caloriesperdaywouldhaveaproteinenergyequivalentof
240to300calories(6076grams)ofproteinperday.Therequirementforproteinisalsoexpressedperunitofbodyweight.Lookingatproteinrequirementthisway,
mostpeopledowellwith0.8gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight.Therefore,a75kilogramperson(165pounds)wouldhaveaproteinrequirementof60
gramsperday.Itisgenerallyconsideredthatathleteshaveaslightlyhigherproteinrequirementbecauseofagreaterleanmass(whichrequiresmoreproteintobuild
andmaintain),andbecauseasmallamountofproteinisinevitablyburnedduringphysicalactivity.So,whiletheaverageperson'sproteinrequirementis0.8gramsper
kilogramofbodyweight,theathleterequirementisthoughttobe1.5to2.0gramsperkilogramofbodyweight(approximatelydoublethatofhealthynonathletes).35
Therefore,a75kilogramathletemighthaveaproteinrequirementof120gramsperday.This120gramsofdailyproteinmayseemhigh,butstillrepresentsarelatively
smallproportionoftotaldailycaloriesandiseasilyobtainedbyfollowingtheFoodGuidePyramidrecommendations.Forinstance,120grams 4=480calories
fromprotein.Bycomparison,theminimumrecommendedintakeforcarbohydratesis30caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight,soforthis75kilogramperson,the
carbohydraterequirementrepresents2,250calories.Seetable1.2foranexampleoftheproteincontentofatypical2,000caloriemealplan.Thereareanumberof
reasonsfortheincreasedproteinrequirementinathletes,includingthefollowing:
Aminoacids(fromprotein)contribute5to15percentofthefuelburnedduringexercise.Theamountofproteinusedforenergyrisesasmuscleglycogendecreases.
Itisgenerallythoughtthatenduranceexerciseismoreglycogendepletingthanpowerexercise,soenduranceactivitiesarelikelytocauseahigherproportionateusage
ofprotein.
Exercisemaycausemuscledamage,whichincreasestheproteinrequirementfortissuerepair.
Enduranceexercisemaycauseasmallamountofproteintobelostintheurine(wherethereistypicallynoneorverylittle).

Page17
Table1.2ProteinContentofa2,000CalorieMealPlan
Food

Calories

Protein(gm)

Crackedwheatbread,toasted(2slices)

132

4.37

Orangejuice(1cup)

112

1.74

Strawberryjam(1tablespoon)

55

0.12

Hardboiledegg(1egg)

88

6.29

Roastbeefsandwich(1sandwich,plain)

346

21.5

1cuplowfat(1%)milk

102

8.03

1rawapple

87

0.26

Smalltossedsalad(3/4cup)

27

1.3

Saladdressing(1tbsp)

67

0.09

Chocolatechipcookies(5small)

125

1.43

Gatorade(16ounces)

100

0.00

Chickenbreast(1/2broiled)

152

26.67

Bakedpotato

145

3.06

Broccoli(1/2stalk)

22

2.32

Frenchbread(2slices)

203

6.37

Vanillaicecream(1/2cup)

135

2.4

Totals

2000

93.98

Note:A120poundathletewouldrequireapproximately1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight.
Toconvertpoundstokilograms,dividepoundsby2.2(1202.2=55kg).Thenmultiplykilogramsby1.5
(55 1.5=82.5).Theproteinrequirementforthis120poundathleteis82.5grams.Theproteinprovided
bythis2,000caloriesismorethan10gramsgreaterthantherequirement.

Inspiteoftheincreasedproteinrequirementforathletes,mostathletesconsumemuchmoreprotein(fromfoodalone)thantheyrequire.Alookattheproteincontent
ofsomecommonlyconsumedfoodsdemonstratesthispoint(seeappendixB).
Whilemostathleteshavenodifficultyconsumingsufficientprotein,somegroupsofathletesshouldmonitorproteinintakecarefullybecauseitmaybedifficultforthem
togetenough.Thesegroupsinclude
youngathleteswhohavethecombineddemandsofmuscularworkandgrowth
athleteswhoarerestrictingfoodintakeinanattempttoachieveadesirableweightorbodyprofile
vegetarianathleteswhodonoteatmeat,fish,eggs,ordairyfoods
athleteswhorestrictfoodintakeforreligiousorculturalreasons.
Asmentionedearlier,wecanderiveenergy(calories)fromproteins.However,burningproteinasafuelisabitlikesprinklingyourfamilyjewelsonyourbreakfast
cerealbecauseyouthinkitimprovesthetexture.It'sacompletewasteofresources.Proteinissoimportant

Page18

forbuildingandmaintainingtissuesandformakinghormonesandenzymesthatburningitupasafueliswasteful.Besides,whenyouburnproteinasafuel,thenitrogen
mustberemoved(aprocesscalleddeamination)fromtheaminoacidchainsandexcreted.Whenyouincreasetheexcretionofnitrogenouswastes,youalsomust
increasetheamountofwaterlostintheurine.Thus,twoundesirablethingsoccur:youwastevaluableproteinbyburningitup,andyouincreasetheriskofdehydration
becauseofthevolumeofwaterthatislostwhennitrogenouswastesareexcreted.Inaddition,highproteindietsareshowntocausehighlossesofcalciumintheurine
(aclearproblemforfemaleswhoareatriskforlaterbonedisease).Inaddition,highproteindietstendalsotobehighfatdiets,whichmayincreasetheriskof
cardiovasculardisease.Therefore,thebestwaytomakecertainyourproteinneedsaremetistoconsumeasufficientamountoffoodthatfocusesoncarbohydrates
butalsocontainssmallamountsofdairyandmeatfoods(orplentyoflegumesifyou'reavegetarian).
ProteinandTotalEnergyIntake
Toalargedegree,theutilizationofproteinisafunctionoftheadequacyoftheamountoftotalenergyapersonconsumes.Afailuretoconsumesufficientamountsof
energy(typicalformostathletes)meansthatagooddealoftheproteinconsumedwillbeburnedasanenergysource.Webasicallyhaveanenergyfirstsystem,which
meansthattheremustbeanadequatesupplyofenergy(calories)beforeotherpartsofthesystemwillworkproperly.Therefore,providingproteininanenvironment
ofinadequatetotalenergymeansthattheproteinwillbeburnedasafuelratherthanusedforotherbodybuildingandbodymaintainingpurposes(refertotable1.1
forfunctionsofprotein).
Astandardtenantinnutritionisthatcarbohydrateshaveaproteinsparingeffect.Whatthisreallymeansisthatifyoucansupplysufficientcarbohydratestothesystem
forfuel,thenproteinwillbesparedfrombeingburnedandusedformoreimportantfunctions.
Let'sthinkaboutwhathappenswhenanathleteoverconsumesprotein.Moststudiesindicatethatthemaximalrateofproteinutilizationfornonenergyusesis
approximately1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight.35Whenyouexceedthisamount,yourbodyhastomakesomedecisionsaboutwhattodowiththe
excess.Youcanstoresomeoftheexcessasfat,oryoucanburnsomeoftheexcessasenergy.Ineithercase,nitrogenmustberemovedfromthe

Page19

aminoacids,andthisnitrogenouswastemustberemovedfromthebody.Virtuallyallstudiesthathavelookedatthetotalenergyconsumptionofathletesindicatethat
athletesconsumelesstotalenergythantheyshouldtosupportthecombinedneedsofactivity,growth,andmaintenance.Sinceburningproteincausesalotof
metabolicwaste,itwouldbebettertomeettheenergyrequirementbyprovidingacleanerburningfuelcarbohydrates.
Fats
Despitesomerecentliteratureespousing(wrongly)thebenefitsofhighfatintakes(i.e.,intakesof30percentormoreoftotalcaloriesfromfat),fatisahighly
concentratedfuelthattendstobeoverconsumed.Inaddition,thereislittlescientificinformationthatsuggeststhatmorefatisbetterthanless.Forathletesinparticular,
consuminglessfat(i.e.,lessthan30percentoftotalcalories)isgenerallyassociatedwithbetterperformance,regardlessofthesport.Consumptionoflessfatisnot
easyand,unlessstepsaretakentoprovidetheenergyfromothersubstrates(mainlyfrommorecarbohydrates)thattheeliminatedfatrepresents,athletesmayplace
themselvesinanenergydeficitstatethatis,initself,adetrimenttoperformance.Therefore,whileareductioninfatintakeisgenerallyuseful,aconsciouseffortshould
bemadetoprovideenoughtotalenergywhenareducedfatintakeisconsumed.Sincefatismorethantwiceasconcentratedincaloriesthaneitherproteinor
carbohydrate(9caloriespergramversus4caloriespergram),morethantwiceasmuchfoodneedstobeconsumedtomakeupthedifferenceinreducedfat.Thisfits
preciselywiththegeneralrecommendationsoftheFoodGuidePyramid,whichencouragesaconsumptionofupto20servingsofcarbohydratefoodsperday.
Fatsincludecholesterol,oils,butter,andmargarine.Allofthesearefatsbuttheyhaveslightlydifferentcharacteristics.Ingeneral,fats(ormorespecificallylipids)have
onecommonattributethatmakesthemsolubleinorganicsolventsbutnotsolubleinwater.AnyonewhohastriedtomixItaliandressingknowsthistobetrue.Theoil
inthedressingeventuallyrisestothetop,nomatterhowhardthebottleisshaken.Thetermfatisusuallyappliedtolipidsthataresolidatroomtemperature,andthe
termoilsisappliedtolipidsthatareliquidatroomtemperature.Anexampleofalipidischolesterol.Themostcommonlyconsumedformoflipidistriglyceride,which
ismadefromthreefattyacidsandoneglycerolmolecule(thusthenametriglyceride).

Page20

Despitethesedifferentformsoflipids,weconsumethemallfromthefoodsupply,andwearealsocapableofmakingnearlyallofthembycombiningcarbonunits
fromothersubstances.Nearlyeverycellinthebodyhasthecapabilityofmakingcholesterol,whichiswhyapersoncanhaveahighcholesterollevelevenwhenthey
consumealowcholesteroldiet.Wecanalsomakephospholipids,triglycerides,andoils.Infact,itisthisabilitytoeffectivelymanufacturedifferenttypesoflipidsthat
limitsourrequirementtoconsumelargeamountsoflipids.
EssentialFats
Thisisnottosuggestthatweneednofats.Acertainamountoffat,between20and25percentoftotalconsumedcalories,isnecessarytoassureasufficientenergy
andnutrientintake.Fatsolublevitamins(vitaminsA,D,E,andK)mustbedeliveredinafatpackage.Also,wemustconsumeessentialfattyacidsthatareneededfor
specificbodyfunctionsbutthatweareunabletomanufacture.Weneedacertainamountofdietaryfattogiveusafeelingofsatietyduringthemeal,whichcreatesthe
importantphysiologicalsignalthatitistimetostopeating.Also,dietaryfatsstayinthestomachlongerthancarbohydrates,possiblygivingusafeelingthatwehave
satisfiedoureatingneedsforatimeafterthemeal.Nottomentiontheobviousfactthatfathelpstomakefoodstastegood(isthereanyoneouttherewhodoesn't
honestlylikefriedchickenorFrenchfriedpotatoes?)
FattyAcids
Linoleic(omega6fattyacid)andlinolenic(omega3fattyacid)fattyacidsareconsideredessentialfattyacidsbecausethebodyisincapableofmanufacturingthem.
Theyare,however,easilyobtainedfromvegetableoils(corn,safflower,canola,etc.)andtheoilsofcoldwaterfish.Theomega6classificationmeansthatthesefatty
acids,whicharepolyunsaturated,havethelastdoublebond6carbonsfromtheendofthecarbonchain.
Triglycerides
Mostofthelipidsweconsumeareintheformoftriglycerides,whichcontainthreefattyacidsandaglycerolmolecule.Thisalsohappenstobethemainstorageform
offat,sowhenyouoverconsumefood,thebodystoresthisexcessenergyintheformoftriglycerides.Whenweburnfatasasourceofenergy,thestored
triglyceridesaretakenoutofstorageandthemoleculeiscleavedintoitscomponentfattyacidsandglycerolmolecules.Eachfattyacidcanthenbebroken

Page21

apart(twocarbonunitsatatime)andthrownintothecellularfurnacesthatcreateheatandmuscularwork.Thisprocessisreferredtoasthebetaoxidativemetabolic
pathwaybecauseburningfats,besidesrequiringsomecarbohydrate,alsorequiresalotofoxygen.
Glycerolisauniquefattyacidinthatitisburnedmorelikeacarbohydratethanafat.(Wewilldiscussthisingreaterdetailwhenwelookatenergymetabolismin
chapters5and6.)Glycerolisalsoaneffectivehumectant(itholdswaterwithit),andmanyenduranceathletes(particularlymarathonersandironmenandwomen)
findthataddingsomeglyceroltowaterhelpsthemretainmorewater(i.e.,tosuperhydrate)thaniftheyconsumedwateralone.Refertochapter2onhydrationfor
moredetailedinformation.Iftheydrinkglycerolcontainingwaterbeforeanevent,theycanstoremorewater,sotheirwaterstatusisbetterattheendofaracewhen
mostathletesaresufferingfromsomedegreeofunderhydration.
LipidStructure
You'veprobablyheardthatsomefatsaresaturated,othersareunsaturated,andstillothersaremonounsaturated.Theselabelsrefertothedegreetowhichthecarbon
atoms,whichmakeuptheskeleton

Page22

ofthefattyacids,areheldtogetherbydoubleorsinglechemicalbonds.Singlebondsarestrongerandlesschemicallyreactivethandoublebonds(justtheoppositeof
whattheterminologywouldleadyoutobelieve),sothegreaterthenumberofdoublebonds,thegreatertheopportunityforthechemicalenvironmenttoreactwiththe
fattyacid.Itisthisabilitytoreactwiththefattyacidthatmakesthedifferencewhenitisconsumed.
Saturatedfattyacidshavenodoublebonds:thatis,theyaresaturatedwithsinglebondsandthehydrogenatomsassociatedwiththem.Monounsaturatedfattyacids
(mono=one)haveonedoublebondholdingtogethertwoofitscarbonatoms,andpolyunsaturatedfattyacids(poly=many)havetwoormoredoublebondsholding
togetherfourormoreofitscarbonatoms.Ingeneral,saturatedfattyacidsarecommonlyfoundinhighestconcentrationinfatsofanimalorigin,palmkerneloil,and
coconutoil.Monounsaturatedfatsarehighestinoliveoilandcanolaoil,butarealsopresentinfatsofanimalorigin.Polyunsaturatedfatsarehighestinvegetableoils
(withtheexceptionofoliveoil,whichismorethan75percentmonounsaturated.)Inthecontextofalowfatintake,monounsaturatedfattyacidsandpolyunsaturated
fattyacidsshouldmakeupthemajorityofthefatsconsumed.Toachievethisrequiresareductionintheconsumptionoffoodsthatarehighinsaturatedfattyacids,
includingredmeats,chocolatecandies(whichoftencontainsaturatedtropicaloils),friedfoods,andhighfatdairyproducts.
Mediumchaintriglycerides,ortriglycerideswithfattyacidchainsthatrangefrom6to12carbonatoms,arenotthemostabundantformoftriglyceridesinthediet
(longchaintriglyceridesaremorecommon),butthereissomeearlyevidencethatmediumchaintriglycerides(MCTs)arebeneficialforathletes.MCTsareeasilyand
quicklyoxidizedforenergyandappeartomimictheeffectsofcarbohydratemetabolismratherthanfatmetabolism.Thereisalsosomeevidencethattheyenhancethe
movementoffatsfromstoragetobeburnedasenergy,andtheyalsoincreasetherateatwhichenergyisburned(i.e.,ahigherenergymetabolism).710WhileMCToil
doesnotexistinconcentratedamountsinanyfood(s),MCToilisavailableinmanystoresand,becauseitissaturated,isstableandhasalongshelflife.Forathletes
whomayfinditdifficulttoconsumesufficienttotalenergy,consumptionoftwotothreetablespoonsofMCToilmayprovetobebeneficial.SinceMCToilisburned
differentlythanotherfats,takingthissmallamountofMCToil(twotothreetablespoons)willnotnegativelyimpactontherecommendationforlowfatin

Page23

takes,andmaybeagoodwaytoassurethatathleteswhohavedifficultytakinginenoughcaloriesgetinwhattheyneed.
FishOils
Fishliveroilsthatarehighinomega3acids(calledomega3becausethelastdoublebondis3carbonsfromthelastcarboninthechain)havereceivedmuchattention
recently.Theyhavebeenshowntoreducetheabilityofredbloodcellstocongregate,andthereforetheyreducethechanceforanunwantedbloodclottoform.This
reducestheriskofaheartattack,whichismostcommonlycausedbyaclotformationinoneofthemajorheartarteries.Theoilsfromcoldwaterfishthatappearto
havethebiggestimpactinreducingtheheartdiseasedeathratearecalledeicosapentanoicacid(EPA)anddocosohexanoicacid(DHA).Evenaonceweekly
consumptionofcoldwaterfish(salmon,albacoretuna,Atlanticherring,etc.)issufficienttomakeasignificantreductionintheriskofheartattackandstroke.11Despite
thesefindings,excessiveintake(morethan1supplementdailyorcoldwaterfishconsumeddaily)ofthesefishoilsmaycauseproblems,includinganincreasein
oxidativedamageofcells.Thebestruleofthumbistomakefishconsumptionaregularpartofyourweeklyintake(mealswithfishoncetotwiceweekly),sothat
supplementintakeofomega3fattyacidsisunnecessary.
Someattentionhasbeengiventothepotentialbenefitsofomega3fattyacidsinathleticperformance.AccordingtoBucci,12thesepotentialbenefitsinclude:
Improveddeliveryofoxygenandnutrientstomusclesandothertissuesbecauseofreducedbloodviscosity.
Improvedaerobicmetabolismbecauseofenhanceddeliveryofoxygentocells.
Improvedreleaseofsomatotropin(growthhormone)inresponsetonormalstimuli,suchasexercise,sleep,andhunger,whichmayhaveananaboliceffectand/or
improvepostexerciserecoverytime.
Reductionofinflammationcausedbymuscularfatigueandoverexertion,whichmayimprovepostexerciserecoverytime.
Possiblepreventionoftissuesfrombecominginflamed.
Ingeneral,studiesthathaveevaluatedtheeffectivenessofomega3fattyacidstendtoshowimprovementsinbothstrengthand

Page24
13 15

endurance. Themajorimpactofomega3fattyacidconsumptionappearstobeanenhancementofaerobicmetabolicprocesses,whichisanimportantfactorin
bothathleticperformanceandinanindividual'sabilitytoeffectivelyburnfatasanenergysubstrate.Thisshouldnotsuggestthatanincreaseintotalfatintakeis
desirabletoobtainthesebenefits.Onthecontrary,higherfatintakesaretypicallyassociatedwithreducedathleticperformance.However,athletesshouldconsider
alteringthetypesoffatsconsumedbyincludingperiodicbutregular4to5ounceservings(onceortwiceweekly)ofsalmon,albacoretuna,Atlanticherring,andother
coldwaterfish.
DeterminingFatNeeds
Fromanexercisestandpoint,thereislittlereasontobelievethatincreasingfatconsumptionresultsinimprovingathleticperformance,unlesstheincreaseinfatintakeis
theonlyreasonablemeansfortheathletetoobtaintheenergyneededtomeetneeds.Fortheathletewhoneedsmorethan4,000calorieseachdaytomeetthe
combineddemandsofgrowth,exercise,andmaintenance,moderateincreasesindietaryfatsmaybeneeded.Sincefatisamoreconcentratedformofenergythan
eithercarbohydrateorprotein,moreenergycanbeconsumedinasmallerfoodpackageifthefoodscontainmorefat.Somuchvolumeoffoodneedstobeconsumed
ifanathletetriestorestrictfatcompletely,thatitmaybeimpossibletoscheduleenoughmealsorenoughtimeduringmealstoconsumetheneededenergy,leadingto
aninadequateenergyintake.Table1.3includesasimpleguidetotheamountoffatthatisreasonabletoconsume.
Vitamins
Vitaminsaresubstancesneededbycellstoencouragespecificchemicalreactionsthattakeplaceinthecell.Somevitamins(particularlyBvitamins),areinvolvedin
energyreactionsthatenablecellstoderiveenergyfromcarbohydrate,protein,andfat.Sinceathletesbummoreenergythannonathletes,thesevitaminsareof
particularinteresthere.Othervitaminsareinvolvedinmaintainingmineralbalance.Forinstance,vitaminD(whichwecanderivefrombothsunlightandfood)
encouragesthecellsinaspecificpartofthesmallintestinetoallowmorecalciumandphosphorustobeabsorbedfromfoodintotheblood.

Page25
Table1.3DesirableDistributionofEnergySubstratesforAthletesWithDifferentEnergyNeeds
Totalenergy
requirement

Protein
distribution

Fatdistribution

Explanation

1,6002,200cal

65%

15%

20%

Thislevelofenergyintakeistypicallyseen
inyoungathletesorsmallfemaleathletes
involvedinanaerobicactivities
(gymnastics,skating,etc.).Theyhavea
relativelyhighdemandforcarbohydrates
andalowdemandforfats.

2,2003,000cal

60%

15%

25%

Thislevelofenergyintakeiscommonly
seeninmalesandfemalesinvolvedin
intermediateintensitysports,withbothan
anaerobicandaerobiccomponent
(basketball,soccer,etc.).Theystillhavea
relativelyhighneedforcarbohydrate,but
arebetterabletousefatsforenergy
becauseoftheiraerobictraining.

3,0004,000cal

5560%

15%

2530%

Thislevelofenergyintakeiscommonly
seeninmalesandfemalesinvolvedinlong
distance,predominantlyaerobicsports
(longdistancerunning,biking,ironman,
triathlon,etc.).Theyhaveahighneedfor
carbohydratebutarebetterabletomeet
theirhighenergydemandswithaslight
increaseinfatintake.Theiraerobictraining
improvestheirabilitytousefatsforenergy.

55%

15%

30%

Thislevelofenergyintakeiscommonly
seeninmalefootballplayers(especially
linemen)andsomepowerlifters.Itis
extremelydifficultforthemtoconsume
sufficientenergywithoutsomefatintheir
diet.Becauseofthepredominantly
anaerobicnatureoftheiractivities,
however,fatintakeshouldstillnot
representmorethan30%ofthetotalenergy
consumed.Additionalenergyfromfat
couldbeprovidedinthefromofMCToil.

4,000+cal

Carbohydrate
distribution

Page26

Alcohol
Alcoholprovidesapproximately7caloriespergram,buttoconsideralcoholanenergy
substrateofequalimportancetoproteins,carbohydrates,andfatsisdangerousthinking.
Mostimportantly,regularalcoholconsumptionaltersthenormalmetabolicprocessingof
vitamins,minerals,proteins,carbohydrates,andfatstoadegreethatitmustbeconsidered
atoxicsubstance.Acommonserving12ouncesofbeer,a4ounceglassofwine,orone
ounceofliquoryieldsapproximatelyhalfanounceofalcohol,andthisisequivalentto
approximately14grams(1gram=.035ounce).At7caloriespergram,thisonedrinkhas
thepotentialofprovidingapproximately98caloriesbutmayreducetheabilityto
effectivelyusetheenergyfromthisandotherfoods.
Whilethereisrecentevidenceofareductionincardiovasculardieseaseriskwithalowto
moderate(12drinksperday)consumptionofalcohol,thereisnoevidencethatalcohol
consumptionisusefulinenhancingathleticperformance.Onthecontrary,thenegative
metaboliceffectsofalcoholconsumptionarelonglastingandmayimpairreactiontime,
endurance,coordination,andstrength.16Seriousathletesshouldtrytoavoidregular
consumptioofalcoholicbeverages,particularlyduringseasonalperiodsoftrainingand
competition.

WaterSolubleVitamins
Vitaminsaretypicallyorganizedintofatsolubleandwatersolublecategories.Thefatsolublevitaminsliterallyrequireafatbasedenvironmentinwhichtofunction,
andthewatersolublevitaminsrequireawaterbasedenvironment.Toonedegreeoranother,wehavethecapacitytostoreallvitamins.Thatistosay,ifweatea
mealtwodaysagothathadalargeamountofvitaminC,andhadnovitaminCinthefoodsweconsumedyesterday,wewouldn'texpecttosufferfromsymptomsof
vitaminCdeficiencytoday.ThereasonforthisisthatcellsthatrequirevitaminChaveacapacitytostoreslightlymorethantheyneed.However,inthecaseofwater
solublevitaminssuchasvitaminC,therearenoclearstoragedepotswherelargeamountsofthevitamincanbestored.Fatsolublevitamins,however,dohavealarge
storagecapacity.
Itisthisdifferenceinstoragecapacitythatisresponsibleforthecommonlyrepeatedrecommendationthatwatersolublevitamins

Page27

shouldbeconsumedeverydaybecausetheyarenotstored.Interestingly,itisalsothisdifferenceinstoragecapacitythathasledtothemyththatanyexcessinwater
solublevitaminintakeiswithoutproblems,sincewejustexcretetheexcessintheurine.Whileitistruethatexcessintakeoffatsolublevitamins,especiallyvitaminsD
andA,canproduceseveretoxicity,itisnottruethattakingexcesswatersolublevitaminscreatesnodifficulties.Aprimeexampleofthisistheneurologicalproblem
(peripheralneuropathylossoffeelinginthefingers)createdwithexcessintakeofvitaminB6(500milligramsperdayovertimeisenoughtocreatepermanent
damage).Anotherproblemisthathumansareadaptabletointake.Therefore,themoreyouhave,themoreyoumayneedtogetthesamebiologicaleffect.A
discussionofindividualwatersolublevitaminsfollows.Thetableonpages38and39summarizesthefunctions,sources,andpossibleproblemsassociatedwitheach
vitamin.16a
VitaminBI(Thiamin)
VitaminB1iscommonlyreferredtoasthiaminandispresentinavarietyoffoodsources,includingwholegrains,nuts,legumes(beansanddriedpeas),andpork.It
worksinunisonwithotherBvitaminsinenergymetabolicprocessesthatinvolveconvertingtheenergyinthefoodsweconsumetomuscularenergy.Thiamindoesthis
throughitsinvolvementintheremovalofcarbondioxideinenergyreactionswithitsactivecoenzymecalledthiaminpyrophosphate(TPP)itisparticularlyimportant
inderivingenergyfromcarbohydratefoods.
Adeficiencyofthiaminforathleteshasnotbeenreportedintheliterature,butinpopulationsconsumingalowqualitydietofunenrichedpolishedriceorother
processedandunenrichedgrains,thiamindeficiencyoccurs.Athiamindeficiencydiseasecalledberiberiinvolvesnervoussystemmalfunction(especiallyinthehands
andlegs,aswellasinbalance)andheartfailure.Oneformofberiberialsocauseswaterretention(edema).Aswouldbeexpectedforavitamininvolvedinenergy
reactions,earlydeficiencyischaracterizedbymuscularfatigue,andthisprogressestomuscularweaknessasthedeficiencybecomesmoresevere.Othercommon
symptomsofdeficiencyincludelossofappetite,nausea,constipation,irritability,depression,lossofcoordination,andconfusion.Adeficiencyofthiaminisnotlikelyto
occurinU.S.athletes.However,sincealcoholinhibitsnormalthiaminmetabolism,itispossiblethatthiamindeficiencysymptomsmayoccurinthosewhofrequently
consumealcoholicbeverages.

Page28

MaximizingVitaminIntake
Tomaximizevitaminintakefromyourdiet,trythefollowing:
Eatawidevarietyofcolorfulfruitsandvegetables.
Whenpossibleeatfreshfruitsandvegetables,especiallythoseinseason.
Don'tovercookvegetableslongcookingtimesreducenutrientcontent
Steamormicrowaveyourvegetablesratherthanboilingthemnutrientsseepoutin
boilingwateronlytobepoureddownthedrain.

ItisconceivablethatsomeathletesmayrequiremorethantheRDAforthiamin,sincetherequirementisbasedon0.5milligrams/1,000caloriesconsumed.Athletes
oftenconsumemorethan3,000calories(often5,0006,000calories),makingtheactualthiaminrequirementgreaterthan1.5milligrams/dayfortheseathletes.
However,eveninanathleteconsuming6,000caloriesperday,thethiaminrequirementwouldnotexceed3milligrams/day.Therefore,itappearsreasonableto
suggestanintakeoftwotimestheRDA(3milligrams/day)forathletesconsuminghighlevelsofenergy.Sinceathletescommonlyconsumehighcarbohydratefoods
thatarehighinthiamin,highenergyintakesaretypicallyalsohighthiaminintakes,makingitlikelythatmanyathletesalreadyconsume3milligrams/day.
VitaminB2(Riboflavin)
Riboflavinisinvolvedinenergyproductionandnormalcellularfunctionthroughitscoenzymesflavinadeninedinucleotide(FAD)andflavinmononucleotide
(FMN).Thesecoenzymesaremainlyinvolvedinobtainingenergyfromconsumedcarbohydrates,proteins,andfats.Foodsourcesofriboflavinincludedairyproducts
(e.g.,milk,yogurt,cottagecheese),darkleafygreenvegetables(e.g.,spinach,chard,mustardgreens,broccoli,greenpeppers),wholegrainfoods,andenrichedgrain
foods.
Therearenostudiessuggestingthatathletescommonlysufferfromriboflavindeficiencysymptoms.Also,noapparenttoxicitysymptomsoccurfromtakingmorethan
theRDA.SeveralstudiesthatsuggestthatathletesandthoseinvolvedinregularactivitymayhavehigherrequirementsthantheRDA,whichisbasedon0.6milligrams
per1,000calories.Inaseriesofstudiesperformedon

Page29
17 19

exercisingwomenandwomenseekingtoloseweight,theriboflavinrequirementappearedtorangebetween0.63and1.40milligramsper1,000calories.

Itisnevereasytomakeadeterminationaboutwhatlevelofintakeisrightforathletesbecausetherearesomanyconsiderations.Inthecaseofriboflavin,
understandingtherequirementismademorecomplexbecauseriboflaviniseasilydestroyedbyultravioletlight(thereasonbehindallthosenewopaquemilkbottlesin
thegrocerystore).Therefore,theamountofriboflavininfreshdairyproductsisnotthesameasolderproductsthathavehadmultiplelightexposures.Thismakesit
difficulttounderstandtheactualamountofriboflavinthatiscommonlydeliveredbyfood.Nevertheless,thereissomebeginningevidencethatphysicalactivity
increasestherequirementtoalevelslightlyhigherthan0.5milligramsper1,000calories,butnotmorethan1.5milligramsper1,000calories.1113,20However,even
withthisapparentlyhigherrequirementforathletes,therearenostudiesthatclearlydemonstrateanimprovementinathleticperformancewithintakesgreaterthanthe
RDA.

Page30

Niacin(Niacinamide,NicotinicAcid,Nicotinamide,orVitaminB3)
Niacinisinvolvedinenergyproductionfromcarbohydrate,protein,andfat,glycogensynthesis,andnormalcellularmetabolismthroughitsactivecoenzymes.These
enzymes,nicotinamideadeninedinucleotide(NAD)andnicotinamideadeninedinucleotidephosphate(NADP),areessentialfornormalmusclefunction.While
niacindeficiencyiswelldocumentedinhumanpopulationssufferingfromfamineormonotonousintakesofunenrichedgrainproducts,thereisnoevidenceofniacin
deficiencyinathletes.
Niacinisfoundinmeat,wholeorenrichedgrains,seeds,nuts,andlegumes.Itcanbeproducedbythebodyfromtheaminoacidtryptophan(60milligramsof
tryptophanyields1milligramniacin),whichisfoundinallhighqualityproteinfoods(e.g.,meat,fish,poultry).Giventhebroadspectrumoffoodsthatprovideniacin,it
isrelativelyeasyforpeopletoconsumetheRDArequirementof6.6niacinequivalents(NE)per1,000calories(between13and19milligrams/dayfortheaverage
adult)niacinequivalentsareequalto1milligramofniacinor60milligramsofdietarytryptophanyoucanobtainniacindirectlyorindirectlybyconsumingtheamino
acidtryptophan.NEtakesbothsourcesintoaccount.Whenadeficiencydoesoccur,itresultsinmuscularweakness,lossofappetite,indigestion,andskinrash.Ifa
deficiencybecomesmoresevere,itresultsinthediseasepellagra,whichischaracterizedbyasoretongue,diarrhea,lossofmentalacuity,anddermatitis.Itispossible
toproducetoxicitysymptomsfromexcessiveintakeofniacin.Thesesymptomsincludebecomingredfaced,flushed,andfeelinghot.Itmayalsoresultinatingling
feelingaroundtheneck,face,andfingers.Thesesymptomsappeartobecommoninpatientstakinglargedosesofniacintolowerbloodlipids.
Instudiesevaluatingtheperformanceeffectsofniacinsupplementation,itwasfoundthatendurancewasreducedbecauseexcessniacincausedareductioninfat
metabolism.2123Therefore,therewasagreaterrelianceoncarbohydratefuels(glucoseandglycogen)tosupportactivity.Sincethestorageofcarbohydratefuelsis
limited,athletestakingniacinsupplementsbecamefatiguedearlier.Todate,thereisnoevidencethattherequirementforniacinisincreasedinphysicalactivity.
VitaminB6
VitaminB6referstoseveralcompounds(pyridoxine,pyridoxal,pyridoxamine,pyridoxine5phosphate,pyridoxal5phosphate,and

Page31

pyridoxamine5phosphatepyridoxine)thatdisplaythesamemetabolicactivity.VitaminB6isfoundinhighestquantityinmeats(especiallyliver)andisalsoavailable
inwheatgerm,fish,poultry,legumes,bananas,brownrice,wholegraincereals,andvegetables.Becausethefunctionofthisvitaminiscloselylinkedtoproteinand
aminoacidmetabolism,therequirementsarealsolinkedtoproteinintake(thehighertheproteinintake,thehigherthevitaminB6requirement).Theadultrequirement
isbasedon0.016milligramsofB6pergramofproteinconsumedeachday,24andisadequateforthoseconsumingtypicalproteinintakes.Whenyouconsiderthat
highproteinfoodsarealsotypicallyhighinvitaminB6,thoseconsumingproteinfromfood(regardlessoftheamount)aremostlikelytohaveadequateB6levelsas
well.However,sincemanyathletesconsumeadditionalproteininpurified,supplementalforms(proteinpowders,aminoacidpowders,etc.),itisconceivablethat
someathleteswithhighsupplementalproteinintakeswillhaveaninadequateB6intake.
VitaminB6functionsinreactionsrelatedtoproteinsynthesisbyaidinginthecreationofaminoacidsandproteins,andisalsoinvolvedinproteincatabolismthrough
involvementinreactionsthatbreakdownaminoacidsandproteins.Itisinvolved,therefore,inmanufacturingmuscle,hemoglobin,andotherproteinscriticaltoathletic
performance.ThemajorenzymeofvitaminB6,pyridoxalphosphate(PP),isalsoinvolvedinthebreakdownofmuscleglycogenforenergythroughtheenzyme
glycogenphosphorylase.
AdeficiencyofvitaminB6willleadtosymptomsofperipheralneuritis(lossofnervefunctioninthehands,feet,arms,andlegs),ataxia(lossofbalance),irritability,
depression,andconvulsions.AnexcessintakeofvitaminB6doesleadtotoxicsymptomsthathavebeendocumentedinhumans.Thesesymptomsaresimilarto
thoseseeninB6deficiencyandincludeataxiaandseveresensoryneuropathy(lossofsensationinthefingers).Toxicitysymptomshavebeendocumentedinwomen
takingdoses(that,onaverage,equal119milligrams/day)totreatpremenstrualsyndromeandseveraltypesofmentaldisorders.25,26
ThereisatheoreticalbasisforinvestigatingvitaminB6andathleticperformance.B6isinvolvedinthebreakdownofaminoacidsinmuscleasameansofobtaining
neededenergyandinconvertinglacticacidtoglucoseintheliver.27VitaminB6isalsoinvolvedinthebreakdownofmuscleglycogentoderiveenergy.Other
functionsofvitaminB6thatmayberelatedtoathleticperfor

Page32

manceincludetheformationofserotoninandthesynthesisofcarnitinefromlysine.ThereisevidencethatsomeathletesmaybeatriskforinadequatevitaminB6
status.2830PoorB6statusalsoreducesathleticperformance.31
Becausemanyathletesarealwayslookingforthatextraedge,thereisanunderstandableattractivenesstonaturalsubstancesthatarelegal.VitaminB6issometimes
marketedasoneofthosenatural(andlegal)substancesbecause,besidesitsimportanceinenergymetabolism,itislinkedwiththeproductionofgrowthhormone,
whichcanhelptoincreasemusclemass.32ItappearsasifthecombinedeffectofexerciseandvitaminB6ongrowthhormoneproductionisgreaterthaneitherof
thesefactorsindividually.33,34
Giventheimportanceofthisvitamintoathleticperformance,itiseasytoseewhyathletesmayrushtoobtainmore.However,thesefactorsshouldbeconsidered:35
MostathleteshaveadequatevitaminB6intakesandadequatevitaminB6status.
ThoseathleteswithpoorvitaminB6statusaregenerallythosewithinadequateenergyintakes.
Agreaterproportionoffemaleathletesandathletesparticipatinginsportsthatemphasizelowweights(gymnastics,wrestling,skating,etc.)arelikelytohave
inadequateenergyintakesand,therefore,inadequatevitaminB6intakes.
HighdosesofvitaminB6havebeenshowntohavetoxiceffects.
Thereisnogoodevidencethathavingmorethantherecommendedintakehasabeneficialeffectonathleticperformance.36
VitaminB6supplementationdoesnotappearnecessarytoenhanceathleticperformanceifabalanceddiet,withadequateenergy,isconsumed.37
Takentogether,thesefactorsshouldencourageathletestoconsumeanadequateintakeofenergybeforetheyconsidertakingsupplementsofvitaminB6.
VitaminB12(Cobalamin)
VitaminB12isperhapsthemostchemicallycomplexofallthevitamins.Itcontainsthemineralcobalt(thusthename''cobalamin")andhasamajorinvolvementinred
bloodcellformation,folicacidmetabolism,DNAsynthesis,andnervedevelopment,butitisessentialforthefunctionofallcells.

Page33

Dietarysourcesofthisvitaminaremainlyfoodsofanimalorigin(meats,eggs,dairyproducts),anditisessentiallyabsentfromplantfoods.Theremayalsobesome
verysmallamountofabsorbablevitaminB12thatisproducedbygutbacteria.38Itshouldbeclearfromthisthatvegetarianathleteswhoavoidallfoodsofanimal
origin(i.e.,theydonoteatmeat,nordotheyconsumeeggsordairyproducts)wouldbeatriskforvitaminB12deficiency.
ThediseaseassociatedwithvitaminB12deficiencyisperniciousanemia.Thisformofanemiamostcommonlyoccursintheelderlywhohaveexperiencedareduction
innormalstomachfunction.ThestomachproducesasubstancecalledintrinsicfactorthatisrequiredforvitaminB12togetabsorbed.Withoutintrinsicfactor,a
personcanhaveadiethighinB12butstilldevelopadeficiencybecausenoneofitisabsorbed.Symptomsofdeficiencyincludefatigue,poormuscularcoordination
(possiblyleadingtoparalysis),anddementia.
ThereisalonghistoryofvitaminB12abusebyathletes.Itwas(andcontinuestobe)commonformanyathletestobeinjectedwithlargeamountsofvitaminB12
(often1,000milligrams)beforecompetitions.39,40However,theathleticperformancebenefitsofvitaminB12injectionsandsupplementationhavenotbeen
established.4143
Itcertainlymakessensethatathletesconsumefoodsthatwillavoiddeficienciesofanykind,includingtheavoidanceofB12deficiency.Theresultinganemiawould
clearlyimpactonperformancebyproducingareductioninenduranceand,potentially,aloweringofmuscularcoordination.However,consumptionorinjectionsof
suchlargedosesashavebeenreportedintheliteratureforvitaminB12iswithoutlogicandwithoutprovenbeneficialoutcomes.Unlesssomeonehasagenetic
predispositiontoB12malabsorption(typicallybecauseofaninadequateproductionofintrinsicfactor),thereisnobasisfortakingsupplementsifabalanced
mixedfooddietisconsumed.Purevegetarianathletes,ontheotherhand,haveagoodreasontobeconcernedaboutvitaminB12status.Asupplementthatprovides,
onaverage,thedailyRDA(2micrograms)forthisgroupmakesgoodsense,asdoestheconsumptionoffoodsthatarefortifiedwithvitaminB12(suchassomesoy
milkproducts).
FolicAcid(Folate)
Folicacidiswidespreadinthefoodsupply,butispresentinthehighestconcentrationsinliver,yeast,leafyvegetables,fruits,andlegumes.Itiseasilydestroyed
throughcommonhouseholdfoodpreparationtechniquesandlongstoragetimes,soitismost

Page34

commonlyassociatedwithfreshfoods.Folatefunctionsinaminoacidmetabolismandnucleicacidsynthesis(RNAandDNA),soadeficiencyleadstoalterationsin
proteinsynthesis.44Tissuesthathavearapidturnoverareparticularlysensitivetofolicacid.Thisincludesredandwhitebloodcells,aswellastissuesofthe
gastrointestinaltractandtheuterus.Morerecently,adequatefolateintakeduringpregnancyhasbeenassociatedwiththeeliminationoffetalneuraltubedefects(most
notablyspinabifida).45,46TheaverageU.S.folateintakeexceedstherequirement(ofbetween180and200micrograms/day)bybetween25and50percent,butits
importanceinredcellformationandineliminatingneuraltubedefectshasledtothecommon(andappropriate)supplementationwithfolicacidduringpregnancy.The
recommendedintakeoffolateduringpregnancy(400micrograms)isdoublethatoftheadultrequirement.
Adeficiencyoffolicacidleadstoanemia(itfunctionswithvitaminB12informinghealthynewredbloodcells)gastrointestinalproblems(diarrhea,malabsorption,
pain)andaswollen,redtongue.Toxicityoffolatefromexcessintakehasnotbeenreportedintheliterature.

Page35

Therearenostudiesthathavereportedontherelationshipbetweenfolicacidandathleticperformance.However,giventhatathletesmayhaveahigherthannormal
tissueturnoverbecauseofthepoundingthebodytakesinvarioussports,andtheevidencethatredbloodcellturnoverisfasterinathletesthannonathletes,47,48thereis
goodreasonforathletestobecertainthattheirfolicacidstatusisadequate.Thebestwaytodothisisthroughtheregularconsumptionoffreshfruitsandvegetables.If
thisisnotpossible,adailysupplementattheleveloftherecommendedintake(200milligrams/day)isaneffectivemeansofmaintainingfolatestatus.
Biotin(VitaminH)
Biotinworkswithmagnesiumandadenosinetriphosphate(ATP)toplayaroleincarbondioxidemetabolism,newglucoseproduction(gluconeogenesis),
carbohydratemetabolism,andfattyacidsynthesis.49Foodsourcesofbiotinincludeeggyolk,soyflour,liver,sardines,walnuts,pecans,peanuts,andyeast.Fruitsand
meatsare,however,poordietarysourcesofthevitamin.Biotinisalsosynthesizedbybacteriaintheintestines.Adeficiencyofthisvitaminisrarebutcanbeinduced
throughtheintakeoflargeamountsofraweggwhites,whichcontaintheproteinavidin.Thisproteinbindstobiotinandmakesitunavailableforabsorption.Whena
deficiencyoccurs,symptomsincludelossofappetite,vomiting,depression,anddermatitis.However,sincetherearen'tmanypeoplewhoconsumelargequantitiesof
raweggwhite,deficienciesofthisvitaminarerare.
Thereisnoevidencethatathletesareatriskforbiotindeficiency,andnoinformationontherelationshipbetweenbiotinandathleticperformance.Therefore,no
recommendationonbiotinintakeforathletescanbemade.
PantothenicAcid(VitaminB5)
PantothenicacidisastructuralpartofcoenzymeA(CoA),acompoundofcentralimportanceinenergymetabolicprocesses.Pantothenicacidisinvolved,through
CoA,incarbohydrate,protein,andfatmetabolism.Sincepantothenicacidiswidelydistributedinthefoodsupply,itisunlikelythatanathletewouldsufferfroma
deficiency,particularlyifsufficienttotalenergyisconsumed.Thehighestconcentrationsofpantothenicacidarefoundinmeat,wholegrainfoods,beans,andpeas.Ifa
raredeficiencydoesoccur,symptomsincludeeasyfatigue,weakness,andinsomnia.Supplementaldosesofthevitaminaretypically10milligrams/day(150200
percentoftheRDA)and,atthislevel,havenotbeenshowntoproducetoxiceffects.

Page36
50,51

Studiesonanimalssuggestthatpantothenicacidsupplementationiseffectiveinimprovingtimetoexhaustion. Humanstudiesdonotagreeonthepotentialbenefits
ofpantothenicacidsupplementation.Inonestudyusingadoubleblindprotocol,therewasnodifferenceintimetoexhaustioninconditionedrunnersgiveneithera
pantothenicacidsupplementoraplacebo.52However,inanotherstudythatusedadoubleblindprotocol,therewasadifferenceinlactate(a16.7percentreduction)
andoxygenconsumption(an8.4percentincrease)insubjectsgivenpantothenate(2,000milligrams)versusthosegivenaplacebopriortoridingacycleergometerto
exhaustion.53
Whilethereisapossiblerelationshipbetweenpantothenicacidsupplementationandexerciseperformance,moreinformationisneededbeforeasound
recommendationcanbemadeonpantothenateintakeforathletes.Instudiesthathaveexperimentedwithpantothenicacidsupplementstodeterminearequirement
level,thetypicaldosagehasbeen10milligrams/day.Whenthislevelisprovided,5to7milligrams/dayisexcretedintheurine.54Therefore,itappearsthattaking
supplementsatorabovethislevelisexcessive.
VitaminC(Ascorbicacid,Ascorbate,Dehydroascorbate,LAscorbate)
VitaminCfunctionsasanantioxidantandisalsoinvolvedinreactionsthathelptoformtheconnectivetissueproteincollagen.Freshfruitsandvegetablesarethebest
sourcesofvitaminC.CerealgrainscontainnovitaminC(unlessfortifiedwithvitaminC),andmeatsanddairyproductsarelowinvitaminC.VitaminCiseasily
destroyedbycooking(heat)andexposuretoair(oxygen).Itisalsohighlywatersoluble,whichmeansitiseasilyremovedfromfoodsbywater.ThevitaminC
deficiencydisease,scurvy,iscausedbyalongtermdietarydeficiencyofthevitamin.Foravarietyofreasons(freshfoodavailability,supplementintake,useofvitamin
Casanantioxidantinpackagedfoods),scurvyisalmostnonexistentnow.Toxicityfromhigh,regularsupplementalintakesofthevitaminisrare,butmayincludea
predispositiontodevelopingkidneystonesandareducedtissuesensitivitytothevitamin.Dosesof100to200milligrams/daywillsaturatethebodywithvitaminC,55
yetmanypeopletakesupplementaldosesof1,000to2,000milligrams/day.ThislevelofsupplementalvitaminCintakerepresentsdosesthatare16to33times
higherthantheRDAof60milligrams/day.
ThereareanumberofstudiesthathaveevaluatedtherelationshipbetweenvitaminCintakeandathleticperformance,andtheresultsfromthesestudiesare
inconsistent.PartoftheproblemwithmanyofthestudiesperformedonvitaminCisalackofstandardization

Page37

betweensubjectsandagenerallackofcomparativecontrols.Giventheseresearchdesignflaws,it'seasytounderstandwhythestudyresultsaresoinconsistent.
Nevertheless,accordingtoareviewofstudiesthatusedcontrolsandprovidedvitaminCsupplementsatorbelow500milligrams/day(rememberthattheRDAis60
milligrams),therewasnomeasurablebenefitonathleticperformance.56Onestudynotedthatwhena500milligramdoseofvitaminCwasprovidedshortly(4hours)
beforetesting,therewasasignificantimprovementinstrengthandasignificantreductioninmaximaloxygenconsumption(VC2max)whichisagoodthingbutthere
wasnoimpactonmuscularendurance.57(VO2maxisthemaximumvolumeofoxygenthatthelungscanbringintothesystem.WorkingatalowerlevelofVO2max
meansthepersonisnotworkingashardasmaximalaerobiccapacity.)However,whenparticipantswereprovidedwiththesameamountforsevendays,therewasan
improvementinstrengthbutadecreaseinendurance.Whenthesesamesubjectswereprovidedwith2,000milligramseachdayforsevendays,therewasonlya
loweringofVO2max,butnochangeinenduranceperformance.
TheremaybeabenefitinconsumingaslightlyhigherlevelofvitaminCforathletesinvolvedinconcussivesportswheremusclesorenessoccursorthereisaninjury.
StudiesonanimalsgenerallyindicatethathavingmorevitaminCimprovesthehealingprocessandthatinadequatevitaminCinhibitshealing.58Also,afewrecent
studiesindicatethatmusclesorenessmaybemorerapidlyrelievedwhenconsumingmoderatesupplementaldosesofvitaminCandotherantioxidants.59
Giventheseinconsistentresults,itisdifficulttomakearationalrecommendationonvitaminCandperformance.However,slightlyincreasingvitaminCintakemay
reducemusclesorenessfasterandmayalsoimprovehealing.Thequestionis:Howmuchisjustright?Unfortunately,it'simpossibletoknowtheanswerforeveryone.
Sincestudiesdemonstratethathighdosesmaycauseenduranceproblems,itisimportanttokeepthelevelofintakebelowonethatmaycauseperformancedeficits.In
1993,VictorHerbertreportedonthreedeathsthatwereduetoironoverload.VitaminCisknowntoenhanceironabsorption,andthepeoplewhodiedweretaking
largedailydosesofvitaminC.60Alsoconsiderthatmanyathletesalreadyconsumemorethan250milligramsofvitaminCeachdayfromfoodalonebecauseofthe
highintakeoffreshfruitsandvegetables.Areasonablerecommendationistoconsumeanabundantamountoffreshfruitsandvegetables(wonderfulsourcesof
carbohydratesand

Page38

manyothernutrientsbesidesvitaminC).Ifthat'snotpossible,areasonablestrategyistotrytakingamoderatedailysupplementcontainingtheRDAlevel(60
milligrams).EvensomeoneconsumingalowbutregularintakeoffruitsandvegetablesislikelytoobtainsufficientvitaminC,butthiskindoflowlevelsupplementmay
actasanappropriatesafetybuffer.
WaterSolubleVitamins
Sources

Possibleproblems

VitaminB1
(Thiamin)

Vitamin

Energymetabolism,
nervesystemfunction,
appetite.

Functions

Porkandporkproducts,
enrichedgrains,whole
grains,legumes(dried
beans/peas),andnuts.

Inadequatelevelsmay
leadtodiseasecalled
beriberi,withenlarged
heart,arrhythmias,
confusion,weakness,and
depression.

VitaminB2
(Riboflavin)

Energymetabolism,
vision(especiallyin
brightlight),healthof
skin.

Dairyproducts,meats,
greenleafyvegetables,
andenrichedandwhole
grainproducts.

Inadequatelevelsmay
leadtobrightlight
sensitivity,skinrash
(especiallyaroundthe
cornersofthemouth),and
soretongue.

Niacin
(VitaminB3)

Energymetabolism,
nervesystemfunction,
digestivesystemfuction,
andhealthofskin.

Dairyproducts,meats,
enrichedandwholegrain
products,meat,poultry,
andfish.

Inadequatelevelsmay
leadtodiarrhea,mental
confustion,weakness,and
dermatitis(dryflakyskin).
Excessivelevelsmaylead
toflushedskin,rash,and
hepatitis.

VitaminB6
(Pyridoxine,
pyridoxal,
pyridoxamine)

Proteinmanufacture,fat
metabolism,and
manufactureofniacin
fromtryptophan.

Meats,fish,poultry,
greenleafyvegetables,
andwholegrain
products.

Inadequatelevelsmay
leadtopoortissuerepair,
irritability,convulsions,
anddermatitis.Excessive
levelsmayleadto
neurologicaldisorders,
fatigue,anddepression.

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Page39

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Vitamin

Functions

Sources

PossibleProblems

VitaminB12
(Cobalamin)

Newtissuemanufacture,
especiallyinvolvedin
makingredbloodcells.
Alsoinvolvedinnerve
cellmaintenance.

Meat,fish,poultry,eggs,
anddairyproducts.Small
amountsalsofoundin
soyproducts.

Inadequatelevelmay
leadtoredcellanemia,
soretongue,fatigue,and
confusion.

Folicacid
(Folate)

Newtissuemanufacture, Greenleafyvegetables,
especiallyinvolvedin
legumes(dried
makingredbloodcells.
beans/peas),seeds.
Neededforpropernerve
cellformationoffetuses
(inutero).Alsoneeded
tomaintainahealthy
gastrointestinaltract.

Inadequatelevelmay
leadtoredcellanemia,
gutstress(diarrhea,
constipation,etc.),
fatigue,depression,and
confustion.

Biotin
(VitaminH)

Energymetabolismand
glycogensynthesis.

Availableinmostfoods.

Inadequatelevelmay
leadtoirregularheart
beat,dermatitis,fatigue,
nausea,anddepression.

Pantothenicacid
(VitaminB5)

Energymetabolism
(throughsubstanceof
centralimportance
called"coenzymeA".

Availableinmostfoods.

Inadequatelevelmay
leadtofatigueandGI
distress.

VitaminC
(Ascorbicacid)

Formationofconnective
tissueproteincalled
"collagen",improved
resistancetoinfection,
improvedabsorptionof
vegetablebasediron,
andpowerful
antioxidant.

Freshfruitsand
vegetables(particularly
citrusfruits,strawberries,
andgreenpeppers).

Inadequatelevelmay
leadtoanemia,frequent
illness,musclepain,
bleedinggums,andpoor
woundhealing.
Excessiveintakemay
leadtonausea,
headache,andskin
rashes,anddependence
onhighdoses.

Page40

FatSolubleVitamins
Fatsolublevitaminsaredeliveredinafatsoluteandrepresentoneoftheimportantreasonswhyathletesshouldnotattemptplacingthemselvesonadietthatis
excessivelylowinfat.(Goingbelow10percentoftotalcaloriesfromfatisdangerous,whileathletesdoverywellwhenfatintakeisbetween20and25percentof
totalcalories.)Thereareonly4fatsolublevitaminsvitaminsA,D,E,andKandthesevitaminscanbeeffectivelystoredforlateruse.Thetableonpage44
summarizesthefunctions,sources,andpossibleproblemsassociatedwitheachvitamin.16aTherefore,unlikewatersolublevitaminsthatshouldbeconsumeddailyor
almostdaily,theintakeoffatsolublevitaminsdoesnothavetobeasfrequent.However,thestoragecapacityforthesevitaminsdoeshavelimitations,andprovidinga
levelofthesevitaminsthatexceedsourabilitytostorethemmayquicklyleadtosymptomsoftoxicityand,inextremecases,death.Infact,thetwomostpotentially
toxicsubstancesinhumannutritionarevitaminsAandD.Achievingtoxicleveldosesofthesevitaminsisdifficultifconsumingtheusualfoods,buttoxicdosesmaybe
easilyachievedifsupplementalintakesexceedrecommendeddoses.Ingeneral,thestoragecapabilitieswehaveforthesevitaminseliminatestheneedforsupplemental
intakeinmostcircumstances.
VitaminA(RetinolorBetacarotene)
Theactiveformofthisvitaminiscalledretinol.Weobtaintheactiveformfromfoodsofanimalorigin,includingliver,eggyolks,dairyproductsthathavebeenfortified
withvitaminA(e.g.,vitaminAandDmilk),margarine,andfishoil.Therecommendedlevelofintakerangesbetween800retinolequivalents(RE)forwomenand
1,000REformen.(OneREequalsonemicrogramofretinolorsixmicrogramsofbetacarotene.)Expressedasinternationalunits(IU),therecommendedlevelof
intakeforwomenis2,667IUandformenis3,333IU.VitaminAhasawellestablishedrelationshiptonormalvisionhelpskeepbones,skin,andredbloodcells
healthyandisalsoneededfortheimmunesystemtofunctionnormally.
ThereisnoevidencethattakingextravitaminAaidsathleticperformance.Inastudyperformedinthe1940s,supplementationofvitaminAproducednoimprovement
inendurance.61Inthesamestudy,subjectsprovidedwithadietdeficientinvitaminAnotednodecreaseinperformance,probablybecauseadeficitstateofthe
vitaminwasnotreached.

Page41

Sincethevitaminhasclearlytoxicsideeffectswhentakeninexcess(i.e.,atlevelsconsistentlyhigherthantheRDA),athletesshouldbecautionedagainsttaking
supplementaldosesofthisvitamin.ToxicityofvitaminAmanifestsitselfinseveralways,includingdryskin,headache,irritability,vomiting,bonepain,andvision
problems.ExcessvitaminAintakeduringpregnancyisalsoassociatedwithanincreaseinbirthdefects.
AprecursortovitaminAisbetacarotene.Aprecursorisasubstancethat,undertheproperconditions,isconvertedtotheactiveformofthevitamin.Therefore,
consumingfoodswithbetacaroteneisanindirectwayofobtainingvitaminA.Betacaroteneisfoundinallred,orange,yellow,anddarkgreencoloredfruitsand
vegetables(carrots,sweetpotatoes,spinach,apricots,cantaloupes,tomatoes,etc.).Itisapowerfulantioxidant,protectingcellsfromoxidativedamagethatcouldlead
tocancerand,ofcourse,canbeconvertedtovitaminAasweneedit.
UnlikepreformedvitaminA(retinol),betacarotenedoesnotexhibitthesamecleartoxiceffectsifexcessdosesareconsumed.However,aconsistentlyhighintakeof
carrots,sweetpotatoes,andotherfoodshighinbetacarotenemaycauseapersontodevelopayellowishskintone.Althoughnoothereffectsofthisexcessbeta
carotenestoragehavebeenfound,thiseffectmaymakeyouwonderifsomeonewilleventuallyfindthatexcessconsumptionis,infact,dangerousbecauseitbreaches
theallimportantbalanceruleinnutrition.
Itisconceivablethatbetacarotenemay,asanantioxidant,provetobeeffectiveinreducingpostexercisemusclesorenessandimprovepostexerciserecovery.
However,thisisatheoreticalconnectiononly,sincethereisnostudymakingadirectlinkbetweenbetacaroteneintakeandreducedsorenessandimproved
recovery.Despitethis,theU.S.OlympicCommitteehasrecognizedbetacarotene'spotentialasanantioxidant.61a
VitaminD(Cholecalciferol)
VitaminDisthemostpotentiallytoxicvitamininhumannutrition.Wecanobtainthevitamininaninactiveformfromfoodandsunlightexposure.Ultravioletradiation
(sunlight)exposureoftheskinaltersacholesterolderivative(7dehydrocholesterol)toaninactiveformofvitaminDcalledcholecalciferol.Tobefunctional,this
inactiveformofvitaminDmustbeactivatedbythekidneys.Therefore,kidneydiseasemaybethecauseofvitaminDrelateddisorders.DietarysourcesofvitaminD
includeeggs,vitaminDfortifiedmilk,liver,

Page42

butter,andmargarine.Codliveroil,whichwasoncegivencommonlyasasupplement,isaconcentratedsourceofthevitamin.TheadultRDAforvitaminDis5
micrograms/dayofcholecalciferol,or200internationalunits(IU)ofvitaminD.
VitaminDfunctionstopromotegrowthandmineralizeboneandteethbyincreasingtheabsorptionofcalciumandphosphorus.Adietwithanadequateintakeof
calciumandphosphorus,butwithoutadequatevitaminD,willthusleadtocalciumandphosphorusdeficiency.Thechildhooddeficiencydiseasericketsandtheadult
deficiencydiseaseosteomalaciaarediseasesofcalciumdeficiencythatareduetoeitherinadequatelevelsofvitaminDortheinabilitytoconvertvitaminDtotheactive
(functional)form.However,becausevitaminDissopotentiallytoxic,cautionmustbetakennottoconsumetoomuch.ExcessvitaminDintakemayleadtovomiting,
diarrhea,weightloss,kidneydamage,highbloodcalciumlevels,anddeath.
TherearenostudiesindicatingthatvitaminDsupplementationaidsathleticperformance,andthereisnotheoreticalbasisforperformanceenhancementtooccur.As
vitaminDispotentiallythemostdangerous(possiblydeadly)inexcess,don'tmesswithsupplements.However,vitaminDmayplayanindirectroleininjuryresistance.
Athletesinsomesportsmayhavedramaticallylowersunlightexposurebecausealltrainingtakesplaceinside.Thislowersunlight(i.e.,UV)exposuremayreduce
vitaminDavailabilitytoapointwherebothgrowthandbonedensityareaffected.Lowerbonedensitiesareknowntoplaceathletesathigherriskfordevelopingstress
fractures,6264aninjurythatcanendanathleticcareer.InarecentsurveyofU.S.nationalteamgymnasts,itwasfoundthatthefactormostcloselyrelatedtobone
densitywassunlightexposure.Thosewithhigherdensitieshadthegreatestexposure.65Also,sunlightexposurewasmoreimportantasapredictorofbonedensityin
thisgroupthanvitaminDorcalciumintakefromfood.
VitaminE(Tocopherol)
VitaminEisagenerictermforseveralsubstances(tocopherols)thathavesimilaractivity,andtheunitofmeasureisbasedontheleveloftocopherolwithanactivity
equivalenttothatofalphatocopherol.Forinstance,betatocopherolhasalowerlevelofactivitythanalphatocopherol,somoreofitwouldbenecessarytogetthe
sameeffect.TheadultRDAforvitaminEis8to10milligrams.VitaminEisfound

Page43

ingreenleafyvegetables,vegetableoils,seeds,nuts,liver,andcorn.ItisdifficulttoinduceavitaminEdeficiencyinhumans,anditalsoappearstobearelatively
nontoxicvitamin.
VitaminEisapotentantioxidantthatservestoprotectmembranesfromdestructionbyperoxides.Peroxidesareformedwhenfats(especiallypolyunsaturatedfats)
becomeoxidized(rancid).Theseperoxidesarecalledfreeradicalsbecausetheybouncearoundunpredictablyinsidecells,alteringordestroyingthem.SincevitaminE
isanantioxidant,ithelpstocaptureoxygen,therebylimitingtheoxidationoffatstoprotectcells.
SeveralstudiesonvitaminEandphysicalperformancehavebeenconducted,butnonehasfoundanimprovementineitherstrengthorendurancewithvitaminE
supplementation.6669SeveralstudiesevaluatingwhethervitaminEsupplementationreducedexerciseinducedperoxidedamagehadmixedfindings.Somesuggestthat
aclearreductioninperoxidativedamageoccurs,7071butotherssuggestthatvitaminEhasnobenefit.72ItseemsclearthatmoreinformationonvitaminEisneeded
beforeadefinitiveexerciserelatedbenefitcanbeclaimed.However,thetheoreticalbasisrelatedtoareductioninperoxidativedamagethroughaslightincreasein
additionalvitaminEconsumptionissound.
VitaminK(Phylloquinone)
VitaminKisfoundingreenleafyvegetablesandalso,insmallamounts,incereals,fruits,andmeats.BacteriaintheintestinesalsoproducevitaminK,sotheabsolute
dietaryrequirementisnotknown.Thisvitaminisneededfortheformationofprothrombin,whichisrequiredforbloodtoclot.Itispossibleforpeoplewhoregularly
takeantibioticsthatdestroythebacteriaintheintestinestobeatincreasedriskforvitaminKdeficiency.Adeficiencywouldcauseanincreaseinbleedingand
hemorrhages.VitaminKappearstoberelativelynontoxic,buthighintakesofsyntheticformsmaycausejaundice.TheadultRDAforvitaminKis65to70
micrograms.
TherearenostudiesontherelationshipbetweenvitaminKandathleticperformance.Further,itisdifficulttothinkofatheoreticalframeworkwheresucharelationship
mightexist.Itseemsclearthat,especiallyforathletesinvolvedincontactsports,adequatevitaminKstatusisnecessarytoavoidexcessivebruisingandbleeding.
However,thereisnodocumentedevidencethatathletesareatriskforadeficiency.

Page44
FatSolubleVitamins
Vitamin

Functions

Sources

VitaminA
(Retinolbeta
carotenecanbe
madeintovitamin
A)

Eyesight,healthofskin
andsofttissue
membrances,bone
development,
reproduction,immune
system,Betacaroteneis
apowerfulantioxidant.

VitaminAandDmilk,
fortifiedcheese,creamand
butter,eggs.Beta
caroteneisfoundindark
greenleafyvegetables
andorangeandyellow
pigmentedfruitsand
vegetables.

Inadequatelevelleadsto
eyeproblems,frequenty
infections,poorgrowth,
andredbloodcell
deficiency.Excessmay
leadtonausea,cramping,
poorbonedevelopment,
anddryskin.

VitaminD
(Cholecalciferol)

Absorptionofcalcium
andphosphorus
mineralizationofbones.

Alldairyproducts,dark
greenvegetables,eggs,
andcannedfish.

Inadequatelevelleadsto
musclecramping,poor
skeletalandtooth
development,andpainin
thejoints.Excessmaylead
tonausea,weakness,
headaches,andirritability.
Thisisthemost
potentiallytoxicofthe
vitamins,andexcessive
intakemayleadtodeath.

VitaminE
(Tocopherol)

Powerfulantioxidantthat
protectscellsfrom
oxidativedamage.Also
protectsvitaminAfrom
oxidativedamage.

Oilsofvegetableorigin,
greenvegetables,nuts,
seeds,andwholegrain
foods.

Inadequatelevelleadsto
shortenedredcelllifeand
mayberelatedto
prematureproblemsofthe
eyesrelatedtoaging.

VitaminK
(Phylloquinone)

Involvedinblood
clotting.

Madefrombacteria
residentinthegut,but
smallamountsalso
presentingreen
vegetablesandmilk.

Inadequatelevelmay
preventbloodfrom
clottingproperly,leading
toexcessivebleeding.

Possibleproblems

Page45

Addingtothestrengthandstructureoftheskeleton,keepingitstrongandresistanttofracture.
Maintainingtherelativeacidityoralkalinityofthebloodandtissue.Forathletes,hardphysicalactivityhasthetendencytolowerthepHlevel(i.e.,increasethe
relativeacidity),sohavingahealthysystemtocontrolacidbasebalanceiscriticalforenduranceperformance.
Servingasbridgesforelectricalimpulesthatstimulatemuscularmovement.Sinceallathleticendeavorsrelyonefficientandeffectivemuscularmovementand
coordination,thisfunctioniscriticallyimportant.
MetabolizingcellsPhysicalactivityincreasestherateatwhichfuelisburned.Therefore,theeffectivecontrolofthisfuelburnatthecellularlevelisnecessaryto
athleticendeavors.
Allofthesefunctionsareimportantforathletes.Athleteswithweakbonesareatincreasedriskofstressfracturespoorfluidbuffering(acidbaseimbalance)leadsto
poorendurancepoornerveandmusclefunctionleadstopoorcoordinationandalteredcellmetabolismlimitsacell'sabilitytoobtainandstoreenergy.
Theestablishedrolesofmineralsinthedevelopmentofoptimalphysicalperformanceincludeinvolvementinglycolysis(obtainingenergyfromstoredglucose),lipolysis
(obtainingenergyfromfats),proteolysis(obtainingenergyfromproteins),andinthephosphagensystem(obtainingenergyfromphosphocreatine).73Inorganicmineral
nutrientsarerequiredinthestructuralcompositionofhardandsoftbodytissues.Theyalsoparticipateinsuchprocessesastheactionofenzymesystems,the
contractionofmuscles,nervereactions,andtheclottingofblood.Thesemineralnutrients,allofwhichmustbesuppliedinthediet,areoftwoclasses:themajor
elements(macrominerals)suchascalcium,phosphorus,magnesium,iron,iodine,andpotassiumandtraceelements(microminerals)suchascopper,cobalt,
manganese,fluorine,andzinc.16a
Macrominerals
Thetotalmineralcontentofthebodyisapproximately4percentofbodyweight.Macromineralsarethosemineralsthatarepresentinthebodyinrelativelylarge
amounts(comparedtomicrominerals).Thesearemineralsthatarerequiredatalevelof100mgperdayormore,orthebodycontentofthemineralisgreaterthan5
grams.Macromineralsincludecalcium,phosphorus,magnesium,

Page46

potassium,sodium,chloride,andsulfur.Calciummakesupapproximately1.75percentoftotalbodyweight,phosphorusmakesupapproximately1.10percentof
totalbodyweight,andmagnesiummakesupapproximately0.04percentoftotalbodyweight.
Calcium(ChemicalSymbol=Ca)
Calciumisanimportantmineralforboneandtoothstructure,bloodclotting,andnervetransmission,andhasanadultRDAof800to1,200milligrams.Deficiencies
areassociatedwithskeletalmalformations(asinrickets),increasedskeletalfragility(asinosteoporoticfractureandstressfractures),andbloodpressure
abnormalities.Therearefewreportsoftoxicityfromtakinghighdosesofcalcium,butitisconceivablethatahighandfrequentintakeofcalciumsupplementsmayalter
theacidityofthestomach(makingitmorealkaline),therebyinterferingwithproteindigestion.Sincethereiscompetitiveabsorptionbetweenmanymineralsinthesmall
intestine(calcium,zinc,iron,andmagnesium),itisalsopossiblethathavingahighamountofcalciummayinterferewiththeabsorptionofothermineralsiftheyare
presentinthegutatthesametime.Therefore,takinghighdosecalciumsupplementsatthesametimeyoueatafoodthatcontainsiron,forexample,mayresultinthe
malabsorptionofironandeventuallyleadtoirondeficiencyanemia.
Foodsourcesofcalciumincludedairyproducts(milk,cheese,yogurt),darkgreenvegetables(collards,spinach,chard,mustardgreens,broccoli,greenpeppers),and
driedbeansandpeas(lentils,navybeans,soybeans,andsplitpeas).It'simportanttonotethatcalciumandseveralotherminerals(especiallyiron,magnesium,and
zinc)areeasilyboundtoacompoundfoundindarkgreenvegetablescalledoxalicacidoroxalate.Ifthesemineralsareboundtooxalate,theybecomeunavailablefor
absorption.Therefore,whiledarkgreenvegetablesarepotentiallygoodsourcesofcalciumandseveralotherminerals,thesefoodsdon'tmakethemineralseasily
availabletous.However,itispossibletoimprovethebioavailabilityoftheseoxalateboundmineralsthroughaneasyfoodpreparationtechniquecalledblanching.
Oxalateishighlywatersolublesobydippingthevegetablesforafewsecondsintoboilingwater,agooddealoftheoxalateisremovedbutthemineralsremain.You
canthenpreparethevegetablesasyoulike.Thistechniquedramaticallyimprovesthedeliveryofcalciumfromvegetables,andhasbeenusedbyculturesthat
traditionallyhavenotconsumeddairyproducts(especiallyinAsia)forthousandsofyears.Asasidebenefit,vegetablesthatareblanchedmayalsobemore
acceptablefor

Page47

childrentoeat.Childrenaremoresensitivetobittertastesthanadults(welosesomeofourtastesensitivitiesasweage!),andoxalicacidhasabittertaste.Therefore,
byremovingtheoxalateyoualsoremovesomeofthebittertastethatchildrenfindunacceptable.
Therehavebeennumerousstudieslookingattherelationshipsamongcalciumintake,physicalactivity,andbonedensity.However,therelationshipbetweencalcium
supplementationandphysicalperformancehasnotbeenwellstudied.Infact,whenathletestakecalciumsupplementsitistypicallyforthepurposeofreducingtherisk
offracture(i.e.,improvingbonedensity)andnotforthepurposeofimprovingphysicalperformance.Physicalactivityisknowntoenhancebonedensity,justas
physicalinactivityisknowntolowerbonedensity.However,thedevelopmentandmineralizationofbonearecomplexandinvolveseveralfactorsincludinggrowth
phase(childhoodandadolescenceareassociatedwithfasterbonedevelopment),hormonalstatus(especiallyestrogenforwomen),energyadequacy,vitaminD
availability,andcalciumintake.
Since1993,therehasbeenanincreasedavailabilityofanaccuratebonedensitymeasuringdevicecalledDEXA(DualEnergyXrayAbsorptiometry)thathas
dramaticallyimprovedtheabilitytomeasurebonedensityanddetermineriskoffracture.StudiesthathaveusedDEXAappeartoindicatethatchildrenand
adolescentswhohaveacalciumintakeatorslightlyabovetheRDA(upto1,500milligrams)mayimprovebonedensity.However,therelationshipbetweencalcium
supplementationandbonedensityinadultsislessclear(i.e.,takingcalciumsupplementsbythemselvesdoesnotnecessarilyleadtoagreaterbonedensity).Despite
this,itseemsprudenttomakecertainthatcalciumintakeismaintainedattheRDAlevel,thatadequatephysicalactivityismaintained(notaproblemformostathletes),
andthatthereisanadequateintakeofvitaminD.ArecentsurveyontheUnitedStatesGymnasticsteamindicatedthatsunlightexposurewasmorehighlycorrelated
(andsignificantlyso)tobonemineraldensitythancalciumintake.Eveningymnastswithaninadequatecalciumintake(i.e.,belowtheRDA),havingmoresunlight
exposurewasassociatedwithhigherbonedensities.74
Anotherconcernwithmanyfemaleathletesisamenorrhea(cessationofmenses),becausethisisstronglyassociatedwitheitherpoorbonedevelopment(inyoung
athletes)orbonedemineralization(inolderathletes).Thecausesofamenorrheaarecomplexandincludeinadequateenergyintake,eatingdisorders,lowbodyfat
levels,poorironstatus,psychologicalstress,highcortisollevels,andovertraining.Inotherwords,hardworkingelitefemaleathletesareatrisk.

Page48

Anythingthatmightlowerrisk,suchasmaintainingagoodironstatusandconsumingenoughenergy,isusefulforloweringtheriskofdevelopingamenorrhea.Evenif
anamenorrheicathletehassufficientcalciumintake,thatalonewouldnotsufficetomaintainordevelophealthybonesbecausethelowerlevelofcirculatingestrogen
associatedwithamenorrheawouldinhibitnormalbonedevelopmentormaintenance.
Phosphorus(ChemicalSymbol=P)
Phosphorusispresentinmostfoodsandisespeciallyhighinproteinrichfoods(meat,poultry,fish,anddairyproducts)andcerealgrains.Itcombineswithcalcium
(abouttwopartscalciumforeverypartphosphorus)toproducehealthybonesandteeth.Italsoplaysanimportantroleinenergymetabolism,affectingcarbohydrates,
lipids,andproteins.Theenergyderivedformuscularworkcomes

Page49

largelyfromphosphoruscontainingcompoundscalledadenosinetriphosphate(ATP)andcreatinephosphate(CP).Aswithcalcium,theabsorptionofphosphorus
islargelydependentonvitaminD,andtheadultRDAis800to1,200milligrams/day.
Becausephosphorusissoomnipresentinthefoodsupply,adeficiencyisrare.However,ithasbeenseeninpeopletakingantacidsthatcontainaluminumhydroxide
forlongperiodsoftime.75Thistypeofantacidbindswithphosphorus,makingitunavailableforabsorption.76
Thereisalonghistoryofsupplementingwithphosphoruscontainingsubstancestoimprovephysicalperformance.InWorldWarI,Germanyprovideditssoldierswith
foodsandsupplementshighinphosphoruswiththeaimofimprovingstrengthandendurance.77Thisexperiencewithphosphorussuggeststhatrelativelylargeamounts
arewelltoleratedovertime,butthereisnoevidencethatstrengthandenduranceareactuallyimproved.Theresultsofmorerecentstudiesontheeffectofphosphorus
supplementationaremixed.Astudyonrunners,rowers,andswimmerswhotook2gramsofsodiumdihydrogenphosphateonehourpriortoexerciseallshowed
performanceimprovements,whileonlyhalftheunsupplementedathletesshowedimprovements.78Inanotherstudy,VO2maxwasimprovedonatreadmilltest
followingshorttermphosphorussupplementation.79However,inanotherstudyevaluatingtheeffectofphosphatesupplementationonmuscularpower,therewasno
apparentbenefitfromtakingthephosphate.80Takentogether,themixedresultsofthesestudiesmakeitdifficulttosaywhetherasmallpreexercisesupplementof
phosphoruswillimproveperformance.Clearly,morestudiesareneededbeforeananswertothisquestioncanbeattempted.
Magnesium(ChemicalSymbol=Mg)
Magnesium,whichispresentinmostfoods,isessentialforhumanmetabolismandisimportantformaintainingtheelectricalpotentialinnerveandmusclecells.A
deficiencyinmagnesiumamongmalnourishedpeople,especiallyalcoholics,leadstotremorsandconvulsions.Itisinvolvedinmorethan300reactionsinwhichfoodis
synthesizedtonewproducts,anditisacriticalcomponentintheprocessesthatcreatemuscularenergyfromcarbohydrate,protein,andfat.81TheadultRDAfor
magnesiumis280to350milligramsperday.
Itispossiblethatathletestraininginhotandhumidenvironmentscouldlosealargeamountofmagnesiuminsweat.Werethistooccur,amagnesiumdeficiencycould,
giventheimportanceofmagnesiuminmusclefunctionprocesses,causeathletestounderachieveathletically.Inonestudywheremagnesiumsupplementsweregivento
athletes,

Page50
82

therewasanimprovementinphysicalperformance. ThereissomelimitedevidencethattakingmagnesiumsupplementsattheleveloftheRDA(about350
milligrams/day)mayhaveabeneficialeffectonenduranceandstrengthperformanceinathleteswhohavebloodmagnesiumlevelsatthelowendofthenormal
range.83,84However,withtheexceptionofthesestudies,thereislittleotherresearchevidencethatmagnesiumdeficiencyiscommonamongathletesorthat
supplementationimprovesperformance.Infact,withtheexceptionofathleteswhoareknowntoreducetotalenergyintakeinanattempttomaintainorlowerweight
(wrestlers,gymnasts,skaters,etc.),itappearsasifmostmaleathletesconsumetheRDAormore,andmostfemaleathletesconsumeatleast60percentofthe
magnesiumRDA.85,86
Sodium(ChemicalSymbol=Na)
Sodiumisanessentialmineralcommonlyreferredtoassalt,whichisactuallysodiumchloride.Itisinvolvedinbodywaterbalanceandacidbasebalanceandisthe
majorextracellular(outsidethecell,includingbloodandfluid)mineral.Sodiumispresentinsmallquantitiesinmostnaturalfoodsandisfoundinhighamountsin
processed,canned,cooked,andfastfoods.Whilemostpeoplearecapableofexcretingexcesssodium,somearesensitivetosodium,becausetheydonothavethis
capability.Thisexcessretentionofsodiumcausesedema,whichisanoveraccumulationofextracellularfluidandmaycontributetohighbloodpressure.Ifyouaresalt
sensitive,youcanlimityoursodiumintakebyconcentratingfood
Table1.4UnderstandingFoodLables:Sodium
Term

Definition

Sodiumfree

Lessthan5mgsodiumperstandardserving.

Lowsodium

140mgsodiumorlessperstandardserving.Iftheserving
weighs30gramsorless,140mgsodiumorlessper50gramsof
food.Iftheservingis2tablespoonsorless,140mgsodiumor
lessper50gofthefood.

Verylowsodium

35mgsodiumorlessperstandardserving.Iftheserving
weights30gramsorless,35mgsodiumorlessper50gramsof
food.Iftheservingis2tablespoonsorless,35mgsodiumor
lessper50gofthefood.

Reducedorlesssodium

Aminimumofa25percentlowersodiumcontenthanthefood
itiscomparedto.

Page51

choicesonnatural,wholefoodsandavoidinghighsodiumcomerciallypreparedfoods.Foodlabelsprovideinformationaboutsodiumcontent(seetable1.4).The
FoodandDrugAdministration's(FDA's)dailyreferencevaluesforthesodiumcontentof2,500caloriedietsislessthan2,400milligrams.TheRDAestimateddaily
sodiumrequirementis500milligrams.
Oneofthekeyingredientsofsportsbeveragesissodium,becauseithelpstodrivethedesiretodrink,andbecauseithelpstomaintainbloodvolume.Maintenanceof
bloodvolumeisanimportantfactorinathleticperformance,becauseitisrelatedtotheabilitytodelivernutrientstocells,removemetabolicbyproductsfromcells,
andmaintainthesweatratesothebodydoesn'toverheat.Additionalinformationonsodiumisincludedinchapter2.
Chloride(ChemicalSymbol=Cl)
Chloride,anotherextracellularmineral,isessentialforthemaintenanceoffluidbalance,andisalsoanimportantcomponentofgastricjuices.Virtuallyallthechloride
weconsumeisassociatedwithtablesalt(sodiumchloride),sothereisaparallelbetweensodiumandchlorideintakes.Inaddition,chloridelossesarecloselylinked
tosodiumlosses,soadeficiencyofoneisrelatedtoadeficiencyoftheother.Deficienciestypicallyoccurwithheavysweating,frequentdiarrhea,orfrequent
vomiting.87Infact,sweatlossesarelikelytodepletechlorideandsodiumtoagreaterdegreethanotherminerals(electrolytesincludingpotassiumandmagnesium)that
arelostinsweat.88Sincemostpeopleconsumeexcessiveamountsofsodiumbecauseofaheavytablesaltintake,chlorideintakeistypically6,000milligrams(6
grams),alevelthatiswellabovenormalrequirements.89TheRDAestimatedchloriderequirementis750milligramsperday.Additionalinformationonchlorideis
includedinchapter2.
Potassium(ChemicalSymbol=K)
Potassiumisthemainmineralfoundinsidecells(anintracellularelectrolyte)ataconcentrationthatis30timesgreaterthantheconcentrationofpotassiumfound
outsidecells.Itisinvolvedinwaterbalance,nerveimpulsetransmission,andmuscularcontractions.Dietarydeficiencyisrareandtypicallyonlyoccurswithchronic
diarrheaandvomitingorlaxativeabuse.Individualstakingmedicationsforhighbloodpressureforcethelossofsodium,andinthisprocesspotassiumisalsolost.
Theseindividualsareencouragedtoreplacethislostpotassiumthroughtheintakeofpotassiumsupplementsorfoodshighinpotassium(fruits,vegetables,andmeats).
Thetypicalintakeofpotassiumrangesfrom1,000to11,000

Page52

milligramsperday(111grams/day),withpeopleconsuminglargeamountsoffreshfruitsandvegetableshavingthehighestintakes.Thereisgoodevidencethathigh
levelsofpotassium(around3,500milligrams/day)arebeneficialincontrollinghighbloodpressure.90Toxicity,whichoccurswithintakesofpotassiumthatarearound
18,000milligrams(18grams)mayleadtocardiacarrest.91TheRDAestimateddailypotassiumrequirementis2,000milligrams.
Althoughitiswellestablishedthatpotassiumiscriticaltoheartandskeletalmusclefunction,theamountofpotassiumlostinsweatduringexerciseisrelativelysmall
anddoesnotseriouslyaffectthebody'spotassiumstores.Therefore,sweatrelatedlossesofpotassiumshouldnotseriouslyaffectathleticperformanceinthe
wellnourishedathlete.92Additionalinformationonpotassiumisincludedinchapter2.
Macrominerals
Mineral

Functions

Sources

Cautions

Macrominerals(major)
Calcium

Skeletalstructure,muscle
contractionandrelaxation,
bloodpressure,nerve
fuction,andimmune
system.

Alldairyproducts,tofu,
darkgreenleafyvegetables,
legumes(driedbeansand
peas),andcannedfish(with
ediblebones).

Poorlydevelopedand
deformedskeleton,
increasedskeletal
fragility,andgrowth
stuntinginchildren.

Phosphorus

Presentinthecellwallas Presentinallfoodsof
''phospholipids,"involved animalorigin,andalso
inhighenergybondsof
presentinlegumes.
energymetabolic
processes,andhelpsto
maintainbodypH(acidity
alkalinity).

Deficiencyisonlyseen
inconjunctionwiththe
intakeofcertaindrugs.
Calciumdeficiencymay
occurwithexcessintake
ofphosphorus.

Potassium

Involvedinprotein
synthesis,waterbalance,
pHbalance,nerveimpulse
transmission,andmuscle
contraction.Themost
prevalentintercellular
electrolyte.

Deficiencyisassociated
withweakness,paralysis,
andconfusion,andis
commonlyseenin
conjunctionwith
dehydration.Severe
deficiencymaycause
death.

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Presentinmeats,poultry,
dairyproducts,fruits,
vegetables,grains,and
legumes.Bananasand
orangesaregoodnonmeat
sources.

Page53

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Mineral

Functions

Sources

Cautions

Sulfur

thiamin,andinsulin.
Involvedintheshapeof
someproteins(through
sulferbonding
structures).Detoxifies
certainsubstances.

Presentinallfoodsthat
containprotein(asmost
foodsdo).

Deficiencywouldonly
occurinthepresenceof
severeprotein
deprivation(arare
occurrence),andtoxicity
wouldonlyoccurinthe
presenceofaprotein
excess(adocumented
conditioninanimalsbut
nothumans).

Sodium

ectrolyte,involvedin
fluidbalance,pH
balance,andnerve
impulsetransmission.

Presentinsalt,mostfast
foods,andinmany
preservedfoods.

Thoseindividualswith
sodiumsensitivity
develophypertension
withexcessiveintake.A
deficiencyofsodium
leadstomusclecramping,
lethargy,andanorexia.

Chloride

Involvedindigestive
enzymes(hydrochloric
acidinthestomach).

Presentintablesalt
(sodiumchloride),
processedandpreserved
foods,andfastfoods.

Inadequateintakemay
leadtogrowthretardation
inchildren,cramps,
lethargy,andanorexia.

Magnesium

Involvedinbone
strength,protein
synthesis,muscle
contraction,andnerve
impulsetransmission.
Thesecondmost
prevalentintercellular
electrolyte.

Presentinnuts,legumes,
wholegrains,darkgreen
leafyvegetables,seafood,
andcocoa.

Inadequateintakemay
leadtomuscleweakness,
convulsions,
hallucinations,and
growthfailure.Excess
intake(typicallythrough
frequentintakeof
magnesiumcontaining
antacidsandlaxatives)
mayleadtokidney
problems,confusion,and
poormuscular
coordination.

Page54

Microminerals
Themicrominerals(traceelements)arepresentinextremelysmallamountsbuthaveimportantrolestoplayinhumannutrition.Thesemicromineralsareneeded
inamountslessthan100mgperday,andhavebodycontentsoflessthan5grams.Theyincludeiron,iodine,zinc,copper,fluorine,manganese,molybdenum,
selenium,andchromium.
Iron(ChemicalSymbol=Fe)
Ironisneededtoformtheoxygentransportingcompoundshemoglobin(inblood)andmyoglobin(inmuscle),andisalsofoundinanumberofothercompounds
involvedinnormaltissuefunction.Ironabsorptionislimitedbecausewehavenoeffectivemechanismforexcretinganyexcessitisalsodrivenbytheamountofiron
wehavestored(inferritinandhemosiderin).Thelowerthestoragelevel,thehighertheabsorptionhowever,overallabsorptionratesrarelygoabove10to15percent
oftheironcontentofconsumedfood.Thisvariableabsorptionmechanismisaimedatmaintainingarelativelyconstantlevelofironandavoidinganexcessuptake.In
spiteofthisvariableabsorptionrate,peoplewithmarginalintakesofironareatriskfordevelopingirondeficiencyandeventualanemia.Irondeficiencyanemiais
characterizedbypooroxygencarryingcapacity,aconditionthatisknowntocauseperformancedeficitsinathletes.Irondeficiencyisalsoassociatedwithpoor
immunefunction,shortattentionspan,irritability,andpoorlearningability.IntheUnitedStates,childrenexperiencingfastgrowth,womenofmenstrualage,
vegetarians,andpregnantwomenareatincreasedriskfordevelopingirondeficiencyanemia.Periodsofgrowthandpregnancyareassociatedwithahigher
requirementofironbecauseofafastexpansionofthebloodvolume,andironisanessentialcomponentofredbloodcells.Womenofmenstrualagehavehigher
requirementsbecauseoftheregularblood(andiron)lossesassociatedwiththemenstrualperiod.Forthisreason,womenofchildbearingagehaveahigher
requirementforiron(18milligrams)thanmenofthesameage(10milligrams).Somepeopleareatriskfordevelopingirontoxicitybecausetheyaremissingthe
mechanismsforlimitingabsorption.Youngchildren,inparticular,maybeatriskforirontoxicityiftheyingestsupplementsintendedforadults.WhiletheironRDAfor
childrenissimilartothatforadults(10milligramsperdayforchildrenand10to15milligramsperdayforadults),manyironsupplementsintendedforadultshave
levelsofironthataremorethan300percentoftheRDA.Whereironoverloaddiseaseoccurs,itmaybefatal.

Page55

Ironisavailableinawidevarietyoffoods,includingmeats,eggs,vegetables,andironfortifiedcereals.Milkandotherdairyproductsarepoorsourcesofiron.The
mosteasilyabsorbedformofironis"heme"iron,whichcomesfrommeatsandotherfoodsofanimalorigin.Nonhemeiron,whichisnotaseasilyabsorbedasheme
iron,isfoundinfruits,vegetables,andcereals.However,nonhemeironabsorptionmaybeenhancedbyconsumingfoodshighinvitaminC.Ontheotherhand,non
hemeironabsorptionmaybeinhibitedbyphyticacid(asubstanceassociatedwithbranincerealgrains),antacids,andcalciumphosphate.Ingeneral,redmeatsare
consideredtoprovidethemostabundantandeasilyabsorbablesourceofiron.Itisforthisreasonthatvegetariansareconsideredtobeatincreasedriskforiron
deficiencyanemia.Nevertheless,withproperplanning,theconsumptionofvegetablesandfruitshighiniron,andsoundcookingtechniquesthataidironabsorption,
vegetarianscanobtainsufficientiron.
MaximizingIronIntakeinaVegetarianDiet
Forvegetarianswhowanttoimproveironabsorptionfromfoods,considerthefollowing:
Darkgreenvegetableshaveiron,buttheyalsohaveoxalicacid,whichreducesiron
availability.Toremovetheoxalicacidfromthevegetables,blanchethembyputtingthemina
potofboilingwaterfor5to10seconds.Muchoftheoxalateisremovedbuttheironremains.
Highfibercereals(thosewithahighbrancontent)havelargeamountsofphyticacid,which
bindswithironandreducesironavailability.Switchtowholegraincerealsratherthan
consumingbranaddedcereals.
Ironinvegetablesisinaformthathasalowerrateofabsorptionthanironinmeats.To
improvetherateofabsorption,addvitaminCtothevegetablesbysqueezinglemonororange
juiceonthembeforeeating.

Athleteshavegoodreasontobeconcernedaboutironstatus,sinceoxygencarryingcapacity(viahemoglobininbloodandmyoglobininmuscles)isacriticalfactorin
physicalendurance.Irondeficiencyisoneofthemostcommonnutrientdeficiencies,anditappearsasifathleteshaveaboutthesamerateofirondeficiencyanemiaas
thegeneralpublic.93Theremaybeseveralreasonswhysomeathletessufferfromlowironlevels.Theseinclude:

Page56

Lowdietaryintakeofiron.Itispossiblethatsomeathletesmayconsumefoodswithaninadequatetotalintakeofiron.Thismaybeespeciallytruewithathletes
whoarelimitingtotalenergyintakeasameans(albeitineffective)ofmaintainingorreducingweight.
Consumptionoffoodswithlowironabsorptionrates.Manyathletesconsumelargeamountsofcarbohydratesandarelimitingtheintakeofredmeat.Whileiron
existsinnonmeatsources,theabsorptionrateofironinthesefoodsistypicallyless,aswellasthetotalironcontent.
Increasedironlosses(hematuria).Someformsofexercise,particularlylongdistancerunningandconcussivesports,causesmallamountsofhemoglobinand/or
myoglobintobelostintheurineduetoarupturingofredbloodcells.
Lossofironinsweat.Whileironlossesinsweatarelow(about0.3to0.4milligramsperliterofsweat),atypicalabsorptionrateofironfromfood(about10
percent)wouldrequirethat3to4milligramsofdietaryironbeconsumedforeachliterofsweatproduced.94Runnerscommonlylose,particularlyinhotandhumid
environments,upto2litersofsweatperhour.
"Sportsanemia".Itiscommonformanyathletestoappearasiftheyareanemicatthebeginningoftrainingseasonbecausethereisalargeincreaseinbloodvolume
attheinitiationoftraining.Thisincreaseinbloodvolumehastheeffectofdilutingtheconstituentsoftheblood,includingredbloodcells,makingitappearasthough
thereisananemia.However,afterashorttime,thebodyincreasestheproductionofredbloodcellstoremovetheappearanceofanemia.
Therearedifferencesinhowanathletemightrespondinthepresenceoffrankanemia(reductioninthenumberandsizeofredbloodcells)versusirondeficiency(low
serumironandlowstorediron,butnormalredbloodcells)anemia.ThesedifferenceshavebeensummarizedbyWolinskyandDriskellinthetablethatfollows(see
table1.5).95
Whileirondeficientathletesareknowntoexperienceaperformancedeficit,thereappearstobenobenefitinprovidingironsupplementstoathleteswhohavea
normalironstatus.96Further,ironsupplementationisoftenassociatedwithnausea,constipation,andstomachirritation.However,inathleteswhohavehadbloodtests
thatdemonstrateeitherananemiaoramarginallevelofstorediron,ironsupplementationiswarranted.Thebestmeansofprovidingironsupplementstoreducethe
chanceofpotentialnegativesideeffectsistoprovide25to50milligramseverythirdorfourthdayratherthandailydoses.97

Page57
Table1.5TheImpactofAnemiaandIronDeficiencyonExercisePerformance
Anemia

Irondeficiency

Loweroxygendeliverytocells

Higherrateofglucoseoxidation

Decreasedoxygenuptake(lowerVO2max)

Higherlacticacidproduction

Lowerenduranceperformance

Higherrespiratoryquotient(higherproportionof
carbohydrateconsumedtomeetenergyneeds)

Loweroxidativemetabolism

Decreasedenduranceperformancepossible

Higherglucoseoxidation

Higherlacticacidproduction

Increasedrespiratoryquotient(higherproportionof
carbohydrateconsumedtomeetenergyneeds)

AdaptedfromTobinandBeard1997.

Zinc(ChemicalSymbol=Zn)
Zincisalsoimportantinformingenzymes.Zincisamineralthathelpstoformcertainenzymes,atypeofprotein.Enzymeshelpchemicalreactionssuchasthehealing
ofwoundsoccurataproperrate.Zinccontainingenzymesareinvolvedinthemetabolismofcarbohydrates,fats,andproteins.Insufficientdietaryintakeofzinc
causesavarietyofhealthproblems,includingstuntedgrowth,slowwoundhealing,andfailureoftheimmunesystem.Zincalsoplaysanimportantroleintheremoval
ofcarbondioxidefromcells,andispartofanimportantantioxidantenzymecalledsuperoxidedismutase.Excessiveintakecancauseanemia,vomiting,andimmune
systemfailure.Meat,liver,eggs,andseafoodaregoodsourcesofzinc.TheadultRDAforzincis12to15milligramsperday.
Zinclevelsatthelowerendofthenormalrange,orlower,havebeenobservedinmaleandfemaleendurancerunners.Athleteswithlowerserumzincvalueshadlower
trainingmileage(i.e.,couldprobablynottrainashard)thanthosewhohadhighervalues.98100Therefore,thereappearstobeaperformancedeficitinthesmall
numberofathleteswhohavepoorzincstatus.Theeffectofzincsupplementationonperformancehasnotbeenextensivelystudied,andthelevelofsupplementationin
thesestudieshasbeenextremely

Page58

high(around135milligrams/day).Also,theathletestestedwereneverassessedforzincstatuspriortotheinitiationoftheresearchprotocol.Nevertheless,thislevelof
intakedidleadtoanimprovementinbothmuscularstrengthandendurance.101Athletesshouldbecautionedthatthislevelofzincintakehasneverbeentestedover
time,soitmaywellhavenegativesideeffects.Toxicityandmalabsorptionofothernutrientsarebothlikelyandpossiblewiththislevelofintake.102104
Iodine(ChemicalSymbol=I)
Iodineisneededtosynthesizeakeyhormoneofthethyroidgland,thyroxin,whichisinvolvedinregulatingmetabolicrate,growth,anddevelopment.Adeficiencyof
iodineleadstogoiter,aswellingofthethyroidglandinthefrontoftheneck.GoiterwasoncecommonintheUnitedStatesbecausecertainareashavefoodsgrownin
soilswithalowiodinecontent.ItremainsaprevalentnutritionaldeficiencydiseaseincertainpartsofAsia,Africa,andSouthAmerica.Pregnantwomenwithlow
iodineintakesgivebirthtocretinousormentallyretardedinfants.IntheUnitedStates,anearlypublichealthmeasuretoassurethateveryonehadanadequateintake
ofiodinewastoaddiodinetosalt.Thisiodizedsalteliminatedgoiterinthiscountry.Anexcessiveintakeofiodinehastheeffectofdepressingthyroidactivity,so
takingadditionalsupplementaldosesofiodineisnotrecommended.
Selenium(ChemicalSymbol=Se)
Seleniumisanimportantmineralantioxidantinhumannutrition.Sinceexercise(particularlyenduranceexercise)isassociatedwithanincreasedproductionof
potentiallydamagingoxidativebyproducts(peroxidesandfreeradicals)inmusclefibers,itispossiblethatseleniummayplayaroleinreducingmuscularoxidative
stress.105Aseleniumdeficiencymayresultinmuscleweaknessandincreaserecoverytimefromexhaustiveexercise.106Thereislittleevidence,however,that
increasingtheintakeofsupplementalseleniumincreasesexerciseperformance.107TheadultRDAforseleniumis55to70micrograms.Itisdifficulttodetermine
dietaryadequacy,sincetheseleniumcontentoffoodisdeterminedbysoilandwaterwherethefoodwasgrown.Nutritionalsupplements,includingsodiumselenite
andhighseleniumyeast,areeffectivesourcesofselenium,butexcessiveintakemaybetoxic,sopropercareintakingappropriatelevelsofsupplementsisimportant.

Page59

Copper(ChemicalSymbol=Cu)
Amongthemoreimportanttraceelementsiscopper,whichispresentinmanyenzymesandincoppercontainingproteinsfoundintheblood,brain,andliver.Copper
deficiencyisassociatedwiththefailuretouseironintheformationofhemoglobinandmyoglobin.Itisalsoimportantinpreventingoxidativedamagetocellsthrough
theenzymesuperoxidedismutase.TheadultRDAforcopperis1.5to3.0milligramsperday.Goodsourcesofcopperincludeshellfish,soybeanproducts,legumes,
nuts,seeds,liver,andpotatoes.Asanothergoodexampleofwhynutritionalbalanceisimportant,excessiveconsumptionofcalcium,phosphate,iron,zinc,andvitamin
Callreducecopperabsorption.
Veryfewstudieshavebeenperformedontherelationshipbetweencopperandathleticperformance.Studiesofbloodcopperconcentrationsinathletesand
nonathleteshavenotrevealedanysignificantdifferences,buttheathleteshaveaslightlyhigher(34percent)concentrationofserumcopperthannonathletes.108Ina
studyevaluatingthecopperstatusofswimmersduringacompetitiveseasontherewasnodifferenceinpreandpostseasoncopperstatus.Inthisstudy,themajority
ofswimmerswereconsumingadequatelevelsofcopper(morethan1milligramperday)fromfood.109
Manganese(ChemicalSymbol=Mn)
Manganeseisatracemineralthatisinvolvedinboneformation,immunefunction,antioxidantactivity,andcarbohydratemetabolism.110Whilemanganesedeficiencyis
rare,deficienciesareassociatedwithskeletalproblems(undermineralizedboneandincreasedriskoffracture)andpoorwoundhealing.Itappearsthatthoseat
greatestriskfordeficiencyarethoseondiets(inadequateintake)orwheremalabsorptionoccurs.Manganeseisincompetitionwithcalcium,iron,andzincfor
absorption,soanexcessintakeoftheseothermineralsmaydecreasemanganeseabsorptionandleadtodeficiencysymptoms.Muchlikeiron,manganeseabsorption
isenhancedwithvitaminCandmeatintake.Foodsourcesofmanganeseincludecoffee,tea,chocolate,wholewheat,nuts,seeds,soybeans,driedbeans(navybeans,
lentils,splitpeas,etc.),liver,andfruits.Aswithseveralotherminerals,theintakeoffoodshighinoxalicacid(presentindarkgreenleafyvegetables)mayinhibit
manganeseabsorption.(Seecalciumsectionforwaysofreducingtheoxalicacidcontentoffoods.)TheadultRDIformanganeseis2

Page60

milligrams.(RDI=recommendeddietaryintakeusedbytheNRC(NationalResearchCouncil)whenthereisinsufficientdatatodevelopanRDA.Formany
micromineralsthereisonlyanRDIbecausetherehasbeenlimitedresearchonhumanrequirements.)Foodsourcesincludetea,coffee,chocolate,soybeanproducts,
legumes,wholegrains,liver,andfruits.Aswithcopper,excessiveintakesofcalcium,phosphorus,iron,zinc,fiber,andoxalicacidalldecreasemanganeseabsorption.
Chromium(ChemicalSymbol=Cr)
Chromiumisalsoknownasglucosetolerancefactor(GTF)becauseofitsinvolvementinhelpingcellsuseglucose.Adeficiencyofchromiumisknowntobe
associatedwithpoorbloodglucosemaintenance(eitherhypoorhyperglycemia),anexcessiveproductionofinsulin(hyperinsulinemia),excessivefatigue,anda
cravingforsweetfoods.(Hypoglycemiaislowbloodsugarhyperglycemiaishighbloodsugar).Itisalsoassociatedwithirritability(acommonconditionwithpoor
bloodglucosecontrol),weightgain,adultonsetdiabetes,andincreasedriskofcardiovasculardisease.111Thereissomeevidencethatfrequentintenseexercise,which
iscommonforseriousathletes,mayplaceapersonatriskofchromiumdeficiency.Highconsumptionofsimplesugars(sweets)mayalsoplacepeopleatriskfor
deficiency.Itappears,fromanumberofsurveys,thatalargeproportionoftheU.S.populationconsumesinadequatelevelsofchromium,afactorthatmaybe
associatedwiththeexcessweightcommonlyfoundingreaternumbersofthepopulation.Thebestfoodsourcesofchromiumincludewholegrainsandmeats.
Nutritionalsupplements,commonlyintheformofchromiumpicolinate,aretakenasameansofreducingweightorbodyfat,buttheresultsofstudiesonthis
supplementhaveproducedmixedresults.Initialstudiesofchromiumpicolinatesupplementationsuggestedthatthissupplementwaseffectiveatincreasingmusclemass
anddecreasingbodyfatinbodybuildersandfootballplayers.112However,subsequentcontrolledstudieshavefailedtoreachthesameconclusions.113,114Other
supplementsforchromiumincludechromiumpolynicotinate,chromiumchloride,andhighchromiumyeast.TheadultRDIforchromiumis120microgramsperday.
Dietarysourcesincludewholegrainbreadsandcereals,meats,andhighchromiumyeast.
Becausechromiumisnotwellabsorbed,thereislittleevidencetosuggestthatanexcessiveintakeofchromiumwillresultintoxicity.

Page61

However,thetoxicityofchromiumhasnotbeendirectlytested,soathletesshouldbecautiousabouttakingsupplements.Onestudysuggeststhatchromiumpicolinate
hasthepotentialofalteringDNA,andthusproducingmutated,cancerouscells.115Takentogether,thesestudiessuggestthattomaintainoptimalchromiumnutriture,
athletesshouldconsumefoodslowinsugarandadietthatcontainswholegrainsand,ifnotavegetarian,somemeat.Supplementationhasnotbeenshowntoaid
athleticperformance.
Microminerals
Mineral

Functions

Sources

Cautions

Iron

Partofhemoglobin,
involvedinoxygenand
carbondioxidetransferin
theblood.Makesoxygen
availabletomusclesfor
aerobicactivity.

Foundinredmeats,dark
poultry,fish,eggs,
legumes,anddriedfruits.
(Absorptionofplant
basedironisenhanced
withvitaminC.)

Inadequateintakeleadsto
irondeficiencyanemia,
whichresultsineasy
fatigue,increased
infectionrisk,poor
concentration,andlower
learningability.

Copper

Involvedintransferring
ironfromstoragetoits
functionalform
(hemoglobin).Alsopart
ofseveralenzymes.

Foundinmeatandmost
drinkingwater.

Inadequateintake
contributestoiron
deficiencyanemia.

Iodine

Animportantcomponent
ofthyroidhormone
(thyroxine),whichisthe
majorcontrolling
hormoneofenergy
metabolism.

Themostcertaindietary
sourceisiodizedsalt,but
itisalsoavailablein
seafood.Soillevelsof
iodinevary,sofoods
grownindifferentareas
haveadifferentiodine
content.

Deficiencysymptoms
includefatigue,lowbody
temperature
(hypothermia),and
weakness.Serious
deficiencyresultsingoiter
(glandenlargement),
mentalretardation
(cretinism),and
cardiovasculardisease.
Toxicityisnot
documented,butregular
supplementalintakes
exceedingtheRDIof150
micrograms/dayshouldbe
avoided.

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

(continued)

Page62

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Microminerals(continued)
Mineral

Functions

Sources

Cautions

Zinc

Partofmanyenzymes
involvedinenergy
metabolism.Also
involvedintaste,wound
healing,andimmune
function.

Foundinmosthighprotein
foods,especiallyredmeat,
fish,andpoultry.Foundin
smallerconcentrationsin
grainsandvegetables.

Inadequateintakeleads
togrowthfailurein
childrenandadelayin
developmentof
secondarysexual
characterstics.Deficiency
alsoleadstoalteredtaste
andpoorhealingof
injuries.Excessmaylead
tonausea,diarrhea,poor
muscularcoordination,
andkidneyfailure.

Flouride

Involvedindeveloping
Fluoridatedwater,
strongbonesandteeth.
fluoridateddentifrices(if
Teethformedwhen
swallowed),andseafood.
fluorideisavailableinthe
systemcreates
decayresistantenamel.

Deficiencymayincrease
riskofdevelopingdental
cavities.Excessmay
causefluorosis
(discoloredteeth)and
nausea.

Chromium

Alsocalledglucose
tolerancefactorbecause
ofitsinvolvementin
controllingbloodglucose
(ithelpsinsulinwork
effectively).

Deficiencyismost
commonlyseenwith
frequentintenseexercise
andhighconsumptionof
simplesugarsandis
associatedwithpoor
bloodglucosecontrol
(hyperglycemiaand
hypoglycemia).Typical
intakesintheU.S.range
from<50to100
micrograms,soa
deficiencyispossible.
Toxicityispossiblebut
notdocumented.
Supplementalintake
shouldnotregularly
exceedtheRDIof120
micrograms.

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Foundinwholegrain
foodsandmeats,andis
availableinsupplement
formaschromium
picolinate,chromium
chloride,andhigh
chromiumyeast.

Page63

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Mineral

Functions

Sources

Cautions

Manganese

Involvedinboneand
cartilagegrowthand
maintenance,
carbohydrate
metabolism,antioxidant
activity,fatmetabolism,
andtheproductionof
glucosefromprotein
(gluconegenesis).

Foundinwholegrain
wheat,nuts,seeds,
legumes(includingsoy
products),andfruits.
Alsofoundinteaand
coffee.Availablein
supplements,butRDIof
2.0mg/dayshouldnotbe
exceededonregular
basis.

Deficiencyassociatedwith
skeletalproblems
(osteoarthrists,
osteoporosis,increased
fracturerisk)andpoor
healing.

Molybdenum

Involvedintheenzyme
thatoxidizesxanthineto
uricacid.Alsoimportant
fornitrogenfixing
bacteria,whicharethe
basisofourprotein
foods.

Molybdenum
concentrationsvary
widelyinfoods,
dependingonthesoil
wherethefoodsare
grown.Concentrations
arehighestinlegumes,
wholegraincereals,and
liver.

Deficiencyofmolybdenum
onlydocumentedwith
longtermintravenous
feeding,andisunlikelyin
peoplewhoregularly
consumeawidevarietyof
foods.Toxicitysymptoms
fromexcessmolybdenum
intakearenotwell
documentedinhumans,
butregularsupplemental
intakesexceedingtheRDI
of75microgramsperday
shouldbeavoided.

Selenium

Animportantcellular
antioxidantthatworks
aspartofacompound
called''glutathione
peroxidase.".Aidsthe
antioxidantfunctionsof
vitaminEandvitaminC.

Foodcontentbasedon
seleniumcontentofsoil
andwaterwherefoodwas
grown,soishighly
variable.Maybeobtained
fromsupplements
(commonlysodium
selenite,
selenomethionine,and
highseleniumyeast).

Deficiencydisordersmay
berelatedtocardiac
dysfunction(Keshan
disease)andosteoarthritis.
Mayalsobeassociated
withincreasedcancerrisk,
muscleweakness,and
impairedimmunefunction.
Potentialtoxicityriskwith
excesssupplementation
(regulardailyintakes
exceeding0.2mg/day)
exists.

Page64

DigestionandAbsorption
Digestionistheprocesswherethebodybreaksdownthephysicalandchemicalconstituentsofconsumedfoodstobringthemtoasufficientlysmallsizeandmolecular
structurethattheycanpassthroughtheliningofthesmallintestinetobeabsorbedintotheblood.Wehavetremendouslycomplexsystemsfordoingthis,withthe
resultthatover90percentoftheenergyconsumedisactuallyabsorbed(seetable1.6).
Theabsorptionratesforvitaminsandmineralsvary,inlargepartduetophysiologicalneed.Ourabilitytocontroltheabsorptionofcertainmineralsisabuiltinsafety
mechanismtomakecertainwedon'texceedasafelevelofthemineralinourtissues.Iron,forinstance,isabsorbedatrelativelylowrates(5to20percentoftheiron
consumed)becausewehavenoeffectivemeansofexcretingtheexcess.Absorbingtoomuchironintothesystemwouldcausetoomuchirontoaccumulateand
wouldcauseserious(evendeadly)problemsasdiscussedearlier.Ontheotherhand,therearemineralsthatweabsorbfreely,suchassodium,becausewehavean
effectivemeansofexcretingtheexcess.
Somevitamins,suchasvitaminB12,requiretheassistanceofanothersubstancetobeabsorbed.Forinstance,vitaminB12attachesitselftoasubstancecalled
intrinsicfactor,whichisproducedbyaspecificsetofcellsinthestomach(parietalcells).TheintrinsicfactortakesvitaminB12totherightplaceinthesmallintestine
forabsorption.Withoutsufficientintrinsicfactorproduction,apersonwouldsufferfromperniciousanemia(avitaminB12deficiencydisorder)evenwithasufficient
intakeofvitaminB12.
ThecooperativenatureofintrinsicfactorandvitaminB12pointstoanothercriticalpoint:afailureofonepartofthedigestiveorabsorptivesystemislikelytoleadto
problemselsewhereinthesystem.TocarrythevitaminB12examplefurther,someonewithastomachproblem(irritation,ulcer,cancer,etc.)maynotproduce
sufficientintrinsicfactortoaidintheabsorptionofvitaminB12.Sincetheparietalcellsthatproduceintrinsicfactorarealsoresponsibleforproducinghydrochloric
acid,akeyelementinachievingtheproperdigestiveacidity,othernutrients(particularlyprotein)wouldalsonotgetproperlydigestedorabsorbed.
Forathletes,theissuessurroundingdigestionandabsorptionarealsoofpracticalimportance,particularlyastheyrelatetothepregameorprecompetitionmeal.The
selectionofappropriatefoodsduringthistimeiscriticalforassuringthatathletesreceivethe

Page65
Table1.6DigestionandAbsorptionSitesforNutrients
Gastrointestinaltract

Digestionandabsorption

Mouth

Involvedinmechanicallybreakingapartfoodstoallowdigestiveenzymesto
mixandchemically"digest"thefoods.Theenzymeproducedinthemouthby
thesalivaglands(salivaryamylase)canchemicallydigestcarbohydrates.No
absorptionofnutrientstakesplaceinthemouth.

Stomach

Foodtravelsfromthemouthtothestomachviatheesophagus.Stomachcells
produceanenzyme(gastricprotease)thatdigestsproteinsintosmallerunits
calledpeptones.Thestomachalsocandigestsmallseizedfats(calledshort
andmediumchaintriglycerides)intoindividualfattyacidsandasmall,3
carbonunitcalledglycerol.Averysmallamountofthedigestedproteinand
fatcanenter(i.e.,canbe"absorbed")intotheveinsinthestomach.However,
thelevelofnutrientabsorptioninthestomachisconsideredtobeextremely
small.

Smallintestine

Inthesmallintestine,thepancreasintroducesenzymesforthecontinued
digestionofcarbohydrate,protein,andfat.Theseenzymes[calledpancreatic
amylase,protease,andlipase],plusbilefromthegallbladderandother
enzymesproducedinthesmallintestine,completethedigestionofconsumed
foods.Itisthesmallintestinewherethemajorityofallnutrient[carbohydrates,
proteins,fats,vitamins,andminerals]absorptiontakesplace.Theabsorption
siteforsomeminerals[iron,calcium,zinc,magnesium]isextremelysmall,
whichcausesthesemineralstocompeteforthesameabosorptionsite.

Largeintestine

Inthelargeintestine,thereisamajorexchangeoffluidandelectrolytes
(minerals).Thelargeintestine(colon)alsohasasignificantpopulationof
friendlybacteriathataidsinthedisposaloffoodremnants.Thesebacteriaare
alsoinvolvedinproducingcertainvitamins,suchasvitaminK.

nutrientsthattheyneed,butit'salsoanimportanttimetoknowthattheyshouldn'tconsumeanythingthatmightstayinthestomachtoolong.Differentfoodsrequire
differentamountsoftimetodigestandabsorb.Thekeyistomakecertainthatthestomachisemptyatthetimethepracticeorcompetitionbegins.Otherwise,the
athletemaydevelopanupsetstomach,afactorthatcouldeasilyimpedeoptimalperformance.Thereasonforthisisstraightforward:whenexercisebegins,bloodis
shuntedtotheworkingmusclesandawayfromthe

Page66

GI(gastrointestinal)tract.ThisshiftofbloodawayfromtheGItractmayimpedeorslownormaldigestiveandabsorptiveprocesses,leavingfoodwhereitdoesn't
belong.
Thepreparationofthefoodsconsumedandthecombinationofthefoodseatenatonetimemayinfluencehowwellenergyandnutrientsaredigestedandabsorbed,
andthisinturnmayinfluencehowyoufeelwhileyoupracticeorcompete.Forexample,thereisamoveinmanyendurancesportstoreduce(oreliminate)redmeat
consumptionandrelysolelyongrains,fruits,vegetables,andsomedairyproductsforprovidingneedednutrients.Inthehandsofaknowledgeableperson,a
nourishingeatingplanthatcontainstheserestrictionscanbedeveloped.However,manypeopledon'tknowwhatittakesandmalnutritionistheresult.Anexampleof
thisistheproblemassociatedwiththeoxalicacidfoundindarkgreenvegetablesdiscussedearlier.Ifnotremoved,oxalicacidcaninterferewiththeabsorptionof
bivalentminerals(iron,zinc,magnesium,andcalcium).
Thefiberportionofgrainscontainsasubstancecalledphyticacid.Inmanyways,phyticacidandoxalicacidaresimilar,becausebothhaveahighbindingaffinityfor
iron,zinc,magnesium,andcalcium.Imagine,forexample,eatingahighfibercerealwithmilk.Thephyticacidinthebranbindswithsomeofthecalciuminthemilk
andmakesitunavailableforabsorption.Therefore,exceptfortheoccasionsthatconstipationoccursorontheadviceofyourphysician,itmakesmorenutritional
sensetoconsumewholegrainproductsratherthanbranaddedproducts.Theaddedbran,whileusefulfromaregularitystandpoint,maybeassociatedwitha
substancethatinhibitstheabsorptionofsomekeyminerals.
AnotherkeypointtomakehereisthatthesubstancesmovingthroughtheGItractareconstantlymoving.Theydon'twaitaroundinoneparticularplacetoget
absorbed.Therefore,thereductioninmineralbioavailabilityimpartedbyoxalateandphytateisonlytemporary.Fortheoxalateorphytatetobindwithminerals,either
ofthesesubstancesandmineralsmustbeinthegutatthesametime.Eatingahighbrancerealinthemorningwon'thaveaneffectonthesoupyoueatforlunch.
CommonNutritionalMyths
ThemostcommonthingIhearathletessayis,"IeatthisbecauseIknowit'sgoodforme."ThesecondmostcommonthingIhearathletessayis,"Idon'teatthat
becauseit'sbadforme."Whilethesestatements

Page67

maybetrue,theyarealsobadmindsetstohave,becausetheyfailtoconsidercontext.What'sgoodorbadhastodowiththecontextofotherfoodsthatare
consumed,bothintheshorttermandinthelongterm.Ifanathletebelievesthatcottagecheeseisaperfectfoodandeatsiteverydayforlunchandmostdaysfor
dinnerthenthatathleteisaprimetargetformalnutrition.Itmayjustbepossiblethatthebestnutritionalthinga"meatavoider"(notavegetarian)coulddoistohavea
hamburgerforluncheveryonceinawhile.Ithasrightlybeensaidthathumanbreastmilkistheperfectfoodforanewborninfant.Butaftersixmonths,eveninfants
needtotrysomeotherfoodsorthey'llbecomeanemic(breastmilkisapoorsourceofiron).Thetruthis,thereisnoperfectfoodinandofitself,andathleteswho
eatamonotonousdietbecausetheyareconvincedthatalimitedsetoffoodsisthetickettocrossingthefinishlinefirstarebadlyfoolingthemselves.
Anothercommonmindsetthatathleteshaveisthatyoucan'tgetenoughofanutrient(orrelatedsubstance)thatisgoodforperformance.So,ifalittleisgoodforme
thengivemealot.Thisalsobreachesakeyruleofnutritionthat"morethanenoughisnotbetter

Page68

thanenough."ThereisanancientLatinsayingthatistrueandrelevanthere:Soladocisfacitvenenum(thedosemakesthepoison).Justashavingtoolittleisbad,so
ishavingtoomuch.ThewayathletesthinkabouttheRDAisaprimeexampleofhoweasyitistogettoomuch.Itis(wrongly)believedthattheRDAisaminimum
requirement,eventhoughitrepresentsmorethanmosthealthypeopleneed.Therefore,athletesaredrawntoproductsthatprovidemultiplesoftheRDA.Thisiseven
trueforthewaytheyfeelaboutsomebreakfastcereals,whichadvertisethattheyprovide100percentoftheRDAformostnutrientsinasingleserving.Athletesjump
atthechanceofeating200,300,or400percentoftheRDAbyeatingbowlafterbowl.Unlessthisissomeformofnewmath(whichIdon'tunderstand),100percent
usuallymeansthatyou'vemettherequirement.Supplementintakebehaviorisalsooftenconsistentwiththis(wrong)philosophythat"morethanenoughisbetterthan
enough."Thelevelofnutrientintakeisoftenexcessive,andevenmoreoftenmistargeted,whentakinghighdosesofsubstancesthatarenotthemostneeded.
Thebestwaytothinkaboutnutrientsandenergyistorememberthesesimplerules:
Eatawidevarietyoffoods.
Morethanenoughisnotbetterthanenough.
Eatfoodsthatprovidealotofcomplexcarbohydrates,someproteins,andlittlefat.Agoodwaytoreducefatintakeistoavoidfriedfoods,preparedmeats
(bologna,salami,sausage,etc.),andvisiblefats,andtoconsumelowfatdairyproducts.
Eatenoughtomeetenergyneeds.
Let'sputallofthisintoperspectivebylookingatasampledailyintake.
Thesampledailyintakeshownintable1.7providesapproximately2,800calories,ishighincarbohydrates(65percentoftotalcalories),moderatelyhighinprotein
(18percentoftotalcalories),andrelativelylowinfat(17percentoftotalcalories).Thislevelofintakeisappropriateforanathleteweighingabout150pounds.
Carbohydrateneedscanbecalculatedas3gramsperpoundofbodyweightorapproximately450grams.Thisdietmeetsthatrequirementbyproviding466gramsof
carbohydrates.Thisdietalsomeetsproteinneedsofa150poundathlete.Proteinrequirementisestimatedtobebetween1.5grams/kilogramand1.8grams/kilogram
(or0.68grams/poundand0.82grams/pound).A150poundathletewouldhaveaproteinrequirementofbetween102and123gramsperday.Thisdietprovides
126grams.

Page69

Asyoucansee,thefoodsinthisdailyintakeconsistofcommonfoodsthatcanbeobtainedanywhere.That'skey,sincedependenceonspecialfoodsthatmayonly
beavailableatthelocalhealthfoodmarketwillbeinclinedtomakeyourlifemiserable,especiallyifyoudoanytraveling.Thereareafewotherimportantfeaturesof
thissamplemealplanthatareimportanttonote:

Page70

1.Frequenteating.You'llnoticethat,inthissampleday,theathletewouldeatsixseparatetimes.Eatingthreemealsaday,althoughtypicalforsomanypeople,is
notthewayhumansshouldeat.Ifyouevaluatethewayfreelivingpeoples(noninstitutionalizedpeoplewhocanmakedecisionsforthemselves)eat,theyeat
frequentlyandsomeaborigineseatconstantly.Oneofthefeaturesofthiskindofeatingpatternisthatmealsizesaresmallbutfrequent.Industrializedculturestypically
eatlargemeals,andtheyeatinfrequentlytofitintoan"industrial"workschedule.Forathletes,themoreidealfoodintakepatternissmallmealsconsumedfrequently.
Ideally,athletesshouldstrivetoeatsomethingeverythreehours(seechapter7,"TimingofMealsandSnacks.").Thegoalistonevergethungryandneverget
thirsty.
2.Energydistribution.Athletesshouldderivethemajorityofenergyfromcarbohydrates.Inthismealplan(see"%Caloriesfrom"attheendoftable1.7),
carbohydratesprovide65percentofthetotalenergy(idealforathletes),proteinsprovide18percent,andfatprovides17percent.Fatintakeisevenalittlelowerthan
itneedstobewiththesefoods,soanathletecouldactuallyputsomemargarineorbutteronthepopcornorthetoastandstillstaywithinthe20to25percentfatlevel
you'retryingtoachieve.
3.Smallmeals.Nomealismorethan800calories.Thisisimportant,becauselargemealsprovidesomuchenergythataproportionofthatenergyinevitably
contributestostoredfat.Withmanyathletes,especiallythosedoingpowerratherthanendurancetypework,gettingfatoutofstorageonceit'sinthereisdifficultand
detracts
Table1.8SelectedNutrientsinSampleMealPlanComparedtotheRecommendedDietary
Allowances
Intake

RDA

Energy(cal)

Nutrient

2,827

2,982

95

Protein(gm)

126

58

218

Calcium(mg)

1,344

1,200

112

Phosphorus(mg)

1,890

1,200

158

19

10

189

Potassium(mg)

4,002

2,000

200

VitaminA(IU)

24,385

5,000

488

Thiamin(mg)

2.94

1.5

196

Riboflavin(mg)

2.66

1.7

156

VitaminC(mg)

337

60

561

Iron(mg)

%ofRDA

Page71

frombothappearanceandthestrength:weightratio.Byhavingsmallbutfrequentmeals,youhelptolimittheamountoffatthatisstored.
4.Carbohydratethroughouttheday.Ifyoulookatnormalfluctuationsinbloodglucose(bloodsugar),itrisesafteramealandthenstartstodropbelowthenormal
levelaboutthreehoursaftereating.Byhavingsomesourceofcarbohydratethroughouttheday,ithelpstomaintainanormalbloodglucoselevel.Besidesmakingyou
feelbetterandmorealert,maintainingbloodsugarmaybeanimportantstrategyformaintainingmetabolicrate.It'simportanttorememberthatthesamefuelthatfuels
thebrain(glucose)alsofuelsmuscles.Muscleandmentalfatiguegotogether.It'snoaccidentthatmostathleticinjuriesoccurattheendoftheeventorattheendof
practicewhenmusclesarefatiguedandthemindcan'tfocusonthetaskathand.Thesefoodsinthiseatingpatternhelptoassurethatcarbohydrate(glucose)is
availablethroughouttheday.
Ifthesefoodswereconsumedbya21yearoldmaleathletewhoweighs150poundsandis70inches(5'10")tall,hewouldmeetorexceedtheRDAformost
vitaminsandminerals(seetable1.8).Thepointhereisthat,withalittleplanning(andnoclinicalconditionthatwouldprohibityoufromdoingso),it'srelativelyeasyto
meetorexceedyournutrientrequirementssimplybyeatingfood.
Eventhoughenergyintakeis95percentofthepredictedrequirementforthis(hypothetical)person,nutrientintakesarefargreaterthantheRecommendedDietary
Allowances.WhywouldanyonefeelasiftheyneedtoconsumevitaminCsupplementswhen,fromfoodalone,vitaminCintakeis561percentoftheRDA!Protein
supplements,whicharesocommonlytakenbyathletes,canbethrowninthetrashbinwhenthefoodsconsumedprovideover200percentoftherequirement.
Summary
Eatingwellmostofthetimeiscriticaltomaintainingoptimalnutritionalstatus.Withoutagenerallygoodlevelofnutrientintake,itisimpossibleforthe
pretraining/precompetitionmealtomakeadifferenceinanathlete'sperformance.Further,eatingwellmostofthetimehelpstoguaranteethattheathletewillgetthe
mostbenefitfromtrainingbyenablingtheathletetotrainharderandlonger.Importantly,eatingwellreducesthechanceformusclesorenessandinjury.

Page72

Asageneralrule,athletesshouldstrivetoeatfoodsthatarehighincarbohydrate,lowinfat,andmoderateinprotein.Ideally,thisdistribution(expressedasapercent
oftotalconsumedenergy)shouldbe25percentorlessfromfat,12to15percentfromprotein,and60percentormorefromcarbohydrate.Allathletes,including
thosewhowishtoincreasemusclemass,willbenefitfromthistypeofenergydistribution.Inparticular,ahighcarbohydrateintakehelpstoguaranteethattheathlete
maintainsahighstoredenergylevel(glycogen)todelayfatigue.
Itisimportantforathletestorelyonfoodsratherthanvitaminandmineralsupplementsforobtainingneedednutrients.Eatingavaried,nutrientdensedietthatcontains
lotsofcomplexcarbohydrates(wholegrainbreadsandcereals,pasta,fruits,vegetables,andbeans)helpstoguaranteethatyouobtainallthevitaminsandminerals
youneedintherightproportions.Calciumandironhavebeenfoundtobelowinsomeathletes,soaregularconsumptionoflowfatfoodsthatarehighincalcium
(lowfatdairyproducts,darkgreenvegetables,cannedsalmon,etc.)andiron(leanmeats,darkgreenvegetables,driedfruit,etc.)isdesirable.

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2
StayingHydrated
MakingtheWaterBottleaPartoftheUniform
Anumberofyearsago,Iwasaskedtoworkwiththefootballteamatamajoruniversity.
Thecoachforthisteamwasasmuchofaninstitutionastheuniversityitself,andhehad
experiencedenoughsuccesstokeeptheuniversityalumniandadministratorshappy,
However,hewasbeginningtofeelthepressureofwinningfewerandfewergamesin
recentyears,andhestartedlookingforwaystoregainacompetitiveedge.Thetraditionin
collegefootballhadbeen,forsometime,toavoiddrinkingfluidsduringpractice,atraining
regimenthiswellseasonedcoachfollowed.Hebelieveditwouldmaketheplayers
''tougher"andhelpplayerscopewithgamesplayedonhotdays.Footballpracticesoften
lastformorethanthreehours,andwhentheseasonisapproaching,twoadaypractices
arecommon.WhenIagreedtoworkwiththeteam,muchofmytimewasspentobserving
practicestodetermineteam,muchofmytimewasspentobservingpracticestodetermine
wherethebestopportunitiesfornutritionalinterventionmightoccur.Itbecameimmediately
andglaringlyobvioustomethatoneofthemajornutritionalproblemsthefootballplayers
wereexperiencingwasinadequatefluidconsumption,andtheplayerswereexperiencing
wasinadequatefluidconsumption,andIwassurethiswasnegativelyimpactingany
conditioninggainstheplayerswereexperiencingwasinadequatefluidconsumption,andI
wassurethiswasnegativelyimpactinganyconditioninggainstheplayersmightgetfrom
practice.Iwasinadequatefluidconsumption,andIwasadangerouspractice(everyyear
therewerepublicizeddeathsamonghighschoolandcollegefootballplayersthatweredue
toseveredehydration),particularlywhenIsawsomesalttablesbeingpassedaroundto
theathletes.(Salttabletsarecommonlygiventopeopleinhotenvironments,butshould
onlybegivenwithwater.Saltisthemajorelectrolyteinthebloodanddrawswaterfrom
insidecellstonormalizethebloodelectrolyteconcentration.Saltwithoutwaterleavescells
dehydratedanddangerouslydysfunctional.)
Atmyfirstopportunitytosharemyconcernswiththeteamcoachesandathletes,Iputthe
fluidissueatthetopofmyagenda.Istartedbysaying,"I'mamazedtoseethefootball
playerarrivingatpracticewithoutbeingfullydressed."Ofcourse,everyonelookedatme
withsurprisedexpressionswonderingwhatIhadseenthatthey,whowerethesport,had
missed.Iexplainedthat,withouttheirwaterbottlesinhand,Iconsideredtheathletesnot
tobefullydressedandreadytopractice.Therewas,ofcourse,vigorousrebuttal,anditis
absolutelycriticaltoleteveryoneexpresstheiropinionsaboutwhytheydothethingsthey
do.Thebasicargumentinfavorofnotdrinkingboileddownto"tradition"."That'stheway
wediditwhenwewereplayers,"saidthe

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coaches,"sothat'swhatwedonow."Therewasabeliefthatdrinkingfluidsduring
practicewouldgivethefootballplayersstomachcramps,whichwouldmakeitmore
difficultforthemtopracticeandruntheirdrills.Therewasnoevidencethatthiswasthe
case,butitwasabeliefamongthecoachingstaff.Alessfrequetlyexpressedbeliefwas
thatthisdehydrationstrategywouldhelpfootballplayerstraintheirmusclestowork
effectivelywithoutfluids,sotherewasabenefitinhavingthempracticewithoutwater.
Supposedly,thesetrainedmuscleshadtheaddedbenefitofallowingathletestorunfaster
andmovemorequicklybecausetheywereabitlighter(becauseoflesswaterweight).
Noneoftheseargumentsstanduptoscientificscrutiny,butitwasgoodtoknowthatthey
weren'trestrictingfluidstobepunitive!
Afterhearingtheirexplanations,Iexplainedthatmuscleswereover70percentwaterand
thattheysimplydonotworkefficientwhentheyaredehydrated.Further,tryingtotrain
musclesthathaveaninadequatewaterlevelsimplymeantthatthepotentialbenefitsthat
canbederivedfromtrainingarediminished.Musclesoreness,musclepulls,andeasy
fatiguearealsoassociatedwithinsufficientwaterintake.Afteralengthydiscussionofthis
issue,weallleftthemeetingonfriendlyterms,butIstilldidn'tknowhowtheywouldutilize
theinformation.Atthenextpracticethefollowingday,thecrustlyheadcoachapproached
meandtoldmetolookcloselybecausetheplayerswerenow"fullydressed."Andthere
theyallwere,walkingontothepracticefieldwithwaterbottlesinhand.

Allnutrientsareimportantforperformance,butwaterisoftenmentionedascriticallyimportanttoperformancebecausetheperformancedeficitsthatadehydrated
athleteexperiencesoccurquicklyandareeasilymeasured.Thebody'srelianceonwaterforcooling,nutrienttransport,jointlubrication,metabolicwasteremoval,
digestion,andabsorptionareallclearlyestablished,anddehydratedathletessimplydon'tperformaswellaswellhydratedathletes,regardlessofthesport.Studies
haveshown,however,thatathletestendtoreplacelessfluidthanthatislostinsweat,andthiscreatesagradualreductioninperformance.Thereareseveralreasons
forthis,includingdrinkingtraditioninthesport,thelackofatimelythirstmechanism,fluidunavailability,ortheavailabilityoffluidsthatdon'ttastegoodtothe
exercisingathlete.Allofthesefactorscanbeovercomewithtrainingandplanningandwillgoalongwaytowardsustainingtheathlete'sperformanceovertheentire
practiceorcompetition.

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Noleveloflowbodywaterisacceptableforachievingoptimalathleticperformanceandendurance,soyoushouldconsiderastrategyformaintainingoptimalbody
waterwhileyouexercise.Imaginethatyouhaveafullglassofwaterthatrepresentsyourbodyatastateofoptimalhydration.Whenyou'renotexercising,it'slike
havingapinholeinthebottomoftheglass.Thewaterlevelwilldrop,butonlyataveryslowrateandatapacethatmakesiteasyforyoutomaintainanoptimal
hydrationstate.Becausethewaterleveldropssoslowly,drinkinganoccasionalglassofwaterorotherfluidisanadequatemeansofmaintainingyourhydrationstate.
Since8cups(8 8ounces=2quarts,orabout1.5liters)ofwaterisacommonrecommendationfornonathletes,whohaverelativelylowsweatrates,itmakessense
tomakeadramaticincreaseinthewaterrequirementforathletes.Anathleteworkinginawarmenvironmentcanlose1.5litersofwaterperhour!Thisisequivalentto
puttingalargerpencilholeinthebottomoftheglass,sotherateofwaterlossismuchfaster.Withinevenashortperiodoftime,therewillbeasignificantamountof
waterlossthatcouldbeenoughtoaffectexerciseperformanceandendurance.Evenminorreductionsinhydrationstatecancausemeasurablereductionsin
performance,sothegoalistostaywithin2percentofyourpreexercisebodyweight.Itdoesn'tmatterifyou'reanaerobicathletetryingtogolongdistances,oran
anaerobicathletewantingtojumphigher,gofaster,orpushbetterlosingmorewaterthanisreplacedcausesperformancereductionsandcanbethedifference
betweenwinningandlosing.
Sincewaterisbeinglostatafasterratewhileexercising,animportantstrategyforavoidingaperformancelossis,clearly,toreplacewateratafasterrate.Ifthe
frequencyofdrinkingwhennotexercisingisonceeverytwohours,thenimaginethatthefrequencyofdrinkingduringexerciseshouldbeonceevery10to15minutes.
Waterislostsofastduringexercisethatitbecomesdifficult,ifnotimpossible,toreplacetheamountofwaterbeinglostandvirtuallyimpossibletoincreasebody
waterwhileexercising.Therefore,waitingtoolongbetweendrinksisabadstrategy,sinceitallowsbodywatertodecreaseinsuchawaythatitcannotbeadequately
replaced.Whenyouexercise,thewaterintheglassdropsquickly,soallyoucanhopetodowhenyoudrinkiskeepthewaterlevelstable.Ifyouwaittodrink,you
maybeabletomaintainthebody'swaterlevelatitscurrentstate,butthatstatewillbetoolow.

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Where'stheWater?
Sixtysixpercentofanathlete'stotalbodyweightisfromwater.1
Thirtysevenpercentoftotalbodyweightisfromwaterinsidecells.
Twentyfourpercentoftotalbodyweightisfromwateroutsidecells.
Fivepercentoftotalbodyweightisfromthewaterthatmakesupbloodplasma.
Wellhydratedmusclesareabout75percentwater.
Bonesareabout32percentwater.
Fathasverylittlewater,about10percent.
Bloodisabout93percentwater.

TemperatureRegulationandWaterBalance
Physicalactivitycreatesheat,andthisheatmustbedissipatedfortheathletetocontinuedoingtheactivity.Failuretodissipatethisheatwilleventuallyleadto
heatstrokeand,potentially,death.Oneofthemainmechanismswehavefordissipatingheatistoproducesweat,whichcoolsthebodydownasitevaporatesoffthe
skin.Itshouldbeobviousthattheinabilitytoproducesweatcausesthebodytooverheat.Thebodyhasafinitestoragecapacityforwaterbutcontinuestoproduce
heatasphysicalworkcontinues.Unlessthewaterlostassweatisreplaced,thesweatratewillbereducedandbodytemperaturewillrise.Therefore,itisperfectly
logicaltosuggestthatathletesmustdrinkenoughfluidstosustainthesweatrate.Itshouldberememberedthat,evenwhennotexercising,thebodyloseswater
throughinsensible(i.e.,notnoticed)perspiration.Whenyouexercise,therateofwaterlossincreasesandbecomessensible(i.e.,noticed)perspiration.
Temperatureregulationrepresentsthebalancebetweenheatproducedorreceived(heatin),andheatremoved(heatout).Whenthebody'stemperatureregulation
systemisworkingcorrectly,heatinandheatoutareinperfectbalanceandbodytemperatureismaintained.Therearebothinternalandexternalfactorsthatcan
contributetobodyheat.Radiantheatfromthesuncontributestobodytemperature,andtheheatcreatedfromburningfuelalsocontributestobodytemperature.
Somehow,thebodymustfindawaytodissipatethesameamountofheatthathasbeenaddedtomaintainaconstantbodytemperature.

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Wehavetwoprimarysystemsfordissipatingorlosingheatwhileatrest:
Movingmorebloodtotheskintoallowheatdissipationthroughradiation.
Increasingtherateofsweatproduction.
Thesetwosystemsaccountforabout85percentoftheheatlostwhenapersonisatrest.Heatlossesthroughconduction(thenaturaltransmissionofheatfroma
hotterbodytothecoolerairenvironment)andconvection(heattransferfromtissuetothebloodandthroughtheskin)accountfortheremaining15percentofheat
out.Duringexercise,virtuallyallheatlossoccursviaevaporation(sweat).
Bothofthesesystemsrelyonmaintenanceofanadequatebloodvolume.Whenbloodvolumedrops,themovementofbloodtotheskinisreducedandsweat
productionisalsoreduced,alteringthebalancebetweenheatinandheatout.Thereis,however,competitionforbloodformetabolicandheatreleasingrequirements.
Workingmusclesdemandmorebloodflowtodelivernutrientsandtoremovethebyproductsofburnedfuel.However,attheverysametimethereisaneedtoshift
bloodawayfromthemusclesandtowardtheskintoincreasethesweatrate.Withlowbloodvolume,oneorbothofthesesystemsfails,andthereisadramatic
decreaseinathleticperformance.Infact,themaintenanceofbloodvolumeissoimportantforathleticperformancethatitisconsideredbymanytobetheprimary
indicatorofwhetheranathleteiscapableofcontinuingphysicalworkatahighrate.
Energymetabolismisonlyabout20to25percentefficient.Thismeansthat,oftheenergyconsumedfromfood,only20to25percentcanbeconvertedtothe
mechanicalenergyofmuscularwork.Theremaining75to80percentofthefoodenergythatisburnedislostasheat.Toacertainextent,thatlossisagoodthing,
sincehumansarewarmbloodedanimalsthatrequireheatproductiontomaintainbodytemperatureatabout98.6 F.Whentherateofenergyburngoesup,however,
theamountofheataddedtothesystemisdramaticallyincreased,sotheheatoutsystemsmustbeturnedup.Infact,heavyexercisecancreateheatproductionthatis
20timeshigherthantheamountofheatproducedatrest.1Withoutanefficientmeanstoremovethisexcessheat,bodytemperaturewillrisequickly.Theupperlimit
forhumansurvivalisabout110 F,only11.5 Fhigherthannormalbodytemperature.Withthepotentialforbodytemperaturetoriseattherateofabout1 Fevery
5minutes,itisconceivablethata

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dehydratedexercisingathletecouldbeatriskforheatstrokeanddeathonly55minutesaftertheinitiationofexercise.
Let'sputwhatcanhappenintorealnumbers.Imaginedoingverymildexercisethatburns300caloriesofenergyduring30minutes.Ifthemusclesare25percent
efficient,then75Caloriesareusedformuscularworkand225caloriesarelostasheatthatmustbedissipatedtomaintainbodytemperature.Nowimagineworking
twiceashardoverthatsame30minutes.Thatmeans450caloriesofheatwouldneedtobedissipatedoverthatsame30minutestomaintainbodytemperature!In
general,everymilliliterofsweatcandissipatehalfacalorie.Sooverthat30minutes,thebodywouldlose900milliliters(almost1liter)ofwater.Inonehourofhigh
intensityactivity,approximately1.8litersofwaterwouldbelost.Tocomplicatematters,nowimagineworkinghardduringasunny,hotdaywhentheheatofthesunis
addedtotheheatproducedfrommuscularwork.Onahumidday,waterdoesn'tevaporateoffthebodyaseasily,somoresweatmustbeproducedtogetthesame
coolingeffect.Nowimaginehowmuchwaterwouldbelostassweatifyouwereworkinghardonasunny,hot,andhumidday.Intheseconditions,apersoncan
easilyloseonetotwolitersoffluid(viasweat)perhour.Awelltrainedathletewhoistraininginahotandhumidenvironmentcanloseoverthreelitersoffluidper
hour.1
MonitoringFluidBalanceduringTraining
Withoutwaterintake,thebloodvolumecanquicklybecomereduced,sweatratesdrop,andbodyheatrisesquicklyanddangerouslyattherateofapproximately
onedegreeCelsiuseveryfivetosevenminutes.However,it'sdifficulttoconsumesufficientfluidsduringhardphysicalwork,soathletesshouldhaveaplanofwhatto
do.Ifanathletelosesoneliterofwaterperhour,theyshouldfindawaytodrinkoverfourcupsofwaterperhour.Theathletewholosestwolitersofwaterperhour
needstofindawaytodrinkovereightcupsofwaterperhour.Ofcourse,it'sdifficulttoknowpreciselyhowmuchwaterisbeinglostduringactivity,butthereisa
simplerulethatwillhelpanathleteestimatehowmuchislostandwhattodo.Oneliterofwaterweighsapproximatelytwopounds,andonepintofwaterweighs
approximatelyonepound.Knowingtheseweightsallowsathletestoestimatehowmuchfluidshouldbeconsumedduringactivity.Dothefollowing:

Page79

1.Writedownwhattimeitisjustbeforetheexercisesession.
2.Writedownbodyweight(preferablynudeweight)inpounds.
3.Dothenormalexerciseandmonitorhowmuchfluidisconsumedduringtheexerciseperiod.
4.Onthecompletionofexercise,calculateexercisetimebysubtractingendingtimefrombeginningtime.
5.Takeoffthesweatyclothingandtoweldry.
6.Oncecompletelydry,writedownbodyweight(preferablynudeweight)inpounds.
7.Calculatetheamountoffluidyoulostviasweatbysubtractingyourbodyweightattheendofexercisefromyourbodyweightatthebeginningofexercise.
8.Theamountofextrafluidthatshouldbeconsumedisequivalenttoonepintoffluidforeachpoundlost,providedinvolumesthatrangefrom2to5ouncesandin
timeintervalsthatrangefrom10to20minutes.(Differencesintheamounttodrinkandthefrequencyofdrinkingarerelatedtothetotalamountoffluidthatmustbe
replaced.It'seasiesttohavethelowestamountwiththeleastfrequency[i.e.,2ouncesevery20minutes],butyoushouldn'tgolongerthan20minuteswithoutdrinking
something.)
Forexample,Johnweighs160poundsatthebeginningofhistwohourfootballpracticeanddrinks1pint(2cups)offluidduringthepractice.Attheendofpractice,
Johnweighs158pounds,soheneedstofigureouthowtotakeinanadditional2pintsofwaterduringthepracticeforatotalof3pints(6cupsor48ounces)over
twohours.Thereare1210minuteincrementsintwohours,soJohnhas12opportunitiestoconsumeatotalof48ouncesoffluidsifhechoosestodrinksomefluids
onceevery10minutes.Fortyeightouncesdividedby12equals4ouncesoffluid(1/2cup)every10minutes.IfJohncan'ttoleratedrinkingthatmuchfluidduring
practicetobeginwith,thenheshouldtry"training"himselftodrinkthatmuchbygraduallyincreasingthefluidconsumptionoverseveralweekstoachieveanequalpre
andpostexerciseweight.Themainpointisanyfluidamountgreaterthanthecurrentamountconsumedisbeneficialiftheathleteexperiencesweightlossduringthe
activity.
Ina150pound(about70kilograms)athlete,fluidlosscanrepresentbetween2to5percentofbodyweighteveryhour.Whenyou

Page80

considerthata3percentlossofbodyweight(fromwaterloss)isconsideredclinicaldehydration,youcanseehoweasilyanathletecanbecomeseriouslydehydrated
(seetable2.1).
Allofthisismademorecomplexbyenvironmentalconditionsandthelevelofconditioninganathletehas.Betterconditionedathletesarebetterabletocool
themselvesbecausetheyhavedevelopedmoreefficientsweatsystems.Thisallowsbetterconditionedathletestoperformlonger,butitalsorequiresthatthey
consumemorefluids.Whentheenvironmentishotandhumid,waterdoesn'tevaporateoffthebodyeasily,soitdoesn'thavearealcoolingeffect.(Allthatsweat
soakedclothingdoesn'tmeanyou'recontrollingbodytemperature,itjustmeansyou'resweatingandlosingwater.)Forsweattohaveacoolingeffectitmust
evaporateofftheskin.Onhotandhumiddays,thewateronyourskindoesn'tevaporateeasilyintotheairbecausethemoisturecontentoftheairisalreadyhigh.
Thereareseveralfactorsthataffecttherateatwhichanathleteloseswaterthroughsweat.Theseincludetemperature,humidity,clothing,conditioning/training,and
fluidbalance.
Thehigherthetemperature,themoretheathletesweats.
Thehigherthehumidity,themoretheathletesweats,butwithreducedcoolingefficiency.
Clothingthattrapssweatagainsttheskin(i.e.,doesnotbreathe)hasareducedcoolingefficiency,soitforcestheathletetosweatmore.Somenewmaterialsmade
forathletesactuallywicksweatawayfromtheskintoimproveevaporativeefficiency.Checkwith
Table2.1RehydrationRecommendations

Initialweight(lb)

Weight(lb)after3%body
weightloss

Amountofwater(inpints)
toreplacetoavoidthe
weightloss

75

72.75

2.25

100

97.00

3.00

125

121.25

3.75

150

145.50

4.50

175

169.75

5.25

200

197.00

6.00

225

219.25

6.75

250

242.50

7.50

275

264.75

8.25

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yoursportsclothingoutfitterformaterialswiththesepropertiesthataresuitableforyoursportoractivity.
Wellconditionedathletescanactuallysweatmore,sotheyhaveabettercoolingpotential.However,thishighersweatraterequiresagreaterduringexercisefluid
consumption.
Thebetterthefluidbalance,themoresweatpotentialthereis.Astheathletebecomesprogressivelydehydrated,thesweatrateisreducedandbodytemperature
rises.Thisisaproblem,sincefluidconsumptionduringactivityisrarelygreaterthantwocupsperhour,oronly30to40percentoftheamountoffluidlostinsweat.
Thislevelofrehydrationinevitablyleadstotheathletebecomingdehydrated.
Therearealsoseveralfactorsthataffectfluidintake,andtherateatwhichfluidleavesthestomachandgoesintotheintestine.Thetwomainfactorsinfluencingfluid
intakearethirstandtaste,interestingly,mostathletesinduceavoluntarydehydrationinthemselvesbecausetheydonotdrinkenough,eventhoughthereareplentyof
drinksaroundthem.Itislikely,however,thatathletesdon'tdrinkenoughtomaintaintheirhydrationstatesimplybecausetheyarenotthirsty.Thethirstsensation,
therefore,shouldnotbeconsideredanappropriateindicatoroftheneedforfluidsinathletes.2Infact,thethirstsensationcouldbeconsidereddelayedinathletes
becauseitdoesn'tappearuntilanathletehasalreadylost1.5to2.0litersofwater.Thereisnohopethatanathletecouldreturntoanadequatelyhydratedstateduring
exerciseiffluidconsumptionbeganatthesametimethethirstsensationoccurred.Thisapparentdelayinthethirstmechanismisagoodreasonforathletestotrain
themselvestoconsumefluidsonaschedule,whethertheyfeelthirstyornot.
Theappealofabeverageisanotherimportantfactorinwhetheritwillbeconsumed.Color,taste,odor,temperature,andmouthfeelallplayaroleindeterminingifthe
beveragewillbeconsidereddesirableandwhetheritwillbeconsumed.Ingeneral,itappearsthatathletesprefercoolbeverageswithaslightlysweetflavor.Heavily
sweetenedbeveragesofarounda12percentcarbohydratesolution,likesodaorfruitjuice,arenotaswidelytoleratedduringexerciseasbeverageswitha6or7
percentcarbohydratesolutionlikeGatorade.3,4Interestingly,whennotexercising,thereversemaybetrue.Thispointstoaninterestingphenomenonofexercise:food
anddrinktastedifferentlywhileexercisingthanwhennotexercising.Giventheextensiveresearchonthebenefitsofconsumingasportsdrinkwitha6to7percent

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carbohydratesolution,regardlessofwhethertheactivitylastshalfanhourorlongerthanfourhours,thereisnoquestionthatathletesshouldgetintothehabitof
drinkingasportsbeverageratherthanwater.Consumptionofsportsbeveragesresultsinbetterperformancethanwaterwhetheryoudosprintsorendurancework.
FactorsAffectingGastricEmptying
Anumberoffactorsinfluencetherateatwhichfluidsleavethestomach,butbeforethesearereviewed,it'simportanttounderstandwhatsloworfastgastricemptying
reallymeans.Whenafoodordrinkisdescribedashavingaslowergastricemptying,itdoesn'tmeanthatallofthefoodstaysinthestomachlonger.Itmeansthatthe
foodordrinktricklesoutofthestomachandintotheintestinesmoreslowly,sosomeofthefoodordrinkisinthestomachlonger.Gastricemptying,therefore,
describesthevolumeoffoodordrinkthatleavesthestomachperunitoftime.Sinceathletesaremorecomfortableexercisingwithoutanextensiveamountoffoodor
fluidinthestomach,abeveragethatleavesthestomachmorequickly(i.e.,hasafastgastricemptyingproperty)isconsidereddesirable.Inaddition,fastgastric
emptyingoffersthepossibilityforafasterdeliveryofenergyandwatertoworkingmusclesbymorequicklypresentingsubstancestotheintestinesforabsorption.
CarbohydrateConcentrationoftheSolution
Whentheconcentrationofcarbohydrateinafluidrisesabove7percent,thegastricemptyingtimeisslower.Atconcentrationsbelow7percentcarbohydrate,gastric
emptyingtimeishardlyaffected.5Thisisoneofthereasonswhytherecommendedcarbohydrateconcentrationinsportsbeveragesisbelow8percent.
TypeofCarbohydrateintheSolution
Carbohydratescomeindifferentmolecularsizesandindifferentmolecularcombinations.Forinstance,glucoseisamonosaccharide(asinglemoleculecarbohydrate),
sucroseisadisaccharide(twomonosaccharidesheldtogetherwithabond),andstarchisapolysaccharide(manymoleculesofmonosaccharidesheldtogetherwith
bonds).Thesmallerthelengthofacarbohydratechainis,theslowerthegastricemptyingtime.Therefore,pureglucose(amonosaccharide)takeslongertoleavethe
stomachthantablesugar(adisaccha

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ride),andtablesugartakeslongertoleavethestomachthanasimplestarch(apolysaccharide).Thesizeofthesugarparticleissoimportantthateveniftwo
beverageshavethesamecarbohydrateconcentration,thebeveragewithsmallercarbohydratemoleculeswilltakelongertoleavethestomachthanthebeveragewith
largercarbohydratemolecules.6
AmountofSolutionthathasBeenConsumed
Theamountoffluidthatisconsumedatonetimehasamajorinfluenceongastricemptyingtime.Whenalargevolumeoffluidisconsumed,gastricemptyingtimeis
initiallyfaster.Whenthevolumeoffluidinthestomachisreduced,gastricemptyingtimeslows.Thissuggeststhat,tobecomemorequicklyhydratedpriorto
competitionorpractice,arelativelylargevolumeoffluidshouldbeconsumed(approximatelyhalfaliter),followedbyfrequentsippingoffluidtomaintainthefluid
volumeinthestomachand,therefore,afastergastricemptyingtime.7

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TemperatureoftheSolution
Moststudiesindicatethatthesolutiontemperatureonlyslightlyaffectsgastricemptyingtime.Whenpeopleareatrest,fluidsatbodytemperatureleavethestomach
morequicklythaneitherveryhotorverycoldfluids.8Thereisevidencethat,duringexercise,coolfluidsleavethestomachmorequicklythanroomtemperatureor
bodytemperaturefluids.9
CarbonationoftheSolution
Whiletherearemanyathleteswhobelievethatconsumingacarbonatedbeveragewillcausegastricdistressanddelayedgastricemptying(thefirstsportsbeverage
wasprobablya''defizzed"cola),thereislittlescientificevidencethatthisoccurs.However,thestudiesthathaveevaluatedtheimpactoffluidcarbonationongastric
emptyingtimehavetypicallyreliedonfewsubjects.Ingeneral,thestudiessuggestthat,allotherthingsbeingequal(carbohydrateconcentration,volume,temperature,
etc.),carbonationhaslittleimpactongastricemptying.10,11
StateofHydrationorDehydrationoftheAthlete
Withtheincreasingdehydrationandhigherbodytemperaturesassociatedwithhighintensityactivity,therateofgastricemptyingslows.12Thisisanexcellentreason
forathletestotry,asmuchaspossible,tomaintaintheirhydrationstateduringactivity.Allowingdehydrationtooccurmakesitalmostimpossiblefortheathleteto
returntoanadequatelyhydratedstateduringexercise.Ifsuchhydrationisattemptedthroughconsumptionofalargevolumeoffluid,itwilllikelyaddtoasenseof
discomfortratherthanfasterrehydration.
DegreetowhichtheAthleteisMentallyStressed
Thementalstressandanxietyassociatedwithathleticcompetitionaremajorfactorsingastricemptying.Higherlevelsofmentalstressandanxietyareassociatedwitha
reducedgastricemptyingthatcanhaveaseriousimpactontheathlete'sabilitytoadequatelyrehydrateduringcompetition.13,14Obviously,thementaltraining
techniquesthatmaybelearnedfromasportspsychologisttoreducestressarean

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importantstrategyforreducingthephysiologicaleffectsofsportsrelatedstressandanxiety.
TypeofActivitytheAthleteisDoing
Studieshavesuggestedthathighintensityactivityisassociatedwithaslowergastricemptyingratethanlowerintensityactivity,butthedifferencesappeartobeminor.
Inaddition,thetypeofactivity(running,swimming,cycling,etc.)doesnotappeartohavealargeinfluenceongastricemptyingrate.15
AthleteConditioningandAdaptation
Thehumanbodyhaswonderfuladaptivemechanisms,andtheabilitytoadapttohigherorlowerglucoseconcentrations,andfasterorslowerratesoffluidingestion,
arenoexception.Toacertainextent,athletescanfindasystemforoptimalrehydrationthatsuitsthembestbyconsistentlypracticingthatsystem.Practicinga
reasonablesystemallowsthebodytoadapttoitandreducethechanceofanydifficultiesthatcouldarisefromtryingsomethingnewjustbeforeanimportant
competition.Therefore,itisimportantforathletestostartwithgeneralrecommendationsforfluidintaketomaintaintheirhydrationstate,buttomakemodificationsthat
arebestsuitedtotheirownindividualcircumstances.
IntestinalAbsorption
Oncethesolution(fluid)leavesthestomachandgoesintothesmallintestine,thewaterandcarbohydratethatmakeupthesolutionmustbeabsorbedintotheblood.
Themainfactorthatinfluencesthespeedwithwhichwaterandcarbohydrateareabsorbedistheconcentrationofcarbohydrateinthesolutionthatentersthe
intestines.16Asolutionthathasaslightlylowerconcentrationofcarbohydrateandelectrolytes,relativetotheconcentrationofplasma,causesafasterabsorptionof
waterthanasolutionthathaseitheramuchhigheroramuchlowerconcentration.17Consumptionofhighlyconcentratedcarbohydratesolutionsduringexercisemay
causeatemporaryshiftoffluidsawayfromthemusclesandintotheintestinestodilutethesolutionpriortoabsorption.Thiswouldhaveanegativeimpactonboth
musclefunctionandsweatratessinceitwouldcause,atleasttemporarily,ashiftofwaterawayfrommuscletocausetissuedehydration.

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PreexerciseFluidConsiderations
Thepurposeofthissectionistolettheathleteandcoachknowhowimportantitisfortheathletetobeinastateofoptimalhydrationbeforetheinitiationofexercise
orcompetition.Ifasinglefactorcanbepointedtothat,byitself,maymakethedifferencebetweenagoodtrainingsessionandabadone,andagoodcompetitionand
abadone,itisthis.Alltheevidencesuggeststhatevenaminorlevelofunderhydration(aslittleas2percentofbodyweight)cancauseameasurabledifferencein
enduranceandperformance,andthegreatertheunderhydrationthegreaterthenegativeimpactonenduranceandperformance.18,19Furthermore,itcantake24hours
orlongertobringadehydratedathletebacktoawellhydratedstate.Therefore,waitinguntiljustbeforepracticeorcompetitiontobringanathletetoawellhydrated
state,orsimplyfailingtotakeanystepstomakecertaintheathleteisinanoptimallyhydratedstate,willdoomthatathletetohavingapoorpracticeorcompetition
performance.
Ofcourse,therearesportswhereathletesaretryingtohaveaparticular"look"ortryingtomakeaparticularweight.Theclassicbodyprofileinrhythmicgymnasticsis
tohavelonggracefullineswith,essentially,nosecondarysexualcharacteristics.Itiscommonforrhythmicgymnaststorestrictwaterintakebeforeacompetition
becausetheythinkitwillhelptogivethemthedesired(butinmymind"cadaverous")look.Wrestlershaveawellestablishedregimenforfluidrestrictiontotryto
achieveaparticularweightclass.Thentheyhaveabout24hourstorehydratethemselvesbeforethecompetition.Besidestheinherenthealthdangersofdoingthis
(therearewelldocumenteddeathsassociatedwiththisstrategy),itisunlikelythatdehydratedwrestlerswouldbeabletoadequatelyrehydratethemselvesinjust24
hours.Therefore,performanceislikelytobeaffected.Otherthanthedesireto''makeweight,"thereisnoreasontowanttoquicklyreducebodywater,andthereis
certainlynosafewaytodothis.Ifexcessivewaterretentionisaconcern(whichitmaywellbeforwrestlersandbodybuilders),thenathletesshouldavoidconsuming
foodsthatareexcessivelysaltyforseveraldaysleadinguptotheevent.
Therearesomeathletesontheothersideofthecontinuumwhotryto"superhydrate"withwaterbeforeexercise.Longdistancerunners,whosewaterlossduringthe
competitionislikelytobegreaterthantheirabilitytoreplaceit,typicallydothis.Therunnerwiththebesthydrationstateattheendofthecompetitionwillhavea
major

Page87

advantageoverlesswellhydratedcompetitors.Whenathletesconstantlysuperhydrate,theymaydevelopagreaterblood(plasma)volumewithresultantlowercore
temperaturesandheartratesduringactivity.20,21Allofthesevaluessuggestthepotentialforimprovedenduranceandperformance.Consumptionoflargefluidvolumes
isalsoassociatedwithfrequenturination,butthismaybemediatedtoadegreebyconsumptionofsodiumcontainingfluids.22
Glycerol(asimplethreecarbonlipidthatismetabolizedlikeacarbohydrate)hasbeenusedbysomeathletestoaidsuperhydrationbecauseitactslikeahumectant
(i.e.,itattractswater).Thereissomelimitedevidencethataddingglyceroltopreexercisefluidsattherateofonegramperkilogramofbodyweightwillimprove
enduranceperformanceinhotandhumidenvironments.Thisimprovementoccursbecauseglycerolenablestheretentionofmoreofthe

Page88
23,24

consumedfluids. However,individualathletesrespondtothisprotocoldifferently.Someathletesfindthatsuperhydratingwithglycerolmakesthemfeelstiffand
uncomfortable,whileothersaremorecomfortablewiththissensation.25Seechapter4formoreonglycerol.
Ingeneral,athletesshouldfollowthesehydrationguidelinesbeforeexercise:
Thesensationofthirstshouldnotbereliedonasanindicatoroffluidneed.Thirstshouldbeconsideredan"emergency"sensationthatoccurswhenthebodyhas
alreadylost1.5to2.0litersofwater.Duringexercise,thethirstsensationmaybedelayed,sotheexercisingathletemayrequiremorewaterlossbeforethesensation
ofthirstoccurs.
Athletesshouldbecomeaccustomedtoconsumingfluidswithoutthethirstsensation.Asapracticalmatter,thisismadeeasierifathletescarrywaterwiththemall
thetime,wherevertheyareandwherevertheygo.Fluidconsumptionismuchmorelikelytooccurifthewateristherethanifyouhavetogolookingforit,especiallyif
theathletedoesn'tfeelthirsty.
Enoughfluidshouldbeconsumedpriortoexercisethattheathleteproducesurinethatisclear.Clearurineisagoodsignthattheathleteiswellhydratedand
producingadilute,largevolumeurine.Darkurineisasignthattheathleteisproducingalowvolumeconcentratedurine,whichsuggeststhatthebodyneedstoretain
asmuchfluidaspossiblebecauseitisunderhydrated.
Approximately1to1.5hourspriortoexercisetheathleteshouldconsumealargevolumeoffluid(uptohalfaliter)toassureadequatehydrationandtoimprove
gastricemptying.Followingthis,athletesshouldsiponfluids(approximatelyhalfacupevery10minutes)tomaintaintheirhydrationstatebeforeexerciseor
competitionbegins.Athletesshouldconsumefluidasfrequentlyandinashighavolumeascanbetoleratedtoreplacewaterlosses.
Athletesseekingtosuperhydrateshouldbeverycarefulnottotrythistechniquewithoutcarefulmonitoring,especiallyiftheyaresuperhydratingusingglycerol.
Individualswhohavecardiovascularsystemsthatarenotinperfectconditionshouldneverattemptthis.Asapracticalmatter,thesafestwaytosuperhydrate
istoconsumefluidsfrequently.
Avoidfoodsanddrinksthatmayhaveadiuretic(waterlosing)impact.Forinstance,caffeineandrelatedsubstancescommonly

Page89

foundincoffee,tea,chocolate,andsodascauseanincreaseintherateatwhichwaterislost.Therefore,thesesubstancesarecounterproductiveintermsofoptimizing
thehydrationstatebeforeexercise.
FluidConsiderationsduringExercise
Whenathletesconsumefluidsduringexercisethereareclearbenefitsthatoccur,includingabettermaintenanceofexerciseperformanceandaslowingoftheexercise
inducedriseinheartrateandbodytemperature(seefigures2.1and2.2).Inaddition,thereisanimprovementormaintenanceofbloodflowtotheskin.Thedegreeto
whichthecardiovascularandheatmaintenancecapacityismaintainedisdirectlyrelatedtothedegreetowhichdehydrationcanbeavoided.Itisclearthatafailureto
consumesufficientfluidsduringexerciseisamajorriskfactorintheonsetofheatexhaustion.26Itisalsoclearthatthebeststrategyforathletestofollow,toavoidheat
exhaustionandmaintainathleticperformance,istoconsumefluidsduringexercise.2729
Moststudiesthathaveevaluatedtheinteractionbetweenhydrationadequacyandathleticperformancehaveusedeitherplainwater

Figure2.1
Comparisonofheartrateinathletesconsumingfluidsandnotconsumingfluids
duringexercise.
AdaptedfromHargreaves1996.

Page90

Figure2.2
Comparisonofcoretemperatureinathletesconsumingfluidsandnotconsuming
fluidsduringexercise.
AdaptedfromHargreaves1996.

orsportsbeveragesthatcontain,indifferingdegrees,carbohydratesandelectrolytes(seetable2.2).Theresultsofthesestudiesaresimilarinconfirmingthe
importanceoffluidconsumptionduringexercise.However,theinclusionofcarbohydratesandelectrolytesinthefluidsaffordstheathletecertainadvantagesoverplain
water.Recentstudiessuggestthatincludingcarbohydratesintherehydrationsolutionimprovesboththeathlete'sabilitytomaintainorincreaseworkoutputduring
exerciseandincreasesthetimetoexhaustion.3033Thisoccursbecauseconsumedcarbohydrateshelptoavoidthedepletionofmuscleglycogenandprovideafuelto
muscleswhenmuscleglycogenislow.
Differentactivitiesresultindifferenttypesofcarbohydrateutilization,butineachcaseconsumingacarbohydratecontainingfluidhelpstomaintainathletic
performance.Forinstance,instrenuouscyclingtherateofmuscleglycogenuseisnotaffectedwhenacarbohydratesolutionisused.34Inlongdistancerunning,there
isareductionintherateofmuscleglycogenusagewhenacarbohydratecontainingfluidisconsumed.35Andinstopgointermittentexercise,thereisareductionin
muscleglycogenusagewhenacarbohydratecontainingfluidisconsumed.36,37Ineachofthesescenarios,carbohydratedepletionisgenerallyconsideredtobethe

Page91
Table2.2CarbohydrateandElectrolyteContentofCommonSportsBeverages
Beverage

Carbohydratetype

Carbohydrate
concentration(%)

Sodium(mg)per Potassium(mg)
8ozserving
per8ozserving

10K(BeverageProducts,Inc.)

Sucrose,glucose,andfructose

6.3

52

26

AllSport(PepsiColaCo.)

Highfructosecornsyrup

89

55

25

BodyFuel450(VitexFoods,Inc.)

Maltodextrinandfructose

4.2

80

20

Cytomax

Fructosecornsyrupand
sucrose

711

10

150

Everlast

Sucroseandfructose

100

20

Exceed(RossLaboratories)

Glucosepolymerandfructose

7.2

50

45

Gatorade(QuakerOatsCo.)

Sucroseandglucose

110

HydraCharge

Maltodextrinandfructose

HydraFuel

Glucosepolymers,fructose,
glucose

25

50

Powerade(CocaColaCo.)

Highfructosecornsyrupand
maltodextrin

73

33

PowerBurst(PowerBurstCorp.)

Fructose

6.0

35

55

Quickick(CramerProducts,Inc.)

Glucose

2.5

80

25

SportaLyte

Maltodextrin,fructose,and
glucose

7.5

100

60

Sqwincher(UniversalProducts,
Inc.)

Glucoseandfructose

6.8

60

36

11

9.2

Trace

1115

2.7

510

25
Trace

Comparedwithsodaandorangejuice
CocaCola

Highfructosecornsyrup

Orangejuice

Fructoseandsucrose

Page92

PerformanceBenefitsofWaterandCarbohydrate
6.7percentimprovedperformancewithlargevolumeoffluidcomparedtoingestionof
smallvolumeoffluid38
6.3percentimprovedperformancewithingestionofcarbohydratecomparedtoon
carbohydrate
12.4percentimprovedperformancewithcombinationoflargefluidvolumewith
carbohydratecomparedtosmallvolumeoffluidwithoutcarbohydrate
Basedon50minutesofexerciseat80percentVO2max

causeofperformancedegradation.However,thereisgoodevidencethatconsumingacarbohydratecontainingbeveragemayalsobeimportantforimprovingathletic
performanceinhighintensityactivitieswherecarbohydrateisnotexpectedtobedepletedbecauseoftherelativelyshortdurationoftheactivity.3941
Thesedataallsuggestthatathletesshouldbecomeaccustomedtoconsumingacarbohydratecontainingfluidduringexercise.Seetable2.3foropportunitiesfor
replacingfluidsindifferentsports.However,theconcentrationofcarbohydrateandthetypeofcarbohydrateareimportantconsiderations.Thereappeartobeno
majordifferencesamongglucose,sucrose,maltodextrins,andstarch(alldifferenttypesofcarbohydrates)onexerciseperformance.4244(Seetable2.2.)Beverages
thatrelysolelyonfructoseforcarbohydrates,however,maycauseintestinaldistressandmaynotbequicklyabsorbed.45,46Maltodextrinsarelesssweetthansucrose
andfructose,sotheymaybeusedtoaddcarbohydrateenergytosolutionswithoutmakingthemunpalatablysweettasting.47Inanycase,carbohydrateenergy,
regardlessofwhetheritisinliquidorsolidformandalmostregardlessofthetypeofcarbohydrate,willaidathleticperformance.48However,sinceproviding
carbohydratesinliquidformallowstheathletetotakecareoftwoissuesatonce(energyandfluid),liquidsthatcontaincarbohydratesarepreferred.
Theamountofcarbohydratetobeprovidedduringexerciseisimportanttoconsider,sinceprovidingtoomuchtoofastmayinducegastrointestinaldistressand,at
leasttemporarily,takeneededfluidsawayfrommuscleandskintodilutethisexcessivelyconcentratedsolution.Ontheotherhand,providingafluidthathasjusta
scantamountofcarbohydrateinitmaylendnoperformancebenefit.Ingeneral,athletesshouldstrivetoconsumeaboutonegramofcarbohydrateperminuteof
exercise.Thislevelofintakecanbeachieved

Page93
Table2.3OpportunitiesforFluidReplacementinDifferentSportsDuringCompetitions
Event
andduration

Opportunitiesforfluidbreaks

Eventslastingless
than30minutes

Consumptionoffluidsbetween
events,butnofluidsconsumed
within15minutesofevent.

Notneededduringtheevent,
butrequiredbetweenevents
duringthecourseoftheentire
competition.

Sprints

Jumping

Throwing

Gymnastics

Intermediate
eventslastingless
than1hour

Consumptionoffluidsbetween
events.Runnersshouldconsume
somefluidatleastevery5kilometers
(moreoftenifhotandhumid).All
athletesinthiscategoryshould
bringbeveragecontainer.

Fluidreplacementisneeded
before,during,andafterevent,
andcarbohydrateisneeded
beforeandafterevent.
However,carbohydratewill
aidfluiduptakeduringevent,
sobeveragesshouldcontain
carbohydrate.

10kilometerrun

Rowing

Aerobicsclass

Tennislesson

Trackcycling

Enduranceevents

Marathonrunnersshouldconsume
somefluidatleastevery5kilometers
(moreoftenifhotandhumid).
Triathletesshouldconsumefluids
every10kilometersduringcycling
andevery2to4kilometersduring
running.Tennisplayersshouldtake
asmuchtimeasallowableduring
courtchangesandafter3rdsetto
takefluids.

Fluids,electrolytes(sodium),
andcarbohydratereplacement
areallrecommendedduring
theseevents.Theamounts
neededwillvarybasedon
environmentalconditions,
initialglycogenstores,and
exerciseintensity(i.e.,
difficultyofthematch).

Marathon

80kilometer
cycling

Olympicdistance
triathlon

5setsoftennis

(continued)

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Fluidandcarbohydrate
requirements

Page94

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Table2.3(continued)
Eventandduration
Ultraenduranceevents

Fluidandcarbohydrate
requirements

Consumptionoffluidsatevery
Fluids,electrolytes
opportunity,withaplantoconsume (sodium),andcarbohydrate
fluidsonceevery10minutes.Where
replacementareall
fluidsarenotmadeavailablebyrace recommendedduringthese
organizers(asmayoccurwithcycling
events.Theamounts
races),afluidconsumptionplanwith neededwillvarybasedon
carriedfluidsmustbeinplace.
environmentalconditions,
initialglycogenstores,and
exerciseintensity.

Ironman

Englishchannelswim

Roadcycling

StageracessuchasTourde
France

Teamsportslastingaround
90minutes

Plantoconsumefluidsatbreaksthat
naturallyoccur,butnoless
frequentlythanonceevery15
minutes.Ideally,fluidsshouldbe
consumedevery10minutes.
Naturallyoccurringlongerbreaks
(halftime,betweeninnings,between
aurters,etc.)shouldbeconsideredan
opportunitytoreplenishfluids.

Fluids,electrolytes
(sodium),andcarbohydrate
replacementareall
recommendedduringthese
events.Theamounts
neededwillvarybasedon
environmentalconditions,
initialglycogenstores,and
exerciseintensity.

Hockey

Basketball

Football

Volleyball

Baseball

Soccer

AdaptedfromO'Connor1996.

Opportunitiesforfluidbreaks

Page95
49,50

byconsumingsolutionsthatcontainbetween4percentand8percentcarbohydrate,atavolumeof.6to1.2litersperhour. Somesportsbeverageshave
carbohydratespreciselywithinthisrange,whileothershavehigherconcentrations(seetable2.2).Higherconcentrations,however,maycauseadelayingastric
emptyinganddonotnecessarilyleadtoafasterorbettercarbohydratemetabolismduringexercise.51Anotherrealadvantageofconsuminga4to8percent
carbohydratesolutionisthatithasafasterrateofintestinalabsorptionthanwateralone.Thismeansthatfluidstatuscanbemoreefficientlymaintainedandthedelivery
ofcarbohydratetothebloodandmusclesisenhanced.Ifyouknowofanyonewho'severhadababywithdiarrhea,youknowthatphysicianscommonlyprescribe
Pedialyte(sugarwater)becauseitdeliverswaterfasterthanwateraloneandcanmorequicklyrehydratethebaby.Thiseffect,apparently,doesnotchangewithage.
Aboveall,remembertheseimportantconsiderations:
Havefluidscloselyavailabletoconsumeduringtheexercise.Theseshouldpreferablybecoolandhaveaflavorthatyouenjoydrinkingwhileyouexercise.
Avoidsharingyourdrinkingcontainerwithotherssincethisisaterrificwaytomaketheentireteam(orallyoursportsmates)sick.
Drinkonafixedschedule,whetheryou'rethirstyornot.Thegoalistoavoidthirst.
Monitoryourfluidintakeadequacybycheckingyourpreandpostexerciseweight,ascoveredearlierinthischapter.
PostexerciseFluidConsiderations
Itisverylikelythatathleteswhohaveexercisedintenselyforhalfanhourorlongerwillexperiencesomedegreeofunderhydration.Forthoseathleteswhoexercise
everydayormostdays(i.e.,mosteliteathletes),postexercisefluidconsumptionbecomesacriticallyimportantpartoftheexerciseregimenbecauseitallowsthe
athletetobegineachsubsequentdayofactivityinawellhydratedstate.Theimportantpointtoconsideristhatittakestimetorehydratemuscles.Thelesstimethere
istorehydrate,thelowerthelikelihoodthattheathletewillbecapableofbecomingoptimallyhydratedbythebeginningofthenextexercisesession.

Page96

Atbest,athletesconsumefluidsduringexerciseatarateofonlyupto70percentoffluidlossviasweat,butmostathletesreplacesweatlossesataratesignificantly
lessthanthis.52,53Therefore,itislikelythatathleteswillneedtobeadequatelyrehydratedbeforethenextexercisesessionbegins.Inspiteofthisclearneedforfluids,
athletesareknowntoremaininanunderhydratedstateevenwhenfluidsaremadeavailabletothem.54This''voluntarydehydration"suggeststhatathletesshouldbe
placedonafixedfluidreplacementschedulethatwilldecreasethedegreetowhichthisdehydrationismaintained.Awayofencouragingthisistomakecertainthat
goodtastingfluidsareeasilyavailabletotheathleteassoonastheexercisesessionisover.55
Thereissomeevidencethatcommercialsportsdrinksthatcontainbothcarbohydrateandsodiumaremoreeffectiveatrestoringwaterbalancethanplainwater.56It
appears,however,thattomaximizerehydrationalevelofsodiumgreaterthanthatprovidedinmostsportsdrinksisdesirable.57Thisaddedsodiumcanbeobtained
throughthenormalconsumptionoffoods,manyofwhichhaveaddedsalt(sodium).58Thisisonecasewhereloweringtheintakeofsaltorconsumingsaltfreefoods
wouldnotbebeneficial.
Ingeneral,athletesshouldfollowtheserulesforfluidconsumptionfollowingexercise:
Alargevolumeoffluid(asmuchascanbetolerated,perhapsahalfliter)shouldbeconsumedimmediatelyfollowingexercise.Thislargefluidvolumeenlargesthe
stomachandincreasestherateatwhichfluidsleavethestomachandenterthesmallintestinetobecomeabsorbed.
Followingtheinitialconsumptionofalargefluidvolume,athletesshouldconsumeapproximatelyaquarterliteroffluidevery15minutes,toachieveafluidintakeof
approximatelythreelitersoffluidinthreehours.Thelargertheathleteandthegreaterthesweatlossexperiencedduringactivity,thegreatertheamountoffluidthat
mustbeconsumed.
Fluidsshouldcontainbothcarbohydrateandsodium,sincebothareusefulinreturningtheathletetoawellhydratedstate.Inaddition,thecarbohydratecontentof
thebeveragehelpsinreturningstoredglycogen(energy)tomusclesinpreparationforthenextexercisesession.
Sportsdrinkstypicallyprovideapproximately10to25millimolesofelectrolytes(mainlysodium)perliteroffluid.However,the

Page97
59

optimalsodiumconcentrationforfluidretentionisapproximately50millimolesofelectrolytesperliteroffluid. Sinceaddingmoresodiumtofluidsmaymakethefluid
unpalatableandcausetheathletetoconsumelessfluid,theathleteshouldbeencouragedtoconsumesomelightlysaltedsnacks(suchaspretzelsorsaltinecrackers)
duringtheperiodimmediatelyfollowingtheexercise.
Thelossinbodyweightthatresultsfromexerciseshouldbethekeytodeterminingthetotalamountoffluidthatmustbereplacedbeforethenextexercisesession.
Asageneralguide,onepintofretainedfluidisequaltoonepoundofbodyweight.Sincenotallconsumedwaterisretained,twiceasmuchfluidmayneedtobe
consumedthanthefluidequivalenttoweightloss.
Fluidsandfoodscontainingcaffeineandrelatedsubstances(coffee,tea,colas,chocolate,etc.)shouldbeavoidedsincetheyincreaseurinarywaterloss.
Summary
Thereisperhapsnootherfactorthatsoclearlyimpactsonperformancethanhydrationstate.Mostathletes,regardlessofthesport,couldgainanimmediate
performancebenefitbytakingstepstoassurethatphysicalactivitybegins,continues,andendswithbodywateratanoptimallevel.Todothis,athletesshouldtrain
themselvestodrinkfluidsonafixedscheduleratherthanbyrelyingonthirstastheonlystimulustodrinking.Sincethethirstmechanismdoesn'toccuruntiltheathlete
hasalreadylostasubstantialamountofwater(about1.5liters),relianceonthirstguaranteesthattheathletewillperforminanunderhydratedstate,andperformance
willbenegativelyaffected.Wellformulatedsportsbeveragesthatcontainasmallamountofelectrolytes(sodiumandpotassium)andcarbohydrate(6to7percent
carbohydratesolutionisoptimal)havebeenfoundtoencouragefastabsorption,sotheycanreplacebothneededwaterandfuelquickly.Athletesshouldfindagood
sportsbeveragethattastesgoodwhiletheyarephysicallyactiveandconsumeenoughtomaintainbodyweightduringexercise.Enteringphysicalactivityinawell
hydratedstateisimportant,sinceimprovinghydrationstatuswhileexercisingisimpossible(waterislostatsuchafastratethattheathletecanonlyhopetomaintain,
butnotincrease,bodywaterduringexercise).Thisiseasiestiftheathletehasagoodsourceofwaterorotherfluideasilyavailable.Manyathletescarryaroundaliter
bottle

Page98

ofwaterorsportsbeveragewiththemwherevertheygo.Afterexerciseiscompleted,theathleteshouldcontinuetodrinktoreplaceanyamountoffluidthatwas
unreplacedduringtheexercise.Insummary,theathleteshoulddrinkbefore,during,andafterexercisewiththeconfidenceofknowingthisstrategyiscritically
importanttoperformance.

Page99

3
AssessingBodyComposition
LeanasCanBeButallYouSeeIsFat
Imagineatalentedathleteatthepeakofhercompetitivelife.ThiswasanOlympianwho
wasjustahair'swidthbehindthebestpersonontheswimteam,andsomeonewhowas
willingtodoanythingtomakethatplacehers.Ofcourse,everyonehasaninherited
physique,andthispowerhouseclearlyhadinheritedallthequalities(bothgoodandnot
sogood)ofhergeneticdonors.Shewasontheshortsideofsmallandhadablockhouse
figure.Nevertheless,whileswimmingherlaps,therewasnoonebettertolookat:great
strokes,perfectflipturns,powerfulstartsofftheblocks,arocketfinishanditallcame
togethertomakeheroneofthebest.However,despitehernationalandinternational
competitivesuccesses,shestillwasn'tconsideredthebestthiscountryhadtooffer,and
thisateawayatherpshychelikenothingelsecould.WhenIsaythatshetriedeverythingin
herarsenaltogetbetter,Imeanjustthat.Shespentmorehourspracticingshebecame
morecarefulaboutwhatsheateandshebeganbugginghercoachformoreideasonhow
toimproveeverypartofthestroke,eveniftheresultantimprovementwouldbe
incrementallyminiscule.
Ultimately,shebecamesounhappywithherself(mindyou,thisisoneofthetopswimmers
intheworld)thatshefoundfaultwithherappearance."IfonlyIwereleaner..."and"If
onlyIhadlessfat..."werecommoninterjectionsinherconversations.Itwasasif
everythingultimatelyboileddowntoasimpleequationthatsaid,"lessfatequalsimproved
speed."Butwhenyouhavesomeonewho,forhersport,isalreadyinthe10thpercentile
forbodyfatpercent,it'shardtoimaginethathavinglessfatwouldcauseacompetitive
improvement.(Infact,swimmersmayfindthatthereductioninbuoyancyassociatedwith
toolittlefatcanactuallyincreasedragandreducesspeed.)Nevertheless,shebeganseeing
herselfasfatandtooktheonlydramaticactionshecouldthinkofdietingtothepointof
starvationtomakeherselfseemlessfat.Aneatingdisorder,regardlessofhowitrearsits
uglyhead,isneveranattractiveproposition.Foranathletetryingdesperatelytodo
anythingtogainafractionofasecond,aneatingdisordercanbedisastrous.
Aspartofourregularevvaluations,wenoticedthatalltheswimmersinthelabwere
comfortablywalkingaroundintheirswimsuitsoringymshortsandTshirtsallofthem
excepttheswimmerinquestion.Shehadontwosweatshirts,gympants,andajacketand
wasstillshivering.Weknewrightawaywehadaproblemonourhands,butwealso
knewwe

(textboxcontinuedonnextpage)

Page100

(textboxcontinuedfrompreviouspage)
hadtodocumentwhatwasgoingon.Aswesuspected,shehadlostweightandwas,
therefore,"smaller."However,shehadlostmoreweightfromherleanbodymass(muscle)
thanfromherfatmass,soshewaslessable,tomoveherdoyweightthanbefore
(strengthtoweightratioiscriticallyimportantinallsports).Infact,shelostinmusclethe
equivalentmuscleweightrepresentedinoneentirearm.Whenwespoketohercoachto
seeifhehadanyconcerns,heimmediatelyblurtedoutthatshehadbecomeimpossibleto
workwith.Herstartswereshort,herturnshaddeteriorated,andshenolongerhadakiller
finish.Allthestrengthandskillsthatwereatthecoreofhersuccesseshadvirtually
disappeared.Hercoachwasreadytoincreasehertrainingschedule(eventhoughshewas
alreadyspendingmorehoursinthepoolandweightroomthananyoneelse)becausehe
couldn'tseehowshecouldcompeteinthenextbigcompetitiongivenherstateof
unreadiness.Ofcourse,therewasnowayshecouldcontinuetodoevenwhatshewas
nowdoing,soincreasinghertrainingschedulewouldhavebeenimpossible.
Whenwereviewedherdiet,itbecameclearthatshewastryingtocoveruphereating
disorder.Itwouldhavebeenimpossibleforhertohaveeatenwhatshereportedsheate
(barringaclinicalmalabsorptiondisorder)andhavelostsomuchweight.WhenIbecame
convincedthatwereallyhadaseriousproblemonourhands,ItooktheonlyactionI
knewtotake.Iconvincedhercoachtoremoveherfromtheteamuntilshepresentedhim
withaletter,fromapsychiatristtrainedtoworkwitheatingdisorders,clearlystatingthat
hercontinuedparticipationincompetitiveswimmingwouldnotplaceheratristforan
eatingdisorder.Inotherwords,ifshewantedtocomeback,shehadtochangewhatshe
wasdoing,andshehadtoconvinceanappropriatemedicalprofessionalthatthischange
wouldnotbealteredifshereturnedtoswimming.Thisstrategywasnoteasytoinitiate,
anditwasdevastatingfortheathlete.Imaginetryingallyoulifetobeonateam,
succeedingingettingonthatteam,andthenbeingtakenofftheteambecauseyouwere
tryinganything(albeitwrongly)tobemorecompetitive.
Fortunately,thisstoryhasahappyending.Shedidit.Shewenthome,wenttocounseling,
learnedwhatsheneededtodo,acceptedherphysiqueasitwas,atebetter,trained
smarter,gotherOKletterfromherphysician,andbecameastar.Ifyou'vewatched
swimmingcompetitions,you'veseenherswimandsucceed.

Thebodyiscomposedofdifferentcomponents(water,muscle,fat,bone,nervetissue,tendons,etc.),andeachhasadifferentdensity.Fromafunctionalstandpoint,
tissuesaregroupedtogetherintothosethataremainlyfat(fatmass),whichhaslittlewaterassociatedwithit,andthosethathavelittlefat(fatfreemass),whichhasa
greatdealofwaterassociatedwithit.Thefatfreemassisalsocommonlyreferredtoasleanmass,althoughthisisatroublingtermformany,becausethe

Page101

fatfreemassincludesagreatdealofwater(greaterthan65percent).Morerecently,becauseofnewtechniquesandimprovementsinestimatingbodycomposition,
bonemassorskeletalmasshasbeenincludedasathirdcommonlyassessedcomponentofbodycomposition.Butforthepurposeofthisbook,thecomponentsof
bodycompositiongenerallyarereferredtoasfatmass(theamountoftissueinthebodythatismainlyfat)andleanmass(theamountoftissueinthebodythatismainly
freeoffat).
Thefatmassiscomposedofessentialfatandstoragefat.Theessentialfatisarequiredcomponentofthebrain,nerves,bonemarrow,hearttissue,andcellwalls
thatwecannotlivewithout.Adultfemalesarepredictedtohaveapproximately12to15percentoftotalbodyweightasessentialfat.Themajorityofthisfatis
associatedwithreproductionandincludestheadditionalfatassociatedwithbreasttissue.Becausemalesdonothavethisreproductivefunction,essentialfatinmalesis
approximately3percentoftotalbodyweight.Storagefat,ontheotherhand,isanenergyreservethatbuildsupinfat(adipose)cellsunderneaththeskin(subcutaneous
fat)andaroundtheorgans(interabdominalfat).Itisnormalformenandwomentohaveapproximately11to15percentoftotalbodyweightfromstoragefat.
Combiningtheessentialfatandstoragefatcompartments,normalbodyfatpercentformalesisapproximately15percent(3percentessential12percentstorage),
whilenormalbodyfatpercentforfemalesis26percent(15percentessential11percentstorage).1
Womenwithextremelylowbodyfatpercentareatriskfordevelopingreproductivesystemproblems.Thiscommonlymanifestsitselfasirregularmenstrualperiods.
Oligomenorrhea(infrequentmenses)andamenorrhea(cessationofmenses)areassociatedwithlowestrogenproduction,whichincreasestheriskofosteoporosis(a
bonediseaseassociatedwithlowbonedensity),andincreasedfracturerisk.Itappearsthatabodyfatpercentof17percentto22percentisneededtomaintaina
normalmenstrualcycleinmostwomen.2Womenwhodevelopanexcessivelylowbodyfatpercenttypicallyexerciseexcessivelyfortheamountofenergythey
consume,orhaveaneatingdisorder.The"femaleathletetriad"isaconditionthathasrecentlybeendescribedasprevalentinmanyfemaleathletes,andincludesthe
interrelatedpresenceofaneatingdisorder,amenorrhea,andlowbonedensity.
Leanmassismainlywaterandprotein,butalsoincludessmalllevelsofmineralsandstoredcarbohydrate(glycogen).Themainconstituentsofthefatfreemassinclude
skeletalmuscle,theheart,

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andotherorgans.Whiletotalbodyweightisapproximately60percentwater,thewatercontent(byweight)ofthefatfreemassis70percent.Thiscanbecompared
tothewatercontentofthefatmass,whichisbelow10percentwater.3Athletestypicallyhavealargerleanmassandalowerfatmassthannonathletesdo,sowell
hydratedathleteshaveahigherproportionoftotalweightthatcomesfromwater.
Usingthe"fatmassleanmass"modelofbodycomposition,thecombinedweightoffatmassandleanmassequalstotalbodyweight.However,weightbyitselfdoes
notdiscriminatebetweenthetwocomponents,soitisconsideredtobeaninappropriatemeasureofbodycomposition.Therefore,thestatement"Myweightis
increasing,soImustbegettingfat,"iscommonbutincorrect.Itisquitepossibleforanathletetoincreasethelean(i.e.,muscle)masswithoutincreasingthefatmass.
Clearly,therewouldbeanincreaseinweight,butnotfatweight.Itisalsopossibleforanathletetomaintainweightbutexperiencechangesinfatorleanmass.This
couldbeeitherdesirableorundesirabledependingonwhichelementisincreasing.Ahighstrengthtoweightratioshowsanincreaseinleanmass(strength)witha
maintenanceorloweringoffatmass(weight)equalingtotalweight.Thisscenarioisobviouslydesirable.However,shouldanathleteincreasethefatmass,strengthis
lostandthestrengthrelativetoweightratiodecreasesorislow.Assessingtheseaspectsofbodycompositionhasbecomeastandardtoolfortheevaluationofbody
changesthatoccurasaresultoftime,training,andnutritionalfactors.
Bodycompositionassessmentgenerallyresultsinobtainingavaluereferredtoasbodyfatpercent,ortheproportionoftotalweightthatismadeupbythefatmass.
Let'sassumeanathleteweighs150poundsandhasabodyfatpercentof20percent.Thismeansthat30pounds(150 .20=30)isfatweightand120poundsis
fatfree(i.e.,lean)weight.Ifthisathleteexperiencesareductioninbodyfatpercentto15percentwhilemaintainingweight,thiswouldmeanthat22.5pounds(150
.15=22.5)isfatweightand127.5poundsisleanweight.Thisincreaseof7.5poundsinleanweightandreductioninfatweightmeanstheathleteisnowsmaller
(poundforpound,leanmasstakesuplessspacethanfatmassbecauseithasahigherdensity),whichmeanstheathleteshouldbeabletomovemorequicklyand
moreefficiently(lessdrag)thanbefore.However,ifthis150poundathleteweretomaintainweightbutincreasefatmasswhilereducingtheleanmass,potentialspeed
andefficiencyof

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movementwouldbereduced.Therefore,weightisapoormeasureforpredictingathleticsuccess.Thisexamplealsoemphasizestheimportanceoflookingat
changesthatoccurinboththeleanandfatmass,sinceunderstandingchangesinbothcompartmentsisnecessarytounderstandthepotentialimpactonperformance.
PurposeofBodyCompositionAssessment
Thepurposeofbodycompositionassessmentistodeterminetheathlete'sdistributionoflean(muscle)massandfatmass.Ahighleanmasstofatmassratioisoften
synonymouswithahighstrengthtoweightratio,whichistypicallyassociatedwithathleticsuccess.However,thereisnosingleidealbodycompositionforallathletesin
allsports.Eachsporthasarangeofleanmassandfatmassassociatedwithit,andeachathleteinasporthasanindividualrangethatisidealforhimorher.Athletes
whotrytoachieveanarbitrarybodycompositionthatisnotrightforthemarelikelytoplacethemselvesathealthriskandwillnotachievetheperformancebenefits
theyseek.Therefore,thekeytobodycompositionassessmentistheestablishmentofanacceptablerangeofleanandfatmassfortheindividualathlete,aswellasthe
monitoringofleanandfatmassoverregulartimeintervalstoassurethestabilityorgrowthoftheleanmassandaproportionalmaintenanceorreductionofthefat
mass.Importantly,thereshouldbejustasmuchattentiongiventochangesinleanmass(bothinweightofleanmassandproportionofleanmass)astheattention
traditionallygiventobodyfatpercent.
HowImportantIsBodyCompositiontoPerformance?
Athleticperformanceis,toalargedegree,dependentontheathlete'sabilitytosustainpower(bothanaerobicallyandaerobically)andtheathlete'sabilitytoovercome
resistance,ordrag.Bothofthesefactorsareinterrelatedwiththeathlete'sbodycomposition.Coupledwiththecommonperceptionofmanyathleteswhocompetein
sportswhereappearanceisaconcern(swimming,diving,gymnastics,skating,etc.),attainmentofan"ideal"bodycompositionoftenbecomesacentralthemeof
training.Besidestheaestheticandperformancereasonsforwantingtoachieveanoptimalbodycomposition,

Page104

theremayalsobesafetyreasons.Anathletewhoiscarryingexcessweightmaybemorepronetoinjurywhenperformingdifficultskillsthantheathletewithamore
optimalbodycomposition.However,themeansathletessometimesuseinanattempttoachieveanoptimalbodycompositionareoftencounterproductive.Dietsand
excessivetrainingoftenresultinsuchasevereenergydeficitthat,whiletotalweightmaybereduced,theconstituentsofweightalsochange,commonlywithalower
musclemassandarelativelyhigherfatmass.Theresultinghigherbodyfatpercentageandlowermusclemassinevitablyresultinaperformancereductionthat
motivatestheathletetofollowregimensthatproduceevengreaterenergydeficits.Thisdownwardenergyintakespiralmaybetheprecursortoeatingdisordersthat
placetheathleteatserioushealthrisk.Therefore,whileachievinganoptimalbodycompositionisusefulforhighlevelathleticperformance,theprocessesathletesoften
usetoattainanoptimalbodycompositionmayreduceathleticperformance,placethematahigherinjuryrisk,andincreasehealthrisks.
Themindsetthatmanypeoplehavethatfood,regardlessoftheamountandtype,is"fatproducing"isunhealthy.Amuchhealthier(andfromthepointofviewofan
athlete,moreappropriate)mindsetisthatfoodistheproviderofenergyandthenutrientsassociatedwithburningenergy.Youwouldn'tthinkofnotputtingfuelin
yourautomobile(youknowforcertainitwouldn'trun).Youshouldalsoimagineputtingfuel(food)inyourbodytomakeyourmusclesrunisnormalanddesirable.
Thekeyistoknowwhatfoodsmakeyourmusclesrunbest,andhowtodeliverthefoodtokeepyourhighoctanetankfull(glycogenstorage),whilelimitingthe
storageoflowoctanefuel(fat).
Bodyfatpercentageshouldbethoughtofashavinganappropriaterangefordifferentsports,andit'sOKforathletestofallanywhereonthatsportspecificrange.For
instance,thesevenmembersofthegoldmedalwinning1996U.S.GymnasticsTeamwerenottheleanestindividualsonthe20membernationalteam.Theywere,for
themostpart,rightinthemiddleoftherangeofbodyfatpercentagesforthegirlsonthenationalteam.Despitethis,theywereselectedthroughcompetitiontobethe
girlsthatrepresentedtheUnitedStatesintheOlympicGames,andtheywontheteamgoldmedal.
Withinsomereasonablebounds,havingarelativelylowbodyfatpercentagemayaidathleticperformance.Itdoesthisbyimprovingthestrengthtoweightratio:fora
givenweight,moreofitisrepresentedbyleanmassthatispowerproducingandlessofitbyfatmass

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thatrepresentsstoredfuel.Italsohelpsbyloweringtheresistance,ordrag,anathletehasasshe'sgoingthroughtheair,swimminginwater,orskatingonicethe
smallerthebodyprofile,thelessresistanceitislikelytoproduce.
Lessresistance,ordrag,issoimportantforsomesports(typicallythefasteryougothegreatertheimportanceofdragreduction)thatperformancetechniquesare
basedonreducingdrag.Speedskaters,forinstance,spendtheentireracebentovertoreducewindresistance.Cyclistswearspecialstreamlinedhelmetsandclothing,
positiontheirbodiesonthebicycletoreducedrag,andevenstrategizeaboutthebesttimetosprintaheadofthecycleinfrontofthem.Goingtoosooncanleadto
prematureexhaustionbecauseittakesagreatdealmoreenergytogothesamespeedifyou'retheonefacingwindresistance.Agymnastwhoweighs110poundsand
is5feettallwithabodyfatpercentageof15percentwillhavealowerwindresistance(i.e.,lessdrag)tumblingthroughtheairthanagymnastwiththesameweight
andheightbutwithabodyfatpercentageof20percent.

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Forsomesports,however,thismaymakelittleornodifference.It'shardtoimaginehowapowerlifterwouldhaveaproblemwithwindresistance,andlinemenon
footballteamsaremoreinterestedinmovingmassthangoingfastoveradistance(althoughquicknesshelps).(Seetable3.1.)
Table3.1BodyFatFercentagesRangesforMaleandFemaleAthletesinDifferent
Sports
Sport

Bodyfatpercentage(rnageofaverage)

Males

Baseball(age2028)

1216

Basketball(age2527)

711

2027

Cycling

89

1315

Figureskating

910

1213

FootballDefensivebacks(age
19.320.3)

1314

FootballOffensivebacks(age17
24.5)

1012

FootballLinemen(age1724.7)

912

FootballQuarterbacks(age24.1)

1619

Hockey(age22.526.3)

1314

Rowing(age25.6)

1315

Racquetball(age2125)

57

Speedskating(age21)

89

SkiingAlpine(age16.521.8)

911

SkiingCrosscountry(age20.2
25.6)

911

2021

SkiingNordic(age21.7)

713

1522

SoccerU.S.Junior(age17.5)

89

SoccerU.S.Olympic(age20.6)

910

SoccerU.S.Collegiate(age20.0)

910

SoccerU.S.National(age22.5)

911

SwimmingAllstroke/distances
(age15.121.8)

91O

SwimmingSprints

511

1314

2627

SwimmingMiddledistance

1718

Sychornizedswimming(age20.1)

2324

Tennis(age3942)

1517

2021

TrackandfieldDistancerunning
(age2026)

57

1519

TrackandfieldMiddledistance
(age2025)

613

TrackandfieldSprint(age2047)

517

TrackandfieldCrosscountry(age
15.6)

1920

1516

TrackandfieldRacewalking(age
26.7)

78

TrackandfieldDiscus(age2128)

1617

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Females

2426

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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Sport

Bodyfatpercentage(rangeofaverage)

Males

Females

TrackandfieldHurdles(age20.3)

2021

TrackandfieldShotput(age21.527)

1620

2729

Triathlon

78

1213

Volleyball(age1926)

1113

1722

WeightliftingPower(age24.926.3)

920

WeightliftingOlympic(age25.3)

1213

WeightliftingBodybuilding(age25.629)

814

1314

Wrestling(age11.327)

415

Note:Thevaluespresentedareestimatesfromlimitednumbersofathletesassessedindifferent
settingsusingskinfoldsorhydrodensitometryandshouldnotbeconsideredideals.Thevaluesin
thistablecanbeusedtocomparecommonbodycompositionvaluesfoundindifferentsports.
AdaptedfromWilmoreandCostill1988.

Insportswherebeingaerodynamichelps,bodycompositioncouldmakeabigdifference.Thereasonforthisissomethingmanyofushavealreadyexperienced:
poundforpound,fattakesupmorespacethanleanbecauseitislessdensethanlean.Peoplewithahighbodyfatpercentagearelikelytobeabletofloatbetterin
waterthanpeoplewithalowbodyfatpercentagebecausethegreateramountoffat(whichislessdense)makesiteasierforthemtofloat.Leanmassis65to75
percentwater,whilefatmassisessentiallyanhydrous(hasnowater).Onewaytothinkabouttherelativedensitiesofwaterandfatistothinkaboutoilandvinegar
saladdressing.Theoilalwaysfloatstothetopbecauseitislessdensethanthewaterbasedvinegar.
HowBodyCompositionIsEstimated
Youcan'ttellaboutaperson'sbodycompositionbyweighingthemorbylookingatthem.Therearemany''thin"peoplewhohavelostsomuchleanmassthatthey
actuallyhavearelativelyhighbodyfatpercent.Therearealsomany"large"peoplewhomyoumightassumeareobesebutwhoareactuallyrelativelylean.Evenwith
modemequipmentandsophisticatedequationsitisextremelydifficult(ifnotimpossible)toaccuratelymeasurebodyfatpercentageandtoaccuratelyrepeatthat
measure.Themostaccuratemeansofmeasuringfatmassandleanmassifyoulivedinahorrorstory!

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(Don'ttrythis)wouldbetodeterminethenudeweightofaperson,putthepersoninaboilingpotofwater,letrisetothetop,andthenweighthefat.However,since
wecan'tanddon'twanttodothis,alltheothertechniquesavailableformeasuringbodyfatpercentagearemerelyestimatesofwhat'sreallythere.Sinceeach
techniqueusesadifferentmeansofestimatingbodycomposition,crosscomparisonsbetweentechniquesshouldnotbemade.Forinstance,ifyouhadyourbody
compositionmeasuredusingaskinfoldcaliperlastyear,andyouusedabioelectricalimpedanceanalysis(BIA)yesterday,itwouldbemisleadingtousethesevalues
asameansofdetermininghowyourbodycompositionhaschangedovertime.
Thecommonmethodsforassessingbodycompositioninclude
hydrostaticweighing(underwaterweighing),
skinfoldmeasuresappliedtopredictionequations,
bioeletricalimpedanceanalysis(BIA),and
dualenergyxrayabsorptiometry(DEXA).
HydrostaticWeighing(Hydrodensitometry)
Thisisthe"classic"meansfordeterminingbodycompositionandapplieswhatisknownasthe"ArchimedesPrinciple."4Inessence,thisprinciplestatesthat,foran
equalweight,lowerdensityobjectshavealargersurfaceareaanddisplacemorewaterthanhigherdensityobjects.Fromabodycompositionstandpoint,thisprinciple
isappliedinthefollowingway:
1.Thesubjectisweighedonastandardscaletogeta"landweight."
2.Usingspecializedequipment,thesubject'slungvolumeisestimated(thesubjectblowsintoatube).
3.Thesubjectsitsonachairthatisattachedtoaweightscale.
4.Thechairandweightscalearepositionedoverwaterandthechairisslowlyloweredintothewater.
5.Whenthesubjectisloweredintothewaterjustbelowthechin,theyareaskedtofullyexhaleandcompletelylowertheirheadintothewatertobecompletely
immersed.
6.Whileimmersed,"underwaterweight"isreadoffthescalethatisattachedtothechairthesubjectissittingon.

Page109

Subjectsweighlessinwaterthanoutofwaterbecausebodyfat(regardlessoftheamountpresent)makesthesubjectmorebuoyant.Thegreaterthedifference
betweeninwaterweightandoutofwaterweightisafunctionofhowmuchbodyfatthesubjecthas.Averyobesesubjectwithahighlevelofbodyfatwouldappear
lightinwaterrelativetolandweight.Sincelungvolumeismeasuredpriortotakingthe"waterweight,"thereisanadjustmentforthebuoyancythatcanbeattributedto
theairinthelungs.Tominimizethelungaireffect,thesubjectisaskedtoexhalepriortofullsubmersion,butthereisalwayssomeremainingairinthelungsthatis
referredtoas"residualvolume."

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Whilethereissomepotentialforerrorwithhydrodensitometryrelatedtoaperson'shydrationstatus,andtheresidualvolumeofairinthelungsmentionedearlier,this
techniqueisusefulfordeterminingthechangeinbodycompositionovertimeifthetechniciansperformingthemeasurementsaregoodatpreciselyreplicatingthe
measurementprocedure.Itisalsoausefulmeansofdeterminingthebodycompositionofapopulation,sincetheerrorsassociatedwiththetechniquearelikelyto
averagethemselvesoutovermanymeasurements.However,individualswithinthatpopulationwouldneverbesureiftheirpersonalbodycompositionresultswere
accurate.Goodlaboratoriesthatdoresearchinbodycompositionalmostalwayshaveinvestedtheseveralthousanddollarsfortheequipmentneededtoaccuratelydo
hydrostaticweighing.Importantly,theyalsoinvestinmakingsuretheyhavehighlyqualifiedpeopletotakethemeasurements.
Skinfolds
Skinfoldcalipers,whichvaryincostfromfreeto$500,areusedtomeasureadoublethicknessofthefatlayerundertheskin.Thisfatlayer(calledsubcutaneousfat)
ishypothesizedtorepresentapproximately50percentofaperson'stotalbodyfat.Therefore,ifyoucangetagoodestimateofthesubcutaneousfatlayer,youshould
beabletopredictthetotalbodyfatlevel.Thepredictionequationscommonlyusedtodeterminebodycompositionfromskinfoldsarebasedonthebodycomposition
determinationsderivedfromhydrodensitometry.Itworkssomethinglikethis:Youmeasureagroupofpeopleusinghydrodensitometrytodeterminetheirbodyfat
percentages.Thenyoumeasurethesesamepeoplewithaseriesofskinfolds,whichareusedinstatisticstopredictthebodyfatpercentageobtainedfrom
hydrodensitometry.Iftheskinfolds,whenappliedtothenewlycreatedequation,cansuccessfullypredictthehydrodensitometryvalue,thenyouhaveaskinfold
equationforpredictingbodyfatpercentage.
Thereareanumberofdifferentequationsavailableforthegeneralpopulation,andtherearealsoseveralequationsavailableforathletes.Ingeneral,usinganequation
thatismorespecifictothepersonyou'remeasuringyieldsmoreaccurateresults.Also,equationsthatusemoreskinfoldmeasurementsaregenerallymoreaccurate.
Forinstance,anequationmayrequireheight,weight,age,tricepsskinfold,andabdomenskinfold.Anotherequationmayrequireheight,

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weight,age,andskinfoldsatthetriceps,subscapular,midaxillary,suprailiac,abdomen,andmidthighsites.
It'simportanttosayawordaboutthevaluesthatarederivedfromskinfoldequationsandusedtopredictbodyfatpercentage.Manyoftheequationsusedwith
athletesareactuallymeantforthegeneral(i.e.,nonathlete)population.Sincemanyathletesareconsiderablyleanerthantheaveragenonathlete,theresultsthatare
derivedfromskinfoldequationsareunrealisticallylow.Manyathletescometothelabsayingthattheyhaveabodyfatpercentageof2percentor3percent,andI
knowimmediatelythattheseareestimatesfromequationsthathavenotbeennormalizedonathletes.It'ssimplynotpossibletohaveabodyfatpercentthatissolow.
Whenathletesthinktheyhavesuchalowbodyfatpercentandaregiventhetruevaluefromamorerealisticassessment(usingeitherbetter,morepopulationspecific
equationsoramoreaccuratetechnique),theydon'tusuallyrespondpositivelywhentheyreceivethenewnumber(usuallysomewherebetween8and18percent).It's
importantforyoutorememberthat,whenskinfoldequationsareused,thesinglenumberyougetisnotgoingtobeperfectlyaccurate.However,thatnumbercanbe
usedasabaselinetodeterminechangeovertimeifthesametechniqueandsameequationareusedtogetthesecondvalue.Itiscompletelyinappropriatetocompare
thefirstvaluewithonethatwasobtainedusingadifferentsetofskinfoldsandadifferentequation.
BioelectricalImpedanceAnalysis(BIA)
Forthoseofyouwhoknowwhattodoifyou'reinaswimmingpool,andyoubegintohearthunderandlightningnearby,youalreadyknowtheprinciplebehind
bioelectricalimpedanceanalysis(BIA).Waterisagoodconductorofelectricity,andmostbodywaterisfoundintheleanmass.Fat,whichhasalmostnowaterinit,
issuchapoorconductorofelectricitythatitactuallyimpedestheelectricalflow.BIAequipmentcomesintwobasicforms.Inoneform,thesubjectliesdownand
electrodesareconnectedtotherightwristandrightankle,whichproducesanelectricalcurrentthatrunsfromthewristtotheankle.Inanotherform,thesubject
standsonaplatformwithbarefeet,andanelectricalcurrentrunsfromtherightfoot,uptherightleg,downtheleftleg,andouttheleftfoot.RegardlessoftheBIA
equipmentused,theprinciplebehindthetechniqueisthesame.Ifyouknowthebeginninglevelofenergy(electricity)thatentersthesystemandyoucanmeasurethe
levelofenergythatexitsthesystem,

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youknowhowmuchoftheenergyhasbeenimpededinthesystem.Sincemuscle,becauseofthewaterandelectrolytesitcontains,isanefficientconductorof
electricity,andfatisanefficientinsulatorof(thereforeitimpedes)electricity,thegreatertheimpedance,thegreatertheleveloffat.Ifyoustartwith100unitsof
electricitygoingintoyoursystemand80unitsofelectricitycomeoutofthesystem,youhavemorewaterandmusclethansomeonewhohas100unitsgoinginand60
unitscomingout.
Ofcourse,anumberofadjustmentstothepredictionarenecessary.Atallerpersonwouldhavetheelectricalcurrentrunningalongerdistance,sowouldautomatically
haveagreaterlevelofimpedance.Theratioofweighttoheightisalsoimportant,becauseithelpstopredictthedistancethecurrentisrunningandthecompositionof
thetissuesitisrunningthrough.Sincebodycompositioncommonlychangeswithage(peoplebecomelessleanandmorefatwithincreasingage),ageisalsoan
importantpredictorofbodycomposition.Attheinitiationoftheadolescentgrowthspurt,malesandfemalesbegintodifferentiatethemselvesonbodycomposition,
withwomenhavingrelativelymorefatthanmen.Sogenderisalsoanimportantconsiderationinthisprediction.Therefore,whenperformingaBIA,thevariablesage,
height,weight,andgenderareincludedintheequationthatpredictsbodyfatpercentage.
WhileBIAhasanexcellenttheoreticalbasisformakinggoodbodycompositionpredictions,thereareseveralimportantprotocolsthatmustbefollowedfortheresults
tobeaccurateandrepeatable.Sincethetechniqueisdependentonelectricalconductivitythroughtheleanmass,thehydrationstateofthesubjectcanaltertheresults.
IfsomeonehasaBIAmeasurementtakenandisnotwellhydrated,theelectricalcurrentwillnotbeconductedthroughtheleanmassaswell,sothesubjectwill
appeartohavemorefatmassthantheyreallyhave.Therefore,itiscriticallyimportantthatthepersonhavingaBIAmeasurementtakenbeinawellhydratedstate.It
isgenerallybelievedthatdrinkingalcohol,exercising,consuminglargeamountsofcoffee,andspendingtimeoutsideinhotandhumidweatherwithin24hoursofaBIA
testleadstosufficientdehydrationthattheresultswillnotbeaccurate.Sinceseriousathletesexercisemostdays,thistechniquemayprovideresultsthatshowthemto
havemorebodyfatthantheyreallyhave.Therefore,athleteswhoaremeasuredwiththistechniqueshoulddoitafteradayofrestandshouldmakecertaintheyare
wellhydrated.Aneasyhydrationcheckistoseeiftheurineisclear.Themoreclearitis,thebetterhydratedyouare.

Page113

DualEnergyXRayAbsorptiometry(DEXA)
Dualenergyxrayabsorptiometry(DEXA)isthelatest,mostaccurate,andmostexpensive($50,000to$80,000)meansofdeterminingbodycomposition,anditis
generallyconsideredthecurrent"goldstandard"forthispurpose.Theinformationyoucanderivefromafullbodyscanonanathleteisinvaluable,includingbone
density,bodyfatpercentage,leanbodymass,fatmass,andthedistributionoffatandleaninthearms,bodytrunk,andlegs.DEXAoutputevenprovidesthe
differencesinleanmassandfatmassbetweentheleftandrightsides.Thisinformationcanbeparticularlyimportantforathleteswhowishtodevelopsymmetrical
bodiesorwho,becauseofthenatureofthesport,needtoproducethesamemuscularpowerineachlegorineacharm.
DEXAworksbypassingtwoxraybeamsthroughthesubjectandmeasuringtheamountofxraythathasbeenabsorbedbythetissueithaspassedthrough.One
beamisahighintensitybeamandoneisalowintensitybeam,sotherelativeabsorbanceofeachbeamisanindicationofthedensityofthetissueithaspassed
through.Thehigherthetissuedensity,thegreaterthereductioninxrayintensity.Don'tbefrightenedbyallthistalkofxraybeamspassingthroughyourbody.Infact,
theamountofradiationenergythatisusedwithDEXAisextremelysmall.Youwouldneedtohaveapproximately800fullbodyDEXAscansbeforeyougotthe
sameamountofradiationreceivedfromonestandardchestxray.Infact,thelevelofradiationissolowthatDEXAisapprovedbytheFDAasascreeningdeviceto
predictbodycomposition.Usually,xraydevicesarereservedasdiagnosticinstrumentsbecauseoftheamountofradiationtheyimpart,butnotsoforDEXA.
TheprocedureforDEXA,whichwasoriginallydevelopedtodeterminethedensityofbone,couldn'tbeeasier.ThesubjectliesontheDEXAtableforapproximately
20minutes,andthepencilbeamxrayspassthroughthesubjectandareinterpretedbyamechanicalarmabovethesubject.Becausemetalhassuchahighdensity,
thesubjectisaskedtoremovealljewelryandmustwearclothingthatcontainsnometal.Theresultantvalueistranslatedintoadensityvalueforbone,lean,andfat
tissue.Becausethedensityvaluesarederivedfromadirectassessmentoftissuedensity,thisisascloseaswecangettodirectlyassessingtissuedensity(shortof
surgery!).IfyoucanfindalabwithDEXA,theusualcostforafullbodyscanissomewherebetween$100and$250.

Page114

WhyDoesBodyCompositionChange?
Bodycompositionchanges.Wecaninfluencethatchangebytakingchargeofwhatweeatandhowweexercise.Thegeneralruleforleanmass(includingbonemass)
is"useitorloseit."We'rewonderfullyadaptivecreatures,andwequicklyadapttoourenvironmentandouractivity.Weknow,forinstance,thatastronautsquickly
demineralizetheirbonesbecausethegravityfreeenvironmentofouterspaceeliminatestheneedforhavingastrongskeleton.Wewoulddoquitewellinthat
environmentlookinglikeajellyfish,andthebonesquicklyadaptbyreleasinglotsofcalcium.Theeffectofthisenvironmentissostrongthatastronautsmustspenda
significantamountoftimedoingexercisethatplacesstressontheskeleton.Again,we'readaptivecreatures,soplacingthisartificialstressontheboneshelpstokeep
themstrong,eveninagravityfreeenvironment.Thesamethinghappenswhenpeoplearebedriddenbecauseofaninjury.Bothboneandmusclemassesarerapidly
reducedbecausetheysimplyaren'tneededwhenyou'relyinginbed.Theimportantthingtorememberaboutourtissuesisthattheyarealiveandwilldowhat's
neededtoadapttotheircurrentsituation.Evenbone,whichtothecasualobservermightappeartobeahard,rocklike,unadaptivestructure,isactuallyverymuch
aliveandchangingitselfallthetime.Mineralsmoveinandmineralsmoveout,andthisprocessleadstoaconstantremodelingofbone.
Whenyouconsidertheinfluencesonbodycomposition,theyboildowntothefollowing:
Geneticpredisposition.Thisiseveryone'sbottomlineand,nomatterhowhardyoutry,youcan'tchangeit.Peoplehavedifferentinheritedbodytypes,andeach
typehasadifferentpredispositiontowardaccumulatingmoreorlessfat.Endomorphs(largetrunk,shortfingers,shorterlegs)haveapredispositiontowardhigher
bodyfatpercentages,andectomorphs(longlegs,longfingers,shortertrunk)haveapredispositiontowardaslenderbuildwithlessbodyfat.Whatyou'rebornwith
can'tchange,soallyoucanhopetodoisoptimizewhatyou'vebeengiven.
Age.Peoplegenerallydevelopalowerleanmassandhigherfatmassaftertheageof30.However,whilethisagerelatedchangeinbodycompositionisnormal,it
isn'tamandate.Ithasbeenclearlyshownthatagooddietandregularactivitycankeepyoulean.Sinceenergymetabolismdropsabout2percentforeachdecade
afterage30,

Page115

itgetsprogressivelymoredifficulttomaintainadesirableweightandbodycomposition.Tomaintainwhatyou'vegot,youwouldhavetomakeeithera2percent
increaseinenergyexpenditureora2percentdecreaseinenergyintakeeachdecadeafter30tomatchthedropinenergymetabolism.Whilethis2percentdifference
seemssmall,itcouldmakeamajordifferenceinyourbodycomposition.Considerthattheaveragepersonconsumesabout2,500caloriesperday.Ifyouneed2
percentlessthanthisanddon'tmakeanadjustment,thatrepresentsa50calorieerrorofexcesseachday.Multiplythatover365daysanditrepresents18,250
excesscaloriesperyear.Sinceanexcessof3,500caloriesrepresentsaonepoundweightgain,inthecourseofoneyearthissmall50calorieerrorwouldmanifest
itselfasaweightgainofoverfivepounds.Infiveyears,that'saweightgainof25pounds,andin10years,that'saweightgainof50pounds!
Gender.Allotherthingsbeingequal,womenhaveahigherbodyfatpercentagethanmen.There'snothingthatcanbedonetoalterthis,andthereiscertainlynothing
wrongwiththis.Thegenderdifferenceisjustamanifestationofthedifferentbiologicalexpectationsofmenandwomen.However,therearemanywomenwhohavea
lowerbodyfatpercentagethanmenbecausetheyexercisemoreandeatbetter.Therefore,despitethisbaselinedifference,doingtherightthingscanhelpyou
(regardlessofyourgender)optimizeyourbodycompositionforyoursport.
Typeofactivity.Differenttypesofactivitiesplacedifferentstressesonthesystemand,asyouwouldexpect,thebodyrespondsdifferentlytothesestresses.The
standardforexerciseforreducingbodyfatpercentageis"aerobic"exercise.However,thereisgoodevidencethatanytypeofactivity(includinganaerobicactivity)
willreducethebodyfatpercentage.5Highintensityactivity(suchasthatdonebysprintersandweightlifters)mayincreaseleanbodymassandreducebodyfat
percentage,sotheimpactonweightmaybeminimal.Nevertheless,thisshiftinbodycompositionisstilllikelytomakethepersonappearslightlysmaller,since,pound
forpound,fatweighttakesupmorespacethanleanmassweight.Lowintensityactivity,ontheotherhand,appearstoreducebodyfatpercentagewithminimal
impactonleanbodymass,soweightisreduced.Whenenergyexpenditure(caloriesburned)isequivalent,bothanaerobicandaerobicactivityappeartolowerbody
fattothesameextent.
Amountofactivity.Clearly,themoreapersonexercises,thegreaterthepotentialbenefitsindesirablyalteringbodycomposition.However,

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activitymustbesupportedbyanadequateintakeofenergy.Increasingthetimeofactivitywithoutalsoincreasingtheamountofenergyintakecausesabreakdownof
musclemasstosupportenergyneeds.Thereisnoquestionthatthiswouldbeanundesirablechangeinbodycompositionforanathlete.Inaddition,overtraining,
althoughitwillnotnecessarilyleadtoareductioninleanbodymass,causesanincreaseinmusclesorenessandreducesmuscularpowerandendurance.Therefore,
theamountofactivityshouldbecarefullybalancedwithadequateenergyintakeandwithadequateresttoassuremaintenanceofmusclemassandathletic
performance.
Nutrition.Eatingtoomuchortoolittlecanbothnegativelyimpactbodycomposition.Eatingtoomuch,eitheroverthecourseofadayoratonetime,islikelyto
increasefatstorage,andeatingtoolittlewilllowerbothlean(muscle)massandfatmass.Inadditiontoenergyintake,therearealsonutrientsthatareimportantin
energymetabolicprocesses.Afailuretoconsumeanadequatelevelofthesenutrients(Bvitamins,zinc,iron,etc.)mayreduceyourabilitytoproperlyburnfuel,
therebylimitingyourabilitytoburnfatthroughexercise.
TheIssueofWeight
Thereisnoquestionthatweightisanimportantissueforathletesbecauseitinfluencestheeasewithwhichtheycanperformtheskillstheyneedtodo.However,
lookingatweightbyitselfmayprovideathleteswithamisleadingpictureofwhatisgoodorbadaboutthenbodycomposition.
Inanumberofsports,athleteswillincreasethetimeorintensityofatrainingregimentoimproveperformance,butthentheyinappropriatelyusechangesinweightasa
markerofsuccess.Imagineafootballplayerwhocomestotrainingcampataweightmuchhigherthanthecoachisaccustomedtoseeinginthisplayer.Itmaywellbe
thatthefootballplayerworkedhardduringtheoffseasontoincreasemusclemass,andtheincreaseinweightisaresultofmoremuscle.Wouldn'tthecoachbewrong
intellingthatplayerthathehastoloseweight?Gymnastsoftenreachtheircompetitivepeakduringadolescence,atimewhenfastgrowthisthenormalbiological
expectation.Inspiteofthis,gymnastsaresometimesweighedweeklytomakecertaintheyaremaintainingtheirweight.Shouldn'tallthetrainingthey'redoingincrease
theirmusclemassandthereforetheirweight?Shouldn'ttheybegrowingandthusincreasingtheirweight?These

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areexamplesofhowweightisoftenusedarbitrarilyandwrongly.Trackingtheconstituentsofweightmakesmuchmoresenseandgivesyouamuchmoreimportant
ideaofwhetheryourbodyischanginginadesirableway.
Changingbodycompositionisnotasstraightforwardasmanypeoplethinkitis.Themostcommonbeliefisthatdietingisaneffectivebutunpleasantmeansofweight
loss.Logicsuggeststhata25percentreductioninenergyintakewillleadtoa25percentreductioninweight.Thereality,however,isthatenergyexpenditure
followingweightlossislessthanwouldbeexpectedbytheamountofweightthatwaslost.6Thismeansthattheadjustmentinenergyexpendituretoinadequateintake
isgreaterthanthemathematicalexpectation,andleadstoareturntotheoriginalweight,evenonalowerenergyintake(i.e.,thelessyoueat,thelessyoucaneatto
maintainweight).Logicalsosuggeststhata25percentincreasein

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energyintakewillleadtoa25percentincreaseinweight.Infact,althoughweightgaindoesoccur,itdoesn'tappeartoincreaseasmuchastheincreaseinenergy
intakesuggestsitshould.However,whenyoupurposefullyoverfeedpeopletogainweight,theamountofweightgainisproportionatetotheamountofoverfeeding.7
10Thesestudiesstronglysuggestthatwehavehomeostaticmechanismsduringperiodsofenergydeficitthathelpusmaintainourweight.Thismaybea''survivalofthe
species"mechanismthathelpshumanssurviveperiodsoffamine.Wealsoappearabletostoreenergyeffectively(asfat)duringperiodsofexcess.Thismayalsobea
"survivalofthespecies"mechanismthatenablesustostoreenergywhenweareluckyenoughtohaveexcessfoodavailable.
Sincemajorenergysurplusesanddeficitsappeartoactivatehomeostaticmechanisms,apossiblemeansofmakingadesiredchangeinweightandbodycompositionis
toavoidmajorenergybalanceshifts.Exerciseshouldbeatthecoreofanydesiredbodycompositionchange(i.e.,anincreaseinleanmassandadecreaseinfatmass,
coupledwithasmalldecreaseinweight).Butsuchachangemightbeeasiertoachieveiftheenergydeficitandenergysurpluscreatedarenevertoolargeduringthe
day.Seefigure3.1forexample,whatcanhappentobodycompositionwiththreedifferenteatingpatterns.Energysurplusesanddeficitsarerepresented,respectively,
byvariationsaboveandbelowzero(0)energybalanceline.Inthefigure,whenthelinemovesabovezero,theathletehasconsumedmoreenergythanwasexpended.
Whenthelinemovesbelowzero,theathletehasexpendedmoreenergythanwasconsumed.Eatingpattern1representsanathleteeatingsmallmealsfrequently,and
neverhasenergysurplusesordeficitsthatexceed400calories.Eatingpattern2representsinfrequenteatingwithexcesscaloriesconsumedateachmeal.Eating
pattern3representsanathletewhospendsthemajorityofthedayinanenergydeficitstatefromnoteatingenoughwhentheenergyisneeded.Whenthishappensthe
bodywillbreakdownmuscletissueforenergy.Attheendoftheday,averylargemealbringstheathleteintoenergybalance,butmuchofthismealwillbestoredas
fat.Withinanyonegivenday,energybalance(400calories)isimportantforbothperformanceandbodycomposition.
Sincethestandardthreemealadayscheduleforcesathletestoconsumealargeamountofenergyateachmealtoobtainthenecessaryenergy,stayinginenergy
balanceiseasieronasixmealpattern.Frequentconsumptionofsmallmealstomaintainasteady

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Figure3.1
Relationshipofeatingpatternstobodycompositionchanges.

energyflowcanbeanimportantstrategyinmakingthedesiredchanges.Chapter7discussestheimportanceofmealtiming.
CommonIssueswithBodyCompositionAssessment
Bodycompositionassessmenthasbecomeanimportantpartofathleteassessment.Theamountofmuscleandfatthatanathletehascanbepredictiveofperformance,
andbonemassassessmentisimportantforunderstandingifdevelopmentalproblemsexistoriftheathletewillfacecurrentorfutureriskforfracture.Aperiodic
assessmentofbodycompositionalsohelpstheathleteunderstandifthetrainingregimeniscausingthekindsofphysicalchangesthatarebeingsought.However,there
aresomeimportantthingstokeepinmindwhenassessingbodycomposition.
DesirableBodyCompositionChangeisPossible
Youcanchangebodycompositionbymakingchangesinyourdietandexercise,butthesetwoshouldbeconsideredtogetherwhenmakingchanges.Makingdramatic
changesineitherdirectionislikelytocause

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unpredictableproblemsinyourbodycomposition.Ifyouareincreasingyourtrainingregimen,itisnecessarytoincreaseyourenergyintaketosupporttheincreasein
energyexpenditure.Puttingyourselfinasevereenergydeficitstatebyincreasingexerciseandmaintainingorloweringenergyintakeislikelytolowermetabolicrate,
increasefatstorage,andalsocauseabreakdownofmuscletosupportenergyneeds.Eatingtoomuchisalsolikelytoincreasefatstorage.It'sbesttomaintainenergy
intakethroughouttheday,soathletesshouldbecarefulaboutconsumingenoughenergytosupportexercise,ratherthanmakingupforanenergydeficitattheendof
theday.
KeepingInformationPrivate
Athletesoftencomparebodycompositionvalueswithotherathletes,butthiscomparisonisnotmeaningfulandmaydriveanathletetochangebodycompositionina
waythatnegativelyimpactsonbothperformanceandhealth.Healthprofessionalsinvolvedinobtainingbodycompositiondatashouldbesensitivetotheconfidentiality
ofthisinformation.Theyshouldalsoexplaintoeachathletethatdifferencesinheight,age,andgenderarelikelytoresultindifferencesinbodycomposition,without
necessarilyanydifferencesinperformance.Strategiesforachievingprivacyandhelpingtheathleteputtheinformationinthepropercontextincludethefollowing:
Obtainbodycompositionvalueswithonlyoneathleteatatime,tolimitthechancethatthedatawillbeshared.
Giveathletesinformationonbodycompositionusingphrasessuchas"withinthedesirablerange"ratherthanarawvalue,suchassaying,"yourbodyfatlevelis18
percent."
Provideathleteswithinformationonhowtheyhavechangedbetweenassessments,ratherthanofferingthecurrentvalue.
Increasethefocusonmusclemass,anddecreasethefocusonbodyfat.
Usebodycompositionvaluesasameansofhelpingtoexplainchangesinobjectivelymeasuredperformanceoutcomes.
ComparingBodyCompositionResultsObtainedfromDifferentMethods
Differentmethodsforassessingbodycompositionproducedifferentstandardresults.Therefore,itisinappropriatetocomparetheresultsfromonemethodwiththe
resultsofanother.Ifathletesarebeing

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evaluatedtodeterminebodycompositionchangeovertime(anappropriateuseofbodycompositionassessment),thiscomparisonshouldonlybemadeifthesame
methodhasbeenusedfortheentireassessmentperiod.Forinstance,thedifferenceintwoDEXAscanstakenseveralmonthsapartprovidesvaluableinformationon
howbodycompositionhaschangedinanindividual,asdoesthedifferenceintwoskinfoldassessments.However,thedifferencebetweenbodycompositionvalues
fromaDEXAscanandskinfoldequationisnotusefulindeterminingchange.Evenwithinmethods,thesamepredictionequationsshouldbeusedtodetermineifan
athlete'sbodycompositionhaschangedbetweenmeasurements.
SeekinganArbitrarilyLowLevelofBodyFat
Mostathleteswouldliketheirbodyfatleveltobeaslowaspossible.However,athletesoftentrytoseekabodyfatlevelthatisarbitrarilylow(solowthatithas
nothingtodowiththenormsinthesportortheirownbodyfatpredisposition),andthiscanincreasethefrequencyofillness,increasetheriskofinjury,lengthenthe
timetheathleteneedsbeforereturningtotrainingfollowinganinjury,reduceperformance,andincreasetheriskofaneatingdisorder.Bodycompositionvaluesshould
bethoughtofasnumbersonacontinuumthatareusualforasport.Ifanathletefallsanywhereonthatcontinuum,itislikelythatfactorsotherthanbodycomposition
(training,skillsacquisition,etc.)willbethemajorpredictorsofperformancesuccess.
Seekingarbitrarilylowbodyfatlevelsand/orweightisaparticularproblemforathletesinsportswheremakingweightisacommonexpectation.Wrestlers,in
particular,makedangerouseffortssometimesleadingtodeathtolowerbodyfatlevelsandweightinordertobemorecompetitive.Readmoreaboutthissubject
inthesectiononwrestlinginchapter9,"PowerSports."
ExcessiveFrequencyofBodyCompositionAssessment
Athleteswhoareassessedfrequently(frequentweightand/orskinfoldstaken)arefearfuloftheoutcome,sincetheresultsareoften(andinappropriately)used
punitively.Realchangesinbodycompositionoccurslowly,sothereislittleneedtoassessathletesweekly,biweekly,orevenmonthly.Assessingbodycomposition
twotofourtimeseachyearisanappropriatefrequencytodetermineandmonitorbodycompositionchange.Insomeisolatedcircumstanceswhenanathletehasbeen
injuredorissufferingfromadisease,suchas

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malabsorption,fever,diarrhea,oranorexia,itisreasonableforaphysiciantorecommendamorefrequentassessmentratetocontrolforchangesinleanmass.
Coacheswhohavetraditionallyobtainedweightand/orbodycompositionvaluesweekly,biweekly,ormonthlyshouldshifttheirfocustoamorefrequentassessment
ofobjectiveperformancerelatedmeasures.
Summary
Theassessmentofbodycompositioncanbeausefultoolinhelpingtheathleteandcoachunderstandthechangesthatareoccurringasaresultoftrainingand
nutritionalfactors.Healthprofessionalsinvolvedinobtainingbodycompositiondatashouldfocusonusingthesametechniquewiththesamepredictionequationsto
derivevalidcomparativedataovertime.Careshouldbetakenthatbodycompositionvaluesareusedconstructivelyaspartoftheathlete'stotaltrainingplan.Ideally,
theemphasisshouldbeonaperiodic(biyearlyorquarterly)monitoringoftheathlete'sbodycompositiontodeterminechangeofboththeleanandfatmass.Many
athletesaresensitiveaboutbodyfat,socareshouldbetakentousebodycompositionvaluesinawaythatenablestheirconstructiveuseintheathlete'sgeneral
trainingplan.

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4
TrainingwithSupplements
ToCreatineorNottoCreatine
Ifthereisasingle,prominentergognincaidthatvirtuallyeveryoneiseithrtakingoris
willingtotake,it'screatine.WhenIgoaroundthecountrytalkingaboutsportsnutrition,
thefirstandmostfrequentlyaskedquestionis"ShouldItakecreatinte?"Interestingly
enough,thesepeoplearealreadytakingcreatine,andwhattheyreallywantisa
confirmationthatwhatthey'redoingisright.That'sthewayitgoeswithsomany
supposedly"ergogenic"products.Manyathletesareinsuchahurrytoimprovethatthey're
willingtotryalmostanything,evenbeforeweknowifitworks.Theinterestingthingisthat
theplaceboeffectinnutritionissopowerfulthatwhenathletesbelievesomethingworks
(evenifthey'retakingasugarpill),theymayactuallyderiveameasurablebenefit.Thisisa
storyaboutexactlysuchanathlete.
Weweredoingadoubleblindpretest,postteststudyoncretinemonohydrate9the
supplementalformofcreatine)onateamofworldclassfemaleatheletes.Ontheirfirstvisit
tothelab,weperformedaWingatetesttomeasureanaerobicpowerandanaerobic
endurancebyusingresistanceonalaboratorybicycle(calledanergometer).Wedida
triangletest(astandardtestingmethodforassessingtaste)tomakecertainnoonecould
tellthedifferencebetweenthecreatineandnoncreatinebeverges.Sincethiswasadouble
blindtest,neithertheathletenoranyoneindirectcontactwiththeathletesknewwhowas
inwhichgroup.(Thekeyforwhowasinwhichgroupwassecretlyandcloselyheldbya
graduatestudent.)Thusneithertheathletesnotehresearcherscouldinfluencetheresults.
Webasicallydidwhatwehadtodotoassurethattheresultsweobtainedwere"real."
AfterthefirstWingatetest,theathleteswereputonaprotocolofeitheraglassofplain
fruitjuicefourtimeseachday(inadditiontoeverythingelsetheywereeating)or,forthe
exprimentgroup,asaglassoffruitjuicethatcontained2.5gramsofcreatinemonohydrate.
Wekeptthisprotocolupforthreedayswhiletheathletesparticipatedinanintensive
trainingcamp.Attheendofthethreedays,weagainperformedaWingatetesttoseeif
thecreatineintakeexplainedanydifferencesineitheranaerobicpoweroranaerobic
endurance.
Sally,fromherveryfirstdrinkoffruitjuice,wascertainshewasinthecreatinegroup.She
saidshefeltmorelightonherfeet,faster,andhad

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moreenergy.I,ofcourse,hadnoideawhethershewasorwasn'tandtoldherwe'dhave
towaittotheendoftheexperimenttofindout.Shepersistedintellingeveryonewithin
earshotthatshewasinthecreatinggroup,andthatshethoughtthatstuffwasgreat!OPn
thesecondroundofWingatetests,Sallyreallydiddobetter.Afterwehadcompletedthe
expriment,shewasthefirstinlinewaitingtoconfirmthatshehad,indeed,beentaking
creatingoverthelastseveraldays.Asyoumayhaveguessedbynow,Sallywasn'tinthe
creatinegroup.Whilewefoundthatthecreatinggroupwasgenerallybetterableto
maintainanaerobicpowerandanaerobicenduranceafterthreedaysofanintensetraining
camp,wedidn'tfindthattherewereindividualsinthecontrolgroupwhodidbetterwithout
creatingandindivudualsintheexperimentalgroupwhodidworsewithcreatine.Youcan
seetheproblem.Humansaredifferent,andthewaytheyreacttodifferentsubstancesis
different.Sometimesthebeliefthatsomethingwillhelpreallydoes,asitdidwithSally.The
idealcurcumstance,andwhatscientistsarededicatedtodoing,istofindwhatreally
workssoathletescanderiveadoublebenefitfromanutritionalintervention.Athletes
wouldgainthebiologicalbenefitfromtheergogenicaid,andtheywouldgainfromthebelif
thatisreallyworks.

Thetermergogenicaidsisusedtorefertosubstancesthatmakeclaimstobeperformanceenhancing.Someofthesesubstancesaredefinedasnutritionalergogenic
aidsbecausetheyworkbyenteringawellestablishednutritionalmetabolicpathway,orbecausetheyconsistofoneormoreknownnutrients.Forinstance,taking
extracarbohydratetoimproveperformancemakescarbohydrateanutritionalergogenicaid.Also,takingcreatinemonohydratetoimprovesprintperformancemakes
creatineanutritionalergogenicaidbecausecreatineisanormalconstituentoffoodconsumingitcausescreatinetoenteraknownmetabolicpathway.1,2,3,4Non
nutritionalergogenicaidsrepresentproducts(oftenofunknownoriginbecauseproducersdon'tclearlyspecifywhattheyconsistof)thatareneithernutrientsnorother
substanceswithnutritionalproperties.Thebestknownnonnutritionalergogenicaidsareanabolicsteroids.
Inmostcases,theclaimsforperformanceenhancementattributedtoergogenicaidsexceedreality.Sincemanyoftheproductsareconsideredfoods,nutrients,or
nutrientbased,therearefewcontrolsforgovernmentagenciestopolicetheclaimsmadeforthem.Theonly

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trulycrediblesourcesofinformationcomefrompublishedscientificworksandthenewlyformedOfficeofDietarySupplementsoftheNationalInstitutesofHealth.
Whereimprovementsareseen,itisoftenduetoaplaceboeffect:Peoplebelieveitwillhelp,soitactuallyhelpseventhoughthereisnobiochemicalbasisforthe
improvement.Inothercases,improvementsoccurbecausetheproductisprovidingachemicalmissingfromthefoodsthatanathletecommonlyconsumes.For
instance,proteinpowdersoraminoacidpowdersareoftentakenbybodybuilderstoaidintheenlargementofmusclemass.However,studiesclearlyindicatethatthe
rateofproteinusagebythebodyiswellbelowthelevelconsumedbythosewhotaketheseproteinpowders.Thismeansthatthebody'slimitforusingproteintobuild
muscleandmaintaintissuesismuchlowerthantheamountofproteinthatiscommonlybeingconsumedthroughfoodandproteinsupplements.Theupperlimitfor
proteinusageisbelow2gramsperkilogramofbodyweight,andthosewhotakeproteinsupplementsoftenaretakingmorethan4gramsofproteinperkilogramof
bodyweight.Theexcessproteinisburnedasafuelorstoredasfat,butitcan'tbeusedtobuildmoremuscle.Itisalsoknownthatbodybuildersoftenhavean
inadequatelevelofenergyintake(theydon'teatenough),makingitdifficultforthemtosupporttheirlargermusclemass.5
Thereasontheextraproteinhelps(if,infact,itdoes)ismorelikelybecauseitisusedasanenergysubstrate(burnedascalories)thanbecauseofitspotentialtissue
buildingeffect.Infact,bodybuilderswoulddomuchbetterbyconsuming300extracaloriesfromcarbohydratethanbytakingtheextracaloriesasproteinpowders
anditwouldalsobemuchcheaper!
Therearenumerousergogenicaids,rangingfromknownnutrientstosupposednutrients,(suchasvitaminB15,whichhasnoofficialdefinition,variesincontentby
manufacturer,andisnotarecognizedvitamin),toherbswithnoknownchemicalcontentorknownactiveingredient.Thereissomuchmisinformationinthe
marketplaceandinthelockerroomabouttheseproductsthatthebuyershouldbeware.Ratherthanfocusingonamagicbullettoimproveperformance,athletes
shouldtakearealisticapproachandconsumeabalancedintakeoffoodsthatprovidessufficientenergyandnutrientstosupportgrowth,activity,andtissue
maintenance.Thischapterdiscussessomeofthemorecommonergogenicaids.

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Carbohydrate(Glycogen)Loading
Sincecarbohydrateistypicallythelimitingenergysubstrate(thatis,itwillrunoutbeforefatorproteinrunsout)inexercise,startingexercisewithmoreofitinthe
tissuesshouldaidexerciseendurance.Inhighintensityexercise,carbohydrateistheprimaryfuelusedbythemuscles.Inlowintensitybutlongdurationexercise,fat
maybetheprimaryfuel,butfatrequirescarbohydratestoburncompletely.6Ineithercase,whencarbohydrates(glycogenstoresandbloodglucose)aredepleted,
exerciseperformanceisdramaticallyreduced.7,8Thebasisbehindcarbohydrateloadingistoputasmuchcarbohydrateinthetissuesastheycanhold.
Thetraditionalorclassicalregimenforcarbohydrateloading(referredtoastheAstrandregimenforthepersonwhofirstdescribedit)achievesmaximalmuscle
glycogenstoresbyfirstcompletelydepletingthemusclesofglycogen.Thisisfollowedbyaphaseinwhichmuscleglycogenisrestoredtomaximallevels.Thisregimen
isnolongerrecommendedbecauseofthedangersassociatedwithglycogendepletion,whichincludeirregularheartbeatsandasuddenlossofbloodpressure.There
havealsobeendeathsreportedintheliteraturethathavebeenattributedtotheglycogendepletionofthistechnique.TheAstrandregimenwasfollowedfor
approximatelyoneweekinpreparationforacompetition:
Sevendaysbeforethecompetitiontheathleteperformsexhaustiveexerciseandconsumesalowcarbohydratediet(0to10percentcarbohydrate)todeplete
carbohydratestores.
Afterthedepletionphase,theathletetapersexercisetoalmostnothingandconsumesahighcarbohydratediet(80percentcarbohydrate)toreplenishcarbohydrate
stores.
Whilethistypeofregimenhasbeenshowntobeusefulforsupersaturatingtissueswithglycogen,thedepletionphaseisdangerous.9,10Athleteshavefoundserious
disturbancesinheartrhythmandglycosemetabolism.Therefore,thisregimenisNOTrecommended.
Therecommendedmethodforcarbohydrateloadingiscommonlyreferredtoasthe"Sherman/CostillMethod."ThismethodwasdevelopedaftertheAstrandmethod
byShermanandCostillandwasfoundtobesaferthantheAstrandmethod,butequallyeffectiveinmaximizingglycogenstorage.Thisapproachisbasedon
maintainingcarbohydratestoresatalltimesandtriestoavoidcarbohydratedepletion.Theathleteshoulddothefollowing:

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Consumeadietthatis55to65percentcarbohydratedaily.Onthisregimen,thecarbohydrateintakeshouldbeincreasedslightlyto60to70percentcarbohydrate
inpreparationforcompetition.
Taperdownexercisegraduallyoversevendayspriortothecompetition,withthegoalofnotexercisingonthedaybeforethecompetition.Duringthistapering
phase,ahighcarbohydrateintakeismaintained.
Thismethodisjustasusefulinsupersaturatingthetissueswithglycogen(storedcarbohydrate)astheAstrandregimen,butitavoidsthedifficultiesassociatedwith
carbohydratedepletion.11
Notallsportsandactivitiesaresuitableforcarbohydrateloading.Itisimportanttorememberthat,foreverygramofstoredglycogen,thebodystoresapproximately
threegramsofwater.Ifthetissuesarepackedfullwithglycogenandwater,theathleteislikelytoexperiencesomedegreeofmusclestiffness.Insportswhere
flexibilityisimportant,carbohydrateloadingmaycausedifficulties.Seetable4.1foralistofactivitiesthatareconsideredappropriateforandmaybenefitfrom
carbohydrateloading.
Thetypeofcarbohydratedoesappeartomakeadifference.Glucosepolymerproducts(includingcommerciallyavailablesportsgelsandpolycose)andmaltodextrins
(whicharefoundinnumeroussportsbeverages)areeasilydigestedintoglucoseandappeartobe
Table4.1ActivitiesThatMayBenefitFromCarbohydrateLoading
Clearbenefit

Lessclearbenefit

Marathon

Gymnastics

Triathlon

Baseball

Crosscountryskiing

Middledistance/shortdistancerunning

Cycling(longdistance)

Weightlifting

Swimming(longdistance)

Sprinting

Anyenduranceeventlastingmorethan90minutes

Rowing(shortdistance)

Practicesessionslastinglongerthan2hours

Note:Highcarbohydrateintakesarerecommendedforallsportsandactivities.Thetaperingofactivity
maynotbeneededinthesports/activitiesontherightcolumn.
AdaptedfromBucci1993.

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moreeffectiveinglycogenproductionthanothercarbohydrates.However,starchesfrompasta,bread,rice,andothercerealsarealsoeffectiveatmaximizingglycogen
storage.12,13
CreatineMonohydrate
Phosphocreatineservesasastoragedepotformaintainingadenosinetriphosphate(ATP)levelsduringhighintensityactivities,suchassprinting,thatcanquickly
depleteATP.(Note:ATPisthehighenergyfuelusedbycells.)Creatineisacompoundmadefromthreeaminoacidsthatjoinswithphosphorustomake
phosphocreatine.Itisbelieved,therefore,thatsaturatingmuscleswithcreatinewillenhanceourabilitytomaintainthehighenergycompoundATPanddelayfatiguein
highintensityactivity.14Wecansynthesizecreatineintheliverfromtheaminoacidsarginine,glycine,andmethionine,andwecanalsoobtaincreatinefromfoods,
mainlymeats.However,normalcookingcaneasilyreducethecreatineleveloffoods.Giventheeverincreasingimportanceoffullycookingmeatproductstoreduce
thechanceofbacterialinfection,theamountofdietarycreatineislikelytobesmall.
Manyathletesarenowtakingdailycreatinesupplements,andthereissomelimitedevidencethatcreatinesupplements(commonlyintheformcalled''creatine
monohydrate")mayenhanceanaerobicpowerandanaerobicendurance.15,16,17Whilecreatineissynthesizedbythebodyfromthreeaminoacids,thecreatine
monohydratesupplementisthecommerciallysynthesizedformofcreatine.Itispossible,however,thatthebenefitderivedfromtakingcreatinemonohydratemaybe
duetotheinadequateenergy(caloric)intakecommonlyseeninathletes.18Aspreviouslymentioned,inadequateenergyintakeisoneofthemajorproblemsthat
athletesface.Itispossiblethatathleteswithanadequateenergyintakewouldnotbenefitfromthesesupplements,althoughthishasneverbeenadequatelytested.
Ifanathletedoestakecreatinemonohydrate,thedailytotalshouldbebetween10and28gramsthataredividedintofourdosesovertheday.Forinstance,ifthegoal
istotake10gramsperday,individualdosesshouldbe2.5gramsfourtimesdaily.Thesmallertheathlete,thesmallerthedailydoseshouldbe.
Thereisevidencethattakingdailycreatinesupplementscausesasaturationofcreatineinmuscletissueafterfivedays.19Therefore,creatineshouldnotbetakenfor
longerthanfivedays.Thereshouldalsobeanapproximatelyfivedaybreakinsupplementationbeforesupple

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mentsareresumed.Somestudiessuggestthattakingcreatinesupplementsfivedayspermonthisadequatetosaturatemuscletissue.20,21
Athletesshouldknowthatthelongtermsafetyofcreatinemonohydratesupplementationhasneverbeentestedonchildren,adolescents,oradults.Inonerecent
articlebytwoBritishresearchers,creatinesupplementationwaslinkedtorenal(kidney)damage.22Inthisarticle,thescientistsfoundthattheathletewithrenaldamage
hadbeentakingoralcreatinesupplementstoprepareforthesoccerseason.Hehadnotbeenexceedingtherecommendeddoses,butoncehestoppedthe
supplements,renalfunctionrecovered.Thereisalsoevidencethatcreatinestorageinmusclecausesaretentionofwaterwithaconcomitantincreaseinweight.23These
potentialproblemsshouldgiveathletesareasontobevigilantaboutwhethercreatinesupplementationisappropriateforthem.Beforeanathlete

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triescreatinesupplementation,itmaybeprudenttofirstbecertainthatanadequatelevelofenergy(calories)isbeingconsumed.
Thereisnoevidencetosuggestthatcreatinesupplementationisunsafeforhealthyadults,noristherenoinformationonitssafetyiftakenoverlongperiodsoftime,or
bychildren.Therefore,eventhoughcreatinesupplementationmaybebeneficialforshort,repetitiveboutsofhighintensityexercise,athletesshouldbecarefulabout
supplementationuntilmoreinformationonlongtermeffectsisknown.Areasonableapproachwouldbetoconsumesufficientenergyand,withinthatcontext,
periodicallyconsumefoodsthataregoodsourcesofproteinandcreatine(meatandfish).
Glycerol
Glycerol(orglycerine)isathreecarbonsimplelipidthatismetabolizedlikecarbohydrate.Itisthethreecarbonunitthatholdsdietaryfattyacidstogethertoform
triglycerides.Glycerolisapowerfulhumectantandhastheabilitytoholdahighlevelofwater.Anumberofenduranceathletesuseglycerolasameansof
superhydrationbecauseofthiscapacitytoholdwater,aswellasglycerol'sabilitytobeeasilymetabolizedforenergy.Addingalittleglyceroltowaterenablesthe
athletetostoremorewaterand,indoingso,mayaidtheathleteinendurancecompetitionsthattakeplaceinhotandhumidenvironments.Refertochapter2"Staying
Hydrated"formoreinformationaboutsuperhydration.
FormulaforAddingGlyceroltoWaterforSuperhydration
Tomakeaglycerolbeverageuse,1gramglyceroland21.4milliliterswaterperkilogramof
bodyweight.24
1.Drinktheentireglyceroladdedfluidportion,except16ounces,usingtyphicalfluid
consumptionprotocol,withintwohoursbeforeexercise.
2.Reserve16ouncesoftheglyceroladdedfluidtodrinkabout20minutesbeforeexercises.
3.Drinkadditionalpurewaterorasportsbeverageasnecessarytomakeurinecleanpriorto
race.
4.Continuetodrinkasportsbeverageateveryopportuinityduringtherace.Usualintake
shouldappraoch3to6ouncesevery10minutes.

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Storingadditionalwaterinyourbodywillmakeyoufeelstiff.Manyathletescomplainthatatthebeginningofanyraceforwhichtheyhaveaddedglyceroltotheir
watertheyfeel,atleastinitially,stiffandsluggish.However,anumberofthemclaimthatthebenefitsofhavingextrawaterattheendoftheracefaroutweighsthe
feelingofsluggishnessatthebeginningoftherace.Whileotherathletesaredehydratedandoverheating,theseathletesclaimthattheyfeelmorefreshwhenitcounts
themost.
Awordofcaution:Whileanumberofenduranceathletesuseglycerolinwatertoenhancetheirhydrationstate,thisproducthasneverbeenadequatelytestedfor
safety.Sinceitisanormalcomponentofthedietandiseasilymetabolized,itisunlikelythatglycerolitselfwouldcauseanydifficulty.However,itisunclearhowmuch
additionalstressthereisonthecardiovascularsystemwhenadditionalwaterisstoredinthesystem.
Bicarbonate(SodiumBicarbonateorBicarbonateofSoda)
Researchershavetheorizedthatsodiumbicarbonatebufferstheacidity(lacticacid)createdbyanaerobicmetabolism,allowingforprolongedmaintenanceofforceor
power.25Sincemanyactivitiesinvolvemainlyanaerobicmetabolicprocesses,itwouldappearthatsomeathletescouldderiveabenefitfromsodiumbicarbonate
consumption.Studyresults,however,aremixedandgenerallyindicatethatwellhydratedathletesdonotderiveaperformancebenefit.
Itispossiblethatthesodiuminthesodiumbicarbonateismoreusefulthanthebicarbonate(theacidbuffer).Sodiumisanelectrolytethathelpstoincreaseormaintain
bloodvolume,creatingalargerbufferingspace(morefluid)formusclestoexcretetheextraaciditycreatedbyhighintensityactivity.Forinstance,thinkofsugarasthe
acidproducedfromanaerobicactivityandaglassofwaterasbloodvolume,andyoucanseewhatmighthappen.Iftheglassofwaterishalffull,andyouputacube
ofsugarinit,theconcentrationofsugarwouldbehigherthanifyouputthesameamountofsugarinafullglassofwater.Nevertheless,thenegativesideeffectsfrom
takingsodiumbicarbonate,includingthepotentialforseveregastrointestinaldistressandnausea,shouldgiveathletesreasontobecautiousbeforetakingthispotential
ergogenicaid.

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ProteinsandAminoAcids
Aminoacidsarethebuildingblocksofproteins.Puttingaminoacidstogetherindifferentsequencesandnumbersresultsinproteinsofdifferentcharacteristics.For
instance,theproteininhairhasasequenceofaminoacidsandtheproteininmusclehasanothersequenceofaminoacids.Whenyoubreakproteinsapart,whatresults
isapoolofaminoacidsthatconstitutetheprotein.Inthiscontext,youcanalmostspeakofproteinsupplementsandaminoacidsupplementsasbeingessentiallythe
same.
Manyathletestakeproteinsupplementsandbelievethishelpsthembuildmuscles.However,assessmentsoftheirdietsindicatethattheproteinsupplementissimply
providingthecaloriesneededtosupportthelargermusclemassdesired.Itwouldbeeasier,cheaper,andsafertosimplyeatmorefoodthatishighincarbohydrates.
Studiesareingeneralagreementthathumanscannotusemorethan1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight.26,27Youcanthinkoftheproteinrequirementas
beingdirectlyrelatedtotheamountoffatfreemassthepersonhas,plusaverysmallamountthat

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isusedtosupplyenergy.Takentogether,thisamountstoarequirementrangeforathletesthatisbetween1.0to1.5gramsperkilogramofbodyweight.Havingmore
thanthissimplymeanstheproteinwillbeburnedasenergyorstoredasfat.Burningproteinasenergyisundesirablebecauseitcreatesagreatdealofnitrogenous
waste(ammonia,urea,etc.)thatistoxicandmustbeexcreted.Thisurinaryexcretioncausesanincreaseinwaterlossandincreasesthechancefordehydration.
Sincethevastmajorityofathletesalreadyconsume1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweightwithoutconsumingproteinoraminoacidpowders,thereislittle
reasontosupplementwiththeseproducts.Instead,athletesshouldincreasetotalenergyintake,mainlyfromcarbohydrates,tosupportthelargermusclemassthey
seek.Ifproteinisneeded,itismuchlessexpensivetoeatpoultryorfish.Theseproductsalsohavetheaddedbenefitofprovidingotherimportantnutrients,including
ironandzinc,whichareoftenlowinthedietsofathletes.
Caffeine
Caffeine,oneofseveralmethylxanthinesfoundincoffee,tea,cola,chocolate,andavarietyofotherfoodsandbeverages(seetable4.2),hasbeenshowntohelp
endurancetypeperformanceinthosewhoareunaccustomedtoconsumingcaffeinatedproducts.28Inanumberofstudies,itwasfoundthatcaffeineingestion
increasedthe"freefattyacid"(FFA)concentrationinplasmasignificantly.29TheincreasedavailabilityofFFAenhancestheabilitytousethesefatsasafuelin
endurancetypelowintensityactivities.Sincehumansadapttocaffeineintake,frequentandregularconsumptionresultsinareduceddoseeffect.Inotherwords,the
moreyouhave,themoreyoumusthavetoachievethesameeffect.
Therearenostudiesdemonstratingthatcaffeineisusefulinpowerorspeedtypeevents,suchasweightlifting,sprinting,orgymnastics.Also,becauseofthepotential
ergogenicpropertiesthatcaffeineimpartsinendurancetypeevents,suchaslongdistancerunning,theInternationalOlympicCommittee(IOC)hasplacedlimitsonits
use(nomorethan12microgramsperliterofurinarycaffeine).Thislevelofcaffeineexcretedintheurinecanbereachedbydrinking8cupsofcoffeeinatimespanof
12hours(seetable4.2forotheritemscontainingcaffeine).Asyoucansee,acombinationoffoodsand

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Table4.2CaffeineContent*ofCommonBeveragesandFoods
Caffeinecontainingfoodproducts
Softdrinks(12oz,or1can)

Caffeinecontent(mg)

CocaCola

45

Dr.Pepper

40

Jolt

75

MellowYellow

53

MountainDew

54

Mr.Pibb

41

PepsiCola

38

Coffee(1cup,or8oz)

Brewed,dripmethod

130

Brewed,percolatormethod

94

Decaffeinated

Instant

74

Tea(1cup,or8oz)

Brewed(importedtea)

96

Brewed(U.S.brandtea)

64

Icedtea

47

Instant

48

Chocolatebrownie(1.25oz)

Chocolatecake(1mediumslice)

14

Chocolatecandy(1oz)

Chocolateicecream(2/3cup,or6
oz)

Chocolatemilk(1cup,or8oz)

Chocolatepudding(1/2cup,or4oz)

*TheUnitedStatesOlympicCommitteeconsidersurinarycaffeinelevels
greaterthan12microgramspermilliliterasdoping,makingcaffeinea
bannedsubstanceatthislevel.Asaguide,twocupsofcoffeetypically
producesaurinarycaffeinelevelof3to6microgramspermilliliterandtwo
colasproducesaurinarycaffeinelevel1.5to3microgramspermillileter.
Consumptionofproductsmorehighlyconcentratedincaffeinewillresult
inhigherlevelsofurinarycaffeineexcretion.

productscanalsoexceedtheIOCcaffeinelimits.Forinstance,threecupsofcoffeeplustwoNoDozeplusthreecolascouldprovideenoughcaffeinetocausethe
urinaryexcretionofcaffeinetoexceedtheacceptablelimit.Caffeineisadiuretic(causesanincreaseinurinaryoutput)thatmayexacerbatethestateofdehydration.
Thisfact,plusthelackofevidenceforabenefitinhighintensitysports,includinggymnastics,sprinting,bodybuilding,andweightlifting,shoulddiscourageathletesfrom
increasingcaffeineconsumptiontoachieveperformanceenhancement.

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Carnitine(TypicallyLCarnitine)
Thetheorybehindtakingcarnitinesupplementsissound.Lcarnitineisacommonnameforbetahydroxybutyrate,whichwasfirstdiscoveredinmusclesintheearly
1900s.Itismainlyinvolvedwithtransportinglongchainfattyacidsthatresideinsidecellsintothemitochondriaofthecells,wheretheyaremetabolized.Carnitine
increasesbloodflowbyimprovingfattyacidoxidationinthearterywall,anditdetoxifiesammonia,abyproductofproteinbreakdownthatisassociatedwithearly
fatigue.30Wesynthesizecarnitinefromtheaminoacidslysineandmethionine,anditisfoundinabundantquantitiesinallmeatsanddairyproducts,soadeficiencyis
unlikely.Ifthereisadeficiency,itismostlikelytobefoundinvegetarianswhoavoidconsumptionofdairyproducts.Withanadequateintakeofmeatsordairy
products,thereislittlereasontotakethisexpensivesupplement.Whilenevertested,itispossiblethatvegetarians,whoconsumenodairyproductsandhavea
marginalproteinintake,mightbenefitfromLcarnitinesupplementation,iftheyareinvolvedinhighintensityexercise.
Studiesofcarnitinegenerallyshownobenefitforlowintensityenduranceactivities.Somestudies,however,havedemonstratedabenefitinhighintensityactivities
whentakeneitherjustbeforetheactivityorforseveraldays.Thetypicaldoseisbetweenonetotwogramsperday.ButthesafetyofLcarnitinesupplementation
hasnotbeenadequatelytested.Thetypeofcarnitinetakenisalsoimportant.TherearereportsthatDLcarnitinesupplementation(alessexpensiveformof
carnitine)maycausemuscleweakness.Therefore,ifanathleteinsistsontakingthissupplement,onlytheLcarnitineformshouldbeconsidered.
Omega3FattyAcids
Thesefattyacids,commonlyfoundincoldwaterfish,maybeusefulinreducingmusclesoreness.Theymayhaveseveralothereffectsincludingthefollowing:31
Improveddeliveryofoxygenandnutrientstomusclesandothertissues.
Improvedaerobicmetabolismduetobetterdeliveryofoxygen.

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Higherreleaseofsomatotropin(growthhormone)inresponsetonormalstimuli(exercise,sleep,hunger).Thismayhaveananaboliceffectandmayimprove
muscularrecovery.
Reducedinflammationoftissuesthatresultsfrommuscularfatigueandoverexertionallowingforfasterrecovery.
Omega3fattyacidsareavailableasoverthecountersupplements.Youcanalsoincreaseyourregularconsumptionofcoldwaterfishsuchassalmon,herring,and
sardinestoobtainthesefattyacids.
MediumChainTriglycerides
Mediumchaintriglycerides(MCT)arefoundincoconutoilandpalmkerneloil,whichareamongthemostsaturatedfattyacidsinhumannutrition.Mediumchain
triglycerideshavecarbonlengthsof6to12carbonatoms,whilethemajorityofthetriglyceridesconsumedhaveconsiderablylongercarbonchains.Thisdifference,
however,allowsMCToilstobeabsorbedandmetabolizeddifferentlythanotherfats.Theliverreadilytakesthemupwheretheycanberapidlyoxidizedforcellular
energy.32Inaddition,MCToilsdonotrequireLcarnitinetodeliverenergytocellmitochondriaformetabolism(otherfatsrequireLcarnitine).33MCToilshave
severalpropertiesthatmaybeusefulforathletes.Theseincludethefollowing:31
Quicksourceofenergy.
Aidsinmobilizingbodyfatstoresforenergy.
Increasesthemetabolicrate.
Sparesleanbodymass(muscle).
MCToilshavebeenusedformanyyearsasasourceofenergyforthoseonenteral(tube)feedings,andtheyhavealonghistoryofsafety.Theyarewidelyavailablein
drugstoresandhealthfoodstores.
Ginseng
GinsenghasbeenusedforcenturiesinAsianculturestoreducefatigue.Inalimitednumberofstudies,componentsofginsenghavebeenshowntospareglycogen
usageandincreasetheoxidationoffattyacids.31Exercisedanimalsthathavebeeninjectedwithaginsengextracthaveshownreducedfatigue.34However,human
studiesthathaveevaluatedvariousdosesofginsengrootforperiodsofup

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totwomonthshaveshownnoclearergogenicbenefit.Thereisonlylimitedevidencethatprovidingasupplementofginsengextractmayimproveendurance
performancebyimprovingoxygendeliverytothemuslces.
Summary
Thereisanalmostneverendingarrayofproductsthatadvertisethemselvesashavingergogenicpropertiesavailabletoathletes.Forthemostpart,thereislittle
evidencethatwellnourishedathletesderiveanybenefitsfromconsumptionoftheseproducts.Ontheotherhand,thosesellingtheproductscertainlyderiveagreat
dealofbenefit.Athletesshouldcarefullyconsidertheadequacyoftheirowndietsbeforeattemptingtouseergogenicaids.Theseproductsareexpensive,andfewof
themhaveeverbeenadequatelytestedforsafety.
Ifyouchoosetouseanergogenicaid,proceedcautiously.Callanappropriatelycredentialedhealthprofessionaltogetasmuchinformationontheproductas
possible.Whenyoutakeitforthefirsttime,observecarefullywhetheryouexperienceanygastrointestinalupset,andtrytodocumenthowyoufeel.Mostofthese
ergogenicaidsarepowerfulchemicalsthatareeasilyhandlediftakeninthesmallamountscommonlyprovidedbythefoodsweeat.However,whentheyaretakenin
thelargebolusdosesoftenprescribedtoachieveanergogenicbenefit,theimpactonyoursystemmaybeentirelydifferentandunexpected.
OfalltheergogenicaidsIhavementioned,itisveryclearthatcarbohydratesholdthegreatestpromiseforimprovingbothenduranceandpowerperformance.Before
tryinganythingelse,tryconsumingahigh,regularamountofcarbohydrateswithplentyoffluids.Theergogenesisyouexperiencefromthisislikelytobereal.

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PARTII
TAILORINGNUTRITIONTOYOURTRAINING

Page141

5
EatingforAnaerobicPower
ProteinforBreakfast,Lunch,andDinner
Oneofmyfavoritegraduatestudentsofalltimewasayoungmanwhotookup
competitivebodybuildingafterhecompletedhisundergraduatebiologydegreeand
severalyearsbeforeheenteredourgraduateprograminsportsnutrition.WhenIfirst
sawhim,IknewIdidn'twanttomakehimangry,butIcametofindoutthathismuscular
appearancedidnotreflecthispersonality.Hehadarmsthesizeofmyneck,andhislegs
werethesizeofmywaist,buthewasgentle,caring,andvery,verybright.WhenIasked
himwhyhewantedagraduatedegreeinsportsnutrition,heknewexactlywhy.Hewas
tiredofgettinginformationonhowtotrainandhowtoeatfrompeoplewhowere
unqualified,andhewantedtobethepurveyorofgoodinformationratherthanthe
recipientofbadinformation.
Hetookallhiscorerequirements(nutritionalbiochemistry,nutritionandmetabolism,
researchdesign,etc.)andfinallybecameeligibletotakemyclassinadvancedsports
nutrition.Duringhisentiretimeingraduateschool,hewastrainingandcompetingasa
bodybuilder,butheoccasionallysharedthathissuccesseswerenotwhattheyshould
havebeen.Inoticedinclassthathewasalmostalwaystiredandthathewasalways
eatingsomething.Hedidthisdiscreetlyenough,soitdidn'tdisturbanyone.Besides,I'm
suchanadvocateofsnackingbehaviorthatIwasactuallypleasedtoseeanathletefind
waystotakeinenoughenergy.
Wecametoapointinclasswhenwewerediscussingthevariousnutritionalprotocols
thatmightworkfordifferentsports,andIaskedourbodybuilderifhewouldn'tmind
sharingwhathedidtobuildmuscleandstaycompetitiveinthesport.Hesaidhefound
thatthecriticalthingwasto''eatproteinallthetime,andeatlotsofit."Eventhoughthis
wasthestandardforsomanyathletesinthesport(albeitabadone).Iwasstunnedby
hisanswer.Howcouldsomeonesoeducatedgodownthisproteinpath?Hisstatement,
ofcourse,initiatedadiscussiononwhetherthiswasanappropriatestrategyandwhat
washappening,metabolicallyspeaking,withallthatprotein.Whatcameoutinthe
discussionboileddowntothis:heknewthateatingtoomuchproteincouldcause
difficultieswithhydration(gettingridofallthatextrametabolicwastefromproteincauses
anincreasedwaterloss)andthatitwasn'tthebestfuelforhismuscles,butwheneverhe
triedeatingcarbohydratesinsteadofproteinhestartedlosingweightandthatwasn't
somethingthis

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(textboxcontinuedfrompreviouspage)
bodybuildercouldaffordtodo.Asitturnsout,whathewaseatingallthetimewassteak,
roasts,andchicken(friedandotherwise),whichalsohasagooddealoffatassociated
withit.Allofthisproteinandfat(fatisahighlyconcentratedformofenergy)helpedhim
maintainhiscaloricrequirementandweight,butwasn'tthebestcombinationformuscle
function.However,whenhetriedeatingmorecarbohydrateandlessprotein,histotal
energyintakedroppedbecausehewaseatingalmostnofat.Imadeitaclassprojectto
findawaythathecouldeattherightfoodsandtakeinenoughtotalenergytomaintain
(andevenbuild)hismusclemass.Theresultwaslotsoffluidswithabalanceddietheavy
oncarbogydrates(about60percentofcalories),moderatelylowinfat(about25percent
ofcalories),consumedsixtimesperday.
Aboutoneyearafterhegraduated,hecamebacktosayhello,andheshowedmeone
enormoustrophywithhisnameonit.Hesaidhischangeoffoodintakegavehimsomuch
more"energy"thathewasabletotrainharderandlonger,andhefeltbetterallthetime.
Imaginethat.Followingthesciencereallydoeswork.

Differentsportsplacedifferentdemandsontheenergysystem.Somesportsrequirequickburstsofactivity,somerequiresteadycontinuousmovementwithoccasional
periodsoffastactivity,whileothersrequirethatmusclesworkslowlyandcontinuouslyforhours.Eachtypeofactivityplacesuniquedemandsonthemusclesandon
thefuelsthatmusclesdemand.
Thereareclearmetabolicdifferencesinactivitiesthatrequireenduranceandactivitiesthatrequirepower.Poweractivitiesmandatethattheathletehavetheabilityto
explodeoffastartingblock,jumphighdistances,throwaheavyweight,orpushsomeoneofequalsizebackwards.Thebetterthepowerathletecandosomeofthese
things,themoresuccessfultheathleteis.Gettingpowerathletestotrainmusclesfortheseactivitiesiscriticalforcompetitivesuccess,andthistrainingregimenmustbe
supportedbypropernutrition,orallthathardworkwillbefruitless.
EnergyDemands
Poweractivitiesaredependentontheconditioningofthefasttwitchmusclefibers.Thesefibershaveuniquecharacteristicsthathelptoexplainthebasisforthe
nutritionalrecommendationsforpowerathletes.Fasttwitch,orTypeIIBfibers,havethecapacitytoproduce

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atremendousamountofpower,aswellasahighcapacitytostoreglycogen(storedcarbohydrate),buttheyhavealowcapacitytostoretriglycerides(fats).The
intermediatefasttwitchmusclefibers(TypeIIA)alsoproduceatremendousamountofpower,butthesemusclefiberscanbetrainedtobehavemoreliketheTypeI
slowtwitchfibersthatarecharacteristicofenduranceathletes.Thetypeoftrainingthatisdone,therefore,isimportantbecauseitcaninfluencethebehaviorofthe
musclefibers.Powerathleteswantallthefiberscapableofproducingahighlevelofpowertoproducethatpower.Ifthereisalotofaerobicconditioninginthe
trainingregimenofthepowerathlete,theTypeIIAfiberswilllosesomeoftheirpowerpotentialbecausetheyarebehavingmorelikeendurancefibers(seetable5.1).
Interestingly,thereisevidencethattheintermediatefasttwitchfiberswillreverttotheirgeneticbaseline(morelikeTypeIIBthanTypeI)ratherquicklyiftheaerobic
trainingceases.Tosummarize,slowtwitchmusclefibershaveatremendouscapacitytostoreandburnfats,andfasttwitchmusclefibershaveatremendouscapacity
tostoreandburnglycogen.Theintermediatefiberscanbetrainedtobehavelikeeitherslowtwitchorfasttwitchfibers,butattheirbaseline,aremorelikefasttwitch
fibers.
Table5.1CharacteristicsofDifferentMuscleFiberTypes

Musclefiber

Type1(slowtwitch)

TypeIIA
(intermediatefast
twitch)

TypeIIB(pure
fasttwitch)

Glycolyticcapacity
(abilitytoburnglycogen)

Low

Moderate

High

Oxidativecapacity
(abilitytouseoxygenin
energyreactions)

High

Moderate

Low

Contractionspeed
(abilitytoproducepower)

Slow

Fast

Fast

Glycogenstorage
(abilitytoholdglycogenfor
energyreactions)

ModerateHigh

ModerateHigh

ModerateHigh

Triglyceridestorage
(abilitytoholdfatforenergy
reactions)

High

Moderate

Low

Capillarysupply
(bloodflowintothefibers)

Good

Moderate

Poor

Adapted,bypermission,fromB.Saltin.J.Henriksson,E.Nygaard,1979,Musclefibertypesandtheir
characteristics.AnnNYAcadSci301:329.

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Ingeneral,suddenhighspeedactivitythatisnotlonglasting(suchasthegymnasticsvaultora50to100metersprint)demandsfuelthatisalreadyinthemusclesina
readytogooralmostreadytogostate.Musclescan'tholdtoomuchofthistypeoffuel,sothereisalimittohowlongmusclescangousingthistypeofsystemthe
phosphagensystem.Forawellnourishedathlete,thephosphagensystemmayprovideenoughfuelforthefirstfivetoeightseconds.Ofcourse,that'snotenoughtime
formostevents,somusclesalsohavetheabilitytoquicklyconvertstoredglycogenintouseablefuelwithoutoxygen.However,sincethefuelisbeingburnedwithout
oxygen,there'salotof"smoke"inthistypeofsystemthatlimitshowlonganathletecangoanaerobically.Mostscientistsbelievethattheanaerobicmaximum(i.e.,the
amountoftimeanathletecanworkatabsolutefulltilt)is1.5minutes.Whenyoucombinethephosphagensystemwiththeanaerobicsystem,bothofwhichareused
whenanathleteisgoingashardandfastaspossible,you'vegotalimitonactivityofslightlyoveraminuteandahalfofcontinuousmovementbeforetheathletestops.
That'scertainlynotlongenoughforabasketballplayerorasoccerplayer,but,fortunately,wehaveanothersystem(aerobicmetabolism)thatallowsustoburnfuel
withoxygen,andforalongtime.However,thissystemworksbestwhenyou'reabletoprovideenoughoxygentotheworkingmusclesfortheworkthey'redoing.
Thefastertheywork,themorefuelthat'sburned,andthemoreoxygentheyneedtoburnthefuel.Whenthemusclesworkhardandfastenoughsothatyoucan't
provideenoughoxygen,thenwestarttoburnsomefuelwithoutoxygen.Doenoughanaerobicworkandthesystemstopsbecauseofthebyproductsproduced.The
secrettoallofthisistobecomesufficientlywellconditionedsothatyoucanprovidealotofoxygentoyourmuscleswhenyouneedto.Thatlimitstheamountof
anaerobicmuscularworkyou'llneedtodoand,importantly,delaysfatigue.Ofcourse,havingtherightfuelsavailabletothemusclesisalsoimportant,sincenoneof
thesystemsworkwelliftheydon'thavethefueltheyneed.Forinstance,everyonehaslotsofstoredfat(eventhemostleanpeoplearoundhavealotoffatavailable
forfuel),andfatisanexcellentfuelforaerobicwork.However,forfatstoburncleanly,carbohydratesarealsonecessary.Ifyourunoutofcarbohydratefuel,you
loseyourabilitytoburnfatseffectivelyandmuscularfatiguesetsin.
Tosummarize,wehavetwobasicmeansforgettingenergyfromthefoodweeat.Wecangetenergyanaerobically(withoutoxygen)

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andwecangetenergyaerobically(withoxygen).Anaerobicenergypathwaysaretypicallyusedwithveryhighintensityactivitiesofshortduration,whileaerobic
energypathwaysaretypicallyusedwithactivitiesoflowerintensitybutlongerduration.Let'stakeacloserlookatthesefuelsystemsthatwehaveavailabletous.
PhosphagenSystem(CreatinePhosphate)
Enoughenergycanbereleasedanaerobicallyfromthephosphatesinadenosinetriphosphate(ATP)andcreatinephosphate(CP)tosupporthighintensityexercisefor
uptoeightseconds.Thissystem,referredtoasthephosphagensystembecauseoftheimmediateavailabilityofhighenergyphosphate,isthebasisforthepopularity
ofawidelyusedergogenicaidcreatinemonohydrate(seechapter4).Thissystemis,toalargeextent,dependentoncreatinephosphatetoquicklyprovideahigh
energyphosphatemoleculetoformATP,whichistheultimatesourceofenergyformuscularwork.Intheory,ifyouhavemorecreatineinthetissues,youcanincrease
theamountofcreatinephosphateavailableforformingATP.WithmoreATP,youcandomoreextremelyhighintensitywork.Thereareanumberofsportsthatrely
heavily(ifnotexclusively)onthisphosphagensystem.Thesesportsincludeshotput,longjump,triplejump,discus,gymnasticsvault,andshortsprints.Inaddition,
othersportsthathavequickburstsofactivityintermingledintheactivity(suchasfootball,volleyball,andhockey)arealsoreliantonthisenergypathway.Insomeof
thesesports,theabilitytodorepeathighintensitymovesoftendeterminesthewinner.Forinstance,thehighjumper,longjumper,andpolevaulterallneedtwoorthree
stellareffortswiththehopethatoneofthemwillbegoodenoughtowin.Theserepeatedboutsofhighintensityworkplaceatremendousrelianceonthephosphagen
system.Theathletewhohastheabilitytostoremorecreatinemaybeatanadvantageintheseactivities.Withimprovedcreatinestorage,itispossiblethattheathlete
wouldretainmuchofthepowerproducedonthefirstattemptinthesecondandthirdattempts.
Assumingthatyourtotalenergyandproteinintakeisadequate,yourbodycanmanufacturethecreatineitneedsformultiplequickburstsofhighintensityactivity.To
improvethestorageofATPCPinthemuscles,athletesmustpracticeactivitiesthatfocusonthissystem(i.e.,activitiesthatlastnomorethaneightseconds,thatare
highintensity,andthatarerepeatedmultipletimesduringanexercise

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session).Thistypeoftraining,byitselfisnotsufficienttoimproveshortduration,highintensityperformance.Atthesametimeconsumingsufficientenergyandprotein,
byitself,isalsonotsufficienttoimproveshortduration,highintensityperformance.However,whenbothpropertrainingandpropernutritionarecombined,the
athletecanexperienceveryrealgainsinshortduration,highintensityperformance.
AnaerobicMetabolism(Glycolysis)
Thisenergypathwayistypicallyusedduringhighintensityexercisethatexceedstheathlete'sabilitytoprovidesufficientoxygenfortheworkbeingdone.When
exerciseisthisintense,thepredominantsourceofenergyisstoredmuscleglycogen(thestorageformofglucose/carbohydrate).Whenthestoredglycogenrunsout,
theathleteperformingthistypeofhighintensityactivityfatiguesquicklyandtheexercisestops.Typically,anaerobicmetabolismprovidesonlyasmallproportionofthe
totalenergyusedbymuscles.Nevertheless,itisimportantbecauseitcanprovideenergyquickly,andhelpstofilltheenergygapbetweentheinitiationofexerciseand
thetimeittakesforaerobicenergymetabolismtotakeover.Ifsomeonetriestomaintainahighintensity(i.e.,anaerobic)activity,thefuelforthiswillrunoutafter
approximately1.5minutes,andtheathletewillbecomequicklyfatigued.This1.5minutesisthelimitthatahumanbeingcanworkifinananaerobicexercisemode,
andaperiodofrestmustfollow(typically3to5minutes)toallowtimeformusclestobecomereplenishedwithenergy(glycogenandphosphocreatine).Thereare
somesportsthatareintentionallylimitedto1.5minutesbecauseoftherealizationthathumanssimplycan'tgolongerthanthisatfulltilt.Forexample,thefloorroutine
ingymnasticslastsupto1.5minutes.Ifyou'veeverseenagymnastpracticethefloorroutine,itwouldbeunthinkableforthegymnasttorepeataroutinewithouttaking
abreak.Itsimplywouldn'tbepossible,becausethemuscleshavebeendepletedoftheallimportantenergyneededforthattypeofhighintensitywork.Infact,when
youviewagymnasticstrainingsession,whichoftenlastsfourtofivehours,muchofthetimeisspentstandingaround.This"standingaround"timeisimportantfor
lettingthemusclesgetreadytodothenextroundofhighlyintensework.
Somesportsarepredominantlyaerobic,butmayrelyontheanaerobicenergypathwaytomakethedifferencebetweenwinningandlosing.Thelongdistancerunner
thathasmanagedtogomost

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ofthedistancewhilepreservingsomemuscleglycogen,stillhastheenergyreservestofinishtheracewithastrong(anaerobic)"kick."Theabilitytodothisattheend
oftheracemaybetheonlydifferencebetweenfirstplaceandthosewhofollow.Forrunnersrunningshortdistanceraces,forswimmersinshortraces,andforhockey
playersskatingatfullboreattheendofagametogoforawinningscore,thisanaerobicpathwayisthekeytosuccessandcarbohydratemakesithappen.
Powerathletesareperformingpoweractivitiesthatusemainlythephosphocreatineandglycolyticanaerobicsystems.Toalargedegree,thishelpstoexplainwhat
powerathletesneedtobeeating.Thelimitedstorageoffatsinthesefibersmeansthattheydon'tmetabolizefatsasanenergysubstrate.Thisisconfirmedbythefact
thattheyalsohavealowoxidativecapacity,whichmeansthattheycan'tuseoxygenwellenoughtoburnfatscompletely.Tomakemattersworse,thesefasttwitch
fibershavearelativelypoorcapillary(blood)supply,soitisdifficulttogetnutrientsintothefibersandtogetmetabolic

Page148

byproductsoutofthefibers.Thisisoneofthereasonsthatpurelyanaerobic(highintensity,power)activitiesnevergobeyond1.5to2.0minutes.Becausefuelcan't
easilygetintothemuscles,theathleteneedsarecoverybreakoftwotofiveminutestoallowthemusclestorecover.Therecoveryphaseallowsthemusclestobe
refueledandcleanedbylettingtoxicmetabolicbyproductsout(seetable5.2).
Duetoaheavydependenceonfasttwitchfiberstodomainlyhighintensityanaerobicwork,powerathletesfinditmoredifficult,toagreatextent,toburnfatasan
energysubstratethanathletesdoingaerobicactivities.Thistranslatesintoahigherpotentialforgaining(fat)weight.Powerathletescontinuetoburnsomelimited
amountsoffat,buthighintensityanaerobicactivitydramaticallyfavorscarbohydrate(glycogen)overfatasafuelbecauseofthekindofmusclefibersthatarebring
used.Thisclearpreferenceforglycogenfuelisimportant,sincemanypowerathleteshavecompetitiveseasonswhereactivityishighandoffseasonswhereactivity
drops.Thesealterationsinactivitypatternsoftentranslateintowidemodulationsinweightandbodyfatpercent.Itisnotuncommontohearoffootballplayerswho
havebeenfinedforshowingupatpreseasontrainingcamptoofat.Whenpowerathletesstoptheirintensiveinseasontrainingbutmaintaintheirhighcalorie,relatively
highfatdiets,asufficientdifferenceinenergybalanceoccursthatcausesinevitableincreasesinbodyfat.
Table5.2CharacteristicsoftheThreeMajorEnergySystems
Speedof
energy
provision

Relativeenergy
(ATP)produced

Fuel

Oxygen
required

Phosphocreatine

No

Fastest

Littlelimited

Anaerobic(without
oxygenviaglycolysis)

Glycogen
(carbohydrate)

No

Fast

Littlelimited

Aerobic(withoxygen)
proteins

Glycogen,fats,

Yes

Slow

Muchunlimited
(assuming
adequate
provisionof
energysubstrates)

System
Anaerobic(without
oxygenviaPC)

Note:PC=phosphocreatineATP=adenosinetriphosphate
AdaptedbypermissionfromE.FoxandD.Matthews,1981,Thephysiologicalbasisofphysical
education&athletics,3rded.(NewYork:SaundersCollegePublishing).Reproducedwithpermission
oftheMcGrawHillCompanies.

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Fasttwitchmusclefibersandanaerobicactivityhavesuchalowcapacitytoburnfatsthatpowerathletescouldeasilyconsiderthemselvestobeatafateating
disadvantage.However,somanypowerathletesrequirealargemass,thatitbecomesinevitablethattheyconsumeasubstantialamountoffattomeettheir
tremendousenergyrequirements.Linemenonfootballteamscommonlyreporthavingenergyintakesthatexceed5,000caloriesperday!Onahighcarbohydrate,low
fatintake,anathletewouldhavetospendmuchofthedayeatingtomeettheseenergydemands.Fats,whicharemorethantwiceasconcentratedinenergyas
carbohydrates(9calories/gramvs.4calories/gram),helptheseathletesmeettheirenergyrequirementswithoutspendingalldayinthekitchen.Inseasonexercise
patternshelptheseathletesburntheconsumedcalories,butmaintainingthesedietsoffseasonalmostguaranteesasignificantfatgain.Besidesthepoorcompetitive
shapethisresultsin,thereisgoodevidencethatalltheweightcyclingthatmanypowerathletesexperience(eitherfromtryingtomakeweightorfromdietaryor
exerciseerrors)makesthembecomeobeseaftertheyretirefromthesport.Thereisalsoevidencethatweightfluctuationsareassociatedwithmorefrequentillnesses
andearliermortality.1,2
BuildingLean(Muscle)Mass
Powerathletesareusuallylookingforwaystoincreaseleanbody(muscle)mass.Thegreaterthemass,thegreaterthepotentialforincreasingstrengthandpower.
Therearemanytechniquesemployedforincreasingmusclemass,includingresistancetraining,consumptionofmoreenergy(calories),andtheintakeofproductsthat
claimtoenhancemuscledevelopment.Someofthesetechniquesandproductswork,whileothersdonot.Athletesshouldcarefullyevaluatetheadequacyoftheirdiets
beforeembarkingonaregimenofcostlyandunprovensupplementsthataremeanttoenhancemusculardevelopment,muscularstrength,orboth.
Buildingmusclemasshasbeenthetraditionforcenturieswithpowerathletes.TheGreekOlympicwrestlingchampionofthesixthcentury,MiloofCrotona,was
famousfordoingprogressiveresistancetrainingandeatinganenormouslyhighproteinintake:hecarriedagrowingcalfthelengthofthestadiumeachday,andafter
fouryearsofcarryingit,heatethecalf.ItwasestimatedthatMilohadanaveragemeat(beef)intakeof20poundsperday!3,4

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WhenIviewtheeatingbehaviorsofpowerathletes,IwonderifmuchhaschangedsincethetimeofMilo.Surveyssuggestthatpowerathleteshavetremendouslyhigh
meatintakesandsupplementallthisproteinwithadditionalproteinpowders,proteinshakes,andaminoacids.Thereisclearevidencethatcompetitiveweightlifters
needabout1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight.However,surveyssuggestthattheproteinintakeofliftersisuptofourgramsperkilogramofbody
weight.5Thequestionis:doesallthisproteinintakework?Theansweris:notaswellastheythinkitdoes.Sinceproteinprovidedatalevelabove1.5gramsper
kilogramofbodyweightislikelytobestoredasfatorburnedasafuel,thereisnoanabolicorergogenicadvantagetohighlevelsofhighproteinintake.Whetherthe
excessproteinisstoredorburned,thereisanincreasedneedtoexcretethenitrogenassociatedwithprotein,andthiscausesagreaterurinaryoutputthatcanleadto
dehydration.Infact,manyathletesclaimtheyloseweightonahighproteinintake,butthisislikelytobeduetothehighlevelofbodywaterthatislostratherthanfrom
thelossoffat.
NutrientsthatControlMuscleDevelopment
Itiswellestablishedthatresistancetrainingstimulatesmuscledevelopment,andthatthelevelofmuscledevelopmentmaybeinfluencedbythecirculatinglevelof
humangrowthhormone(HGH),insulin,testosterone,andotheranabolichormones.6,7,8,9Inasmuchasnutritionmayimpactontheavailabilityofthesesubstances,it
seemsreasonabletobelievethatspecificnutrientsmayplayaroleinmuscledevelopment.However,itisalsoreasonabletobelievethatnutrientintakewouldnot
influencethebody'sproductionofthesesubstancesiftheirlevelsarealreadynormal.Inotherwords,intheabsenceofaspecificnutrientdeficiency,itisdifficultto
believethattakingmoreofanutrientwouldaltertheproductionofmusclebuildinghormones.Again,morethanenoughisnotbetterthanenough.Onceyou've
providedwhatthecellsneed,providingmoredoesn'thelp.Infact,studiesaremixedandinconclusiveonwhetherincreasingthespecificnutrientintakeofawell
nourishedsubjectaltersthehormonalmilieu.
IndividualaminoacidshavebeenwidelytestedtodetermineiftheirintakemightchangetheproductionofHGHinathletes.Infact,aminoacidmixturesarethelargest
categoryofsupplementsusedbybodybuilders.10Whilesomeearlierstudieshaveshownthatincreas

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ingtheconsumption(viasupplement)oftheaminoacidornithinemayincreaseHGHproduction,thereismorerecentevidencethatthereisnosignificantincreasein
HGHfromtaking,eitherindividuallyorinvariouscombinations,theaminoacidsarginine,lysine,ornithine,andtyrosine.11,12,13,14,15Inaddition,thereisevidencethat
takingabroadrangesupplementcontainingall20aminoacidshasnoeffectoneitherHGHortestosteroneproduction.16
Twostudiesinthe1980ssuggestedthattakingonegramoftheaminoacidornithineandonegramoftheaminoacidarginineeachdaywouldhelptoreducebodyfat
andwouldincreaseleanbodymassandstrengthiftakeninconjunctionwithastrengthtrainingprogram.17,18Foodsupplementvendorshaveusedthisstudytoclaim
thattheseaminoacidsstimulateHGHandincreasemusclemass.19However,recentstudiesthathaveusedmoreappropriatestatisticaldesignsandprocedures
(incorporatingadoubleblindprotocolwhereneitherthesubjectsnortheresearcherknowswhatsubjectsarereceivingthenutrientandwhatsubjectsarereceivingthe
placebo,

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sotheoutcomecannotbeinfluenced)indicatethatoralsupplementationoftheseaminoacidshasnoimpactonstrengthorendurance.

20,21

Whenamoleculeortwoofornithineisattachedtoamoleculeofalphaketoglutarate,theresultantmolecule(calledOKGforornithinealphaketoglutarate)issaidto
haveamusclebuildingaffect.Althoughareportinthe1980s,indicatedthatanincreasedinsulinproductionwastheresultofOKGadministration,thereareno
availablescientificreportstoconfirmthatOKGactuallystimulatesmuscledevelopmentorenhancesstrength.22,23Thereareseveralothernutrientsandsubstancesthat
mayhaveacontrollingeffectonmusculardevelopment.Seetable5.3forasummaryofthesesubstances.
Table5.3Nutrients/SubstancesThatMayHaveaControllingEffectonMuscularDevelopment
Substance

Whatitis

Choline

Anaminethatispartof
phospholipidscommoninplantand
animalfoods.Itisaprecursorto
acetylcholine(acommon
neurotransmitter)andlecithin(an
emulsifyingagentimportantinfat
absorptionandtransport).

Itissuggestedthatcholine
supplementationincreasesstrengthand
aidsinthelossofbodyfat,butthereis
noevidencetosupporteitherofthese
actions.

Creatine

Anitrogenoussubstancefoundin
meatandsynthesizedinthebody
fromthreeaminoacids.Combines
quicklywithphosphatetoform
phosphocreatine,ahighenergy
compoundstoredinmuscle.

Thereisevidenceofasignificant
increaseinleanbodymassfollowingsix
daysofsupplementationwithcreatine
(25grams/day).Itisunclearwhetherthis
increaseinmassisduetoagreater
productionofmuscleproteins(unlikely)
orduetoagreaterretentionofwaterin
themuscles(likely).Morescientific
evidenceisneededtoconfirmthat
creatineincreasesmusclemassand
increasesperformanceonrepeatedbouts
ofshort,highintensityactivity.

Glandulars

Theseareextractsfromanimalglands
(pituitary,thymus,adrenal,and
testes).

Itissuggestedthattheglandularsimpart
thesameeffectastheeffectofthegland
ithasbeenderivedfrom(e.g.,testes
extractenhancestestosterone
production).However,theseextractsare
degradedintheextractionanddigestion
process,sotheyareinactive.Thereisno
evidencetosupporttheirpurported
action.

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Howitworks

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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Substance

Whatitis

Howitworks

Inosine

Anucleotidethathelpsinthe
formationofpurinessuchasadenine.

Itissuggestedthattheformationof
adeninestimulatesagreaterproduction
ofadenosine,whichispartofthehigh
energycompoundadenosine
triphosphate(ATP).Thereisno
evidencetosupportthis.

Yohimbine

Anitrogenousalkaloidfoundinthe
barkoftheyohimbetree.Itincreases
theserumlevelsofnorepinephrine
(adrenaline).Itisusedinthetreatment
ofobesityandimportence.

Itissuggestedthatyohimbineincreases
serumtestosteronelevels,butthereisno
evidencetosupportthatithasan
anaboliceffect.

AdaptedfromWilliams1993.

Thesinglemostimportantfactorinmuscledevelopmentisassuringthattheathletehassufficientenergyintaketosupportalargermass.Ifantheathletehasan
appropriateenergydistribution(about60percentfromcarbohydrate,15percentfromprotein,25percentfromfat),approximately3,500caloriesareequivalentto
onepound.Therefore,foranathletetogainonepoundofmusclemassinoneweek,anexcessof3,500caloriesneedstobeconsumedduringthatweek.Dividedout
oversevendays,that'sanexcessof500calorieseachday.Itisimpossibletoincreasemusclemassbyaddingnoncalorieprovidingsupplementstoanexistingintake.
Therefore,whenathletesareinaweightstablestate,itisimportantforthemtotakestockoftheamountandtypeoffoodthattheyconsumetomaintainthatweight.
Oncedetermined,thenanadditionalamountofenergyisrequiredtosupportalargermass.
Thereissufficientevidencetosupportaproteinintakeforathletesthatisapproximatelydoublethatfornonathletes.Thisincreaseinrequirementisduetoanincrease
inmuscledamage,someproteinlossesintheurine,andsomebreakdownofproteininnormalenergymetaboliccycles,allofwhichoccurfornormalregular
exercise.24TheRecommendedDietaryAllowance(RDA)forproteinforadultnonathletesis0.8gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight,andtherecommended
intakeforathletesisapproximately1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight.Thisdifferenceisbecauseathleteshaveahigherleanbody(muscle)massthat
requiresmoreproteintosustainit.However,thereisalmostnosurveyevidenceto

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suggestthatathleteshaveproteinintakesbelow1.5gramsperkilogram.Infact,surveysshowthattheproteinintakeofathletesiscommonlydouble(approximately3
gramsperkilogram)therecommendedlevel.Athletestakingproteinoraminoacidsupplementsoftenhaveproteinintakesthatexceed4gramsperkilogram.Theone
exceptiontothisisathleteswhoarefollowingvegetarianeatingpatterns.ThesevegetarianathletestendtomeettheRDAforprotein,butconsumelessthanthelevel
commonlyrecommendedforathletes.25
Giventhegenerallyhighintakeofproteinthatathletescurrentlyhave,itmakeslittlesensetoconsumemoreproteintosupportalargermusclemass.Nevertheless,if
moreproteinisconsumeditwillclearlybeusedtosupportenergyrequirementsratherthantosupporttissueandhormonesynthesis.Infact,itislikelythattheprotein
intakeconsumedbymanyathletesismisinterpretedasbeingimportantforenlargingmusclemass.Thisexcessproteinisburnedasenergy,allowingthebodytobetter
meettheenergydemandsofalargermass.Withoutthisextraenergy,theresultantenergydeficitmakesitdifficultfortheathletetoenlargethemusclemass.Itisthe
generalconsensusofstudiesthattheextra500caloriesconsumedtoaidintheenlargementofmusclemassshouldbemainlyfromcarbohydrates,sincethisisamore
efficientenergysourceand,unlikeprotein,onethatdoesnotincreasemetabolicwastethatmustbeexcreted.
Thenitrogenouswastesthatarecreatedfromburningproteinasanenergysourceresultsinincreasedurinaryoutput,whichincreasestheriskofdehydration.Some
athletesbelievethatproteinsupplementsarebetterormoreeffectiveinsupportingleanmassthanfoodsthatarehighinprotein.Goodfoodsourcesofprotein,suchas
meat,fish,poultry,dairyproducts,andlegumesincombinationwithcerealsareallexcellent.Thereisnoevidencethattakingsupplementaryproteinisbetterthan
eatingthesefoods.Asanaddedbenefit,thesefoodstypicallycontainagreatdealofzincandiron,bothofwhichtendtobelowinthedietsofmanyathletesand
whicharecriticallyimportantforworkingmuscles.26,27,28
Itiscommonforathletestotakemultivitaminandmultimineralsupplements,butthereisnoevidencethatthesesupplementsenhanceperformanceinsportsthatrequire
power.29,30Despitethelackofscientificevidencetosupporttakingsupplementaldosesofvitamins,thereisacommonbeliefamongpowerathletesthatanumberof
thesevitaminsenhancestrength.Thevitaminsandmineralssold

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toenhancestrengthincludevitaminB12,vitaminsC,E,andbetacarotene(antioxidants),chromium,boron,andmagnesium.
VitaminB12
ThetheorybehindvitaminB12isthatitisessentialforthesynthesisofDNA,andhavingmoreDNAenhancesmusculardevelopment.However,thereisnoevidence
thatvitaminB12orB12derivativeshaveanybeneficialimpactonmusculardevelopmentoronimprovementsinstrength.
Antioxidants
Theantioxidantvitamins(C,E,andbetacarotene)mayspeedrecoverytimeforsoremuscles.Ifthisisfoundtobetrue,theremaybearealbenefittotaking
antioxidants(whichareeasilyobtainedbyconsumingfreshfruitsandvegetables)attheinitiationofastrengthtrainingprogram.Itisduringthisphasethatmuscles
moreeasilybecomesore,sothebenefit(ifthereisone)wouldbegreatestatthistime.
Chromium
Chromiumisessentialfortheeffectivemetabolismofglucoseandisthekeycomponentinacompoundcalled''glucosetolerancefactor,"orGTF.Chromiumenhances
theeffectivenessofinsulinandismarketedasasubstancethatcanenlargemuscles,improvestrength,andlowerbodyfat.Typically,chromiumismarketedinthe
"chromiumpicolinate"form(chromiumattachedtoapicolinatecarrier).Recentevidencesuggeststhatchromiumpicolinateisineffectiveindoinganyofthethingsitis
supposedtodo.31,32
Boron
Boronisanimportantmineralthatmayhelppreventthebonediseaseosteoporosis.In1992,astudyonborondeprivedpostmenopausalwomenreportedthatboron
supplementsdoubledtheirserumtestosteronelevels.33However,thisstudyshowedthatcontinuedintakeofborondidnotfurtherenhanceserumtestosterone,and
supplementationofmaleshadnoimpactontestosterone,atall.Anotherstudyonbodybuildersindicatedthatboronsupplementationhadnoimpactonserum
testosterone,leanbodymass,andstrength.34
Magnesium
Magnesiumisthesecondmostpredominant(afterpotassium)intermuscularelectrolyte,andithasanumberofimportantfunctions

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relatedtoproteinsynthesisandmuscularcontractions.Itappearsthatmagnesiumsupplementationismoreusefulinuntrainedindividualswhoareinitiatingatraining
programthaninathleteswhoarealreadywelltrained.Inonestudy,itwasfoundthatbothuntrainedmalesandfemalewhowereinasevenweekweighttraining
sessionhadimportantincreasesinmuscularpowerasaresultofmagnesiumsupplementation.35
FatsandFatDerivatives
Fatintakemaybeimportant(criticalforsomeathletes)asameansofobtainingsufficientenergytomaintainahighbodymass.Anumberoffatderivativesare
marketed,however,becauseoftheirsupposedpositiveimpactonenergymetabolism,orbecausetheyarechemicallysimilartohormonesthatenhancemuscular
development.Forinstance,someplantsterols(calledphytosterols)aresimilartothehormonetestosterone.36However,thereislimitedevidencethatanyofthesefat
derivativefunctionsworktoenhancemusclemassorathleticperformance.Themajorfatderivativeproductsmarketedtoathletesincludemediumchaintriglycerides
(MCToil),omega3fattyacids(03FAs),gammaoryzanol,andsmilax.Seetable5.4forasummaryoftheirfunctions.
Table5.4FatDerivativesThatAreAdvertisedasEnhancingMuscleDevelopmentandStrength
Substance

Whatitis

Mediumchain
triglycerides
(MCToil)

MCToilrepresentsshortcarbon
chainfatsthatareeasilyabsorbed
andmetabolized.Theyhavebeen
usedinclinicalenvironmentsfor
manyyearsasameansofproviding
sufficientenergytopatients
receivingtubefeedings.

ThereisnoevidencethatMCToil
enhancesmusclemassdevelopmentor
improvesweightgain(orloss)in
strengthtrainedathletes.

Omega3fatty
acids(03FAs)

O3FAsarefoundintheoilofcold
waterfishandareknowntolower
bloodviscosityandredcell
stickiness.Theyarealsoknownto
reducetissueinflammation.

Thesefattyacidsmaybemetabolized
intoprostaglandinE1,whichstimulates
theproductionofhumangrowth
hormone.Thereisnosubstantive
evidencethatthisoccursinstrength
trainedathletestoadegreethatan
improvementcanbemeasured.

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Howitworks

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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Substance

Whatitis

Howitworks

Gammaoryzanol

Thisisaplantsterolderivedfrom
ricebranoil.

Thissubstanceandtherelated
substanceferulicacidareadvertisedas
beingcapableofincreasingtestosterone
andhumangrowthhormonelevels.
Whilethereissomeevidencethatgamma
oryzanolinfluencesthemetabolismof
fats,thereisnoevidencethatitproduces
andergogeniceffectinhumans.Thereis
someanimalevidencethattakingthese
substancesactuallyreducestestosterone
production.

Smilax

Thisisaplantsterolcommonly
extractedfromsarsaparillaroot.This
hasbeenusedinfolkmedicinefor
manyyears.

Thissubstanceisadvertisedasbeing
capableofstimulatingtestosterone
production,increasingmusclemass,and
increasingmuscularstrength.Thereare
nodatatosupporttheseclaims.

AdaptedfromWilliams1993.

Summary
Powerandstrengtharecriticalcomponentsforathletesdoingquick,shortduration,highintensityactivities.Whilealsoimportantforathletesinvolvedinlonger
durationactivities(the"kick"attheendofamarathonoftendeterminesthewinner),theyarenottheissueofcentralimportance.Thedevelopmentandmaintenanceof
alargeandstrongmusclemassareimportantindevelopingpower,andpropernutritionalstrategiescanaidtheathleteinobtainingthemusclemasstheyseek.Akey
nutritionalelementinbuildingandmaintainingmusclemassistheacquisitionofsufficientenergytosupportthemass.Althoughconsuminglargeamountsofproteincan
dothis,consumptionofadditionalcarbohydrateislessexpensiveandmoreeffective.Infact,powerathletesareevenmoredependentoncarbohydratesthan
enduranceathletesbecausethemusclefiberstheyusedon'thavethecapacitytoburnfatseffectively.Powerathletesoftenmakethemistakeofthinkingthatproteinis
thekeytotheirsuccess.Notonlyisthiserroneousthinking,butit'spotentially

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dangerousastherearealsoproblemsassociatedwithexcessiveproteinconsumption.Forinstance,excessproteinintakeisinevitablyassociatedwithanincreasein
dehydrationbecauseoftheincreasedrequirementtoexcretemoremetabolic(nitrogenous)waste.
Supplementationofvitamins,minerals,proteinproducts,andfatanalogueshasnotbeenfoundtobesuccessfulinimprovingpower,musclemass,orathletic
performanceinpowerathletes.Whiletheriskoftakingtheseproductsislikelytobelow,thereareinsufficientdatatoknowforcertainiftheseproductsare,indeed,
safewhentakenintheamountsanddurationprescribedbythemanufacturersoftheseproducts.Amoresensibleapproachistoconsumeabalancedandvarieddiet
thatishighincarbohydrates(60to70percentofcalories),moderateinprotein(12to15percentofcalories),andlowinfat(18to25percentofcalories).Thisintake
hasthebenefitofprovidingthemineralsandvitaminsneededforsupportingathleticperformance,andwillprovidethebestsourceofenergyforyourmusclestowork
efficiently.Thereisnoquestionaboutthesafetyofconsumingavarieddietthatishighincarbohydrates.

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6
EatingforAerobicPower
FeelingBetterMeansYou'llDoBetter
ThesinglemostcommoneatingerrorIseeintheenduranceathletesIworkwithisthat
theydotheirmorningrunbeforetheyhaveanythingtoeat.Thentheycomebackfeeling
queasyandfillthetank.Ifanyonehasacarthatletsyoufillupafterthetrip,pleaselet
meknow!
WhenJack,aduathlon(bikeandrun)champion,camethroughmylab(Laboratoryfor
EliteAthletePerformanceatGeorgiaStateUniversity)andsharedhisdailytraining
regimenwiththestaff,wehardlyflinched.Hewasdoingexactlywhathehadbeentaught
todo,andwhateveryonehetrainedwithwasalsodoing.Yougetup,getyourgearon,
andgoforyourmorningworkout.whensomethinglikethisissocommon,it'sinevitable
thatwe'llgetstrangelookswhenwesaythatthisstrategykeepsthemfrombenefitingfrom
theirmorningtraining.Ofcourse,theathletehasmanyreasonsfordoingthis,nottheleast
ofwhichisthathedoesn'tfeelgoodexercisingwithfoodinhisstomach.Thisisabsolutely
true,sincenoonefeelsgoodexercisingwithfoodbouncingaroundinhisorherstomach,
butthisdoen'tchangethefactthatyouneedenergytodowork.SowhenJacksaidthis,
wewerepreparedwiththemath:"YouuseXamountofenergyperhourwhenyousleep.
YourliverstoresXamountofenergy,whichisusedtomaintainbloodsugarduringthe
nightsoyourlungsandheartwillkeepworking.Theamountofenergyleftintheliverwhen
yougetupis,basedonyourrateofutilizationandliverstoragecapacity,zero.Thebody
createsglucosetomaintainbloodsugarwhentheliverisempty.Thesugaritcreatesis
mademainlyfromprotein(i.e.,muscles).Whenyouexercisewithnosugarintheliveryou
breakdowntheverymusclesyou'retryingtoimprovewiththeexercise.Therefore,you
don'tbenefitfromtheexercise,andtheimprovementinenduranceyou'reseekingwon't
come."
Thereactiontothisinformationisalsouniversallyconsistent:"Ohmy!WhatdoIdo?"
Whenwetalkedwithjackaboutthebeststrategyforhim,wewantedtoknowwhatjuice
helikestodrinkonethatgiveshimnostomachupset.That'sthestartingpoint.Weask
thathetrydrinkinghalfaglassofjuicebeforetherun.Thisisfairlyquicklyabsorbedandis
usefulinmaintainingbloodsugar.Afterhetriesthatforawhile,wesuggestthatheaddhalf
apeiceofdrytoast(nobutter,nomarmalade)withthehalfglassofjuice.Ultimately,we
wanthimtoworkuptooneglassofjuiceandonepieceoftoastbeforethemorning
workout.

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WhenJackcamebacksixmonthslater,hesaidhecouldn'tbelievehowmuchbetterhe
wasfeelinganddoingandhowmuchmore"energy"hehad.heattributedthisimprovement
tohavingthesmall"breakfast"beforhismorningworkout.Imightaddthatheatetherest
ofthisratherenormousbreakfastafterhereturnedfromtheworkout.Theinterestingthing
abouthisresponsetohisnewregimenwasthathedidn'trealizehecouldfeelbetter,since
hehadnosensationoffeeling"bad"whenwefirsttalked.Ofcourse,whenyoudo
somethingenough,youthinkthewayyoufeelis''normal"andexpected.Feelingbetter
afterfollowingasoundstarategyisjustanaddedbonus,becauseitmakesyouwantto
continuewhatyou'redoing:Andwhenyoufeelbetter,you'lldobetteraswell.

Enduranceathletesareinvolvedineventswherethereiscontinuousmovementforlongerthan20minutes.Someendurancesportscombineperiodsofslow,
continuousmovementwithperiodsoffast,quickburstsofmovement(soccer,tennis,etc.),andotherendurancesportsrequirecontinuousmovementoverlong
distancesortimeperiods(marathon,crosscountryskiing,triathlon,etc.).Inbothtypesofactivity,thereisapremiumonsupplyingsufficientenergyandfluidtoassure
thattheathletedoesnotbecomeexhaustedfromtheactivityorbecomeoverheatedfromthecontinuousenergyburn.Afailuretosupplysufficientenergyoftheright
typewillleadtoearlyfatigueandpoorathleticperformance.Thegoalfortheenduranceathleteis,therefore,toestablishaworkablestrategyforsupplyingsufficient
energyandfluidsbeforeandduringpracticeandcompetitiontosustainmuscularworkforalongdurationandatthehighestpossibleintensity.
Themajorityofenduranceactivitytakesplaceatanintensitythatallowsfatstocontributeahighproportionofthefuelformuscularwork.Sincethereisanalmost
inexhaustiblesupplyoffatineventheleanestathlete,supplyingfatsbeforeandduringphysicalactivityisnotaconcernandwouldnotbeagoal.However,
carbohydrateisinvolvedinthecompletecombustionoffats,andsincethestoragecapacityforcarbohydratesisrelativelylowandeasilydepleted,thegoalfor
enduranceathletesistofindawaytosupplyenoughcarbohydratestolastforthedurationoftheactivity.Therefore,whilepowerathletesmustconsumesufficient
energytomaintainorenlargethemusclemass,enduranceathletesmustconsumesufficientenergy(ascarbohydrate)tomaintainmuscularworkoverlongtimeperiods.
Aerobicmetabolismistheenergysystemofgreatestimportanceforenduranceathletes.Inthisenergypathway,oxygenisusedto

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helptransferphosphorusintonewATPmolecules.Unlikeanaerobicmetabolism,thisenergypathwaycanuseprotein,fat,andcarbohydrateforfuelbyconverting
piecesoftheseenergysubstratesintoacompoundcalledacetylCoA(acetylcoenzymeA).Glucoseisconvertedtopyruvicacid(ananaerobic,energyreleasing
process),andthispyruvicacidcaneitherbeconvertedintoacetylCoAwiththehelpofoxygen,oritcanbeconvertedtoanenergystorageproductcalledlacticacid.
Ofcourse,iftoomuchlacticacidbuildsup,themusclewillfatigueandactivitywillstop(theproblemwithdoingexclusivelyanaerobicwork).However,thelacticacid
caneasilybereconvertedtopyruvicacidtobeusedasafuelaerobically.
Aerobicmetabolismoccursinthemitochondriaofcells,wherethevastmajorityofallATPisproducedfromtheenteringacetylCoA.Fatscanbeconvertedtoacetyl
CoAthroughaprocesscalledthebetaoxidativemetabolicpathway.Thispathwayisveryoxygendependent,whichmeansthatfatscanonlybeburnedaerobically.
Theabilityofanathletetoachieveasteadystateofoxygenuptakeintothecellsisafunctionofhowwellanathleteisaerobicallyconditioned.Anathletethat
frequentlytrainsaerobicallyislikelytoreachasteadystatefasterthanonewhodoesnottrainaerobically.Forawellconditionedperson,itcantakefiveminutes
beforeenoughoxygenisinthesystemtosupportaerobicmetabolismatasteadystate.Thefirstfiveminutesofactivityaresupportedbyacombinationofanaerobic
andaerobicmetabolism.Achievementofafaststeadystateisthereforeimportantbecausethatdiminishestheamountoftimeanathleteisobtainingenergyvia
anaerobicpathways.Thisplacesaheavyburdenonthemostlimitedfuelcarbohydrates.Intheory,onceanathletereachesalevelofoxygenuptakethatmatches
oxygenrequirementforthegivenlevelofexertion,theexercisecouldgoonforaslongasthebody'scarbohydratelevelandfluidsdidnotreachacriticalstate.For
instance,alongdistancerunnerwhoisinasteadystatecouldcontinuerunningprovidedtherunnerreplacedthecarbohydrateandfluidsthatareusedintheactivity.
Therefore,enduranceisenhancedwithaperiodicintakeofcarbohydrateandfluidduringtheactivity.
Athleteswithdifferentlevelsofconditioningarelikelytoachievesteadystateatdifferentlevelsofexerciseintensity.Ifyou'rewellconditioned,youmightbeableto
maintainasteadystateatahighenoughlevelofexerciseintensitytoeasilywinarace.Inotherwords,youcangoreallyfastbutstillprovideenoughoxygentoyour
cellstosatisfyyouraerobicneeds.Atthe1996CentennialOlympicGamesinAtlanta,Georgia,thewinnerofthemarathonranover26milesat

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aspeedthataveragedjustovera5minutepermilepaceanunbelievablyfastpace!However,ifyou'renotwellconditionedaerobically,youmayonlybeableto
runata10minutespermilepaceandmaintainasteadystate.Eachpersonhashisorherownpacethatallowsmaintenanceofasteadystate.Exceedingthatpace
causesagreaterproportionofthemuscularworktorelyonanaerobicmetabolism,withanassociatedincreaseintherelianceoncarbohydratefuel.Sincethereisa
limitedstorageofcarbohydratefuel,thefueltankrunsdrymorequickly,andthepersonbecomesexhaustedfaster.
EnergyDemands
Theenergydemandsofenduranceathletesareenormous.Ithasbeenestimatedthatcrosscountryskiersuseapproximately4,000caloriesduringa50kilometerrace
anduseevenmoreenergy(upto8,000caloriesperday)wheninintensivetraining.1Ithasbeenrecommendedthat,asageneralrule,athletesshouldconsumeatleast
45caloriesperkilogramofbodyweightperdayiftrainingforatleast1.5hoursperday.2Asurveyoftriathletesdeterminedthattheyconsumedapproximately60
caloriesperkilogramperdaywhentraining19hoursperweek,butonly37to40caloriesperkilogramwhentraining11hoursperweek.3Ithasbeenestimatedthata
25yearoldfemalemarathonerweighing125poundsandrunning10milesatasixminutepermilepaceinthemorningandeightmilesofintervaltraininginthe
afternoonwouldrequire3,000caloriesfortheactivity,plus1,331caloriestocovertheneedsof"restingenergyexpenditure"4(seetable6.1)7a.Restingenergy
expenditurerepresentsthebaselineamountofenergyapersonuseswhileatrest.Aconsistentfailuretosupplythis4,331calorieswouldleadtoweightlossinpeople
whoarealreadyextremelylean.5
Fluids
Asathletesexercise,thereisaninevitablelossofbodywaterthroughsweat.Thiscoolingsystem,plusthenormalurinarywaterloss,mayamounttoover10liters
(about11quarts)ofdailywaterlosswhenexercisinginawarmenvironment.6Inahotandhumidenvironment,waterlossesmayexceedthreelitersperhourbutmay
belessthan0.5litersperhourincoolanddryenvironments.7Despitethehighratesofsweatlossesexperiencedbyathletes,mostathletesreplaceonly50percentof
thewaterthatislost,abehaviorthatinevitablyleadsto

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Table6.1RestingEnergyExpenditure*CalculationinAthletes

Formula
Age

1018

Males
(17.5 bodyweightinkilograms**)+651

1830

(15.3 bodyweightinkilograms**)+679

3060

(11.6 bodyweightinkilograms**)+879

Females
1018

(12.2 bodyweightinkilograms**)+746

1830

(14.7 bodyweightinkilograms**)+496

3060

(8.7 bodyweightinkilograms**)+829

*Restingenergyexpenditure(REE)representstheenergyneededtomaintaintheleanmass,aswellas
theenergyneededtocarryonnormalbodyfunctions,whenthebodyisatrest.WhenREEisadded
tothecostofenergyforanactivityandtheamountofenergythatittakestodigestandmetabolize
food(calledthethermiceffectoffood),youcanpredictthetotalenergyrequirement.
**Tocalculateweightinkilograms,takeweightinpoundsanddivideby2.2.(e.g.,a100pound
personweighs45.5kilograms).

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8

progressivedehydrationandadeclineinperformance. Researchhasclearlydemonstratedthatevenaslightdehydration(2percentofbodyweight)causesa
measurabledecreaseinathleticperformance.9,10Therefore,whenathletestakestepstosatisfyfluidrequirements,theyarehelpingtoguaranteeoptimalathletic
performance(seechapter2,"StayingHydrated").
Carbohydrate
Athletesrequirecarbohydrateduringbothhighintensityandlowerintensityactivities.Whencarbohydratestoresaredepleted,theathletequicklybecomesfatiguedand
performancedropsdramatically.However,sincethestoragelevelofcarbohydrateisrelativelylowwhencomparedtofatstores,athletesmustmakeaconsciouseffort
toreplacecarbohydrateateveryopportunity.Havinghighlevelsofstoredcarbohydrate(glycogen)andconsumingcarbohydrateduringactivitiesthatlastonehouror
morearewellestablishedtechniquesforoptimizingathleticendurance.Consumingcarbohydrateduringactivityhelpstomaintainbloodsugar(glucose)andinsulin,
whichencouragessugaruptakebyworkingmuscles.11Thishelpstoincreasethemuscularmetabolismofcarbohydratesandalsohelpstoassurethatcarbohydrates
arenotdepletedduringactivity.Inastudyofcyclistsdoingendurancework,thosewhoconsumedacarbohydratecontainingbeverageduringtheexercisewereable
toexerciseanadditionalhourwhencomparedtocyclistswhoconsumedonlywater.12Ingeneral,athletesareencouragedtoconsumeapproximately9to10grams
(35to40calories)ofcarbohydrateperkilogramofbodyweighteachday(seetable6.2).Thisamountstoabout600grams(2,400calories)ofdailycarbohydrate
intakefora150poundathlete.Thegeneralrecommendationisthatathletesshouldconsumefoodsthatprovideatleast60percentofthetotalconsumedenergy
(calories)ascarbohydrate.13
Thereisevidencethattheconcentrationofcarbohydrateconsumedearlyduringendurancerunningmayinfluencethedegreetowhichtheathletegetsgastrointestinal
(GI)discomfort.Itwasfoundthata5.5percent(13gramsofcarbohydrateper8ouncesoffluid)carbohydratesolutionproducedthesame(relativelylow)levelofGI
distressasplainwater.A6.9percent(16gramsofcarbohydrateper8ouncesoffluid)solution,ontheotherhand,doubledtheincidenceofdistresswhenathletes
wereaskedtoperformthesameexercise.Inaddition,onlythe5.5percentcarbohydratesolutionimpartedasignificantimprovementinperformance.14Therewere
similarresultsinastudy

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Table6.2CarbohydrateIntakeRecommendationsforAthletes
Bodyweight(pounds)

Gramsofcarbohydrate

Caloriesof
carbohydrate

100

400

1,600

125

500

2,000

150

600

2,400

175

700

2,800

200

800

3,200

225

900

3,800

AdaptedfromMurrayandHorswill1998.

ofmarathonrunningperformance.Marathoners,whorunover26miles,wereaskedtoconsumeeitherwater,a5.5percentcarbohydratesolution,ora6.9percent
carbohydratesolutiononthreedifferentoccasions.15Thefastesttimeswererecordedwhentheyconsumedthe5.5percentcarbohydratesolution,whileconsumingthe
6.9percentsolutionresultedintimesthatweresimilartoconsumingplainwater.Therefore,theclassicnutritionalparadigmholdstruehereaswell:"Morethanenough
isnotbetterthanenough."Althoughathleteshaveatremendousneedforcarbohydrate,tryingtoprovidetoomuchtoofastcausesdifficultiesandmaydetractfrom
performance.
Thetypeofcarbohydratemayalsomakeadifferenceinenduranceperformanceandgastrointestinaldistress.Inonestudy,6percentsolutionsofdifferenttypesof
sugars(glucose,fructose,andsucrose)werecomparedduring105minutesofcyclingexercise.(Seetable6.3foranexplanationofdifferentcarbohydrates.)While
consumptionofglucoseandsucroseresultedinpositiveoutcomes,theconsumptionofthefructosesolutionresultedinmoreGIdistress,agreaterdropinblood
volume,agreaterincreaseinstresshormoneresponse,andmeasurablypoorerexerciseperformance.16WhenGatorade,a6percentcarbohydrateandelectrolyte
beverage(containingglucoseandsucroseasthesourceofcarbohydrate),isconsumedduringhighintensityactivity,ithasbeenfoundtoblunttheincreaseinthestress
hormonesangiotestinI,ACTH,andcortisolwhencomparedtowater.17Therefore,itappearsclearthathavingacarbohydratecontainingbeverageduringexerciseisa
verygoodthingtodo.
Resynthesisofglycogenfollowingactivityisalsoimportant,sinceglycogenreservesareseverelydepletedfollowingactivitylasting

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Table6.3DifferentTypesofCarbohydrates
Fructose

Alsocalled"fruitsugar"sinceitisprevalentinfruitandhoney.Itisthe
sweetesttastingofthesugars(i.e.,forthesameamount,fructosetastes
sweeterthanglucoseorsucrose).Fructoseisnoteasilyputintosolution
withwater,soittendstodroptothebottomofthecontainerifnotmixed.
Tryputtinghoneyinwatertoseethiseffect.

Glucose

Thisistheprimaryenergysourceforthebody.Becauseitissoimportant,
wecanconvertallothersugarstoglucose,andwecanmakeglucosefrom
thebreakdownofaminoacids(proteins).Glucoseisalsoreferredtoas
dextrose.

Glucosepolymers

Thisisastarchmadeupofmanyunitsofglucose.Whendigested,many
unitsofglucosebecomequicklyavailable.

Maltodextrins

Thesearepolymersthathaveatleastfiveglucoseunitsattachedtogether.
Maltodextrinshavearelativelylowsweetnesslevelwhencomparedtoother
sugars,sotheyarenotwidelyused,eventhoughtheyhavethecapacityto
providemanyglucoseunitsquickly.

Maltose

Thisisasugarcomposedoftwomoleculesofglucoseandiscommonly
foundingrain(malt)products.Whilemaltoseisaquicksourceofglucose,
itsrelativelylowsweetnesskeepsitfrombeingwidelyused.

Sucrose

Thissugariscomposedofequalpartsofglucoseandfructose.Becauseitis
composedoftwosugars,itmustbebrokenupintoitscomponentpartsto
beusedforenergy.Theglucoseisimmediatelyavailableforenergy,while
thefructosemustbeconvertedtoglucoseinthelivertobeusedasenergy.
Sucroseisalsocalledtablesugarandiscommonlyfoundinsugarbeetsand
sugarcane.Becauseofitseasysolubilityinwateranditssweettaste,
sucroseisacommonsugarinbeverages.

onehourorlonger.Theefficiencyofglycogenresynthesisisdependentonseveralfactors,including18
thetimingofthecarbohydrateintake,
theamountofcarbohydrateconsumed,
thetypeofcarbohydrateconsumed,and
thedegreetowhichmusclehasbeendamagedduringtheexercise(damagedmuscleisslowertoresynthesizeglycogenthanhealthymuscle).

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Foodscontainingcarbohydratesthatenterthebloodquickly(i.e.,highglycemicindexfoods)arebetterabletoresynthesizeliverandmuscleglycogenthanfoodslow
ontheglycemicindexscale(seetable6.4).
Thegeneralrecommendationistoconsumeapproximately200caloriesofcarbohydrateeverytwohoursfollowingexercise,withthefirst200caloriesbeingprovided
assoonafterexerciseaspossible.19
Table6.4GlycemicIndexofFoods
Foods

Glycemicindex

Glucose

100

Maltose(grainsugar)

95

Carrots

92

Honey

87

Cornflakescereal

80

Wholewheatbread

72

Whiterice

72

Potatoes

70

Shreddedwheat

67

Bananas

62

Sucrose(tablesugar)

59

Sweetcorn

59

Potatochips

51

Peas

51

Oatmeal

49

Orangejuice

46

Bakedbeans

40

Apples

39

Yogurt

36

Icecream

36

Wholemilk

34

Fructose(fruitsugar)

20

Peanuts

13

Note:Foodswithhigherglycemicvaluesproduceafasterriseinbloodsugar(glucose)thanfoodswith
lowervalues.Nothingproducesafasterriseinbloodglucosethanpureglucose,withaglycemicindex
of100.Itisgenerallyconsideredbettertohaveaslowandsteadyriseinbloodglucoseratherthana
suddenriseinbloodglucose.Therefore,foodswithaglycemicindexbelow75arepreferableforusual
consumption.
AdaptedfromFosterPowellandMiller1995.

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BuildingEnergyandFluidReservestoSupportEnduranceActivities
Theimportanceofbuildingandmaintainingenergyreservestosupportenduranceactivityiswellestablished.Invirtuallyeverystudythathasexaminedathleteswith
highglycogenreservesversusthosewithlowerreserves,thosewithhigherreservesconsistentlyhavebetterenduranceandperformbetterathletically.Itisveryclear
thatenduranceathleteswhobegincompetitionwithmorestoredcarbohydratehavemoreavailableattheendofthecompetition,andthisdifferencealonemaybe
enoughtodeterminethewinner.Inaddition,athleteswhoarebetterhydratedduringcompetitionperformbetterthanthosewhoarelesswellhydrated.
Havingoptimalcarbohydrateandfluidintakedoesn'thappenautomatically.Itissomethingthatmustoccurwithforesightandplanning.Tomaketherightplans,
athletesshouldconsidertheopportunitiestheyhaveavailableinthefollowingfourdifferentblocksoftime:
Beforecompetition/practice.Thisistheperiodimmediatelypreceding(threetosixhoursbefore)competitionand/orpractice.
Duringcompetition/practice.Thecompetitionand/orpracticeitself.
Aftercompetition/practice.Theperiodimmediatelyfollowing(uptotwohoursafter)competitionand/orpractice.
Generaldailyconsiderations.Theremainingportionofthedaynotconsideredabove.
BeforeCompetition/Practice
Whencarbohydratesareconsumedpriortoexercise,thereisimprovedperformance.20Thegeneralrecommendationisforathletestoconsumebetween800to1,200
caloriesduringthehoursthatprecedecompetitionand/orpractice.21
Foodsconsumedpriortocompetitionshouldbefoodsthathavebeenconsumedwithoutdifficultypriortotraining.Tryingtoimprovecarbohydratestatusbeforea
competitionbytryingoutnewfoods,gels,orsportsdrinksisanalmostguaranteedformulaforcompetitivedisaster.Rehearsewhatyouintendtodoforcompetition

Page169

duringpracticetomakecertainyourbodyrespondswelltoit.Competitionisnotatimeforexperimentation.
Consumptionoffluidspriortocompetitionisalsoimportant,andsinceglycogenstoragerequiresadditionalfluids(threegramsoffluidforeachgramofglycogen
stored),carbohydrateconsumptionshouldalwaystakeplacewithsubstantialfluidintake.Sinceitiscommonforathletestodrinkonlywhenthirsty,aconsciouseffort
shouldbemadetoconsumefluidsevenwhennotthirsty.Ifyouknowyouhavedifficultytakinginenoughfluidsbecauseyoudon'tthinkaboutitorbecauseofalack
offluidavailable,trybeginningeachdaywithatwoliterwaterbottlethatyoucarrywithyou(backpacksworknicely)everyday.Gettingandstayingwellhydrated
maybethesinglemostimportantthingyoucandotoassuregoodathleticperformance.Sinceitisalmostimpossibletoadequatelyreplaceallfluidslostduringtraining
and/orcompetition,itisusefulforathletestoentertheexerciseinawellhydratedstate.
Itisimpossibletobecomewellhydratedduringexerciseifyouentertheexercisepoorlyhydratedtobeginwith.Assumingthatamplefluidshavebeenconsumed
duringthedayleadinguptotheprecompetition/practiceperiod,athletesshouldconsumeanadditional16ouncesoffluidapproximatelytwohoursbeforetheexercise
begins.Afterthis,fluidsshouldbeconsumedevery15to30minutestomaintainthehydrationstateleadingintotheexercise.Itisalsorecommendedthat8to16
ouncesoffluidbeconsumedduringthe30minutespriortoexercise.Youwillknowifyou'veadequatelyhydratedyourselfbycheckingonthecolorofyoururine.
Darkurinesuggeststhatyouarenotwellhydrated,whileclearurinesuggeststhatyouare.Usingsportsbeveragespriortoexerciseisusefulbecausetheyprovidethe
twothingsathletesneedmost:carbohydratesandfluids.TheAmericanCollegeofSportsMedicinepositiononfluidsstatesthat22
thefluidconsumedshouldbeflavoredandsweetenedtoencouragefluidintake
tohelpmaintaintrainingintensity,thefluidshouldcontaincarbohydrateand
tostimulaterapidandcompleterehydration,thebeverageshouldcontainsodiumchloride(salt).
Sportsbeveragesthatmeetthesecriteriaareparticularlyusefulinhelpingtodeliverbothcarbohydratesandfluidstoathletes.

Page170

DuringCompetition/Practice
Inevents,suchas10kilometerracesandmarathons,wherefluidsareavailableatregularintervals,theathleteshouldtakefulladvantageofeachfluidstationand
consumefluids.Sincewaterisconstantlybeinglost,frequentandregularconsumptionoffluidshelpstomaintainthebody'swaterlevel.Sincemostathletesconsume
lesswaterthantheyneed,techniquesforassuringhydrationduringactivityhavebeenstudied.Thefollowingrecommendationshavebeensuggested:23
Makecertainthatfluidisalwaysnearby,sinceaccessibilityhelpstoassurebetterfluidintake.
Allathletesshouldhavetheirownbottlefromwhichtodrink,andthisbottleshouldbewiththemwhenevertheyexerciseorareatacompetition.
Coachesshoulddesignpracticesthatenableathletestodrinkfrequently.
Thecoachingstaffshouldbeawareofthoseathleteswithhighsweatratestomakecertaintheyconsumemorefluidsthanthosewithlowersweatrates.
Helpathleteslearntodrinkfrequentlybyconsideringthistobepartofthetrainingregimen.
Tounderstandhowmuchfluidanathleteneedstoconsumeduringpracticeandcompetition,alogshouldbemaintainedwiththeamountoffluidconsumedandthe
beginningandendingweightoftheathletes.Ifanathleteconsumes32ouncesduringpracticeandweighs2poundslessattheendofpracticethanatthebeginning,this
athleteshouldlearntoconsumeanadditional32ouncesoffluidduringthepractice(1pound=16ouncesoffluid).
Consumptionoffluidsthatcontaincarbohydratesisimportantduringexercise,andproperlydesignedsportsbeveragescanaidinprovidingbothfluidsand
carbohydratesquickly.Theidealsportsbeverageshouldhavethefollowingcharacteristics:
Coolbeveragesaretoleratedbest.
Acarbohydratesolutionofbetween5and6percentdeliversboththecarbohydrateandthefluidquickly.Ahighercarbohydrateconcentrationslowsdeliverytothe
musclesbydelayinggastricemptyingandmayincreasetheriskofgutupset.

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Asmallamountofsodiumhelpsdrivethedesiretodrink,andinsodoinghelpstoassurethattheathletestaysbetterhydrated.Sodiummayalsoaidingettingthe
waterandcarbohydrateabsorbedmorequickly,aswellashelptomaintainbloodvolume.Maintenanceofbloodvolumeisanimportantpredictorofathletic
performance.Thereissomeevidencethathyponatremia(lowbloodsodium),whichresultsfromlargelossesofsodiuminsweatthatgoesunreplaced,occursin
enduranceandultraenduranceevents.24Thisisararebutseriousconditionthatmayresultinseizures,comas,ordeath.
Thebeverageshouldtastegoodtotheathlete.Thetastesensationmaybealteredduringexercise,sothereisnoguaranteethatafluidyouenjoydrinkingatdinner
willtastegoodtoyouwhileexercising.Makesureanathletetriesdifferentflavorsduringexercisetodeterminewhatisbestliked.
Thecarbohydrateshouldbefromacombinationofglucoseandsucrose.Beveragescontainingpredominantlyfructoseincreasetheriskofcreatinggutupset.

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25

Noncarbonatedsportsdrinksarepreferredovercarbonateddrinksduringenduranceexercise.

Consumptionofcarbohydratesinsolidandliquidformsbothresultsinthesameperformanceoutcomes,soathletesinsomesportsmaychoosetoconsume
carbohydratefoodsratherthancarbohydratebeverages.26Cyclistswhogolongdistances,forinstance,oftenconsumebananasandcarbohydrategelstosupporttheir
carbohydraterequirement.Itappearsasiftheconsumptionof45to75gramsofcarbohydrateperhour(180to300caloriesfromcarbohydrateperhour)helpsto
improveathleticperformance.27Thisamountofcarbohydratecanbefoundinapproximatelyonequartofsportsbeveragewitha6percentcarbohydrate
concentration.
AfterCompetition/Practice
Whileyoumaythinkyou'vedoneeverythingyouneedtodoonceyourexerciseisoverexceptshoweritisclearthatdrinkingmorefluidsandconsumingmore
carbohydratesaftertheexerciseorcompetitionisimportant.Doingthiswillhelpyoureplenishyourglycogenstoresandgetyoureadyforthenextdayofexercise.
Thebestglycogenreplenishmentoccursifyouconsumehighglycemicindexcarbohydrates(seetable6.4)immediatelyfollowingexercise,andcontinueconsuming
carbohydrates(viasnacks)untilthenextmeal.28
GeneralDailyConsiderations
Thebeforeexercise,duringexercise,andafterexerciseperiodsaremeanttoprovidecarbohydratesandfluidstosupporttheactivity,butwhatyoudotherestofthe
timehelpstoassurethatthebefore,during,andafterexercisestrategiesactuallywork.Obviously,theconsumptionofcarbohydratesandfluidsduringtheseperiods
doesn'tprovideallthenutrientsandmineralsanathleteneedstosupporthealthandactivity.Forthisreason,itisimperativethatwhatyoueattherestofthetime
providesabalanceofnutrientsthatcankeepyouhealthy.Itisverytruethathealthyathletesarebetterathletes.Agoodbasicstrategytofollowforyourregularmeal
timesistodistributefoodsasindicatedontheFoodGuidePyramid.Thisguideencouragestheconsumptionofawidevarietyoffoodsthatarehighincomplex
carbohydrates,moderateinprotein,andlowinfatsandsugars.Thistypeoffooddistributionisperfectforathletesandwillhelptoassurethatallnecessarynutrients
areconsumed.

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Thereisnothinganathletecandojustbeforecompetitiontocorrectanutrientdeficiencyandhelpperformance.Ifyourintakeofironisconsistentlylow,andyou
developirondeficiencyanemia,itcouldtakesixmonthsonagooddietandironsupplementstobringyourironleveluptoapointwhereperformancewon'tbe
negativelyimpacted.Ifyou'vegotanutrientdeficiency,doingeverythingrightbefore,during,andafterexercisestillwon'thaveyouperforminguptoyourconditioned
ability.Soeatwellandeatwiselywhenyou'vegotthechanceand,ofcourse,drinkplentyoffluids.
OtherNutritionalRecommendations
Thereareseveralrulesofnutritionthatapplyhere.Amongthemistheideaoftheneedtoconsumeawidevarietyoffoodstoassurethatthebodyisexposedtoallof
theessentialnutrients.Onthebacksideofthisrule,thereisanotherbenefit.Byconsumingawidevarietyoffoods,athletescanavoidbeingexposedtoanypotentially
toxicsubstancesthataremoreprevalentinsomefoods.Therefore,eatingawidevarietyoffoodsisagoodnutritionalruletoliveby.Anotherruleistheideathatitis
possibletoeattoomuchofsomething,evenifyouthinkit'sgoodforyou.Learningtobalanceyourdietthroughvarietywillhelpensureyourbodyofbothproper
maintenanceandadequatenutrientintake.
Protein
Enduranceathletesactuallyrequireslightlymoreproteinthanpowerathletes,eventhoughit'susuallythepowerathleteswhotakemoreproteinandaminoacid
supplements.WhilemostenduranceathletesappeartoconsumeatleasttheRecommendedDietaryAllowanceforprotein(0.8gramsofproteinperkilogramofbody
weight,asestablishedbytheFoodandNutritionBoardoftheNationalResearchCouncil),theestimatedrequirementforenduranceathletesisaboutdoublethislevel
(1.5gramsperkilogram).29Withtheexceptionofvegetarians,mostenduranceathletesappeartoconsumethislevelofproteinfromfoodalone.30
Consumptionofexcessproteinhasalwaysbeenaconcernforathletes,sincemanyoftheproductsmarketedforimprovementofathleticperformancearesomeform
ofproteinsupplementoraminoacidpowderpreparation.Therehavebeenseveralstudiessuggestingthatconsistentlyhighproteinintakes(above1.6gramsper
kilogram)

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maycontributetokidneydiseaseorexacerbateanexistingkidneyproblem.Inaddition,sincehighproteindietsarealmostinevitablyalsohighfatandhighcholesterol
diets,thereisconcernthatthosewithageneticpredispositiontoheartdiseasewouldbenegativelyimpacted.Ofcourse,ifexcessproteinisderivedfromsupplements,
itmaybelowinfatbutthesecarrytheirownsetofdifficulties.Forinstance,itisdifficulttobesurethatthesupplementisofhighquality.Inaddition,anyamountof
proteinthatexceedstherequirementislikelytoincreasewaterlossandincreasetheriskofdehydration,regardlessofwhetheritcomesfromfoodorsupplements.
Thereislittlereasonforanyathlete,nomatterthesport,toconsumealevelofproteinthatexceeds1.5to2.0gramsperkilogramofbodyweight.Ingeneral,this
amountstobetween12and15percentoftotalcaloriesconsumed.Forathletesonhighproteinintakes,proteinconsumptionisoftenmorethanthreegramsper
kilogramofbodyweight,or30percentoftotalcaloriesconsumed.Byanymeasure,thisisexcessive.Sincehighproteinintakescommonlyresultineithertheexcess
proteinbeingstoredasfator,ifthereisageneralenergyintakeinadequacy,beingburnedforfuel,thenitrogenouswasteproductsmustberemoved.Thisexcessurea
excretioncausesagreaterurinaryvolumetobeproduced,increasingthechancefordehydration.Sincestayingwellhydratedisofcentralimportancetoathletic
performance,havingadietthatinducesdehydrationmustbeconsideredcounterproductive.Itislikelythatthisextrawaterlossisatleastpartiallyresponsibleforthe
weightlossesseeninpeoplewhoconsumehighprotein,lowcarbohydratediets.Whiletheweightlossmayappeardesirable,thenegativeimpactthishason
enduranceshouldcauseyoutothinkcarefullyaboutwhetherthistypeofintakeisforyou.(Itshouldn'tbe!)
Fat
Whilethehighprotein,highfat,lowcarbohydratediet(40percentcarbohydrate,30percentprotein,and30percentfat)hasreareditsuglyheadonceagain(itseems
toreturnwithanewnameevery10to20years),itisnobetternowthanitwaswhenitwasfirstintroduced.Thereisnothinginthescienceorexperiencetosuggest
thatthistypeofintakeisusefulforanyathlete.Forenduranceathletes,alltheliteraturemakesitamplyclearthatthehigherthecarbohydrateintake,thebetterthe
performance.Therefore,forenduranceathletes,thistypeofintakemustbeconsideredadisasterforathleticperformance.Whenthesedietsreartheirheads,I
sometimes

Page175

wonderifthey'vebeensecretlyintroducedbysomecountryorgroupthatwantstowinacompetitiveedgeincompetition.
Vitamins
Vitaminsupplementsforotherwisewellnourishedathletesdonotimproveathleticperformance.However,athleteswhoknowtheydon'teatagoodbalanceddiet
maybenefitfromtakingalowlevel(50to100percentoftheRDA)multivitamin,multimineralsupplement.Bvitaminsarecriticallyimportantforenduranceactivities,
butathletesconsuminghighcarbohydratediets(60to70percentcarbohydrateoraminimumof30caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight)arevirtuallyassuredof
obtainingsufficientBvitaminsfromthefoodstheyconsume.TheBvitaminsworktogether,sotakingasingleBvitamindoeslittleornogood.Inonestudy,niacin
(vitaminB3)wasaddedtoacarbohydratecontainingsportsbeveragetodetermineifitwouldenhanceexerciseenduranceduringlongrangecycling.Thefindings
indicatethat,becauseniacininhibitedthereleaseandutilizationoffreefattyacids,themusclesbecamemorereliantonglycogen,resultinginearlierfatigue.31

Page176

Thereisalsosomelimitedevidencethattakingantioxidantvitamins(vitaminsC,E,andBetacarotene)mayreducethetimemusclesremainsorefollowinganintensive
workoutorcompetition.However,regularconsumptionofhighcarbohydratefoods,suchasfreshfruitsandvegetables,helpstoassurethatplentyofantioxidant
vitaminsarepresentedtothetissues.
Minerals
Whilethemineralneedsofathletesarecoveredmorecompletelyinchapter1,''BalancingEssentialNutrients,"itwarrantsmentioningherethattheoxygencarrying
capacityofenduranceathletesisimportant.Ifanathlete'sironstatusiscompromised,oxygencarryingcapacitywilldropandsowillperformance.Zincisalsoan
importantmineralinnumerousenzymesinvolvedinoxidativeenergymetabolism.Thebestdietarysourceforironandzincismeat(beef,poultry,pork,lamb,etc.).For
enduranceathleteswhodonotconsumemeat,thereisanaturalconcernthatboththeirironandzincstatusmaybeaproblem.Tobesafe,thesenonmeateating
athletesshouldhaveyearlybloodteststoassurethatironstatusandzincstatusarewithinacceptablebounds.Ifnot,supplementsoftheseminerals,asrecommended
byaphysician,maybewarranted.
Anothermineralofconcerniscalcium,becausestrongboneshelpreducetheincidenceofmusculoskeletalproblems,suchasstressfractures,inathletes.Because
enduranceathletesdothesameanatomicalmotionhundredsandthousandsoftimes,weak,poorlymineralizedbonesmaybeatincreasedriskofdevelopingstress
fracturesatpointswherethebonescontinuallyreceivestress.Sinceestrogenhelpsbonesbecomemineralizedinwomen,femaleathleteswhodon'thavemenstrual
periodsareatriskfordevelopingweakbones.Forthesewomen,itisevenmoreimportantthattheytakeplentyofcalciumandlotsofsunshine(vitaminD)tohelp
compensatetheproblemofinadequateestrogen.
Summary
Ingeneral,athleteswithlongtrainingschedulesshouldfocusontheconsumptionofdietsthatarehighincarbohydrateandshoulddevelopadrinkinghabitthat
frequentlydeliversfluidstothebody.Whilefatsconstituteamajorproportionofburnedenergyforendurance(aerobic)activities,thestoragecapacityforfatis
relativelyhighforeventhemostleanathletes.Thestoragecapacityforcarbohy

Page177

drates,however,islimited.Sincefatsrequiresomecarbohydratetobecompletelyburned,thelimitedstoragecapacityforcarbohydratecanlimitthebody'sabilityto
burnfatduringexercise.Toovercomethislimitation,athletesshouldbeconstantlyvigilanttokeepbodystoresofcarbohydrateatmaximallevelsbeforeactivitybegins
andshouldreplacecarbohydrateduringactivitythroughwhatevermeansareavailable.Afailuretosupplysufficientcarbohydratebeforeandduringenduranceactivity
willsignificantlyreduceathleticperformance.Seetable6.5fortherecommendednutrientintakeforathletestraining90minutesormoreeachday.
Table6.5RecommendedNutrientIntakesforEnduranceAthletes
Totalenergy
intake

Calculatedas1.6to2.4timestherestingenergyexpenditure(seetable6.1forformulas
usedtocalculaterestingenergyexpenditure).Highervaluesareusedforathleteswho
doenduranceworkathigherintensities.

Fluid

16Ouncesoffluid2hourspriortoexercise.

Additional8to16ouncesoffluidduringthe30minutespriortoexercise.

Donotdelaydrinking,evenifnotthirsty.

Drinkfluidsevery10to15minutestoreplacewaterlossviasweatandtoprevent
dehydration.

Iftheactivitypreventsregular,frequentfluidintake,drinkasmuchascanbe
toleratedduringnaturalbreaksintheactivity.

Drinkenoughfollowingtheactivitytoreturnbodyweighttonormalpriortonext
day'sactivity.

Carbohydrate

Greaterthan60percentoftotalcaloricintakeshouldcomefromcarbohydrates.

Thisshouldamountto500to600gramsofcarbohydrateperday(equivalentto2,000
to2,400caloriesofcarbohydrateperday).

Carbohydrateintakeshouldbeatleast4to5gramsofcarbohydrateperpoundof
bodyweightperday.(A100poundathletewouldconsume500gramsof
carbohydrateor2,000caloriesofcarbohydrateeachday.A200poundathletewould
consumedoublethisamount.)

Fat

Fatintakeshouldremainaslowaspossible,neverexceeding30percentoftotal
caloriesfromfat.

Mostathletesshouldhaveafatintakeofbetween20to25percentoftotalcalories.

Higherlevelsoffatintakeareonlyusefulifenduranceathletesareincapableof
consumingsufficientenergyfromcarbohydratestosustaindesirableweight.

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

(continued)

Page178

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Table6.5(continued)
Protein

Enduranceathletesrequireapproximately1.6gramsofproteinperkilogramofbody
weightperday.(Thislevelgenerallytranslatesinto10to15percentoftotalcaloriesas
protein.)

Thebestsourcesofproteinincludemeats(beef,chicken,fish,pork)anddairy
products(eggs,milk,cheese).However,proteinisalsopresentingrains,cereals,and
legumes.

Minerals

Iron,zinc,andcalciumareofconcernforallathletes.Ironandcalciummaybeof
particularconcernforfemaleathletes.

Vegetarianathletesareatincreasedriskofinadequateiron,zinc,andcalcium
intakes.

Forfemaleandvegetarianathletes,iron,zincandcalciumsupplementsmaybe
warranted.

Heavysweatingcausesincreasedlossesofsodium,chloride,and(perhaps)
potassium.

Consumptionofawidevarietyoffoods,includingmeatsanddairyproducts,helpsto
assureandadequateintakeofiron,zinc,calcium,sodium,chloride,andpottassium.

Vitamins

FortifiedgrainsandcerealsareanexcellentmeansofobtainingsufficientBvitamins,
whicharenecessaryforthemetabolismofenergy.

Thesupplementalintakeofantioxidantsshouldnotexceedthelevelrecommendedby
theU.S.OlympicCommittee(33,340IUofbetacarotene1,000mgofvitaminC400IU
ofvitaminE).

AdaptedfromMurrayandHorswill1998.

Page179

7
TimingofMealsandSnacks
TimingIsEverything
TherewasatalentedgymnastataNationalTeamtrainingcampwhocoulddotheskills
wellenoughtomakeitontotheNationalTeamthreeyearsinarow,butshejustcouldn't
breakintothetopleveltocompeteatthekeycompetitions.Shewaseagertotalkwithme
whensheheardIwasthenewnutritionistfortheteam,andshefoundherwaytoseeme
duringthefirstpossiblerotaion.Iwasn'treadyforwhatshesaidassheintroducedherself
tome:"I'mtiredofbeingcalledbubblebutt,butIcan'tdoanythingaboutitandbelieve
me,I'vetriedeverything!"Itwastruethatshewasgeneticallypredisposedtocarryinga
bitmorefataroundthehipsthanotherplaces,butitwasalsocleartomethat99.9percent
ofallwomenontheplanetwouldliketolookasfitandasathleticasshedid.However,in
theworldofgymnastics,sheclearlywascarryingmorefatthanmost.
Wetalkedatlengthaboutwhatshehaddoneinthepasttolowerherbodyfat,andshe
toldmeaboutpastdiscussionsshehadhadwithexercisephysiologistsandnutritionists
eachoneputtingheronadifferentexerciseregimenandevaluatingherdietaryadequacy
overandoveragain.Itwasatthispointthatshesaidsomethingveryinterestingtome.She
explainedthatatherlastvisttothenutritionist,shewastoldthathertotaldailycaloric
intakewasalmostaperfectmatchforherdailycaloricexpenditure.Thatwasevenmore
frustratingforher,sincesheimaginedthathavingaperfectdietshouldleadtoaperfect
physique,Iwondered,washerdietreallyperfect?
Istartedaskinghersomequestionsaboutherdailyscheduleandwhensheatehermeals,
anditbecamealmostimmediatelyclearthatthecalorieswereright,buttheyweren'tright
attherighttime.Shewas"backloading"herfoodintakebecauseherdailyschedulewasso
busy.Thisissomethingthatmanyathletesdobecausetheyallhaveincrediblybusy
schedules.Insteadofspreadingouttheircaloriesthroughouttheday,theyeatalittlebit
duringthedayandeatahugeamountintheevening(i.e.,backload)totakeintheenergy
theyneed.(Backloadingfoodintakeisabitlikegettingintoyourcarinthemorningand
noticingthatthegastankiscompletelyempty,thensayingtothecar,"Well,takemetomy
mettingnow,andI'llfillyouuponcewegetthere."Itjustdoesn'tworkthatway.)We
talkedaboutwhetheritwouldbepossibletospreadoutthefoodanddrinkthroughoutthe
daytoavoidhungerandthrist,andtomakecertaintherewasenoughoftherightfuel(i.e.,

(textboxcontinuedonnextpage)

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(textboxcontinuedfrompreviouspage)
carbohydrate)inthesystemtotrainproductively.Weworkedoutastrategyformovinga
bagelfromheretothere,andconsumingmoresportsbeverageduringpracticebuthaving
lessatnight,andsheagreedtogiveitatry.(Afterall,shehadtriedeverythingelse!)
Whensomeonecallsyouonthephone,youcanusuallytelliftheyhaveasmileontheir
facewhilethey'retalking.Well,shecalledmeaboutamonthafterthetrainingcampwitha
bigsmileonherfaceandsaidshe'dneverfeltstrongerandherjeanshadneverfitbetter.I
washappyforherandsaidwecouldtalkagainatanupcomingcompetitionintwoweeks.
Whenwemetagain,itwasasifIwaslookingatadifferentperson.Shewassmiling,felling
good,andwasn'tcarryingaroundthe"bubblebutt"labelonherforehead.Itookher
weightandwassurprisedthatshewasaboutfivepoundsheavier,andIcouldn'thavebeen
morehappy.Forthefirsttimeinalongwhile,hermuscleswererespondingtoherhard
trainingbecausetherewasenoughfuelaroundatthetimethefuelwasneeded.So,she
lookedsmaller,weightedmore,hadlessfat,andwasperformingbetter.Shewaseating
thesamefoodsinthesameamounts,buteatingthemwhensheneededthemthemost.
Timingiseverything.

ItisinterestingthatthequestionmostfrequentlyaskedwhenIspeaktoathleteshastodowithwhattoeatbeforecompetition.Althoughthisisimportant,itisof
relativelysmallimportancewhencomparedtohowtheathleteeatsmostofthetime.Youcan'tproperlyprepareforacompetitionbyeatingsomepancakesseveral
hoursbeforeyouplaceyourfeetinthestartingblocks.Ittakesconsistentandlongtermeffortinconditioningandgoodnutrition.Thereisnowaythatanathletewith
irondeficiencycanmagicallycuretheconditionbyconsumingsomeredmeatthedaybeforetheevent.Itmaytakesixmonthsonaproperdiettogettoastateof
normalironstatus.Therefore,thefirstandmostimportantstepinpreparingforcompetitionistoconsistentlyeatenoughenergyandnutrientstosupportyour
needs.Afailuretodothiswillinevitablyleadtoapoorcompetitionoutcome,nomatterwhatyoudojustbeforethecompetition.
Inadditiontoconsumingenoughenergyandnutrients,it'sequallyimportanttoeatthefoodsatthetimesthebodycanbenefitthemostfromthem.Thetimingof
mealsisalsoimportantformakingcertainthatthemuscleshaveenoughenergyandnutrientstogrowandgetstrongerduringtrainingsessions,ratherthangetburned
forenergybecausetheathletehasn'teatenenough.Putsimply,it'simportanttogetenoughandgetitontime.Thisisn'teasytodo,becauseathleteshaveterribly
hecticschedules,andittakesstrategicthinkingandgood

Page181

schedulingtomakecertainfoodisconsumedwhenit'sneeded.Whilecarefulmealplanningmaynotseemasimportantashavingawelldevelopedtrainingplan,they
shouldbethoughtofasbeingequallyimportant.Theyshouldalsobethoughtoftogethertomakecertainthetrainingplancanbeproperlysupportedwiththefoods
thatareconsumed.
Ifthegeneralfoodintakeissupportiveofthetrainingplan,whatshouldanathletedodifferentlyforthedaysleadinguptoacompetition?Thesequenceofeventsfor
thesevendayspriortocompetitionhasthreemajorgoals:
1.Theathleteshouldgraduallybecomerested.Thismaybeaproblemformanyathletesandcoaches,sinceathletes(eitherwithorwithouttheencouragementof
thecoach)oftenincreasethetrainingscheduleduringtheweekleadinguptoacompetition.Thisovertrainingisabigproblemandmayincreasetherisksofgetting
sickorgettinginjured.Itcertainlydoesn'thelptheathletedotheirbestattheupcomingcompetition.
2.Theathleteshouldgraduallybuildupmuscleglycogen(energy)stores.Themainpurposeofgraduallyreducingtheintensityanddurationoftrainingsessions
beforethecompetitionistobesurethattheathletecanbeginthecompetitionwithfullmuscleglycogenstores.Thestoragecapacityforglycogenisrelativelysmall,and
athletesareheavilyreliantonstoredglycogenformuscularwork(it'sthelimitingfuelformuscularwork,regardlessofthetypeofexercisetheathleteisdoing).
Therefore,it'simportanttoeatplentyofcarbohydratesandreduceworksoglycogenstoresarefullgoingintothecompetition.
3.Theathleteshouldbecomewellhydrated.Whenathletesworkharditisdifficult(ifnotimpossible)tomaintainanoptimalhydrationstate.Ittakestimetoreturn
lostbodywater,andathletesshouldgivethemselvesthetimetodosobyreducingthetrainingintensityanddurationanddrinkingplentyoffluids.Anadditional
benefittobecomingwellhydratedisthatglycogenstorageisenhanced.Thegradualtaperingoftrainingduringthesevendayspriortocompetitionmakesiteasierfor
theathletetostartthecompetitioninawellhydratedandoptimallyenergizedstate.
Thereare,ofcourse,manysportswhereathletesdon'thavetheluxuryoftaperingactivityonasevendaycycle.Basketballplayersplayseveralgameseachweek
duringtheseason,baseballplayersplaynearlyeveryday,andhockeyplayersoftenhaveagametwice

Page182

aweek.Whiletheseandotherathletesdon'thaveschedulesthatpermitsevendayactivitytapering,theprinciplesbehindtaperedactivity,glycogenstorage,and
optimalhydrationshouldberememberedand,whenpossible,adheredto.Forathleteswithdailyschedulesthateliminatethepossibilityoftapering,consumptionof
highcarbohydratedietsandmaintenanceofoptimalhydrationbecomeevenmoreimportantcomponentsofathleticperformance.Athleteswiththeseschedulesshould
haveaneatinganddrinkingplanthatisassolidasthetrainingandcompetitionplan.Makeaneatinganddrinkingschedule,andstickwithit.
Alltoooftenathletesprepareforabigcompetitionbyincreasingtheirtrainingregimenasthecompetitiondrawsnearer.Thisisabigmistake.Coachesworkingin
highskillsports,suchasfigureskatingandgymnastics,commonlyasktheirathletestodomultiplerunthroughsoftheroutinesthedaybeforecompetition,justtobe
suretheathletecandothem.Well,ifyoucan'tbesuretheathletecandotheroutinebythen,thenyou'rejustreducingthechancetheathletewilldoitrightduring
competition,becausetheyenterthecompetitionexhaustedandinsecure.Themessagethissendstotheathlete(i.e.,"Idon'tbelieveyou'reready,andwe'regoingto
keeppracticinguntilyougetitright")isalsocounterproductive.Thereisnothingmoreconfidencebuildingforathletesthanenteringthecompetitionwellrestedand
knowingthecoachissecureintheirabilitytodoagoodjob.ThisistruewhethertheathleteisaprofessionaloraTballplayerinlittleleaguebaseball.
SevenDayTaper
Thefollowingtablesprovideanexampleofhowtheseprinciplescanbeputtowork.Theyillustratewhatandhowathletesmighteatiftheytypicallytraintwicedaily.
You'llnoticethatthefoodisspreadoutoversixsmallermealsratherthantwoorthreelargerones.You'llalsonoticethatthecaloriclevelofthemealsdoesnot
emphasizedinnerattheendoftheday.Whiledinnerisimportant,thetrainingtakesplacebeforedinner,sotherehastobeampleenergyprovidedwhentheathlete
needsitthemost.Breakfastcomesbeforethemorningworkoutbecause,bythetimetheathletewakesup,bloodsugarismarginalandtheliverisvirtuallydepletedof
energy,somaintainingbloodsugarisvirtuallyimpossible.Havingsomefoodtoeatpriortothemorningworkouthelpstoassurethatthemuscleswill

Page183

benefitfromthetrainingandhelpstokeeptheathletefeelingbetter.Nobodyfeelsgoodwithlowbloodsugar.
Thesetablesalsosuggestthatfoodsshouldbeconsumedlongenoughbeforethetrainingsessionsothattheathletefeelsnodiscomfortfromtrainingwhilethereisfood
inthestomach.Inaddition,you'llnoticethattherearealwayssomecarbohydratesprovidedimmediatelyafteraworkout.Thishelpstoassureaneffective
replenishmentoftheglycogenthatwasusedupduringthetraining.Waitingtoeattoolongafterthetrainingcandiminishtheefficiencywithwhichmuscleglycogenis
replaced.
SevenDaysbeforeCompetition
Thisisthedayforacomplete,total,andexhaustiveworkout.Alltheskillsarepracticedcompletelyandrepetitively,andtheathletespendsagooddealoftime
practicinghisorherweakestarea.Ifabasketballplayerhastroublemakingfoulshotsduringthegame,thenagooddealoftimeshouldbespentshootingfromthefoul
lineafteralltheotherpracticeregimenshavebeenfollowed.Heorsheshouldgetafeelforwhatit'slikewhentheyfeelabittired,justlikeinagame.Inotherwords,
sevendaysbeforethecompetitionisnotatimeforbeingtimidabouttheworkout.Giveyourbodyasufficientlygoodworkoutsothatyouknowyou'vereallygone
throughit.(Seetable7.1forasamplecompetitionminus7days.)
Table7.1SampleExerciseandEatingScheduleforCompetitionMinus7Days
Timeof
day

Activity

7:00
A.M.to
8:00
A.M.

Lightbreakfast(beforegetting
dressedforworkout)

2sliceswhitebreadtoast
1cupfruitjuice

DressforA.M.workout

1cupsportsbeverage[Average300
calories]

8:00
A.M.to
9:30
A.M.

Stretch(30minutes)

1cupsportsbeverageduringstretch
(sippedover30minutes)

1hourvigorousrun,bike,or
equipmentbasedactivity

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Food

16ouncessportsactivity(sippedat
therateof4ouncesevery15minutes)
[About150calories]
[continued]

Page184

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Table7.1continued
Timeof
day

Activity

9:30
A.M.to
10:00
A.M.

Postexercisebreakfast(before
gettingwashedanddressed)

1boiledegg

1freshorange

1bowl(1cup)ofwholegraincerealwith
6ouncesof1%milk

12ouncesfruitjuice[About900calories]

10:00
A.M.to
12:30
P.M.

Showeranddress

Sipon12ouncesoffluids(anykind
exceptthosecontainingcaffeineor
alcohol)

4slicesoftoastwith2tablespoonsof
jam

Relaxedactivities(read,walk,
lightworkaroundthehouse,desk
work,etc.)

[About75caloriesifasports
beverage]

12:30
P.M.to
1:00
P.M.

Lunch

Largebowl(2.5cups)ofpastawith
marinarasauce

3slicesofFrenchbread

12ouncesoffruitjuice[About1,200
calories]

1:00
P.M.to
2:45
P.M.

Postlunchrelaxation(read,desk
work,slowwalking,driving,etc.)

Sipon12ouncesofwater[0calories]

2:45
P.M.to
3:30
P.M.

Preparationforafternoonworkout
(getdressedforexercise,etc.)

Sipon12ouncesofsportsbeverage
[About75calories]

3:30
P.M.to
7:00
P.M.

Lateafternoonworkout
Practiceskills
Workonconditioning

Sipon16ouncesofsportsbeverageper
hour(4ounceseach15minutes)

Workonendurance
Workupasweat!

Takeyournudeweightpriortoexercise
andafterexercisetoseeifyouhave
consumedanappropriateamountoffluid.
Foreachpoundofweightloss,youshould
haveconsumedanadditional16ouncesof
beverage.

[About350calories]

7:00
P.M.to
7:30
P.M.

Postexercisenutritional
replenishment

1banana
12ouncesofsportsbeverage

2slicesofbread[About315Calories]

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Food

Page185

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Timeofday

Activity

Food

7:30P.M.to8:00
P.M.

Showeranddress

Don'tdrinktheshowerwaterunless
you'rereallythirsty!

8:00P.M.to9:00
P.M.

Dinner

Largebakedpotato

Broccoli(1spear)

Smallleansteak(4ounces)

Orangejuice(1cup)

Ricepudding(1cup)[About1,050
calories]

9:00P.M.to10:00
P.M.

Relaxationactivities

1cupofwaterorsportsbeverage
(sipped)[About75caloriesifasports
beverage]

10:00P.M.to7:00
A.M.

Sleep,glorioussleep!

Noeatingordrinkingpermitted!

Intaketotals:

4,500calories

79%ofcaloriesfromcarbohydrate

11%ofcaloriesfromprotein

10%ofcaloriesfromfat

Note:Thefoodintakeinthisexamplewouldmeettheneedsofa190pound(86.4kilogram)athlete
withaveryintensiveexerciseschedule.Inthisexample,theenergyrequirementfor
competitionminus7daysisestimatedas50caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight.Importantly,itis
highinfluids,highincarbohydrates,lowinfat,andmoderateinprotein.Thistypeofintake
supportsglycogen(energy)storageinthemusclesandliver.Athletesweighinglessthanthis
wouldconsumeproportionatelylessfood,whilemaintainingthesamefrequencyofintake.

Duringthisworkout,alltheprotocolsdiscussedearlierinthisbookshouldbefollowed.It'simportanttodrinkplentyofcarbohydratecontainingfluidsduringthe
workout(seechapter2).It'salsoimportanttofollowtheworkoutwithplentyofcarbohydrates.Consumingatleast400caloriesfromcarbohydrateimmediately
followingthetrainingregimenisdesirable,followedbyatleast800caloriesduringthenextseveralhours.Thisisyourfirstattemptatgettingyourmusclestoreplace
theglycogenthathasbeenlostduringtheworkout.
SixDaysbeforeCompetition
Thisrepresentsthefirstdayoftaperedexercisebutwithmaintenanceofahighcarbohydrateintakewithplentyoffluids.Sinceactivityisreduced,totalenergyintake
shouldalsobereducedtomatchneeds.

Page186

Activitycanbereducedintotaltimespentintraining,orbyreducingtheintensityoftheactivitiesintraining.Forinstance,aweightliftercoulddofewerrepetitionsor
coulddothesamerepetitionswithlessweight.Regardlessofthetechniquefollowed,competitionminus6daysshouldprovideatrainingschedulethatisnotas
exhaustiveascompetitionminus7days(seetable7.2).
Table7.2SampleExerciseandEatingScheduleforCompetitionMinus6Days
Timeofday

Activity

Food

7:00A.M.to
8:00A.M.

Lightbreakfast(beforegetting
dressedforworkout)

1slicewhitebreadtoast
1cupfruitjuice

DressforA.M.workout

1cupsportsbeverage[Average230
calories]

8:00A.M.to
9:30A.M.

Stretch(30minutes)

1cupsportsbeverageduringstretch
(Sippedover30minutes)

1hourvigorousrun,bike,or
equipmentbasedactivity

9:30A.M.to
10:00A.M.

12ouncessportsbeverageduring1
houractivity(sippedattherateof4
ouncesevery15minutes)[About125
calories]

Postexercisebreakfast(beforegetting
washedanddressed)

1boiledegg

1freshorange

bowl(1cup)ofwholegraincerealwith6
ouncesof1%milk

8ouncesfruitjuice[About690calories]

10:00A.M.to Showeranddress
12:30P.M.

Relaxedactivities(read,walk,
lightworkaroundthehouse,desk
work,etc.)

2slicesoftoastwith2tablespoonsof
jam

Sipon12ouncesoffluids(anykindexcept
thosecontainingcaffeineoralcohol)

[About75caloriesifasports
beverage]

12:30P.M.to Lunch
1:00P.M.

Largebowl(2.5cups)ofpastawith
marinarasauce

2slicesofFrenchbread

8ouncesoffruitjuice[About1,000
calories]

1:00P.M.to
2:45P.M.

Postlunchrelaxation(read,deskwork,
slowwalking,driving,etc.)

Sipon12ouncesofwater[0calories]

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Page187

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Timeof
day

Activity

Food

2:45
P.M.to
3:30
P.M.

Preparationforafternoonworkout(get
dressedforexercise,etc.)

Sipon12ouncesofsportsbeverage
[About75calories]

Stretch(atleast30minutes)

3:30
P.M.to
7:00
P.M.

Lateafternoonworkout
Practiceskills

Sipon16ouncesofsportsbeverageperhour
(4ounceseach15minutes)

Lowerthe
conditioning/endurancetraining
intensityfromthedaybefore.

Takeyournudeweightpriortoexercise
andafterexercisetoseeifyouhave
consumedanappropriateamountoffluid.
Foreachpoundofweightloss,you
shouldhaveconsumedanadditional16
ouncesofbeverage.
[About350calories]

Shouldbeaninvigorating,butnot
exhaustive,trainingregimen

7:00
P.M.to
7:30
P.M.

Postexercisenutritional
replenishment

1banana
8ouncesofsportsbeverage

2slicesofbread[About290calories]

7:30
P.M.to
8:00
P.M.

Showeranddress

Don'tdrinktheshowerwaterunlessyou're
reallythirsty!

8:00
P.M.to
9:00
P.M.

Dinner

Largebakedpotato

Broccoli(1stalk)

Smallleansteak(4ounces)

Orangejuice(1cup)

Ricepudding(1cup)[About1,050calories]

9:00
P.M.to
10:00
P.M.

Relaxationactivities

1cupofwater(sipped)

10:00
P.M.to
7:00
A.M.

Sleep,glorioussleep!

Noeatingordrinkingpermitted!

Intaketotals:

3,900calories

78.5%ofcaloriesfromcarbohydrate

11.3%ofcaloriesfromprotein

10.2%ofcaloriesfromfat

Note:Thefoodintakeinthisexamplewouldmeettheneedsofa190pound(86.4kilogram)athletewith
anintensiveexerciseschedule.Theenergyrequirementforcompetitionminus6daysisestimatedas
45caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight.Importantly,itishighinfluids,highincarbohydrates,lowin
fat,andmoderateinprotein.Thistypeofintakesupportsglycogen(energy)storageinthemusclesand
liver.Athletesweighinglessthanthiswouldconsumeproportionatelylessfood,whilemaintainingthe
samefrequencyofintake.

Page188

FiveDaysbeforeCompetition
Thisrepresentstheseconddayofreducedexerciseintensityanddurationbutwithaconsistentmaintenanceofahighcarbohydrateandfluidintake.Sinceactivityis
reduced,totalenergyintakeshouldalsobereducedtomatchneeds.Thisday,competitionminus5days,ischaracterizedbyactivitythatisdiscerniblylessthanthe
athleteisaccustomedtodoing.(Seetable7.3forasampleofaneatingandtrainingschedule.)
Table7.3SampleExerciseandEatingScheduleforCompetitionMinus5Days
Timeofday

Activity

Food

7:00A.M.to
8:00A.M.

Lightbreakfast(beforegetting
dressedforworkout)
DressforA.M.workout

1slicewhitebreadtoast
1cupsportsbeverage
NOFRUITJUICE
[Average115calories]

8.00A.M.to
9:30A.M.

Stretch(30minutes)

1cupsportsbeverageduringstretch
(sippedover30minutes)

1hourmoderateintensityrun,
bike,orequipmentbasedactivity

12ouncessportsbeverageduring1
houractivity(4ouncessippedevery15
minutes)
[About125calories]

9:30A.M.to
10:00A.M.

Postexercisebreakfast(beforegetting 1boiledegg
washedanddressed)

1freshorange

1bowl(1cup)ofwholegraincerealwith6
ouncesof1%milk

4ounces(1/2cup)fruitjuice[About600
calories]

2slicesoftoastwith1teaspoonofjam

10:00A.M.to Showeranddress
12:30P.M.

Sipon12ouncesofwater

Relaxedactivities(read,walk,
lightworkaroundthehouse,desk
work,etc.)
12:30P.M.to Lunch
1:00P.M.

Largebowl(2.5cups)ofpastawithmarinara
sauce

2slicesofFrenchbread

4ouncesoffruitjuice[About925calories]

1:00P.M.to
2:45P.M.

Postlunchrelaxation(read,desk
work,slowwalking,driving,etc.)

Sipon12ouncesofwater

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Page189

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Timeof
day

Activity

Food

2:45
P.M.to
3:30
P.M.

Preparationforafternoonworkout(get Sipon12ouncesofwater
dressedforexercise,etc.)

Stretch(atleast30minutes)

3:30
P.M.to
6:30
P.M.

Lateafternoonworkout
Practiceskills

Sipon16ouncesofsportsbeverageper
hour(4ounceseach15minutes)

Bothtimeandintensityoftraining
arereduced.

Takeyournudeweightpriorto
exerciseandafterexercisetoseeifyou
haveconsumedanappropriateamount
offluid.Foreachpoundofweightloss,
youshouldhaveconsumedan
additional16ouncesofbeverage.
About350calories]

6:30
P.M.to
7:30
P.M.

Postexercisenutritional
replenishment

1banana
12ouncesofsportsbeverage
1sliceofbread[About250calories]

7:30
P.M.to
8:00
P.M.

Showeranddress

Don'tdrinktheshowerwaterunless
you'rereallythirsty!

8:00
P.M.to
9:00
P.M.

Dinner

Mediumbakedato
Broccoli(1stalk)

Smallleansteak(4ounces)

1glasswater

Ricepudding(1cup)[About850calories]

9:00
P.M.to
10:00
P.M.

Relaxationactivities

1cupofwater(sipped)

10:00
P.M.to
7:00
A.M.

Sleep,glorioussleep!

Noeatingordrinkingpermitted!

Intaketotals:

3,200calories
75.61%ofcaloriesfromcarbohydrate

12.54%ofcaloriesfromprotein

11.85%ofcaloriesfromfat

Note:Thefoodintakeinthisexamplewouldmeettheneedsofa190pound(86.4kilogram)athlete
withamoderateexerciseschedule.Theenergyrequirementforcompetitionminus5daysis
estimatedas40caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight.Importantly,itishighinfluids,highin
carbohydrates,lowinfat,andmoderateinprotein.Thistypeofintakesupportsglycogen(energy)
storageinthemusclesandliver.Athletesweighinglessthanthiswouldconsumeproportionately
lessfood,whilemaintainingthesamefrequencyofintake.

Page190

FourDaysbeforeCompetition
Thisisagoodtimeformakingyourfinalstrategicplansforthecompetition.Yourtrainingregimenshouldfocusonkeyelementsofthespecialskillsyouhave,butwith
anemphasisonpracticingskillsinawaythatkeepsyoufrombecomingexhausted.Aswiththepreviousdays,youshouldmaintainahighcarbohydrateandfluidintake
tosupportyourneeds.
Thisisalsoagoodtimetohavealittleextraprotein,upto2grams/kilogram,tomakecertainallyourtissuerepairneedsarecovered,andtohavesomeextraprotein
tosupportthemanufactureofcreatine.Forthe190poundathleteinthisexample,2gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweightamountsto173gramsofprotein.
Theearlierexamplesprovided1.26gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight,anamountthatiswellwithinthegeneralrequirementsforathletes(1.0to2.0grams
perday).Therefore,providingalittleextraproteinmerelyprovidessomeassurancethatproteinintakeisnotalimitingfactorinperformance.
ThreeDaysbeforeCompetition
Threedaysbeforecompetitionissimilartofourdaysbeforecompetition,withacontinuedemphasisonlowtomoderateintensityexercise,ahighcarbohydrate
intake,alowfatintake,andaslightlygreateremphasis(upto2.0gramsperkilogram)onprotein.Otheractivitiesduringthedayshouldalsobereduced,withmore
timemadeavailableforbothphysicalandpsychologicalrelaxation.Theathleteshouldabsolutelyavoidbecomingoverheatedorexhaustedfromanyactivity.Usetable
7.4asasampleexerciseandeatingscheduleforcompetitionminus4andcompetitionminus3days.
Table7.4SampleExerciseandEatingScheduleforCompetitionMinus4DaysandMinus3Days
Timeofday

Activity

Food

7:00A.M.to
8:00A.M.

Lightbreakfast(beforegetting
dressedforworkout)
DressforA.M.workout

1slicewhitebreadtoast
1cupsportsbeverage[Average115
calories]

8:00A.M.to
9:30A.M.

Stretch(30minutes)

1cupsportsbeverageduringstretch
(sippedover30minutes)

1hourlowtomoderate
intensityrun,bike,orequipment
basedactivity

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

12ouncessportsbeverageduring1
houractivity(4ouncessippedevery
15minutes)
[About125calories]

Page191

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Timeof
day

Activity

9:30
A.M.to
10:00
A.M.

Postexercisebreakfast(beforegetting
washedanddressed

2boiledeggs

1freshorange

1bowl(1cup)ofwholegraincereal
with6ouncesof1%milk
[About530calories]

10:00
A.M.to
12:30
P.M.

Showeranddress

Sipon12ouncesofwater

12:30
P.M.to
1:00
P.M.

Lunch

Mediumbowl(1.5cups)ofpastawith
marinarasauce

2slicesofFrenchbread

1banana(inplaceof4ouncesoffruit
juice)
[About800calories]

1:00
P.M.to
2:45
P.M.

Postlunchrelaxation(read,deskwork,
slowwalking,driving,etc.)

Sipon12ouncesofwater

2:45
P.M.to
3:30
P.M.

Preparationforafternoonworkout(get Sipon12ouncesofwater
dressedforexercise,etc.)

Stretch(atleast30minutes)

3:30
P.M.to
5:30
P.M.

Lateafternoonworkout
Practiceskills

Sipon16ouncesofsportsbeverageper
hour(4ounceseach15minutes)

Bothtimeandintensityoftraining
arereduced.

Takeyournudeweightpriorto
exerciseandafterexercisetoseeif
youhaveconsumedanappropriate
amountoffluid.Foreachpoundof
weightloss,youshouldhave
consumedanadditional16ouncesof
beverage.
[About350calories]

5:30
P.M.to
7:30
P.M.

Postexercisenutritional
replenishment

1banana
12ouncesofsportsbeverage

Omitbread[About175calories]

2slicesoftoastwith1teaspoonof
jam

Relaxedactivities(read,walk,
lightworkaroundthehouse,desk
work,etc.)

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Food

(continued)

Page192

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Table7.4(continued)
Timeofday

Activity

Food

7:30P.M.to8:00
P.M.

Showeranddress

Don'tdrinktheshowerwaterunless
you'rereallythirsty!

8:00P.M.to9:00
P.M.

Dinner

Mediumbakedpotato

Broccoli(1stalk)

Mediumleansteak(4ounces)

1glasswater

Ricepudding(1cup)[About800
calories]

9:00P.M.to10:00
P.M.

Relaxationactivities

1cupofwater(sipped)

10:00P.M.to7:00
A.M.

Sleep,glorioussleep!

Noeatingordrinkingpermitted!

Intaketotals:

3,000calories

65.0%ofcaloriesfromcarbohydrate

20.0%ofcaloriesfromprotein

15.0%ofcaloriesfromfat

Note:Thefoodintakeinthisexamplewouldmeettheneedsofa190pound(86.4kilogram)athlete
withalighttomoderateexerciseschedule.Theenergyrequirementforcompetitionminus4days
andminus3daysisestimatedas35caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight.Importantly,itishigh
influids,highincarbohydrates,lowinfat,andmoderatelyhighinprotein.Thistypeofintake
supportsglycogen(energy)storageinthemusclesandliver.Athletesweighinglessthanthis
wouldconsumeproportionatelylessfood,whilemaintainingthesamefrequencyofintake.

TwoDaysbeforeCompetition
Thisisanexcellenttimetogetmorerest,andagoodwaytodothatistoeliminatethemorningtrainingschedule.Theafternoontrainingshouldbereducedtonomore
than1.5hours,withamoderatetolowintensity.Thefocusshouldbeonreviewingskillsandreinforcingthementalstrategyitwilltaketocompeteeffectively.Of
course,carbohydrateandfluidintakeshouldremainhigh.Seetable7.5forasampleexerciseandeatingscheduleforcompetitionminus2days.
OneDaybeforeCompetition
Thisdayshouldbecharacterizedbyplentyofrest(bothphysicalandmental)andrelaxation.Athletesandcoachesshouldberestrainedfromrunningthroughmultiple
fullroutines,afullspeedrun,orafull''gameintensity"practice.Walkingpartsofthecourse,getting

Page193
Table7.5SampleExerciseandEatingScheduleforCompetitionMinus2Days
Timeof
day

Activity

<SleepLate!NoMorningExercise>

9:30
A.M.to
10:00
A.M.

Postexercisebreakfast(beforegetting
washedanddressed)

2boiledeggs

1freshorangeorbanana

1bowl(1cup)ofwholegraincerealwith
6ouncesof1%milk

1slicewhitebreadtoast

1cupsportsbeverage[About650
calories]

10:00
A.M.to
12:30
P.M.

Showeranddress

Sipon12ouncesofwater

Relaxedactivities(read,walk,lightwork
aroundthehouse,deskwork,etc.)

12:30
P.M.to
1:00
P.M.

Lunch

Mediumbowl(1.5cups)ofpastawith
marinarasauce

2slicesofFrenchbread

1banana[About800calories]

1:00
P.M.to
2:45
P.M.

Postlunchrelaxation(read,deskwork,
slowwalking,driving,etc.)

Sipon12ouncesofwater

2:45
P.M.to
3:30
P.M.

Preparationforafternoonworkout(get
dressedforexercise,etc.)

Sipon12ouncesofwater

Stretch(atleast30minutes)

3:30
P.M.to
5:00
P.M.

Lateafternoonworkout
Practiceskills

Sipon16ouncesofsportsbeverageper
hour(4ounceseach15minutes)

Bothtimeandintensityoftraining
arereduced.

Takeyournudeweightpriorto
exerciseandafterexercisetoseeifyou
haveconsumedanappropriateamount
offluid.Foreachpoundofweightloss,
youshouldhaveconsumedan
additional16ouncesofbeverage.
[About350calories]

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Food

2slicesoftoastwith1teaspoonof
jam

(continued)

Page194

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Table7.5(continued)
Timeofday

Activity

Food

5:00P.M.to7:30
P.M.

Postexercisenutritional
replenishment

1banana
12ouncesofsportsbeverage[About
175calories]

7:30P.M.to8:00
P.M.

Showeranddress

Don'tdrinktheshowerwaterunless
you'rereallythirsty!

8:00P.M.to9:00
P.M.

Dinner

Mediumbakedpotato
Broccoli(1stalk)

Mediumleansteak(4ounces)

1glasswater

Ricepudding(1cup)[About800
calories]

9:00P.M.to10:00
P.M.

Relaxationactivities

1cupofwater(sipped)

10:00P.M.to7:00
A.M.

Sleep,glorioussleep!

Noeatingordrinkingpermitted!

Intaketotals:

2,800calories

65.0%ofcaloriesfromcarbohydrate

20.0%ofcaloriesfromprotein

15.0%ofcaloriesfromfat

Note:Thefoodintakeinthisexamplewouldmeettheneedsofa190pound(86.4kilogram)athlete
withalighttomoderateexerciseschedule.Theenergyrequirementforcompetitionminus2daysis
estimatedas35caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight.Noticethattheactivityandfoodamountsin
boldhavechangedfromthepreviousday'sschedule.Importantly,itishighinfluids,highin
carbohydrates,lowinfat,andmoderatelyhighinprotein(approximately1.8gramsofproteinper
kilogramofbodyweighttoassuretissuemaintenanceandrepairneedsaremet).Thistypeofintake
supportsglycogen(energy)storageinthemusclesandliver.Athletesweighinglessthanthiswould
consumeproportionatelylessfood,whilemaintainingthesamefrequencyofintake.

familiarwiththecompetitionvenue,orwatchingfilmsofyouropponentsareOKactivities,butonlyifyouknowtheywon'tmakeyouanxiousandunabletorelax.
SportpsychologistsIhaveworkedwithhaveindicatedthatit'sprobablybettertowatchfilmsofyourownsuccessfulcompetitionsratherthantowatchfilmsofwhat
youropponent(s)aregoingtodo.Byonedaybeforecompetition,youshouldhavealreadybeenbriefedlongagoaboutwhoyou'recompetingagainstandwhat
strategytofollow.
Thisisalmostyourlastchancetomakecertainyourglycogenstoresareatpeakvalues,andyoushouldmaintainasteadyfluidintaketoassureoptimalhydrationgoing
intothenextday'sactivities

Page195

(seetable7.6).Thecarbohydratesyouconsumeshouldbethosehighinstarchandrelativelylowinfiber.Pasta,bread,rice,fruits(withoutseedsorskins)are
excellentchoices.Vegetablesandlegumestendtohavelotsoffiberandmayproducegas(causingyoutobecomeuncomfortableandbloated).Vegetablesinthe
cabbagefamily(cabbage,brusselssprouts,kohlrabi,etc.)areparticularlynotoriousfortheirgascreatingcapabilities.
Table7.6SampleExerciseandEatingScheduleforCompetitionMinus1Day
Timeofday

Activity

<SleepLate!NoMorningExercise>

9:30A.M.to
10:00A.M.

Breakfast

Food

2boiledeggs

[Note:Avoideatinghighfiber
2slicesoftoastwith1teaspoonofjam
cerealsiftheycauseyouto
1freshorangeorbanana
bloatorgiveyougas.Ifthis
occurs,puffedriceorcornflakes
1bowl(1cup)ofcerealwith6ounces
maybegoodalternatives.]
of1%milk
1slicewhitebreadtoast
1cupsportsbeverage[About650
calories]
10:00A.M.to Showeranddress
12:30P.M.

Sipon12ouncesofwater

Relaxedactivities(read,walk,
lightworkaroundthehouse,desk
work,etc.)
12:30P.M.to Lunch
1:00P.M.

Mediumbowl(1.5cups)ofSpanishrice

2slicesofFrenchbread

1banana[About800calories]

1:00P.M.to
2:45P.M.

Postlunchrelaxation(read,deskwork,
slowwalking,driving,etc.)

Sipon12ouncesofwater

2:45P.M.to
3:30P.M.

Preparationforafternoonworkout(get Sipon12ouncesofwater
dressedforexercise,etc.)

Stretch(atleast30minutes)

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

(continued)

Page196

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Table7.6(continued)
Timeof
day
3:30
P.M.to
5:00
P.M.

Activity

Food

Lateafternoonworkoutshouldbevery Sipon16ouncesofsportsbeverageper
mild.Walkingaroundyourneighborhood hour(4ounceseach15minutes)
orbecomingfamiliarwiththecompetition
Takeyournudeweightpriortoexercise
venuearegoodactivities.

Bothtimeandintensityoftraining
arelow.

andafterexercisetoseeifyouhave
consumedanappropriateamountoffluid.
Foreachpoundofweightloss,you
shouldhaveconsumedanadditional16
ouncesofbeverage.
[About350calories]

5:00
P.M.to
7.30
P.M.

Postactivitynutritionalreplenishment

1banana
12ouncesofsportsbeverage[About175
calories]

7:30
P.M.to
8:00
P.M.

Showeranddress

Havefluidsavailableinabottletosiponto
avoidthirst.

8:00
P.M.to
9:00
P.M.

Dinner

Mediumbakedpotato(donoteattheskin)
Cookedcarrots(cup)

[Note:Avoideatinghighfiber
vegetablesthatcouldcause
bloatingandgas.Cabbage,
broccoli,cauliflower,andraw
spinachareparticularlyknown
forbeinggascausing.]

Mediumchickenbreastwithoutskin
(baked)
1glasswater
Ricepudding(1cup)[About800
calories]

9:00
P.M.to
10:00
P.M.

Relaxationactivities

1cup

10:00
P.M.to
7:00
A.M.

Sleep,glorioussleep!

Noeatingordrinkingpermitted!

Intaketotals:

2,800calories

65.0%ofcaloriesfromcarbohydrate

20.0%ofcaloriesfromprotein

15.0%ofcaloriesfromfat

Note:Thefoodintakeinthisexamplewouldmeettheneedsofa190pound(86.4kilogram)athletewith
alightactivityschedule.Theenergyrequirementforcompetitionminus1dayisestimatedas35
caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight.Importantly,itishighinfluids,highincarbohydrates,lowinfat,
andmoderatelyhighinprotein(approximately1.8gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweightto
assuretissuemaintenanceandrepairneedsaremet).Thistypeofintakesupportsglycogen(energy)
storageinthemusclesandliver.Athletesweighinglessthanthiswouldconsumeproportionatelyless
food,whilemaintainingthesamefrequencyofintake.

Page197

CompetitionDay
Thisisthedayyou'vebeenwaitingfor,sodon'tdoanythingthatwilldestroyallyourhardwork.Itisparticularlyimportantthatyoudon'tdoanythingyou'renot
accustomedtodoingoreatanythingyou'venevertasted.Youshouldhaveachecklistalreadypreparedofwhatyou'llneedandwhereitis.Competitiondayisnot
whenyouwanttogorunningaroundthehousescreaming,"WheredidIputmyrunningshoes!"Leavenothingtochanceandhaveabackupplanifyouthinkyouneed
one.
Eatinganddrinkingappropriatelyoncompetitiondayareimportant,somakecertainyouhavetherightfoodsanddrinksimmediatelyavailable(don'tleaveitto
chance).Takechargeofknowingwhatyouneedandtakechargeofgettingit.ImaginedrinkingsportsbeverageXduringpracticeallyear,thengettingupthemorning
ofthecompetitiontofindoutthatyourspousecouldn'tfindsportsbeverageXatthestore,soheboughtsportsbeverageYinstead.Avoidbeingputinanysituation
thatwillcauseyoustressoncompetitionday.
EarlyMorningCompetition
Ifthecompetitionisearlyinthemorning,youshouldgetuptwotothreehoursbeforethecompetition.Ifyouknowyouhavedifficultygettingupearlyinthemorning,
youshouldpracticedoingitforseveraldaysbeforethecompetition.Youshouldgiveyourselfenoughtimetoeatsomecarbohydrates,drinksomefluids,andgetto
thecompetition.Finisheatingatleast1.5hoursbeforethestartofyourcompetition(assumingyouareeatingmainlystarchycarbohydrates).Differentathletesprocess
foodsdifferently,soknowwhatyourbesttimedifferentialisbetweeneatingandthecompetition.Ifyouknowyoufeelbestwhenyoufinisheatingtwohourspriorto
competition,youshouldfollowthistimedifferential.Ifyou'repartofateamandeatasateam,makewhateverminoradjustmentsyouneedtomakesothatyou're
certainyou'veoptimizedyourscheduletosuitwhatworksforyou.Onceyou'refinishedeating,keepsippingonsportsbeveragestheentiretimeleadinguptothe
competition.Don'tputyourselfinapositionwhereyou'rerushed.Whenthathappens,thefoodinevitablygetstheshortendofwhatyoushoulddo,andthenyou
sufferforthatmistake(eitherthroughpoorenduranceorGIdistress)duringtheentirecompetition.

Page198

LateMorningorEarlyAfternoonCompetition
Thisisatimewhenpeoplearefeelingtiredandhungrybecausethefoodtheyateforbreakfasthasstoppedprovidingenergybythistime.Therefore,it'simportantto
remembertohavesomethingtoeatevery2.5to3.5hours.Ifyou'renotaccustomedtothiseatingpattern,youshoulddowhateveryoucantolearntoeatthisway.
Foran11:00A.M.competition,youmightwakeupandhavebreakfastat6:30A.M.,andeatagainat9:00A.M.Afteryour9:00A.M.meal,youshouldinitiateyour
constantfluidsippingprotocoluntilcompetitiontime.Foranearlyafternooncompetition(at1:00P.M.),youcanhaveyourlastmealat10:30A.M.,andbeginyour
fluidsippingprotocoluntilthe

Page199

competitionbegins.Goingintocompetitionhungryisasureformulaforfailure.
MidafternoonorEarlyEveningCompetition
Thisisatoughtimetocompete,especiallyifit'sanoutdoorsportandit'shot.Thisisalsoabadtimebecauseathletestypicallygooffschedulewithamidafternoon
competition.Thebestthingtodoistospendthemorningeatinganddrinkingasusual(Breakfast,midmorningsnack,lunch),andthenbeginthecountdowntothe
competitionbyhavingsomestarchycarbohydrates(abanana,sometoastorcrackers,etc.)andsomefluidsabout1.5to2.0hoursbeforethecompetitionstarts.The
fluidsippingprotocolshouldthenbeinitiateduntilcompetitiontime.Theexcitementofthecompetitioncanmakeathletesforgetthey'rehungry,whentheyreallyare.
Therefore,it'sagoodideatohaveawellrehearsedeating,snackinganddrinkingschedule,andsticktoit.
LateEveningCompetition
Thisisadifficulttimetocompete,becauseyourbodywantstosleep,butthecompetitioniskeepingitawake.Therefore,sleepinglateandeatingsomethingevery2.5
to3.0hourswillhelptokeepyourenergylevelupuntilit'stimetocompete.Keepcheckingyourhydrationstatebyseeingifyoururineisbasicallyclear.Remember,a
successfullateeveningcompetitionissweetandwillhelpyougetagoodandrestfulnight'ssleep!
Summary
Themainideabehindgettingreadyforcompetitionistosetyourbodyupsothatithasafulltankofbothcarbohydrate(asglycogen)andfluid.Themusclesand
psycheshouldbothbewellrested,andtheathleteshouldbegettingclearmessagesofconfidencefromthecoach.Gettingsufficientrestpriortocompetitioncan'tbe
overemphasized.Whenathletesareinvolvedinsportswherecompetitionsoccurfrequently,gettingsufficientrestbetweencompetitionsiscritical.Acolleagueofmine
oncerespondedtoaquestionfromasportsreporteraboutwhetheritwasbadforanathletetohavesexbeforecompetitionbysaying,"Havingsexisnotaproblem,
it'sthegoingoutlateatnightlookingforitthat'stheproblem."There'salot

Page200

oftruthinthis,becauseanythingthatkeepsyoufromgettingagoodnight'ssleepandbeingwellrestedwillcausedifficultiesincompetition.Thekeystogood
preparationforcompetitionincludethefollowing:
1.Getplentyofrest.
2.Begintaperingdownphysicalactivitysixtosevendayspriortocompetition.
3.Eatenoughcarbohydratestomaximizeglycogenstores.
4.Drinksufficientfluidstomaximizefluidstores.
5.Eatfrequently,approximatelyonceeverythreehours,tomaintainbloodglucoseandmuscleglycogenlevels,andtofeelgood.
6.Consumeenoughenergybeforeactivitytoassurethere'senoughfuelinthesystemtosupporttheactivityandtoavoidburningmuscleasafuel.
7.Practicetheeatinganddrinkingscheduleofyourcompetitiondayinadvance,soyouknowwhatmakesyoufeelgood.
8.Don'tdoanythingoncompetitiondaythatyouhaven'tpracticeddoingbeforehand.
9.Bereadywitheverythingyou'llneed(sportsbeverages,snacks,etc.)longbeforethecompetitiondayarrives.

Page201

8
EatingontheRoad
ShouldIBringSomeCansofTunaFish?
It'snotoftenthatanathletereallytakestohearttheinformationtheyreceivefromtheir
coach,theirparents,ortheirnutritionsit.However,someeliteathletesaresomotivatedto
succeedthattheybecomeabitcomplusiveabouttakingadvicefromthosetheytrust.This
wasthecasewithNicole,agymnasttraininginthesamegymassomeofthebestgymnasts
inthecountry.Shehadvainlytriedforanumberofyearstomakethenationalteamand,
finally,fromsheerwillandhardworkshemadeit!Notonlythat,butshewasgettingready
togoonherfirstinternationaltripwiththreeofherteammatestorepresenthercountry.It's
hardtoimagineanythingmoreexciting,andshewasgoingtomakethebestofit.
Oneevening,atabout11:00P.M.,mywifeDeborahansweredthephoneandtolemeit
wasayounggymnastwantingtospeakwithme.Icommonlygetcallsathomefromtheltes
Iworkwithbutneversolateatnight.Ifigureditmustbesomeemergency,sotherewas
morethanatouchofnervousnessinmycoicewhenIsaidhello.ItwasNicle,theevening
beforeherflighttoBulgariaforthecompetition.I,ofcourse,askedwhattheproblemwas.
Tomysurprise,Nicolesaid,"There'snoproblem.Ijustneedsomeadvice."Shewanted
toknowalittlebitaboutBulgaria.Wasthewatersafetodrink?Isthefoodsafetoeat?Is
thefoodsimilartowhatshe'saccustomedtoeating?Dopeoplegetsickwhentheytravel
there?Canshebrushherteethwiththetapwater?Whatarethebathroomslikek?Can
shegetCheerioswithskimmilkforbreakfast?(Afterall,that'sallshereallylikesfor
breakfast...)Thequestionswerecomingfastandfuriously,andIcouldn'tgetaresponse
inedgewise.Shewashavingthe"travelingforcompetitionjitters,"andwhatshereally
wantedwassomeonetotellherthat,withalittlecare,everythingwouldbeallright.
Asitturnsout,I'veheardfromanumberofpeoplethatthetreatmentofourathletesin
Bulgariahasalwaysbeenexcellent,andthefoodiscleananddelicious.Isharedthat
informationwithNicole,butalsoaskedherwhatshewouldmissthemostifshecouldn't
getittheretoeat.ShesaidCheeriosandwaterpackedtunafish(somethingshereally
likedtohaveforlunch).Believeitornot,theseareitemsthatyoucangetvirtually
anywhereinEurope.Butthisconversationwasaboutfeelingsecure.Isaid,"You
absoultelyshouldbringsomeCheerios,afewcansofwaterpackedtunafish,aboxof
crackers,andfivebottlesofwaterwithyou,

Page202

justtobesafe.''Nicolecouldn'thavebeenmorethankfulforthisadvice,andshewas
extremelyhappyshecalled.Itwas,shesaid,goodtoknowwhattobringalong.
Aboutamonthlater,IsawNicoleatanationalteamtrainingcamp,andsherushedupto
metotellmeabouthowgreatthetriptoBulgariawas.Shefeltshedidgreatandhadno
problemswithfoodatal.ItoldherIcouldn'thavebeenmorepleasedandwasgladshe
broughtsomefoodwithher.Shesaidshedidn'ttouchanyofitthewholetrip,becausethe
foodtherewasgreat!Shenoweatsfreshfruit,somecheese,andsomebreadfor
breakfast,justliketheBulgarinasdo."Afterall,it'ssomuchbetterthanplainoldcereal,"
shesaid.Iwashappythatshehadagoodinternationalexperience(afterall,that'soneof
thebenefitsofbeingagreatathlete),butremindedherthatcompetitionwasnotatimeto
experimentwithnewfoods.So,Isaidwithasmile,bringthatcanoftunafishwithyou
wheveryougoonaninternationaltrip!
Nicole'sbeenonseveralinternatiionaltripsnow,andeverytimeIseehershetellsmeshe
stillhasn'topenedthatcanoftunafish,butshelikesknowingit'swithher.That'stheidea.
Afterall,it'sgoodtofeelyou'reinfamiliarterritory,evenifyou'renot.

Seriousathleteswillinevitablyfindthemselvescompetingawayfromhome,ofteninfarawaylandswherethefoodsareunfamiliar.Whethertheathletetravelstothe
southernpartofthestate,tothenextstate,ortoaforeignstate,planningaheadisakeytomakingcertaintheathletewillperformuptohisorhertrainedcapabilities.
Sadly,fewathletestakeseriousmeasurestominimizethenegativephysicalandpsychologicalimpactoftravelinglongdistances.Havingaplanthatwillassurethe
availabilityoftherightkindsoffoodsattherighttimeiscriticalwhenyoucompeteathome,anditisnolesscriticalwhenyoucompeteawayfromhome.Perhapsthe
biggestmistakeanathletecanmakewhentravelingtoacompetitionistoassumethatwhattheyneedtoeatwillbetherewaitingforthem.Makenosuchassumption.
Ifyoudon'ttakecareofyourtrainingandeatingplan,nooneelsewilleither.
Inadditiontotheissueoffood,thereistheissueofadaptation.Ittakestimetoadapttoanewlocation,andyoushouldgiveyourselfenoughtimeforyourbodyto
makethechangesitneedsbygettingtoyourdestinationearlyenough.Acclimatizationisparticularlyimportantiftheathleteistravelingtoalocationthatishotterthan
wherethetrainingnormallyoccurs.Physiologicaladjustmentstoheattake7to14days,andwithoutadequateheatadaptationperformancewillclearlybeaffected.1
Whetherit'sfoodortime,planningaheadisthekeytosuccess.

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GeneralGuidelinesforEatingontheRoad
Mostoftheguidelinesthatfollowrequireadvanceplanning.Whenyougetreadyforatrip,it'sassumedthatyou'llchecktomakesureyouhaveyouruniformand
athleticshoespacked(althoughI'veheardstories!).It'sjustasimportantthatyou'vegivensomethoughttowhere,when,andhowyou'lleattosatisfyyourneeds.The
worstthingthatcanhappentoyouwhiletravelingistobecomehungryorthirstyandnothaveanythingtoeatordrink.Plantoseethatthisdoesn'thappen.Trythe
followinggeneraltipsforeatingontheroad:2
Bringyourownsnacks.Freshfruits,fruitjuices,crackers,lowfatriceandpastasalads,andlowfatenergybarsarenutritiousandeasytocarry(seetable8.1).
Watchoutforhiddenfats.Creamysoups,breadtypeflakypastries,mayonnaisebasedsaladdressings,andsaucesinsandwichesaddunnecessaryfattothe
food.Thereare,however,goodalternatives.Consumingclear,brothbasedsoupsinsteadofcreamysoupsmay

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provideallthenutrientsbutwithconsiderablylessfat.Usinglemonjuicebasedsaladdressingratherthanmayonnaisetypedressinglowersthefatandmakesit
possibletoeatmoresalad.
Consumegrilled,baked,boiled,andbroiledfoodsratherthanfriedorsautedfoods.Youmustaskforitthewayyouwantit.Makenoassumptionsabout
howitwillbepreparedbythewaythefoodisdescribedonthemenu.Whenpossible,requestlowerfatdairyproductsandlowerfatsaladdressings.
Order"alacarte"togetexactlywhatyouwant.Fulldinnersoftendon'tfitwiththewayaseriousathleteshouldbeeating.Forinstance,thegrilledfishmaybe
exactlywhatyouwant,butthefulldinnermaycomewithmashedpotatoesthataresoakedingravy,broccolithatiscoveredwithcheesesauce,andapieceofapple
piewithicecream.Theseriousathletewouldbebetterwithbroiledfish,aplainbakedpotato,broccoliwithlemonjuice,andfreshfruitfordessert.
Ifyoutravelbyair,tellthetravelagentyou'dliketoeatvegetarian.There'sagreaterchanceyou'llhavefoodsthatarehigherincarbohydratesandlowerinfat.
However,youhavetogivetheairlinesfairwarningofyourspecialdietaryrequirements,somakecertaintheairlinesarenotifiedatleast24hoursinadvanceofthe
flight.
Ifyoutravelbyair,bringsomethingtodrinkontheplanewithyou.Airtravelisoneofthemostdehydratingexperiencesapersoncanhave.Becauseofthis,
passengersoftencontractsorethroatsandotherupperrespiratoryillnesses.Asapreventativemeasure,keepsippingonfluidsduringtheflighttokeepyourmouthand
throatmoist.Astheremaybeasignificantdelaybetweenthetimeyoutakeoffandwhenyoureceiveyourfirstdrink.Drinkbottledwaterorsportsbeverages.
Table8.1SnackstoTakeWithYoufor"EatingontheRoad"
Milkproducts

Cheesewedges,stringcheese,yogurt

Meatsandproteinfoods

Beefsticks,peanutbuttersandwiches,hardcookedeggs,nuts

Fruitsandvegetables

Driedapricots,apples,bananachips,raisins,fruitfilledcookies

Grains

Lowfatgranola,breadsticks,bagels,crackers,branmuffins,soft
pretzels

Fluids

Sportsdrinks,fruitjuices,bottledwater

1993,TheAmericanDieteticAssociation."SportsNutrition:aGuidefortheProfessional
WorkingWithActivePeople."Usedwithpermission.

Page205

Ifyou'rechangingtimezones,getonthelocalscheduleassoonaspossible.Havedinnerwhenthelocalpopulationiseatingratherthanatthetimeyoueatat
home.You'llstillhavedifficultygettingyoureatingpatternontrackbecausetravelandchangingtimezonesaretiringanddisorienting.Tomakecertainyou're
completelyreadytocompete,trytoarriveatthecompetitionsiteearly.
MinimizingJetLag
Leavingenoughtimetoadjusttolongdistancetravelisimportant.Eventhemostseasonedtravelerssufferfromjetlag,andmostofthemdon'thavetorun,jump,hit,
orkickfaster,higher,orharderthantheyeverhadbefore.Jetlagcanmakeyoufeelill,willloweryourappetite,andcankeepyoufromgettingagoodnight'ssleep.3
Jetlagcancomeintwoforms:(1)travelinvolvingsmallbutconsecutivetrips,causingmultipleshiftsinusualeatingpatternsand(2)travelinvolvingonelargetripthat
crossesmultipletimezones,causingamajorchangeineatingandsleepingbehaviors.Youshouldneverputoffeatingwhenyoubecomehungry,sohavesomesnacks
withyouthatcantakeawayhungeruntilyoufindaplaceandatimetoeataregularmeal.Thefollowingrecommendationsmayhelptoalleviatetheeffectsofjetlag:4
1.Forsmall,consecutivetimezonechanges(calledphaseshifts):
Eatmealsatregulartimesafterarrivingatthenewdestination.Thiswillhelpyougetonthelocalschedulequicklyandaidyouradjustmenttothenewtime
zone.
Drinkplentyofliquids.Planecabinsarenotoriouslydry,anddehydrationisthecauseofmanycomplaints,includingheadachesandmildconstipation.
Alternatelightmealswithheavymealsbeforetheflights.Thestressoftravelmayincreaseproteinrequirementsslightly,soeatahighproteinbreakfastanda
lowprotein,highcarbohydratedinnerfollowingthephaseshift.
Avoidcaffeineuntiltheendoftheflight.Caffeineisadiureticthatcanincreasewaterlossinanenvironmentthatisalreadydehydrating.Consumefluidsthatwill
helpyoumaintainhydrationstate(water,sportsbeverages,fruitjuices,etc.).
Avoidalcoholduringandaftertheflight.Besidesthenegativemetabolicalterationsthatalcoholcauses,itisalsoadiuretic

Page206

thatcanincreasewaterloss.ThereisNOreasonwhyseriousathletesshoulddrinkalcoholicbeveragesatanytime.
Engageinsocialactivityorexerciseaftertheflight.Thiswillhelpyougetonthelocalschedulemorequicklyandwillaidinreducingthestressassociatedwith
travel.
2.Foralargephaseshift:
Arriveatyourdestinationatleastonedayearlyforeachtimezonecrossed.Forflightscrossingmorethansixtimezones,giveyourselfoneweektogetback
onaregularscheduleandtofeelinggood.Costandschedulinglimitationsmaykeepathletesfromarrivingasearlyasneededsogetonthelocalscheduleasquicklyas
possible,butwithasmuchrestaspossible,isimportant.
Exerciseandgetinvolvedinsocialactivitiesonyourarrivalinthenewlocation.Ithelpstogettoknowyournewenvironmentrightaway.Theexerciseand
socialactivitieswillhelpreducethestressoftravelandwillhelpyougetonthelocalschedulemoreeasily.
Maintainregularsleepingandeatingtimesonarrivaltoyournewdestination.Thesooneryoucaneatandsleeponthescheduleofyournewdestination,the
morequicklyyourbodywillfeelasifitcanperformwell.Eatingandsleepingregularlyandonschedulearekeystodoingwellwhenyoutravel.
Continuetoeatanddrinkfrequentlybefore,during,andaftertravel.Creatingasnackingscheduleatyournewlocationmaybedifficult,sinceyoumaynot
knowwheretobuygood,highcarbohydratesnacksthatyoucanhavewithyou.However,maintainingafrequenteatinganddrinkingschedule(eatingsomething
abouteverythreehours)isanimportantstrategyforhelpingyouadjusttoyournewenvironment.Bringsomesnackswithyoutogetstarted,andthenfindagood
sourceofsnacksonceyouarrive.However,alwaysavoidalcohol.
Havemoreproteinthanusual.Thestressassociatedwithtravelmayslightlyincreaseyourproteinrequirement,somakeaconsciousefforttoconsumealittle
moreproteineachday.Forinstance,consumingahigherproteinbreakfast(addaboiledeggtoyournormalintake)couldbeusefulinassuringthatyourprotein
requirementismet.However,thefocusofyourintakeshouldcontinuetobecarbohydrates.

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TravelLocation
Ifyou'retravelingmostplacesintheUnitedStatesandWesternEurope,there'sahighlikelihoodyou'llbeabletofindfoodsyou'refamiliarwith.Americanstyle
breakfastcereals,forinstance,canbefoundinvirtuallyeverygrocerystore,andthereisbreadeverywhereyougo.Thepreparationofmanyofthefoodsyou'llfindis
different,however.Ifyou'reaccustomedtohavingacupofcoffeeinthemorning,youmaybesurprisedatthevarietyofwaysdifferentculturestreatthecoffeebean.
Allofthisistosaythatyoushoulddowhateveryoucantokeepyourhabitsintact,becauseyou'reneversureofwhattheoutcomewillbeifyousuddenlychangewhat
you'vebeendoingforyears.Oneofthebestlittlegadgetsyoucanhavewithyouisanincupelectricwaterheater.Youshouldmakesureyou'vegottherightpower
adapterswithyousoyoucanaccesstheelectricplugsinthe

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countryyou'retravelingto.Theselittleheatersallowyoutoenjoyfamiliarfreezedriedsoups,andyoucanhaveyourcoffeethewayyoulikeitaswell.Thisisoneof
thebestlittleinventionsevermadeforatravelingathlete.
Somecountrieshavereputationsforunsafewaterorfoodsupplies.Ifyouhaveanydoubtatall,callyournearestAmericanConsularoffice,orcallyourtravelagency.
Theyshouldbeabletoprovideyouwiththeinformationyouneed.Ifyou'vegotthetime,youshouldgotoyourlocalbookstoreandpickupagoodtravelbookfor
thelocationyou'reheadingto.Ifit'sagoodone,itwilldescribethefoodsthatwillbeavailableandwilltellyouaboutthewatersupply.
Whentravelingabroad,youshouldhavethefollowingitemswithyouevenifyoufeelthefoodandwatersupplyaresafeandfamiliar(youcanadjustthequantities
dependingonyourlengthofstay):
Powercordadaptersandconverterstofitthepowersupplyofthecountryyou'retravelingto
Anincupelectricheater
Awaterfilterpump
Aboxofsaltinecrackers
Powderedsportsbeveragepacketstomake20quartsofbeverage
2quartsofbottledwater
Amediumsizeboxofraisins(orotherfavoreddriedfruit)
5individuallypackagedlowfatgranolabars
2nonfatpowderedmilkpackets
1smallboxofyourfavoritecereal
DealingwiththeWaterSupply
Itdoesn'tmatterwhereyou'regoing,you'llneedwaterforonereasonoranother.Differentwatersuppliescancausegastrointestinal(GI)difficulties,evenifthewater
supplyisperfectlysafe.Differentlevelsofbromideorfluorideinthewatermay,forinstance,givesomeoneseveregutpain.Ofcourse,drinkingbottledwateror
bottledsportsdrinksisagoodsolutioniftheseareavailable.However,ifbottleddrinksarenoteasilyavailable(I'vebeeninpopulatedplacesintheUnitedStates
whereit'svirtuallyimpossibletofindabottleofGatorade),youneedawaytodealwiththesituation.Obviously,youcan'ttravelwithcasesofbottleddrinks.
However,youshouldtravelwithpowderedpackagesofsportsbeveragesand

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awaterfiltertopurifythewater.Thebestwaterfilters(thattakeoutparasitesandbacteria)canbefoundatyourlocalcampinggoodsstore.Theydon'ttakeupmuch
space,workextremelyefficiently,andassurethatyouwon'tbescratchedfromaracebecauseofawaterbornemicrobe.Thesewaterfiltersarealsoatthetopofthe
listofexcellentinventionsforthetravelingathlete.Theywork,andtheycangiveyouthepeaceofmindyouneedsoyoucandealwithothermorepressingmatters.
EatingLocations
Travelinevitablykeepsyoufromeatingwhenandwhereyou'dliketoeat,soplanaheadforwhatyoumightselectbeforeyouwalkin.Seeingthedizzyingarrayof
foodsandmenuitemscaneasilyinfluenceyourorderifyou'renotalreadycommittedtoyourselection.
Airportsarefilledwithfastfoodrestaurantsthattypicallyofferhighfatandhighsugarfoods.Thesearenoteasyplacestomaketherightselection.Ingeneral,youwill
wanttostickwithfoodsthataren'tfried.However,ifyoudon'thaveachoice,minimizethefriedfoodandmaximizethecarbohydrate.Forinstance,ifyou'rereally
hungry,youmightwanttoorderadoublepartyhamburger.However,itwouldbebettertoordertworegularhamburgersbecauseyougettwicethebread
(carbohydrate).
Inrestaurants,trytofindpasta,bakedpotato,bread,vegetables,andsalad.Youmighthavetoaskforasubstitution(forinstance,abakedpotatoinsteadofFrench
friedpotatoes)butdon'tbeafraidtoask.Restaurantsinairportsorportsmaybelesslikelytowanttomakeyouhappybysatisfyingyourspecialneedsbecausethey
knowthey'llprobablyneverseeyou(oryourbusiness)again.Nevertheless,youshouldalwaysaskforexactlywhatyouwant.Evenwhenorderingbakedpotatoes,
youshouldaskthattheygiveyoueverythingonthesideratherthanonthepotato.Youdon'tneedthat,andyoushouldn'tbeafraidtotellthem.Seetable8.2forkey
wordstolookforwhenlookingoveramenu.
Summary
Thekeytosuccessfultravelisadvanceplanning.Noassumptionsshouldbemadeabouttheavailabilityoffoodsordrinksthatwillsatisfyyourneeds.Bringsome
limiteditemswithyouwhentravel

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ingtobecertainyouhavesomekeyfoodsanddrinksthatwillkeepyouhappyandnourished.Don'ttrynewfoodsuntilaftertheathleticevent,andthenonlyonthe
recommendationofyourlocalhosts.Experimentingonyourowncanbedangerous.Findoutasmuchasyoucanaboutwhereyou'retravelingtobygoingtoalocal
bookstore,orlearnaboutitthroughtheInternet.YourtravelagentandnearbyAmericanConsularofficearealsoexcellentsourcesofinformation.Giveyourselfplenty
oftimetogetacclimatedtothelocationyou'retravelingto.Ittakesaboutonedayforeachtimezoneyoucross,soatripfromNewYorktoParisshouldhaveyou
arrivingatleastsixdaysbeforetheevent.Ifthat'snotpossible,dowhateveryoucantoreducestressbygettingplentyofrest,relaxingwithfriends,andeatingonthe
localschedule.
Table8.2SelectingItemsThroughaCarefulReviewoftheMenu
GenerallyAvoid

Fried,crispy,breaded,scampistyle,creamed,buttery,augratin,gravy

GenerallySeek

Marinara,steamed,boiled,broiled,tomatosauce,initsownjuice,
poached,charbroiled

Maxican:Avoid

Deepfatfriedshells,friedflourtortillas,refriedbeans,cornchips,sour
cream,guacamole

Mexican:Seek

Lowfatrefriedbeans,chickenorleanbeefandbeanburritos,baked
softcorntortillas,salsa,rice,bakedflourtortillas

Italian:Avoid

Creamsauces,highfatdressings,richdesserts

Italian:Seek

Pastawithmarinarasauce,cheesepizzaorwithvegetables,saladwith
dressingontheside,lowfatItalianice,lowfatfrozenyogurt

Chinese:Avoid

Deepfriedeggrolls,deepfriedwontons,sweetandsourpork,tempura

Chinese:Seek

Stirfryandsteameddishes,chickenandvegetableswithrice,clearboth
soups

Burgerplaces:Avoid

Highfatdressingsinsaladbars,mayonnaise,Frenchfries,milkshakes

Burgerplaces:Seek

Saladbarswithlowfatdressings,bakedpotatoes,grilleditems

Caf:Avoid

Prebuttereditems,limitcoffeeintake

Caf:Seek

Pancakes,toast,bagels,waffles,fruit,fruitjuices,wholegraincereals,
breads,muffins,

Adapted,bypermission,fromE.R.BurkeandJ.R.Berning,1996,Trainingnutrition:Thedietand
nutritionguideforpeakperformanceCarmel,IN:I.L.Copper,pp.131140.

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PARTIII
PERFORMANCENUTRITIONPLANS

Page213

9
PowerSports
HockeyNightinAtlanta
Severalyearsago,Atlantahadaprofessionalhockeyteam,afarmteamforTampaBay,
calledTheAtlantaKnights.I'mnotsureifit'spossibletohavemorefunworkingwitha
groupofathletesthanIhadworkingwiththisgroup.Besideshavingthefirstprofessional
femaleplayer,Ms.ManonRheaume(herpresenceaddedawholenewdimensionto
hockey!),theyalsohadanexperiencedcoachwhohaddoneandseeneverthinginhockey,
fromtheprostotheOlympicGames.Whenthecoachaskedmetoworkwiththeteamto
makecertaintheyweredoingtherightthingsnutritionaly,heinvitedmetojointheteamin
practiceandtogotothegamestogetasenseofwhatwasgoingon.Ialsohadalltheteam
membersinthelabtoassessbonedensity,bodycomposition,andnutrientintake.Ilearned
frommydatacollectionandobservationswasthattheseathletesworkedharddayafter
day.Whentheyweren'tplaying,theywereeitherpracticingortravelingsomewheretoplay.
Whentheywereontheice,itwasnoholdsbarredalloutskatingthatwasalmostas
exhaustingtowatchasitwastodo.Ialsolearnedthatwhenpracticewasoverorwhena
gamewasfinished,theydidn'thaveanyfoodinthelockerroom,soitwasoftenmorethan
twohoursafterthisstrenuousactivitybeforetheygotsomethingtoeat.Itwasthispointthat
Idecidedwouldbemyfirstpointofattack.
Ispokewiththecoachaboutgettingsomefoodintothelockerroomfortheplayerstoeat
rightafterpracticeoragame.Mymainpointwasthatthehighintensityactivityofhockey
wasdepletingtheirmuscleenergystores(glycogen)andthatakeytoassuringits
replacementforthenextdayofactivitywastohave200to400caloriesofcarbohydrate
immediatelyfollowingpractice.Thecoachagreedthatitwasagoodidea,sohegavemea
smallbudget,andIputoneofmygraduatestudentstoworkongettingsomegoodtasting
carbohydratesinthelockerroom.Tomakeiteasier,theGatoradeCompanydonatedsome
Gatorpro(highcarbohydratemealreplacement)andGatorload(highcarbohydrate
supplement)fortheteam.Iexplainedtheimportanceofhavingsomethingtoeatimmediately
afterpracticeorthegame.Isaidtheyshouldtrytoeatsomefoodbeforetheyshowered
anddressed.AfterIspoke,thecoachsaiditwasagoodstrategytofollow,andthatwas
that.Fortherestoftheyear,theteamateanddrankimmediatelyafterpracticeandgames,
andtheyalsomanagedtowintheleaguetrophyattheendoftheyear.

(textboxcontinuedonnextpage)

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(textboxcontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Acoupleofyearsaftertheteammovedtoanothercity,Iranintooneoftheplayersata
restaurant.Hetoldmehehadbeenrecruitedtoplayforoneofthemajorleagueteamsand,
attheendofhisfirstweekthere,noticedhewasbeginningtofeelrundown.He
rememberedwhatIdidwiththeKnightsandrequestedthathisnewteamalsohavefoodin
thelockerroomforrightafterpracticeandgames.Hetoldmethewholeteamisnoweating
pastaandFrenchbreadinthelockerroom.There'sjustnostoppingagoodidea!

Differentactivitiesplacedifferentmetabolicrequirementsonmusclesystems,andthesedifferencesalterthenutritionalrequirementsamongathletesinvolvedinvarious
typesofsports.Thischapterfocusesonsportsthatrequireahighlevelofpowerandspeedovershortdistancesandtime.Intheathleticworld,theseathletesarethe
trueanaerobesamongus.They'renotinterestedintheirabilitytomoveefficientlyoverlongdistances,butwanttobetherefirstinshortdistances.Whenabaseball
playerstealsabase,thereisnothingaboutthatfourtofivesecondexperiencethatrequiresaerobicefficiency.Itisentirelydependentonanaerobicmetabolism,which
isdependentonphosphocreatineandglycogenasfuels.Bodybuildersneedexplosivepowertotrainbutalmostneverplacecontinuousstressonthemusclesforlonger
than1.5minutes,theanaerobicmaximum.
Therehasbeenaclearevolutioninthewayathleteshaveeatentosupporttopathleticperformance.Aroundtheyear200A.D.,DiogenesLaertiuswrotethatGreek
athletesofthetimehadatrainingdietthatconsistedofdriedfigs,moistcheeses,andwheatproducts.1AmericanOlympiansattheBerlinGamesof1936hadadaily
intakethatincludedbeefsteak,lotsofbutter,threeeggs,custard,1.5litersofmilk,andasmuchastheycouldconsumeofwhitebread,dinnerrolls,freshvegetables,
andsalads.WitheachsuccessiveOlympicGames,athleteshaveconsumedandavoidedfoodsbasedontheknowledgeofthetime.Sincethe1960s,however,there
hasbeenapurposefulscientificefforttolearnwhatathletesneedandwhytheyneedit.Thisscientificendeavorhasledtoamuchimprovedunderstandingofhow
musclesworkforpowerandhowtheyworkforspeed.Thescienceofsportsnutritionhasalsohelpedusunderstandthedifferentnutritionaldemandsassociatedwith
differenttypesofactivities.Afailuretoconsiderthenutritionalimplicationsoftheactivitywillmostcertainlyleadtoproblemsintrainingandperformanceoutcomes
thatarebelowthecapabilitiesoftheathlete.

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Baseball

Baseballisawonderfulsportthatrequiresanalmostequalcombinationofteamworkandindividualeffort.It'salsoahighlymentalgame,requiringthattheathletestay
constantlyalerttomakesplitsecondjudgmentsfortherightplay.It'ssafetosaythatphysicallytiredbaseballplayersarealsolikelytobementallytired(glucoseisthe
fuelforboththebrainandmuscles)andpronetobadjudgmentandpoorphysicalperformance.DavidHalberstam,inhisbookTheSummerof'49(NewYork:
WilliamMorrow,1989),describesthepennantracebetweentheRedSoxandYankees.Athemeinthisbookishowplayerswouldgetwornoutduringthelong
baseballseason,withtheoutcomeofthepennantracedetermined,toadegree,bythenumberofplayerswhoremainedrelativelyfreshbytheendoftheseason.
Thereareclearlymanyfactorsthatcontributetoplayersgettingwornoutduringalongseason,includingfrequenttravel,hardfoughtgames,andconstantlychanging
timezones.2Buttherearealsonutritionalfactors,includingwhatfoodandfluidsareconsumedoverthelongsummerandfallseason.Whensteakandbeerare
constantlyonthemenu,aswascommonformanybaseballplayersinthepast,youcouldhavepredictedthatphysicalandmentalfatiguewouldeventuallytakeitstoll.
AlcoholinterfereswithBvitaminmetabolism(andthereforeenergymetabolism),andalsoincreasesthechancefordehydration.Wehavealsolearnedthat,while
occasionalredmeatisausefulmeansofsupplyinggood

Page216

qualityprotein,iron,andzinc,itshouldnotbethefocusofanathlete'sdiet.Whatthesebaseballplayersreallyneededwasplentyofbread,cereal,fruits,and
vegetablestoconstantlyreplacetheglycogenusedupinthequickandpowerfulactionsofthegame.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforBaseball
It'softenplayedinahotandhumidenvironment.Optimallyhydratedmusclesarecomposedofmorethan70percentwater,anditshouldbetheathlete'sgoalto
maintainthisoptimalhydrationstate.Afailuretodosowillleadtoaprogressivereductionintotalbodywaterwithaconcomitantreductioninathleticperformance.
Thereisalsogoodevidencetosuggestthatpoorhydrationmakestheathletemorepronetoinjury,byreducingmentalfunction(poorhydrationisassociatedwith
highercoretemperaturesthatcanreducecoordination)andbymakingmuscleslessresilient(thusincreasingtheriskofmuscletearsandpulls).
Baseballplayers(particularlypitchers)areknowntoexperienceareductioninpeaktorquearmstrengthbetweenpreandpostseasonmeasurements.3Itislikelythata
gooddealofthispowerreductionisduetooveruseinjurytothepitchingarm.Thereisevidencethatreducedthrowingpowercouldalsobeduetoreducedstrengthin
thelegs,whichareimportantinthethrowingmotion.4Weaklegs,therefore,couldexacerbateinjurytothearmbecauseofanalteredthrowingmotion.Itisalsolikely
thatthedegreetowhichtheprogressivereductioninpoweroccurscouldbereducedwitharegularprogramofoptimalhydrationandenergyintake.
Astudyofbaseballplayersstronglysuggeststhatconditioningplaysanimportantroleintheabilityoftheathletetomaintainanoptimalhydrationstate.Thisstudy
foundthat,atfixedexerciseintensities,themorefitbaseballplayerswereabletomaintainbodytemperaturewithalowersweatratethanplayerswhowerelessfit.5In
anotherstudy,itwasfoundthatbloodflowtothepitchingarm(inpitchers)increasedupto40pitches,butsteadilydeclinedafterthat.Bythe100thpitch,bloodflow
tothepitchingarmwas30percentbelowbaseline.6Itispossiblethatthedecreaseinbloodflowtothepitchingarmmatchesadecreaseinthegeneralhydrationstate
ofthepitchers.Sinceitiswellestablishedthatbloodvolumeisakeyfactorinthemaintenanceofathleticperformance,theperformanceofpitchersmaybestrongly
influencedbytheirabilitytostayhydrated.

Page217

Giventhepossibilityforfrequentexposuretohotandhumidenvironments,baseballplayersshouldconsiderthefollowingstrategyformaintainingtheirhydrationstate:
1.Drinkplentyoffluidspriortoeachgame(aminimumof16ouncesonehourpriortothegame,followedbyaconstantsippingoffluids).
2.Duringthepreseason,takeweightbeforeandaftereachgameandpracticetolearnhowmuchweighthasbeenlost.Thendeterminehowmuchfluidshouldbe
consumedduringatypicalgame(1pintoffluid=1poundofbodyweight).Yourgoalshouldbetodrinkenoughfluidstomaintainbodyweight(pound)duringthe
game.Differentpeoplehavedifferentsweatratessoyourdrinkingscheduleislikelytobedifferentfromthoseofeveryoneofyourteammates.
3.Useeachopportunity(betweeninnings)toconsumefluids.Sincebaseballinvolvesmultipleboutsofhighintensitymovements,thedrainonstoredglycogenishigh.
Therefore,fluidsconsumedshouldbecarbohydratecontaining.Fluidscontaininga6to7percentcarbohydratesolutionarebestbothforreplacingcarbohydrateand
forencouragingafastabsorptionofwater.
4.Immediatelyafterthegame,eatanddrinkenoughcarbohydratetoreconstituteyourglycogenstoresandbodywater.
5.Avoidorlimittheconsumptionofalcoholandcaffeinatedbeverages.Bothalcoholandcaffeinehaveadiureticeffect(causeyoutourinate),placingyouina
negativewaterbalance.
Itrequirespowerandspeed.Thegreaterthepowerandspeed,thehighertherelianceonphosphocreatineandcarbohydrate(primarilyglycogen)formuscularfuel.
Phosphocreatineissynthesizedfromthreeaminoacids(fromprotein),soanadequateintakeofproteinisnecessarytoassurethatsufficientphosphocreatinecanbe
manufactured.However,sinceweareanenergyfirstsystem,theproteinconsumptionmustbeinthecontextofanadequatetotalintakeofenergy(calories).Since
baseballplayersreachtheirpeakataroundage28,theyhavetheadvantageofbeingfullygrown.7Therefore,theprovisionofenergytosupportgrowthisnot
necessary,makingiteasierfordevelopedplayerstoobtaintheneededenergy.Inadequate

Page218

energyintakecausestheconsumedproteintobeburnedasafuelratherthanusedasabuildingblockforothersubstancessuchascreatine.Creatineisapreformed
componentofmeat.(Preformedcreatinesimplymeansthatitisalreadymadewedon'thavetosynthesizeitfromthreeaminoacidssoitisreadilyavailabletothe
muscles.)Therefore,theoccasionalintakeofmeatisbeneficial.Whilevegetariansmaynotgetthebenefitofthispreformedcreatinefrommeat,withenoughprotein
intakevegetariansarefullycapableofmakingtheirowncreatine.Inthecontextofanadequateenergyintake,baseballplayersshouldconsumeadietthatderives60
to65percentofitsenergyfromcarbohydrates20to25percentofitsenergyfromfat,and15percentofitsenergyfromprotein.
Manygamesareplayedduringtheseason(severalgames/week).Multiplegamesandpracticeseachweekcaneasilyleadtoovertrainingwiththeassociated
problemsoffatigue,weakness,andincreasedriskofillness.Thekeytolimitingtheimpactofovertrainingistheconsumptionofahighcarbohydratediettomaintain
muscleglycogenlevels.Ithasbeenshownthatdailypracticesorcompetitionswillleadtoaprogressivereductioninmuscleglycogenstorage,witharelatedreduction
inenduranceandperformance.Sincebaseballplayersarehighlydependentonmuscleglycogenasafuel,thisreductionwouldleadtoadiscernableloweringof
performancewithtime.Studieshavealsoshownthatfatigueassociatedwithdailytrainingcanbedramaticallyreducedinathleteswhomaintainahighcarbohydrate
(morethan60percentofcalories)intake.
Gamestypicallylastfortwotothreehours.Normalbloodglucosefluxisapproximatelythreehours.Thatis,fromthetimeyoufinisheatingameal,bloodglucose
staysinthenormalrangeforaboutthreehours.Afterthis,bloodglucosefallsbelowthenormalrange(80120milligramsperdeciliter),andpeoplebegintofeel
hungry.Intheexercisingperson,bloodglucoseislikelytogobelowthenormalrangeearlierthanthreehours.Sincebloodglucoseisanimportantfactorinmaintaining
normalmentalfunctionandisalsoimportantindeliveringfueltomusclesthathaveexhaustedstoredcarbohydrate,athletesshouldtakestepstomaintainbloodglucose
fortheentirecompetition.Therefore,baseballplayersshouldconsumeacarbohydratecontainingsolutionateveryopportunity(betweeninnings).
There'sanopportunitytorestduringthegame.Baseballplayershaveawonderfulopportunitytomaintainbothfluidandcarbohydrate

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statusbecauseoftheinningstructureofthegame.Whenateamisonoffense,everyplayershouldusethistimetoconsumeacarbohydratesolution.
Pitchersworkharderwhenthey'repitchingthanotherplayersontheteam(whichiswhytheypitcheverythreetofivegames).Pitchersarebetterableto
maintainmuscularpower(bothinthelegsandarms)bymaximizingglycogenstorageandhydrationstatebeforeandduringeachgame.Theprincipleofglycogen
loading(ageneraltaperingofactivitycoupledwithahighcarbohydrateandfluidintakerefertochapter7formoredetailedinformation)canbefollowedwith
startingpitcherssincetheytypicallyhaveseveraldaysbetweenstarts.
Catchersworkhardandcarrymoreequipmentweight,sotheyarelikelytoneedmorebreaksthanotherplayers.Theweightandinsulatingeffectofthe
equipmentwornbycatchersaddtotheirenergyandfluidrequirements.Sincecatchersareconstantlyinmotion,workingwiththepitcher,andsincetheytendtoplay
onamorefrequentrotationthanstartingpitchers,it'ssafetosaythat,poundforpound,catchershavethehighestenergyandfluidrequirementsofanyofthebaseball
positions.

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Bodybuilding

Bodybuildersstriveforaphysiquethatishighinmusclemassandextremelylowinbodyfat.Thelowbodyfatisanecessaryadjuncttoperformance,whichrequiresa
highlevelofmusculardefinitiontoachieveahighscore.Ahighbodyfatlevelwouldservetomasktheunderlyingmuscleformation.Toachievethishighlevelof
musclemass,bodybuildersmustplaceahighlevelofrepetitivestress(typicallyviafreeweightsandmuscleresistanceequipment)oneachmusclegroup.Thisisnever
doneaerobically(i.e.,lowlevelmuscularforceoverlongtimeperiods).Instead,bodybuildersrelyonhighintensityrepetitionsthatrarelylastlongerthan30seconds
permusclegroup,andneverlastlongerthan1.5minutes.Inpreparationforcompetition,bodybuilderscouplethishardmuscletrainingwiththeconsumptionofextra
energytoenlargethemusclemass.Typically,thedietispredominantlycomposedofhighproteinfoodsandsupplements.
Oncethemusclemassisenlarged,bodybuildersgointoasecondtrainingphasethatinvolvesareductioninenergyandasmallaerobic

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8

componentinthetraining. Thissecondphaseisaimedatreducingbodyfatlevels(particularlysubcutaneousfat)toallowforagreatervisualmuscledefinition.During
theweekpriortocompetition,bodybuilderstypicallydecreasetotalenergyintakeandincreasecarbohydrateintaketoglycogenloadthemuscles.Thereisalsoagreat
dealoffluidandsodiummanipulationtoaidinmuscledefinition.Duringthisweek,bothfluidsandsodiumaretypicallyrestricted.Thereisevidencethatfluidrestriction
isdangerous,particularlyinyoungerbodybuilders,wherebothlowbloodpotassiumandphosphorushavebeenseen.9Inaddition,thereisevidencethattheenergy
(calorie)restrictioncommonduringtheperiodimmediatelybeforethecompetitioncausesalossofleanbody(muscle)mass,suggestingthattheenergyrestrictionis
toosevere.10
Perhapsthereisnosportthatissopronetonutritionalmisinformationthanbodybuilding.Inastudyevaluatingadvertisementsinbodybuildingmagazines,itwasfound
thattherewasnoscientificevidencefor42percentoftheproductsforwhichbeneficialnutritionalclaimsweremade.Only21percentoftheadvertisedproductshad
appropriatedocumentationtosupporttheirclaims,and32percentoftheproductsthathadsomescientificdocumentationweremarketedinamisleadingmanner.11In
astudyofmaleandfemalebodybuilders,itwasfoundthatmultidrugabusewasprevalent(upto40percentofthesubjects),andthatamajorityofbodybuilders
reportedfollowingregimensthatledtoseveredehydration.12Inthissamestudy,itwasfoundthatwomenhadcalciumintakesthatwereextremelylow,andthatthe
generalnutritionalanddietarypracticesplacedthem,asagroup,inahighriskcategoryforpoorhealth.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforBodybuilding
Bodybuildersstriveforahighlevelofmusclemass.Ahigherlevelofmusclemassnutritionallytranslatesintoahigherneedforenergy.Whilethetotalamountof
proteinneededtomaintainthislargermassishigher,theproportionofproteinprovidedbyfoodsactuallyremainsthesame.Ideally,bodybuildersshouldconsume
approximately1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight,butthisshouldbeconsumedinthecontextofanadequatetotalenergyconsumptionwheremostof
theenergyisderivedfromcarbohydrates.Mostofthestudiesofbodybuildersstronglysuggestthatproteinconsumptionissignificantlyhigherthanthebody'sabilityto
useitanabolically(i.e.,touseittobuildtissue).Therefore,theexcess

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proteinissimplyburnedasafuelor,inthecaseofexcesstotalenergyconsumption,storedasfat.Thishasbeenconfirmedbythefindinginonestudy,whichfound
thatbodybuildershadsignificantlyhigherproteinintakesthanleancontrolsubjects,andthattheyalsoreliedmoreheavilyonproteinasafueltomeettheenergy
requirementsofthemuscles.13Itisverylikelythatbodybuildersbelieveexcessproteinassistsinbuildingbodymassbecausetheyconsumefoodsthatdonot,by
themselves,providesufficientenergytoenlargetheleanmass.Theextraproteinconsumed,therefore,servestofilltheenergygap,andmeetingenergyneedscan
clearlybedonemoreeffectivelywithcarbohydratethanwithprotein.Thenutritionalkeytobuildingmusclemassistoconsumeenoughenergytosupportthelarger
mass.Forinstance,ifyounowweigh180poundsandyouwishtoweigh190pounds,youshouldeatasifyoualreadyweigh190pounds.
Bodybuildersstriveforanextremelylowleveloffatmass.Bodyfatpercentageis,toagreatdegree,determinedbyaperson'sgeneticmakeup.However,itis
alsoclearthatitcanbeinfluencedbydietaryandexercisehabits.Fromadietarystandpoint,itisclearlyimportanttoconsumealowleveloffat,sinceittakesverylittle
energytoconvertdietaryfattostoredfat.Carbohydrate,ontheotherhand,isnotasefficientlyconvertedtostoredfat.Sincecarbohydratesaremoreefficiently
burnedasafuelforhighintensitymuscularworkandarenotasefficientlyconvertedtofatforstorage,fatintakeshouldbekeptlow(15to25percentoftotal
calories).Thisisslightlybelowthegeneralpopulationrecommendationthatnomorethan30percentoftotalcaloriesbeprovidedfromfat.Italsoappearsthateating
smallandfrequentmealshelpstopreventthemanufactureoffatfromtheenergyinfoods.Ifyouconsume1,500caloriesinasinglemeal,thenormalprocessingofso
muchenergyatonetimewillinevitablyleadtoapercentageofthisintakebeingstoredasfat.However,ifthis1,500caloriemealisconsumedintwomealsthatare
threehoursapart(750caloriespermeal),thebodyisbetteratusingthisenergywithoutstoringitasfat.Therefore,eatingalowfatdietandeatingsmallbutfrequent
mealsarebothimportantstrategiesforobtainingalowbodyfatpercentage.
Bodybuilderscommonlygothroughrepetitivepatternsofweightgainandweightlossinanattempttobuildmuscleandthenreducebodyfatlevels.Theaverage
reportedweightlossexperiencedduringthecompetitiveseasonis6.8kilograms(15pounds),andtheaverage

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reportedweightgainis6.2kilograms(14pounds).Thiscyclicdietingleavesbodybuilderswithafoodpreoccupationthatleadstobingeeatingaftercompetitions,as
wellaspsychologicalstress.14Amuchmorelogicalapproachtobuildingmusclesafelyistoconsumeanextra300to500calories(beyondcurrentneeds)from
carbohydratetosupportalargermusclemass,andthendoactivitiesthatsufficientlystressthemusclessotheywillenlarge.
Bodybuildersappeartobeexcessivelydependentonnutritionalandquasinutritionalproductsandergogenicaidstoachievethedesiredbody
composition.Selfexperimentationwithergogenicaidsandnutritionalproductsiscommoninmanysports.(Seechapter4,''TrainingWithSupplements.")However,
bodybuildersappeartobeespeciallytargetedtomarketingeffortsfortheseproducts.Itiseasytobecomeconvincedthattheseproductsactuallyworkbecausethe
placeboeffectisveryrealinnutrition.Thatis,ifyoubelievesomethingwillhelpyou,thenitwillprobablyleadtoabenefitevenifthereisnophysiologicalorbiological
basisfortheimprovement.Thebestscenario,however,isforathletestoconsumeproductsandfoodsthathaveaphysiologicalandbiologicalreasonforimprovement,
andtheathletealsobelievestheywork.Thiswillgivetwicethebenefittotheathlete.
Bodybuilderscommonlyrelyonexcessivewaterlosstoachievethedesiredappearance.Dehydrationisdangerous(therearenumerousdeathsyearlyfrom
dehydration,bothamongathletesandnonathletes)anddiminishesathleticperformance.Withbodybuilders,eventhoughitisimportanttohaveacutappearance,
achievingthisthroughdehydrationisanunacceptablestrategysinceitcanleadtoorganfailureanddeath.Bodybuildersshouldachievetheirdesiredappearance
throughhardworkandthedevelopmentofarelativelylowlevelofbodyfat(seesectionabove).
Nutrientintake(i.e.,vitaminsandminerals)appearstobeinadequateinthispopulation.Thefocusonnutritionalproducts(proteinpowdersandshakes,
aminoacidsupplements,creatinemonohydratesupplements,etc.)ratherthanfoodservestoplacebodybuildersatnutritionalrisk.Consumptionofalowfat,high
carbohydrate,moderateproteinintakethatprovidesadequateenergy(calories)fromawidevarietyoffoodswillhelptoassureagoodnutrientintake.Vitaminand
mineralsupplementsareusefulonlywhenthereisaknowndeficiencyorriskofdeficiencyforaspecificnutrient.

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Football(U.S.)

Footballistheepitomeoftheanaerobicsport,withthelengthofplaysalmostneverexceeding15secondsandarestperiodbetweeneachplay.However,whenthe
ballisinplay,thefootballplayersaregiving100percentmuscularefforttomovetheball.Inaddition,footballplayerscarrytheextraburdenofheavyequipment,
whichaddstotheenergyrequirement.Clearly,thefuelsmostusedinthistypeofactivityarephosphocreatineandmuscleglycogen,sothetraditional"steakand
potatoes"pregamemealmaynotbetheidealmealtoassureanoptimalstorageofmuscleglycogen,sincethereisarelativeoveremphasisofprotein(steak)anda
relativeunderemphasisofcarbohydrate(potato).Inarecentstudyofcollegefootballplayers,itwasfoundthatsupplementingwithcreatinemonohydratehada
performanceenhancingeffect(improvedliftingvolumeandsprintperformance).15However,findingsfromthisandotherstudiesshouldbereviewedcarefullybefore
embarkingonapathofergogenicaidsupplementation.Forinstance,thetotalenergyintakeadequacyofthesubjectsinthisstudywasnotevaluated,soitisunclearif
thederivedbenefitisbecauseoftheincreasedcreatineintakeorfromanimprovementinthetotalenergyintakeofthesubjects.Inanotherstudyevaluatingnutrient
supplementationonathleticperformance,footballplayerswhoconsumedchromiumpicolinatesupplements

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16

fornineweeksexperiencednoimprovementineitherbodycompositionorstrengthrelativetoagroupoffootballplayerswhodidnotsupplement.

Thestopandgonatureoffootball,whichvacillatesbetweenboutsofmaximaleffortandrestduringagame,isalsoassociatedwithahighlevelofbodywaterloss.
Thislossofbodyfluidimpactsnegativelyoncoolingability,athleticperformance,andtheabilitytoconcentrate.17Inastudyoftheconsumptionofcarbohydrate
containingbeveragesamongfootballplayers,itwasfoundthatthesebeverageswerebetterabletomaintainplasmavolumethanwateralone.18Sincemaintenanceof
plasmavolumeisstronglyassociatedwithathleticperformance,footballplayersshouldconsiderconsumingawelldesignedsportsbeveragetomaintainendurance
andperformance.Adequatefluidconsumptionbefore,during,andaftergamesandpracticesshouldbeanimportantpartofthetrainingregimen.
Footballplayersateverylevelhaverecentlybeengettingbiggerandstrongereachyear,andhavearelativelypositivebodyimagewhencomparedtoothermale
athletes.19InasurveyofHighSchoolAllAmericanFootballTeamsfrom1963to1971andfrom1972to1989,itwasfoundthattherehavebeensignificant
increasesintheratioofweighttoheight(bodymassindex)inthe1970sand1980sthatdidnotexistearlier.20Inotherwords,footballplayersaregettingheavier
(relativetotheirheights)ataratemuchhigherthanexistedpriorto1963.
Increasedweightbyitselfmaynotbeagoodthingforfootballplayers.Inonestudy,itwasfoundthatfootballlinemenwithhigherbodyfatpercentagesandhigher
bodymassindexeshadhigherratesoflowerextremityinjuries.21Inanotherstudy,footballplayerswithahigherbodyfatlevelhada2.5timeshigherrelativeriskof
injurythanthosewithlowerbodyfatlevels.22Inaddition,itwasfoundthattherewasanunexpectedlyhighrateofobesityamongadolescentfootballplayers.Since
bodyimageisinverselyrelatedtobodyfatpercentageinmaleathletes(i.e.,higherbodyfatsareassociatedwithpoorbodyimage),itisimportanttohelpathletes
understandhowtoincreaseweightproperlyifhigherweightisdesirable.23Takentogether,thesefindingsstronglysuggestthatincreasinglean(muscle)massratherthan
simplyincreasingweightshouldbeapriorityforfootballplayers.
Weightlossisoftenanissueforlightweightfootballplayers.Theseplayers,whomustmaintainweightbelowagiventhreshold

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tobeeligibletoplay,oftendisplayeatingpatternsthatareunhealthy.Inonestudy,itwasfoundthat20percentfelttheirweightcontrolpracticesfrequentlyinterfered
withtheirthinkingandotheractivities,and42percenthadapatternofdysfunctionaleating.Almost10percentofthosesurveyedwerepracticingbingepurge(bulimic)
eatingbehaviors.24
Manyhavequestionedwhethertherecentincreasesinfootballplayersizeareduetoimprovedpreselectioninthesport(i.e.,attractingbiggerplayerstobeginwith),
improvednutrition,oranincreasedrelianceonanabolicsteroidhormones.Itispossible,ofcourse,foralloranycombinationofthesefactorstocontributetothe
recentincreasesseeninthebodymassindex.Footballplayersappeartobeeatingbetterthantheirnonfootballplayingcounterparts.Inastudyofjuniorhighschool
andhighschoolfootballplayers,itwasfoundthat,ingeneral,nutrientandenergyintakeswerebetterthanthoseseenintheU.S.populationofsameageboys.25
Energyintakes,whichareoftenbelowrecommendedlevelsinothersports,appeartobenearatleast94percentoftherequirementintheassessedfootballplayers.
Zincwasfoundtobeoneofthenutrientstobelowinthisstudy.Inanotherstudyoffootballplayers,lowzinclevelswerefoundtohaveanegativeimpactonmaximal
workloads.Sincezincintakeisstronglyassociatedwiththeconsumptionofredmeat,footballplayersshouldconsideraperiodic,regularconsumptionofmeat.
However,thismeatconsumptionshouldnotinterferewithorreplacetheconsumptionofcarbohydrates,whicharekeytomaintainingperformanceinstopandgo
activities.Vegetariansmaybeatriskforinadequatezincintake,sotheyshouldbeassessedbyaqualifiedmedicalprofessionaltodetermineifzincsupplementsare
warranted.
Aswithathletesinotherprofessionalsports,timezonechangesmakeadifferenceinperformanceoutcomes.Ithasbeenfound,forinstance,thatwhengamesare
playedatnight,WestCoastteamshaveaclearadvantageovereasternandcentraltimezoneteams.26TheWestCoastteamsfeelasifthey'replayingearlierinthe
dayrelativetotheotherteams,sotheydonotsufferfromendofdayfatiguetothedegreethatotherteamsdo.WestCoastteamshavea75percentand68percent
winningpercentagewhenplayingCentralandEastCoastteams,respectively,andstillmaintainahighwinningpercentageevenwhenplayinginawaygames
(approximately68percent).Allofthisstronglysuggeststhatfootballplayerswhotravelacrosstimezonestoplayshoulddowhateverittakestoovercome

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normalcircadianrhythms.Amongthepositiveactionsthatplayerscantakeistoeatsmallamountsoffoodsfrequentlyandtoconsumeplentyoffluidsduringtravel.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforFootball
Footballrequiresahighlevelofstrengthandspeedofshortdurationbuthighfrequency.Footballplayersareinvolvedinactivitiesthatrequirerepeatedbouts
ofhigheffortinterspersedwithperiodsofrest.Thistypeofactivityrequiresahighlevelofcarbohydratetoproperlyfuelthemuscles.Therefore,footballplayers
shouldenterthegamewiththeirmuscleglycogenlevelsfull.However,evenwithmuscleglycogenstorageatitspeak,aplayercannotplayanentiregamewithout
depletingmuscleglycogeninspecificmusclegroups.Therefore,footballplayersshouldtakeeveryopportunitytoconsumeacarbohydratecontainingbeverageduring
breaksinthegame.Allofthepregame,duringgame,andpostgamehydrationtechniquesreviewedearlierinchapter2,"StayingHydrated,"shouldbefollowedto
assureaconstantavailabilityofcarbohydratetothemuscles.
Linemenrequireahighlevelofmass.Whilehighmassaffordslinemenaclearadvantage,theabilitytomovethemassquicklyisequallyimportant.Therefore,
linemenshouldstriveforahighlevelofmusclemassnotjusthigherweight.Toachievethis,consumptionofadietthatmeetstheenergyrequirementsforthehigher
massisneededand,inthiscontext,arelativelylowintakeoffat(lessthan25percentoftotalcalories)andamoderateintakeofprotein(12to15percentoftotal
caloriesorabout1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight).Thistypeofdiet,coupledwithexercisethatplacesstressonthemuscles,helpstoenlargethe
musclemass.Increasingtotalenergyintakethroughtheconsumptionofahighleveloffattyfoodsgreatlyenablesanincreaseinfatstorage(andthereforemass),butfat
doesnotcontributetostrength.Thusfattyfoodsnegativelyalterthestrengthtoweightratioandmakeitmoredifficultforalinemantomovequicklyandpowerfullyoff
theline.
Backfielddefensivepositionsandpassreceiversrequirehighagility,speed,andquickreactiontime.Highspeedandagilityrequirearelativelylowlevelof
bodyfat.Therefore,thesefootballplayersshouldconsumefoodsthatlimitfatstorage(i.e.,ahighcarbohydrate,lowfatintake).Sincemultiple40yardsprintsdown
thefieldtocatch(ordefendagainst)longpasseswillquicklydepletemuscleglycogen

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storage,consumptionofacarbohydratecontainingbeverageatnaturalbreaksduringthegameisdesirable.Duringhotandhumiddays,consumingthisbeveragewill
alsoenhancetheabilitytomaintainadesirablehydrationstate.
Repeatedhighintensityactivitywhilecarryingequipment(pads,helmet,etc.)translatesintohighsweatlosses.Thefluidinsweatmustbereplacedto
maintainoptimalperformance.Todothis,consumptionofsportsbeveragesthatcontaina6to7percentcarbohydratesolutionareusefulinmaintainingthebody's
waterlevelandreplenishingcarbohydratefuel.Whenassessed,athletestypicallyplacethemselvesinastateofvoluntaryunderhydration,sothereiseveryreasonto
setupastrategythatcausesfootballplayerstoconsciouslyconsumefluidssduringeverypossiblebreakinthegame.

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Gymnastics

Thenumberofyounggymnasticscompetitorscontinuestoincrease,soitisespeciallyimportantthatgrowth,weight,bonehealth,eatingbehavior,andother
developmentallyimportantfactorsarecarefullymonitored.Thetraditioningymnasticsistohavesmallgymnasts,andgymnaststhemselvescommonlyviewthissmall
bodyimageasideal.Weightisaprevailingthemeingymnastics,regardlessofthegymnasticsdiscipline.Eveninmen'sgymnastics,itissuggestedthatcontrolling
energyintaketoachievelowerweightisanappropriateanddesiredapproachifagymnastistoachievesuccess.27Butthereisanexpectationforgrowthinchildren,
sothereshouldbeaconcomitantexpectationforincreasingweight.Withoutacceptingthisfact,manyyoungathletes,includinggymnasts,maytrytoachievealow
weightthroughunhealthymeans.Whileitistruethataloweringofexcessbodyfatwillreducebodymassand,perhaps,lowertheriskoftraumaticinjuriestojoints,
tryingtoachievethisthroughinappropriatemeansmayalsoplacethegymnastatrisk.28

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Elitelevelgymnasticshasfourseparatedisciplines,includingmen'sgymnastics,women'sartisticgymnastics,women'srhythmicgymnastics,andwomen'srhythmic
groupgymnastics.Althoughthetotaltimespentingymnasticspracticeishighforelitegymnasts(upto30hoursofpracticeeachweek),theactualtimespentin
conditioningandskillstrainingisconsiderablyless.Gymnastsbeginpracticewithaseriesofstretchesandtheninitiateaseriesofbasicskillsonthefloormataspartof
thewarmuproutine.Followingwarmup,eachgymnasttakesaturnpracticingoneoftheevents.Thetimeperformingaskillinpracticeneverexceedsthatofthe
competitionmaximumandisusuallyasmallfractionofit.Becausepracticeinvolvesrepeatedboutsofhighlyintense,shortdurationactivity,gymnastsrestbetween
eachpracticebouttoregeneratestrength.Withtheexceptionofthegroupcompetitioninrhythmicgymnastics,noneofthecompetitioneventswithineachofthese
disciplineshasadurationlongerthan90seconds.Thisdurationcategorizesgymnasticsasahighintensity,anaerobicsport.
Asanaerobes,gymnastsrelyheavilyonTypeIIB(purefasttwitch)andTypeIIA(intermediatefasttwitch)musclefibers(seechapter5,"EatingforAnaerobic
Power").29Thesefibers,whilecapableofproducingagreatdealofpower,aregenerallyregardedasincapableoffunctioningathighintensityforlongerthan90
seconds.TypeIIfibershavealowoxidativecapacity,whichlimitsfatusageasanenergysubstrateduringgymnasticactivity,andapoorcapillarysupply,which
deprivesthesefibersofnutrient,oxygen,andcarbondioxideexchangeduringintensivework.Becauseofthesefactors,gymnasticsactivityisheavilydependenton
creatinephosphateandcarbohydrate(bothglucoseandglycogen)asfuelsforactivity.
Anumberofstudieshaveevaluatedthenutrientintakeofelitegymnasts.Ingeneral,thesestudiesdemonstrateaninadequacyintheintakeoftotalenergy,iron,and
calcium.30,31,32Heavygymnastictrainingandinadequatenutrientintakeareimplicatedascausativefactorsintheprimaryamenorrheaexperiencedbymanyyoung
gymnasts,andmayalsocontributetothesecondaryamenorrheaexperiencedbyoldergymnasts.Awoman18yearsofageandolder,whohasneverhadaperiod
(delayedmenses),isconsideredtohaveprimaryamenorrhea.Afemalewhohasexperiencedmensesinthepast,butisnotcurrentlyexperiencingperiodsoveraspan
oftime(severalmonthsorevenyears)isconsideredtohavesecondaryamenorrhea.Whileinadequatecalciumintakeisassociatedwithpoorbonedevelopmentand
increasedriskofstressfracture,inade

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33

quateironintakeisassociatedwithanemia,whichisariskfactorinthedevelopmentofamenorrhea.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforGymnastics

Gymnastsarerequiredtododifficulttumblingandacrobaticskillsthatareeasierforsmallerpeopletodo.Artisticgymnastsarecommonlysmall(30th
percentileforheighttoageratio),butextremelymuscular(90thpercentileforarmmusclecircumference).34Itispossiblethatthistendencyforsmallstatureisduetoa
selfselectioninthesport(i.e.,onlythosewhoaresmallremaininthesportcompetitivelybecausetheytendtobemoresuccessful)orbecauseofaninadequate
nutrientintake.Bothofthesefactorsarepossible,eithertogetherorseparately.Gymnastsandgymnasticscoachesknowthatthetopgymnaststendtobesmall,so
manyofthemtrytoachievethissmallsizebyreducingfoodintake.Therearemanyproblemswiththisstrategy,nottheleastofwhichisthepossibilityofdelayed
growthwithpoorskeletaldevelopment.Intherelativelyfewcaseswherethisoccursbecauseofanoverzealouscoachoragymnastwhohasmadeseverecutsinfood
intake,theoutcomemaybegrim,leadingtolifethreateningeatingdisorders.Luckily,however,thevastmajorityofgymnastsdoverywellinthissport,thriveas
adults,andhavehealthyfamilies.
Thekeythingtorememberisthatunhealthyathletesdon'tstaycompetitiveforverylong,soit'sineveryone'sinteresttoeatenoughtosustainhealthandgrowth.
Further,gymnastsshouldthinkmoreaboutoptimizingbodycompositionratherthanmaintainingorreducingweight.Clearly,oneofthedifficultiesthatarisesfrom
severedietingisthatweightgoesdownbutsodoesmusclemass.Infact,musclemassislikelytobereducedmorethanfatmasswithdieting,makingitmoredifficult
forgymnaststoperformdifficultskills.Thisrelativeincreaseinbodyfat(i.e.,agreaterproportionofremainingweightisfat)maycausegymnaststofurtherreduce
foodintaketoapointthatitisdiagnosableasaneatingdisorder.Ifthisoccurs,thegymnastisindangerandrequiresseriousandspeedyinterventionfromaqualified
healthprofessional.
Gymnastsaresensitivetothestrengthtoweightratiobothfromappearanceandperformancestandpoints.Itiscalled"artistic"gymnastics,sothere'sno
gettingaroundthefactthathowapersonlooksinaccomplishingtheskillsmakesadifferenceinthescore.Beingstrongmakesiteasiertoachievetherequiredskill,so
itlooksbetterandmore

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effortlesswhenitiscompleted(i.e.,itlooksmoreartistic).Gymnastsareconstantlybeingremindedtosmilewhileincompetition,andthisjustservestogivethe
appearancethattheskillsareeasilydone.Thekeyistobesufficientlyconditionedandstrongsothattheskillscanbecompletedwithease.IntheUnitedStates,there
isconcernthatgymnastsstartlearningskillstooearly,whentheyshouldbefocusingonconditioning.Afterall,awellconditionedathletewilllearntheskillmore
quicklyandwithlessriskofinjury.However,thereistremendouspressureoncoachestodemonstratethatthegymnastsareprogressingnicely,andthebestwayto
dothatistoputtheminjuniorcompetitions.Ofcourse,agymnastincompetitionneedstoperformsomeskills.Butamorebalancedapproachthatfocuseson
conditioningearlyinthegymnast'scareer,anddelaystheintroductionofspecificgymnasticsskills,mayactuallyimprovetheskilllearningcurvelateronwhenitreally
counts.
Toimproveconditioning,gymnastsmustconsumesufficientenergyandnutrientstomeetthecombineddemandsofgrowth,maintenance,andimprovementin
musculature.Thefocusongymnasticstrainingshouldbeongettingstrongratherthanonstayingsmall(i.e.,workonthestrengthpartofthestrengthtoweightratio
ratherthanontheweightpart),andthiscanonlybeaccomplishedthroughatrainingprogramthatsatisfiesnutritionalneeds.Infact,wellconditionedandstrong
gymnastsrarelyhavetoworryaboutweight,becauseittakescareofitselfquitenicely.
Gymnasts(andmanyotherfemaleathletes)havedelayedmenarche,whichmayplayaroleinbonehealth.Ifagymnastfailstoachievemensesbyage16,
sheshouldseeaphysiciantodeterminethecauseand,ifneeded,aremedy.Therearemanypossiblecausesforadelayorcessationofmenses,including
lowbodyfat,
poorironstatus,
highphysicalstress,
highpsychologicalstress,
highcortisollevel:(Cortisolisahormoneproducedbythebodytocounteractthesorenesscreatedfromactivity.Itiscommonlyhighinathletesandinterferes
withestrogenproduction.)
lowenergyintake.

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Itisconceivablethatgymnastsmayhaveallofthesefactors.Regardlessofthecause(s),adelayinmenstrualonsetmaynegativelyimpactbonehealthandincreasethe
laterriskofearlyosteoporosisdevelopment.Toreducetheriskofdelayedmenstrualonset,gymnastsshouldhaveperiodiccheckstodetermineironstatusandshould
dowhateverpossibletoeatnormally.
Gymnastscommonlyreachtheircompetitivepeakataroundages16to18.Inhardlyanyothersport,exceptperhapsfigureskating,doestheathletereach
peakcompetitiveformatsuchayoungage.It'shardtobethebestatanythingwithoutspendingatremendousamountoftimepracticingatit,andthat'swherethe
nutritionalriskoccurs.Adolescentsinthemiddleoftheirgrowthspurthaveanextremelyhighrequirementforenergyandnutrients.It'sdifficulttoimaginehowanyone
canconsumeasufficientamountofenergytosupportboththeadolescentgrowthspurtandalltheenergyburnedfromthehoursofactivityneededtoreachthepeak
ofperformancecapabilities.However,withplanning,itispossible.Infact,gymnastswhodoitrightbyeatingenoughtosupportthecombinedenergyneedsof
growth,physicalactivity,andtissuemaintenancelookbetter,dobetter,enjoythesportmore,andstayinthesportlonger.

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Hockey

Althoughyoumayhavethoughtofhockeyasamalesport,anyonewhowatchedthe1998WinterOlympicGamesinNaganoknowsthatwomenplayhockey,too,
andplayitverywell.Regardlessofthegenderoftheplayer,hockeyisanoholdsbarred,highspeed,fulleffortsport.Ifyouwatchcloselythewayhockeyplayers
goinandoutofplay,theyskateatfulltiltwhilethey'reontheicebutalmostneverskateformorethan1.5minutescontinuously.Thishighspeedeffortplacesagreat
dealofemphasisonanaerobicmetabolism,whichmeanstheenergyfocusisonphosphocreatineandcarbohydrate(glycogenandglucose).Myownexperienceswith
theAtlantaKnightshockeyteam,andtheexperiencesofotherswhohaveworkedonimprovingthenutritionalpracticesofhockeyplayers,stronglysuggeststhatitis
possibletomakepositivedietarychangesinhockeyplayers.35Thesechangescanhelptheminmakingtherightchangesinhockeyplayerscanhelptheminweight
maintenanceduringtheseasonandduringtheoffseason,andimprovementsinendurancehavebeenseenwithproperfluidandcarbohydratereplacement.
InastudyofelitehockeyplayersfromSweden,itwasdeterminedthatthedistanceskated,thenumberofshiftsskated,theamountoftimeskatedwithinshifts,and
theskatingspeedallimprovedwithcarbohydrateloading.36Theauthorsofthisstudy

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concludedthatindividualdifferencesinperformanceinhockeyplayersaredirectlyrelatedtomuscleglycogenmetabolism.Thesefindingsareconfirmedfromastudy
ofsevenprofessionalhockeyplayers,whichfoundthat60percentofthemuscleglycogeninthequadricepsmuscleisburnedduringasinglegame.37Sincehockey
playersfrequentlyskateinpracticeorhavesuccessivegamedays,itispossibleformuscleglycogentobecomevirtuallydepletedonanimproperintake.Datafrom
thisstudyrevealthatmostplayersconsumeadiethighinproteinandlowincarbohydrate,adietthatisguaranteedtocausefuelsupplyproblemsinworkingmuscles.
Makingashiftawayfromahighfat,highproteinintaketowardonethatishigherincarbohydratesisnoteasy,however,andmayincreasethechanceofconsuming
toolittleenergybecausecarbohydratesarealessdensesourceofcaloriesthanfats.Thiswasseeninonestudywhereplayersfromonehockeyteamwereplacedon
aspecialdietaryregimenthatreducedfatandproteinintakeandincreasedcarbohydrateintake.38Thisteamwascomparedtoanotherteamthatmaintainedtheusual
nutrientintake(i.e.,highfat,highprotein,lowcarbohydrate).Inthisstudy,thehockeyplayerswiththehighercarbohydrateintakehadsomemeasurablechangesin
hormonebalancethatwerebestexplainedbyinadequatetotalenergyintake.Therefore,ifaswitchismadefromahigherfatdiettoonethatislowerinfatandhigher
incarbohydrates,caremustbetakenthatthetotalenergy(i.e.,calories)intakeissufficienttomeettheathlete'sneeds.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforHockey
Frequentgamesplaceahighdemandonmuscleglycogen.Thereisgoodevidenceformuscleglycogendepletioninhockeyplayers,stronglysuggestingthat
thosewhoplaythissportmustconsumedietshighincarbohydrates.However,it'snotjusttheintakeofcarbohydratesthat'simportant,butthestrategiesusedintheir
consumptiontooptimizemuscleglycogenstorage.Ingeneral,adietshouldprovide60to65percentofthetotalenergyintakefromcarbohydrate.Thepregamemeal
shouldconsistalmostentirelyofcarbohydratesthataremainlystarchbased,suchaspasta,potatoes,rice,breads,andcereals.Fruits,vegetables,andhighbran(i.e.,
highcrudefiber)foodsmayincreasegasproductioninthegut,soshouldbeavoidedorconsumedsparinglyinthepregamemeal.(Ofcourse,atothertimes,allof
thesefoodsarenourishingandgoodtoeat.)Everyopportunityshouldbetakenduringgamestoprovidecarbohydrate(carbohy

Page236

dratecontainingbeveragesduringbreaksinplaycarbohydratesupplements(suchascarbohydrategels)andbeveragesbetweenperiods).Postgamecarbohydrate
consumptionduringthefirsthourfollowingthegameiscriticaltocapitalizeonthecirculatingglycogensynthetase(ahormonethathelpstostoremuscleglycogenwhen
carbohydratesaremadeavailable).Pregameandnormalintakecarbohydratesshouldfocusonstarchbased,complexcarbohydrates,andduringgameand
immediatelypostgamecarbohydratesshouldbesugarbasedorsimplecarbohydrates(thatis,carbohydratesthataremorerefinedandhavelessfiber).
Changingfoodintaketoprovidemorecarbohydratesmayresultinaninadequateenergyconsumption.Surveysofhockeyplayersstronglysuggestthat
normalenergyintakestendtobehighinfat,highinprotein,andlowincarbohydrate.Thisisadietthatdoesnotadequatelysupportthetypeofmuscularmetabolism
thattakesplace.However,becauseofthehigherenergyconcentrationinthistypeofintake,itiseasierforhockeyplayerstoobtainthetotalenergytheyneed.The
simplereasonforthisisthatforthesameweightoffood,fatsprovidemorethantwicethecaloriccontentofcarbohydrates(9caloriespergramvs.4caloriesper
gram).Makingaswitchtofoodsthatarelowerinfatandhigherincarbohydratewhilemaintainingthesameeatingfrequencymayservetocreateanegativeenergy
balancethatcouldalsobedetrimentaltoperformance.39Inadequateenergyalmostguaranteesacatabolism(i.e.,breakdown)ofmusclethatisusedasafuel,sothe
hockeyplayerwouldeventuallyloseweightandbecomeweaker.Thesolution(perhapstheonlysolution)istomakecertainthathockeyplayersincreasetheireating
frequencytosixtimesperday(breakfast,midmorningsnack,lunch,midafternoonsnack,dinner,eveningsnack)toassurethatthereisbothanincreasein
carbohydrateandanadequatetotalenergyintake.
Highintensityactivitycausesbodytemperaturetorisequickly,witharesultanthighsweatrate.It'shardtoimagineanythingmoreperformancedamaging
thandehydration.Consideringtheamountofequipment,pads,andhighintensityworkofhockeyplayers,theyareconsideredtobeatriskfordehydration.Therefore
followagoodhydrationplan(seechapter2,''StayingHydrated").Hockeyplayersshouldconsumeplentyoffluidspriortothegameandtakeeveryopportunityto
consumefluidsduringandafterthegame.Giventheneedforcarbohydratesandtheneedforfluids,agoodstrategyistoconsumeacarbohydratecontainingbeverage
wheneverpossible.

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TrackandField

Trackandfieldcompetitionincludesanumberofeventsofshortdurationthatrelyonpowerthroughanaerobicenergy.Sprintsandhurdleeventsincluderacesupto
andincluding400meter.Fieldeventsincludejumpsandthrows.
Haveyoueverseenanoverweightsprinter?Ihaven'teither,andthatshouldbeenoughevidencethatyoudon'thavetodoaerobicactivitytolowerbodyfat.Infact,a
studyperformedbyoneofmystudentsshowedthathighintensityactivitywasaseffectiveaslowintensityactivityinloweringbodyfat.40Sprintinghasbeen
recommendedasanormalcomponentofintervaltraininginmanysports.Regardlessofwhetherit'sdonefortraining,orrepresentsthesportitself(asinthe100meter
dash),sprintinghasspecificenergyrequirementsthatmustbeaccountedforandsatisfiedtoperformatanoptimallevel.Sprints,whichbytheirverynaturerarelylast
longerthan10seconds,primarilyusethefuelsphosphocreatineandcarbohydrate.Sincemuscleswithanadequatestorageofphosphocreatinecansupporthigh
intensityexerciseforupto10seconds,itislikelythatmanyathletesuseprimarilyphosphocreatinefortheentiredurationofthesprint.Onestudy,inwhichcreatine
monohydrate

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wassupplementedtoincreasethemuscularstorageofphosphocreatine,foundthatitpromotedgainsinfatfree(i.e.,muscle)massaswellassprintperformance.41
Thisindirectlysupportsthenotionthatsprintperformanceishighlydependentonphosphocreatine.Carbohydrateintakealsoappearstomakeadifferenceinsprint
performance.Inastudyevaluatingtheimpactofhigh,moderate,andlowcarbohydrateintakes,thehighcarbohydrateintakesproducedbetterinitialsprint
performancethanlowerintakesofcarbohydrate.42
Insomesports,the"sprint"maybethedifferencebetweenwinningorlosingevenwhenthemajorityoftimeisspentdoinglowerintensityexercise.Forinstance,10K
runnersandmarathonersrunalmosttheentiredistanceatahighpace,butatapacethatiswithintheathlete'sconditionedabilitytoprovideoxygentothemuscles.At
theendoftheseraces,however,theathletegoesintoasprintpace(oftendescribedasthe"kick")thatexceedsoxidativecapabilities.Ithasbeenfoundthathigh
carbohydrateintakes,whencomparedtomoderatecarbohydrateintakes,arebetterabletomaintainmuscleglycogeninathletesworkingat75percentpeak
onehourfollowedbyfiveoneminutesprintsonfourconsecutivedays.43

for

NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforSprinting
Thereisahighdemandforphosphocreatineandcarbohydratefuelsinsprints.Byitsverydefinition,asprintrequiresthefastestpossiblemovementoverthe
prescribeddistance.Metaboliclimitationscontrolthemaximumdistancehumanscansprint,andsprintsneverlastlongerthan1.5minutes.Onshortsprints,thereisa
highdependenceonphosphocreatineasafuel.Ithasbeenhypothesizedthattheingestionofextracreatine,typicallyasasupplementintheformofcreatine
monohydrate,mayimprovephosphocreatinestorage.(Pleaserefertothechapteronsupplementsformoredetailedinformation.)Thisincreasedstoragecould
theoreticallyincreasethenumberofshortalloutsprintsanathletecoulddoandmightalsoimprovethetimemusclescanrelyonphosphocreatineasafuel.Thereis
somescientificevidencethatsupplementingwithcreatinemonohydratedoes,infact,improvebothsprintfrequencyandsprintdistance.However,thereareinherent
designweaknessesinsomeofthesestudiesthatshouldkeepathletesfromjumpingonthecreatinesupplementbandwagon.Forinstance,thesestudieshavenot
evaluatedtheenergyintakeadequacyoftheathletesstudied,sothe

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improvementsseeninperformancemaybeduetotheenergy(i.e.,calories)suppliedbythecreatine(fourcaloriespergram)thatcouldmoreeasily(andmore
cheaply!)besuppliedbycarbohydrate.Also,theissueofthesafetyoffrequentandlongtermcreatinemonohydrateingestionhas,todate,neverbeenadequately
addressed.
Creatineisanormalconstituentofthedietandishighestinmeats(beef,pork,poultry,fish,etc.).Therefore,inthecontextofahighcarbohydratediet,itseemsuseful
forsprinterstoconsiderconsumingsmallamountsofleanmeatsregularly.Fornonmeateaters,careshouldbetakentoconsumesufficientproteinandcaloriessothe
synthesisofcreatinecanoccurinthebody.Theonlywayforthebodytosynthesizephosphocreatineisfortheathletetoconsumesufficientenergy,soitisalso
importantthatsprintersconsumeenoughtotalenergy.
Puresprintersmaybeinhibitedfromcarbohydratesupercompensation,whileenduranceathletesmayrequirecarbohydratesupercompensationto
supporttheendofrace"kick."Puresprintersmustmoveamassquicklyoverarelativelyshortdistance.Clearly,theamountofmassthatmustbemovedisafactor
inhowquicklyitcanbemoved.Sprinterswithhighstrengthtoweightratioshaveanadvantageoverthosewithlowerstrengthtoweightratios.Oneoftheeffectsof
carbohydrateloading(orsupercompensation)istoforcemorecarbohydrate(glycogen)intothemusclessoitisavailableformuscularwork.Glycogenisstoredwith
water,however,ina1:3ratio:thatis,foreachgramofglycogenstored,thebodystoresthreegramsofwater.Attimes,athleteswhoundergoacarbohydrateloading
regimenmentionthattheyfeelstiffandheavy.Clearly,thisisnotthewayasprintershouldfeelatthebeginningofarace,butitisaperfectlyacceptablefeelingfor
longdistancerunners.Therefore,puresprintersshouldregularlyconsumeahighcarbohydrateintakethatprovidessufficienttotalcalories,butshouldavoidany
carbohydrateloadingregimenthatmightservetoforceextraglycogenandwaterintothemuscles.

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Swimming(100to400Meter)

Perhapsthereisnoothersportwheresomuchtimemustbespentpracticingtogainsuchincrementallysmalllevelsofimprovement.Swimmersspendaconsiderable
amountoftimeinthewatertoperfecttechniquesthatwillbetterovercomedragandtoimprovetheircapacitytosustainbothaerobicandanaerobicenergy
production.Intheshorter(sprint)distanceswhereracesaretypicallylessthantwominutesinlength,themajorityofenergyispredominantlyderivedanaerobically
fromphosphocreatineandglycogen(seetable9.1).Whilethesesprintracesdon'tlastverylong,theamountofenergyneededtosustainahighlevelofpoweroutput
istremendouslyhigh,andthemajorityofit(over55percent)mustcomefromglycogenandphosphocreatine.
Allthistimepracticinghasahighenergyandnutrientcostthatmustbeconsideredwhendevelopingatrainingplan.Inastudyofnationaldevelopmentaltrainingcamp
swimmersitwasfoundthattheaverageenergy(5,221caloriesformales,3,573caloriesforfemales)andnutrientintakeswereadequate,butthattherewasalarge
betweenswimmervariationinintake.44Thisvariation,coupledwithatendencyfortheseswimmerstoconsumeexcessiveamountsoffatandinsufficientamountsof
carbohydrate,suggeststhatalargeproportionofswimmersmayhavedietaryhabitsthatdonotoptimallysupporttrainingandcompe

Page241
Table9.1RelativeContributionofAerobicandAnaerobicEnergySourcesDuringExerciseof
DifferentLengths
Time

Anaerobic%

Aerobic%

030seconds

80

20

3060seconds

60

40

6090seconds

42

58

90120seconds

36

64

120180seconds

30

70

060seconds

70

30

090seconds

61

39

0120seconds

55

45

0180seconds

45

55

ExpressedCumulatively

Note:Astheexercisetimeincreases,powerproductiondecreasesandagreaterproportionofenergyis
derivedaerobically.Aerobicmetabolismislessreliantonglycogenandphosphocreatinebecauseofan
abilitytometabolizefarforenergy.
AdaptedfromLamb1995.

titionneeds.Thedesireforhigherfatfoodsfrommeatsanddairyproductshasbeentestedinmaleswimmers,anditwasfoundthattheytendtolikethesensory
appealoffatcontaininganimalproducts,evenwhenundergoingahighlevelofexercise.45
Highlevelswimmers,whoareoftenyounghighschoolstudentsandcollegeageyoungadults,mustspendagreatdealoftimeinthepooltogainaspeed
improvement,whichcommonlytranslatesintomultipletrainingsessionseachday.Typically,swimmerspracticeintheearlymorningandlateafternoon(beforeand
afterschoolandclasses).Theygenerallyaccepttheideathattheymustgetanhourortwooflapsinbeforeclassesbegintohaveachanceofimproving.Thismeans
thattheymustgetupat5:00A.M.togettothepool,thenheadforthepoolagainrightafterschoolorwork.Theproblem,therefore,istryingtoassurethatswimmers
consumesufficientenergyandconsumetheenergyinaformthatismostsupportiveofthetrainingplan.Forswimmers,thatmeansmakingthetimebetweenand
duringpracticestoeatlotsoffoodsthatarehighincarbohydrates.However,swimmersmustdothisinawaythatassuresthestomachisemptybeforegettingintothe
water.Thismeansthefocus,duringpracticeandswimmeets,shouldbeoncarbohydratecontainingfluids,suchassportsbeverages.Havinglargeamountsofsolid
foods

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shortlybeforegettingintothewatercausesafluidshiftawayfromthemusclesandintotheGItractandmaycausecramping.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforSwimming
Therearehightraininghoursandanintensivetrainingprotocol.Competitiveswimmersworkhardandlongatgettingbetter,andallthatworktranslatesintoa
tremendouslyhighcaloricneed.Sinceswimmersoftenhaveapracticeearlyinthemorning,it'simportanttomakeplansfortakinginsomecarbohydratesimmediately
uponawakeningtoassurethatthere'stimeforthefoodtoleavethestomachbeforepractice.Afailuretoconsumesomecarbohydrate(even100to200caloriesis
betterthannothing)priortopracticewilllimitthebenefitstheathletemightderivefrompractice.Fluids(appleorgrapejuice,orasportsbeverage)aregoodtosipon
duringthetriptothepool.Followingthemorningpractice,swimmersshouldhavesomehighcarbohydratebreakfastfoods(cereal,toast,bagel,etc.)immediately
availabletoeattoreplenishtheenergyconsumedduringpracticeandtobeginstoringmoreenergyfortheafternoonpractice.Also,becausesomuchenergyis
needed,highschoolswimmersshouldseekapprovalfromschooladministratorstoconsumeamidmorningsnackof200to400calories.Swimmerswhopractice
sprintinginthepoolshouldbeawarethatphosphocreatine(amajorfuelforsprints)islikelytobecomedepletedinmusclecells,andthatittakestimetoregenerate
thephosphocreatinetogetthecellsreadyforthenextsprint.Whentotalsprintingtimemeetsorexceedstwominutes,thereshouldbearecoveryperiodofuptofour
minutestoallowcellstimetoreplenishthedepletedphosphocreatine.Afailuretoallowforthisrecoveryperiodwillforcetheswimmertoworkatalowerintensity
andforshorterperiodsonsubsequentsprints.Ifthathappens,theswimmerwillbelearningtosprintinawaythatcouldadverselyimpactoncompetitivetimes.46
Bodyweightreductionmaybenecessarytoimprovebathingsuitappearanceandreducedrag.Thepaperthinmaterialusedforracingsuitsmakesit
impossibleforswimmerstohidetheirphysiques.Sinceeveryonewantstolookgood,swimmersmaybemotivatedtoreducebodyweight.However,manyswimmers
couldeasilyexperienceareductioninperformancewithweightlossifitresultedinalossofmuscleandaresultantlossofpower.Ifweightwerelostinsuchawayso
astoreducedrag,therecouldbeaperformancebenefit,butmostweightlossstrategiesbackfireandhinderperformance.Therefore,

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swimmerswishingtoloseweighttoeitherlookbetterorgofaster(orboth)shouldonlydosounderthedirectsupervisionofaqualifiedhealthprofessional.Also,the
focusshouldbeonfatreductionandmusclemaintenanceratherthanweightreductionperse.
Swimmersrelyheavilyonglycogenandphosphocreatine.Sprintingperformanceisverydependentoncarbohydrate(tomakestoredglycogen)and
phosphocreatine.Withsufficienttotalenergyintakethatfocusesoncarbohydrates(atleast30caloriesofcarbohydrateperkilogramofbodyweight)andincludesan
adequateamountofprotein(about1.5to2.0gramsperkilogramofbodyweight),thereiseveryreasontobelievethatathletescanstoreenoughglycogenandmake
enoughphosphocreatinetofueltheirmusclesproperly.However,thereistremendousmotivationformanyathletestoconsumecreatinemonohydratesupplements(a
precursortophosphocreatine)togainacompetitiveedge.Whilecreatinemonohydratesupplementsmayimprovethenumberofhighintensitysprintsaswimmeris
abletodo,swimmersshouldbeawarethatregularcreatineconsumptionisassociatedwithanincreaseinweight.Sincethisweightincreaseislikelytobefromwater,
itcouldreducetheswimmer'sbuoyancyandincreasedrag.Itislikelythatagreaterbenefitcouldbeachievedbycreatingopportunitiestoeatinordertoassurean
optimaltotalenergyintake.
Swimmersneedtoconsumefluid.It'shardtoimaginethat,withsomuchwateraround,aswimmercouldgetdehydrated!Thefactthatswimmersareworkingina
hypothermicenvironment(waterisusuallycolderthanairtemperature)makesiteasierfortheexcessheatgeneratedfrommuscularworktobedissipated.However,
thereareothergoodreasonsforswimmerstoconsiderwhethertheirhydrationstateisadequate.Poorlyhydratedathletesmaydevelopalowerbloodvolumethat
causesthehearttoworkhardertobringoxygenandnutrientstocells,andthereislessvolumeinwhichtoplacemetabolicbyproducts.Also,manycompetitionstake
placeoutside,whereswimmersspendagreatdealoftimewaitingfortheirevent,andwheretheycaneasilybecomeoverheated.Excesswaterstoragecouldclearly
beaproblemforswimmersbyincreasingweightanddrag,butinsufficientbodywatercanimpactonperformanceandconcentration.Therefore,agoodruleofthumb
istoconstantlysipsmallamountsofwaterorsportsbeverage,andalsotoavoidstrategies(glycogenloading,glycerol,creatine)thatcouldforceexcessiveamountsof
watertobestored(pleaserefertochapter5formoredetailedinformation).

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Wrestling

Wrestlinghasbeenaroundasasportforthousandsofyears.EarlysculptedartifactsandpaintingsfromFrance,Egypt,andancientBabylonshowwrestlersinvolved
inholdsthatareessentiallythesameasthoseusedtoday.IntheearlyOlympicGamesinGreece,thewrestlingcompetitionwastheimportantcompetition.47Thebasic
strategyinallthistimehasnotchanged:wrestlersattempttoforcetheshouldersoftheiropponentontothemattowinthematch.Ifneitherwrestlerisabletoscore
suchafall,thewinnerisdeterminedbyofficialswhouseapointsystem,whichinvolvesprovidingpointsfornearfalls,holdinganopponentclosetohisback,and
controllingtheopponent.
In1997,therewasnewscoverageofthetragicdeathsofthreecollegiatewrestlers.Eachdeathoccurredduringstrenuousweightlossworkoutsandinitiatedabadly
neededdiscussionofthetechniquesusedbywrestlerstoachieve"weight."JeffReese,aUniversityofMichiganjunior,diedofkidneyandheartfailurewhileworking
outinarubbersuitina92degreeroomsothathecouldqualifyforalowerweightclass.BillySaylor(19yearsoldandthreetimeFloridaStatechampion)of
CampbellUniversityandJosephLaRosa(22yearsold)oftheUniversityofWisconsinalsodiedwhiletryingtolosealargeamountofweighttoqualifyforalower
weightclass.Theoutrageresultingfromthesedeathshasfinallyledtoaserious

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discussionabouttherulesthatencouragethemanipulationofnormalweightandthetechniquesused(supplements,dehydration,fasting)toachieveaweightwellbelow
theathlete'snaturalweighttoallowqualificationinalowerweightclass.Animportantoutcomeofthisdiscussionshouldbeanimprovementintheinformationwrestling
coacheshaveaboutweightloss,sportsnutrition,trainingdiets,dehydration,andbodycomposition.Insurveysofwrestlingcoachesthatevaluateknowledgeinthese
areas,ahighproportionofthecoacheshavealessthanadequateknowledgebasetobeguidingyoungathletesintheseareas.48TheAmericanCollegeofSports
Medicinepositiononweightlossinwrestlersstates:49
Despiteagrowingbodyofevidenceadmonishingthebehavior,weightcutting(rapidweightreduction)remainsprevalentamongwrestlers.Weightcuttinghassignificantadverse
consequencesthatmayaffectcompetitiveperformance,physicalhealth,andnormalgrowthanddevelopment.Toenhancetheeducationexperienceandreducethehealthrisksfor
theparticipants,theACSMrecommendsmeasurestoeducatecoachesandwrestlerstowardsoundnutritionandweightcontrolbehaviors,tocurtail"weightcutting,"andto
enactrulesthatlimitweightloss.

Thegeneralgoalofthisweightlossstrategyistoqualifyforaweightclassduringaweighinonthenightbeforeamatch,andtogainasmuchweightaspossible
betweentheweighinandthematchonthenextday.Sadly,thereisevidencethatwrestlingataweightbelowthepredictedminimumwrestlingweightappearstobe
associatedwithgreaterwrestlingsuccess.50Thereisalsogoodevidencethatsuccessfulweightgainduringthisshortperiodisimportantforsuccess.Inonestudy
evaluatingtherelativeweightgainsofwrestlers,theheavierwrestlerwassuccessful57percentofthetime.51
Thereisconcernonmanylevelsabouttheweightlosstechniquescommonlypracticedbywrestlers.Thereissomeevidencethatundernutritionmayleadtoaltered
growthhormoneproductioninwrestlersthat,ifpresentoverseveralseasons,couldleadtogrowthimpairment.52Inanotherstudy,itwasdeterminedthatdietary
restrictionreducedproteinnutritionandmuscularperformance.53Thesedataareconfirmedbyfindingsindicatingthatweightlossbyenergyrestrictionsignificantly
reducedanaerobicperformanceofwrestlers.Thoseonahighcarbohydraterefeedingdiettendedtorecovertheirperformancewhilethosewithlowerintakesof

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54

carbohydratedidnot. Besidestheobviousphysiologicalchangesthatoccurfromrapidweightloss,thereisgoodevidencethatrapidweightlossincollegiate
wrestlerscausesanimpairmentofshorttermmemory,afactthatcouldimpactonscholasticachievementinthesestudentathletes.55
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforWrestling
''Makingweight"isahazardtobothperformanceandhealth.Thereisampleevidencetosuggestthattheweightcyclingassociatedwithmakingweight(i.e.,
weightlosstomakeweightfollowedbyweightrecoveryforperformance)isdangerousandcanleadtoglycogendepletion,alowermusclemass,alowerresting
energyexpenditure,andanincreaseinbodyfat.56Shouldthisoccurwithfrequency,itislikelythatthereductioninrestingenergyexpenditurecouldmakeitmore
difficultfordietaryrestrictiontoachievethedesiredweight,leadingthewrestlertotakemoredraconian(andmoredangerous)measurestoachievethedesiredweight
outcome.Wrestlersandcoachesshouldfollowareasonablemodelforachievingdesiredweight,suchasthatofferedbytheWisconsinInterscholasticAthletic
Association,toavoidhealthandperformancedifficulties.57Thisprogramdevelopsreasonablegoalsforweight,andprovidesnutritioneducationinformationtohelp
wrestlersachievedesiredweightreasonablyandtounderstandtheimplicationsofimproperweightlossmethods.Thebasicmessageoftheseweightachievement
guidelinesisthatacapisplacedonthemaximumamountofweightchangethatcanoccurduringthecourseofaseason,andamonitoringsystemhasbeenaddedto
assurethatsuddenanddramaticweightchangedoesnotoccuratanypointintheseason.
Theanaerobicnatureofwrestlingimpliesahighneedforcarbohydrate.WhilethereisanaerobiccomponenttoOlympicwrestling(matchesmaycontinuefor
fiveminuteswithoutabreak),highschoolwrestlingisprimarilyananaerobicsport(threetwominuteperiods).Thedemandforcarbohydrateinthistypeofactivityis
extremelyhigh,andthereisevidencethatwrestlersperformbetteronhighcarbohydrateintakes.Inadditiontosupplyingadequatecarbohydrate,itisofgreatconcern
thatwrestlerscommonlyresorttodehydrationasameansofachievingdesiredweight.Thereisnothingthatcouldbemoredangerousormoreperformancereducing
thanenteringcompetitioninadehydratedstate.Wrestlersshouldresistgoing

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intoadehydratedstatebecauseofthecleardangers(includingorganfailure,heatstroke,anddeath)associatedwiththisstrategy,andshouldunderstandthatwell
hydratedathletesperformbetterthandehydratedones.
Wrestlersandcoachesshouldbecomebettereducatedonthepotentialhazardsofimpropernutrition.Sportshouldbehealthenhancing.Noamountof
argumentcanconvincemethatitisOKtoplaceayoungathleteinharm'swaytoachieveafalselylowweightgoal,especiallysincetheachievedweighthasnothing
todowiththeweightatwhichthewrestleractuallycompetes.Everyoneinvolvedinthesportshouldendorsethedevelopmentofwidelyacceptedweighttoheight
normsthatcanbeappliedreasonablytowrestlers.Importantly,weightshouldbetakenimmediatelybeforethecompetition,ratherthanatatimethatpermitsdrastic
shiftsineatingbehaviorsthataredangerous.Untiltheruleschange,wrestlersandcoachesshouldallberequiredtounderstandthehazardsassociatedwiththecurrent
"makingweight"procedures.
Summary
Ingeneral,athletesinvolvedinsportsinvolvingpowerandspeedshouldfocusonfoodsthatprovideenoughtotalenergy,primarilyfromcarbohydrates,sothat
sufficientglycogencanbemanufacturedandstoredformuscularwork.Sincephosphocreatineandglycogenaretheprimaryfuelsforhighintensityactivites,there
shouldalsobeenoughprotein(about1.5to2.0gramsperkilogramofbodyweight)toassurethatcreatinecanbesynthesized.Fluidintakeisalsoimportant,since
inadequatefluidintakelimitsglycogenstorageandalsomakesitdifficulttomaintainbodytemperature.Fluidintakealsohelpstomaintainbloodvolume,whichhas
beenfoundtobeacriticallyimportantfactorinperformance.

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10
EnduranceSports
TheTriathleteWhoWantedtoHavethePerfectFood
Severalyearsago,IwasstayingattheDrakehotelinChicagoforanAmericanDietetic
Associationmeeting.Itjustsohappenedthatthemeetingwasscheduledatthesametime
asthefamousChicagoTriathlon.BecausetheDrakehotelwasonthelakefront,itwasthe
centeroftriathlonactivity.Itwasfantastictoseetriathletesthereofallages,all
enthusiasticallypreparingthemselvesfortherace.Thesportsindustrywasinthehotel
ballroomalso,showingoffthelatestinhandlebars,runningsuits,andquicktielaces.
EverywhereIlookedtherewerefolkseatingbananasandPowerbars.Thiswasasports
nutritionist'sfantasyland,onethatwassofascinatingIcouldhardlypullmyselfawaytogo
tomymeetings.
ThemorningbeforethetriathlonIwaswaitinginlinetobeseatedforbreakfastandfound
myselfstandingbehindawonderfullyfitgentlemaninrunningshortsandTshirt.(Ifound
outlaterthattheDrakehotelhadmadeattireexceptionsduringtheperiodoftheraceto
accommodatetheathletes,sohalfofthosewaitingtoeatwereinsuits,andtheotherhalf
werewearingrunninggear.Itmadethoseofusinsuitsfeelabitsilly.)Whentherunnerin
frontofmewasofferedatable,heturnedaroundandaskedifIwouldliketojoinhim.I
didn'thesitateforafractionofasecondandsaid"Yes."
Salwasa71yearoldtriathletefromOregonwhowasbuiltlikearock.You'dbehard
pressedtofindanyonehisagemoretrimandfitthanhewas.Duringourdiscussion,I
askedwhyhedidtriathlons,andhesaidheusedtodomarathonsbutcametofindthem
boring.Helikedthevariety,ebb,andflowofthetriathlon,andhesaiditbettersuitedhis
personality.hedidmentionthatthemarathonalsohadit'sownebbandflow,andthatit
wasreallyseveralracesinone:thebeginning,whereyouestablishyourpaceandposition
themiddle,whereyoutrytoholdyourownandpreservesomeenergyandtheend,
whereyoustrategizeaboutthebestplacetomakeyourmove.Theproblemhehadwith
marathons,withhisincreasingage,wasthathewouldstarttolosehisconcentrationand
thinkaboutwomen,orwherehewasgoingtogotohavedinner.Therejustwasn'tenough
goingonintheracetokeephismindonwherehewasandwhathewassupposedtodo.
Withthetriathlon,however,hedidn'thaveachancetolosehisconcentration.Hesaidhe
wasonlysorryhehadn'tfoundthetriathlonbeforehewas65.Ifhehad,hewouldhave
beenmuchmorecompetitive!

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(textboxcontinuedfrompreviouspage)
WhenhefoundoutwhatIdidforalivinghestartedpumpingmeforanswersaboutthe
bestfoodstoeattoprepareforthetriathlon.Itwasclearthathewaswillingtoeatalmost
anythingthathefeltmightgivehimacompetitiveedge,soIwantedtobeclearandcareful
aboutwhatIsaid.Thetriathlonisclearlyanenduranceevent,socarbohydratesarekey.
Butitisalsothreeeventsjoinedinone,withaswimmingportionthat'satleastaquarterof
amile,abicycleracethat'satleast12miles,andarunthat'satleast3.1miles.ThenI
rememberedwhatoneofmycolleagueshadsaidabouteatingforthetriathlon."Thekey,"
hesaid,"isbeans."Beansarehighincarbohydratesbutarealsoagoodsourceofprotein
andothernutrients.Inaddition,theyhavesomebeneficial"sideeffects"forthetriathlon.
Sincetheymakeyouabitbloatedwithgas,beanshelpyoufloatandreducedragforthe
swimmingportion.Forthebikingportion,theyhelpto''propel"youalongtheway,andfor
therunningportionnoonewillruntoocloselybehindyou.Clearly,theperfectfoodforthe
triathlon!WhenIfinisheddescribingtheperfectfood,thinkingthatIhadclearlydonesoin
jest,Salcalledthewaitressoverandaskedforaservingofbeansforbreakfast.Asa71
yearoldathlete,hesaidhe'dtryanything!

Enduranceeventssuchasroadcycling,longdistanceswimming,themarathon,triathlon,and10kilometerrunallrequireahighlevelofenduranceandplacea
relativelylowpremiumonanaerobicpower.Theseareeventsthatforcecompetitorstoperformatthemarginoftheirmaximalaerobiccapabilitiesoverlongdistances.
Astraining,nutrition,andimprovedselectionofathletesinendurancesportsimprove,recordscontinuetofall.Thissuggeststhatdoingtherightthingscanandwill
resultinmovingtheknownenvelopeofspeedinenduranceevents.
ThewinneroftheMarathoneventattheAtlantaOlympicGamesin1996wonwithanaveragerunningpaceofslightlyundera5minutemile.Despitethisincredible
speed,theathletehadtomaintainthispaceatalevelthatallowedasufficientoxygenuptakeandutilizationtosupportprimarily"aerobic"muscularmetabolism.Thatis,
themajorityofallmuscularworktookplacewithfuelbeingburnedinthepresenceofsufficientoxygen.Thisisanefficientwaytoburnmuscularfuel,andallowsthe
athletetoundergomuscularworkforalongtime.
Aerobictrainingdoessomewonderfulthingstotheathlete'sabilitytouseoxygen.Theintermediary(TypeIIA)fibers,whichtendtobehavemorelikefasttwitch
(power)fibersthanslowtwitch(endurance)fibers,developadramaticimprovementinmitochondrialcontentandtheenzymesinvolvedinoxidativemetabolism.

Page251

Thetrainingimpactonoxygenusageiswellknown.Instudieslookingatbloodlactateconcentration,trainedathletesarefarmorecapableoftoleratinghighlevelsof
bloodlactatethanuntrainedsubjectsdoingthesameintensityofwork.
Theconversionofthebehavioroftheintermediaryfibersresultsinanimprovementintheathlete'saerobicendurance.Theincreasedabilitytouseoxygenresultsinan
improvementintheabilitytoburnfatasaprimaryfuel,reducingtherelianceoncarbohydrates.Asyoucanseeintable10.1,athletesinaerobicsportshaveafar
betterabilitytouseoxygenthanathletesinpowersports.
Sinceeventheleanestathleteshaveagreatdealofenergystoredasfat,thisincreasedabilitytoburnfatdramaticallyimprovesendurance.However,since
carbohydrateisneededforthecompletecombustionoffat,carbohydrateisstillthelimitingenergysourceforendurancework,becauseathleteshavearelativelylow
storageofcarbohydrate.Thisisclearlydemonstratedbyfindingsthatathletes
Table10.1OxygenUptakeinOlympicLevelAthletesinSelectedSports
Sport
Crosscountryskiing(male)

84

Crosscountryskiing(female)

65

Runners(male)

80

Runners(female)

58

Speedskaters(male)

77

Speedskaters(female)

54

Cyclists(male)

73

Rowers(male)

62

Weightlifters(male)

55

Sedentary(male)

43

Sedentary(female)

40

AdaptedfromKatch,Katch,andMcArdle1993.

Maximaloxygenuptake(mL/kgperminute)

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consumingahighfatdiethaveamaximalendurancetimeof57minutesonanormalmixeddiettheirendurancerisesto114minutesandonahighcarbohydratediet,
theirmaximalendurancerisesto167minutes.1
ConsiderationsforEnduranceSports
Endurancesportsarethosewherethepredominantformofenergymetabolismisoxidative(ittakesplaceinthepresenceofoxygen).Thisrequiresthattheathlete
havetheabilitytobringinanddeliverenoughoxygentothemusclestosupportthelevelofphysicalworkthatisbeingdone.Endurance(aerobic)workisatan
intensitybelowaperson'smaximalworkcapacity,sinceworkingatamaximalcapacityexceedsaperson'sabilitytobringsufficientoxygenintothesystem.That'swhy
sprinters,whoareworkingatmaximalcapacity,cangoveryfastbutonlyforrelativelyshortdistances.Enduranceathletescan'tgoasfastassprintersbutcangomuch
longerdistancesbecausetheyaremetabolizingenergyusingamuchmorecleanburningandefficientoxidativesystem.Inordertomaintaintheefficiencyoftheir
systems,enduranceathletesneedtokeepinmindcertainconsiderations,includingovertraining,overuseinjury,anddietaryadequacy.
Overtraining
Irecentlyreceivedanemailfromaworldclassrunnerwhowrote:
I'vejustcomeoffthreeweeksofparticularlyintensetraining.Iwent"hard"fourdaysaweek.IhaveplateauedandamnowrestingtoallowmybodytoabsorballthegoodworkI
didbutamstillfeelingalittlebitlethargic.Isleepwellbutdon'tfeelrested.MycoachisconcernedthatImayhavebecomeanemic.Asyouknow,mynutritionalanalysishas
alwayscomeupgood.ShouldIgetsomebloodtests?Takeiron?Takesomethingelse?I'mworried.

Thesesignsaretypicalofsomeonewho"overtrained"andisnowsufferingtheconsequences.Overtraininghassomewellestablishedwarningsigns,including
increasedmusclesoreness,delayofmuscularrecovery,inabilitytoperformattheprevioustrainingload,poorqualitysleep,decreasedvigor,swellingoflymphnodes,
highillness

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frequency,andlossofappetite.Manyofthesesignsarearesultofworkingatalevelharderthanthebody'scapacitytorecoverfromit.Overtrainingrarelyleadstoan
improvementinperformance,and,infact,commonlyreducesperformancebecauseitultimatelyincreasesthelikelihoodthattheathletewillbecomesickorinjured.
Overtrainingisaproblemformanyathletes(10to20percentofthosewhotrainintensively)andappearstobeaconditionthatisrelativelycommoninendurance
athletes.Amongotherfactorsthatmayincreasetheriskofdevelopingovertrainingsyndrome,apoorintakeofcarbohydratesandfluidsisknowntobeaproblem.2
Overtrainingsyndromeisanuntreatedexcessivetrainingoverloadwithinadequaterestthatresultsinchronicdecreasesinperformanceandtheabilitytotrain.Other
problemsmayresultandmayrequiremedicalattention.Factorsassociatedwiththedevelopmentofovertrainingsyndromeinclude
frequentcompetition,particularlyifitinvolvesqualityefforts
monotonoustrainingwithinsufficientrest
preexistingmedicalconditions(e.g.,coldsorallergies)
poordiet,particularlyinadequateintakeofcarbohydrates,ordehydration
environmentalstress(e.g.,altitude,hightemperatures,andhumidity)and
psychosocialstressors(e.g.,workorschoolconflicts).
AccordingtotheAmericanCollegeofSportsMedicine,overtrainingsyndromecanbeeffectivelyeliminatedthroughalogicaltrainingprogramthatallowsforadequate
restandrecoverywithpropernutritionandhydration.3Studiesofmarathonrunnerssuggestthat,afterrunningamarathon,evenathleteswhoconsumea
highcarbohydratediettakesevendaystoreturnmuscleglycogentopreracelevels.4Acontinuationofregulartrainingpriortofullmuscleglycogenresynthesiswill
inevitablyleadtoadegradationofperformance.Athletes,therefore,needtounderstandthatrestafteraparticularlyhardandintensivesessionisbest.Forathletes
whofearthatareductionintrainingmaycauseadiminutionofcompetitiveness,gettingsufficientrestmaynotbeeasy.Therefore,itisrecommendedthatthose
workingwithathleteshelpthemunderstandthatovertrainingisassociatedwithareductioninperformance,sorestandrecoveryshouldbeanintegralpartofthe
trainingplan.

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OveruseInjury
Overuseinjuriesoccurwhenanathleterepeatsthesamephysicaltaskoverandoveragain.Init'ssimplestandmostbenignform,youcouldconsiderablistercaused
bytherubbingofarunningshoeanoveruseinjury.Inamoreseriousform,theconstantpoundingoflegsonhardpavementcausesbonestovibrateinspecificareas,
and,withenoughvibrationalstress,thebonecandevelopapainfulcrackcalledastressfracture.Thisisanalogoustotakingawireclotheshangerandbendingit
repeatedlyinthesameplace.Afterawhile,thehangerdevelopsacrackandeventuallybreaks.Becauseenduranceathletesspendsomanyhourstraining,overuse
injuryisarealconcern.
Inonestudy,triathletesdevelopedskeletalinjuryearlyinthecompetition,whichbecameworseasthecompetitionprogressed.Theseinjuriestomusclesappearto
altertheuseofenergysubstratesasthetriathlonprogressesandasthebodyhealstheinjuriesfollowingthecompetition.5However,whileproteinbreakdownand
musculardamageoccurduringarace,thewelltrainedathleteshould

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6

experiencenoalterationinfitnessprovidednutritionalstatusismaintained. Thisisbecauseadequatelynourishedathleteshaveabettercapacitytohealtheminortissue
damagethatoccursduringtrainingandcompetition.Inaddition,athleteswhocanmaintaincarbohydrateandfluidlevelsduringexercisearelikelytohavebetterbrain
function,andthistranslatesintoasmootherrunningstylethatislesspronetoinjurydevelopment.Lossofmentalcapacity,whichcaneasilyoccurwitheithera
carbohydrateorfluidstorage,causesabreakdownincoordinationthatcanincreasestructuralstressesthatleadtoinjury.
DietaryAdequacy
Sinceitiswellestablishedthatlowglycogenstoresreducethetimeanathleteisabletoexercise,athletesshouldregularlyconsumecarbohydratetomaintainorreplace
theirlimitedglycogenstores.7Thisrequiresacarbohydrateintakeofbetween7to10gramsperkilogramofbodyweightperday.Asyoucanseefromtable10.2,
evenfor100poundathletes,thisrepresentsasubstantialamountofcaloriesfromcarbohydrate.
Thetimethatenduranceathletesconsumefoodisalsoimportantandmayimpactonglycogenstorageandresynthesis.Inastudyofhighlytrainedmalecrosscountry
runners,itwasfoundthatfoodintakewasadequateandwelltimedexceptfortheperiodfollowingcompetition.Whileitisrecommendedthatenduranceathletes
consumecarbohydratesimmediatelyfollowingcompetitiontoencouragerestorationofglycogenstores,theseathletesdelayedeatingcarbohydratefoodsuntil,on
average,2.5hoursfollowingcompetition.8Thisdelaycausedpoorglycogenreplacement,andsubsequentdaysofexercisehadthenegativeeffectofreduced
endurance.Inanotherstudyofmarathonrunners,itwasfoundthatasignificant
Table10.2EnergyIntakeforEnduranceAthletes
Perpoundofbodyweight
perday

Caloriesperdayfor
100lbathlete

Caloriesper
dayfor200lb
athlete

Carbohydrate

3.2to4.5grams

1,2801,800

2,5603,600

Protein

0.7to0.9grams

280360

560720

Fat

0.35to0.6grams

312540

623864

2,8083,888

1,8722,700

3,7435,184

Energysubstrate

Totalcaloriesperday

Fatvaluesbasedon20percentoftotalcaloricintake.

Page256
9

proportionoftotalenergyintakeoccursafter4:00P.M.,ratherthanearlierinthedaywhenit'sneededthemost. Thisisclearlyamissedopportunity,sincetrained
enduranceathleteshaveanimprovedabilityonethat'sbeenproventostoremuscleglycogenifcarbohydratesareprovidedafterexercise.10,11
Thereisnosubstituteforconsumingsufficientenergyandcarbohydratesforenduranceevents.Supplementsdonotappeartowork,andsubstancesadvertisedas
ergogenicaidsdonotappeartowork.Thekeyistoeatenoughandtoeatitontime.Further,thereissomeevidencethatenduranceathletesstarttofocusonnutrition
severaldaystooneweekpriortoamajorcompetition.12Thisisclearlyastrategythatinhibitsdevelopmentofoptimalnutritionalstatus,andmayplacetheathleteat
riskfornutritionalweaknesses.
Enduranceathletes,becauseofthetimespenttrainingandcompeting,mayhavetofindstrategiesforprovidingenergyandnutrientsduringtheactivity.Thisisnot
easy,sinceprovidingthewrongfoodsortherightfoodsatthewrongtimemaynotbewelltolerated.Addtothisthenervousstomachmanyathletesgetjustbeforea
race,anditmakestakinginnutrientsdifficult.Thepointisthat,ifpossible,enduranceathletesshouldtrysportsbeverages,carbohydrategels,andanyothersourceof
energyandnutrientsthatmightbewelltolerated,becauseitislikelythattheyneedtheenergy.
Whileeachtypeofracealtersslightlytheproportionofcarbohydrateandfatthatisburnedasfuel(moreintensity=proportionatelymorecarbohydratelower
intensity=proportionatelymorefat),it'sthecarbohydratelevelthatwillultimatelydetermineiftheathletewill"hitthewall."Thatis,whenthecarbohydratetankis
empty,theathletewillstop.Sincesomuchtimeisspentracing,everyavailableopportunitymustbecapitalizedontoassurethattheathletehasenoughfoodenergyto
continuetheraceandtostoreenoughenergy(glycogen)todowellduringthenextdayofracing.
Ingeneral,athletesshouldconsiderdoingwhateverisnecessarytotakeinsufficientenergyandnutrients(bringingBaggiesfilledwithfoodtomeetings,eatingwhile
walkingtoclass,snackingwhilegoingtothecar),orallthatgoodtrainingwillbewasted.Eatingonafrequentscheduleisimportantforanotherreason.Athleteswho
donoteatfrequentlybecomefatiguedorinjuredmoreeasilymakingthempronetoproductssoldby"snakeoil"salesmen.Thereisnodoubtwhatsoeverthatmuchof
theattentiongiventoergogenicaidsandnutrientsupplementsbyathletes,whetherthey'recyclists,runners,orswimmers,istoovercomeafailuretohaveplannedto
eatenoughandtoeatontime.

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Maintaininghydrationstatusisimportantforoperatingatoptimalphysiologicallevelsofefficiency.Enduranceathletesshouldpracticeconsumingfluidsfrequently,even
intheabsenceofthirst,toreducethechanceofdehydration.Consumptionofacarbohydratecontainingbeveragewithsmallamountsofsodiumisusefulinfluid
absorptionandinmaintainingthedrivetodrink.
NutrientSupplementation
Thereisampleevidencethatathleteswhodoconsumeahighcarbohydratedietthatprovidesanadequatetotalenergylevelarealsolikelytoobtainsufficientamounts
ofothernutrients,includingvitaminC,thiamin,riboflavin,niacin,calcium,magnesium,andiron.13Thereisnoreason,therefore,tobelievethatadiethighincomplex
carbohydrateswillleadtonutrientdeficiencies.Thesefindingscertainlyplaceindoubtthenecessityforsupplementusage,whichiscommonamongenduranceathletes.
Onestudyfoundthatsupplementusage(especiallyvitaminsCandE,calcium,andzinc)wascommoninmarathonrunners.Fortyeightpercentoftherunners
questionedreportedusingatleastonesupplementwithinthethreedayperiodsurroundingtheLosAngelesMarathon.14Otherstudiesconfirmthatnonsupplemented
marathonrunners,soccerplayers,wrestlers,andbasketballplayershaveadequateserumconcentrationsofvitaminCandvitaminB6,sosupplementationofthese
vitaminsdoesnotappeartobewarranted.15,16Inastudyevaluatingtheeffectivenessofmagnesiumsupplementationonmarathonrunners,itwasfoundthatthe
supplementationdidnotimproveresistancetomuscledamageduringtherace,didnotenhancemusclerecoveryfollowingtherace,anddidnotimproverunning
performance.17
Malemarathonrunnerswereevaluatedtodetermineiftheconsumptionofacommercialergogenicaidsupplementcontainingvitamins,minerals,aminoacids,and
unsaturatedfattyacidsinacomplexwasusefulinimprovingperformance.Theresultsindicatethattheergogenicaidhadnoeffectonimprovementsinoxygen
consumptionoranyotherimportantmetabolicorphysiologicalparameterthatmightbeusefultoenduranceathletes.18
VitaminEmaybeanimportantexceptionregardingitsprovisionasasupplementforenduranceathletes.SincevitaminEisafatsolublevitaminand,therefore,
deliveredinfats(particularlyvegetableoils),itispossiblethattheneedforthisimportantantioxidantmayexceeditsusualprovisionbecausethedietaryfocusofendur

Page258

anceathletesiscarbohydrates.Theendurancesportscombinationofhighoxidativework,whichbrings10to15timesmoreoxygenintoworkingmusclecells,and
lowfatintakemaylimitthedeliveryofsufficientvitaminEtothecellsandpredisposethesecellstooxidativedamage.Thisexerciseinducedincreaseinfreeradicals
(causedbytheoxidativedamageofpolyunsaturatedfatsincellstoproduceperoxide)hasbeendocumented,suggestingthatmoreantioxidantsareneeded.19While
supplementinganimalswithvitaminEhasshownareductioninoxidativestress,therearenogoodstudiestosupporttheideathatthisalsohappensinexercising
humans.20Inanotherstudy,ontheotherhand,therewasnoevidenceofoxidativestressafteratriathlonraceinhighlytrainedcompetitors.21However,sinceoxidative
stressisinvolvedinnumerousdiseasestates,itseemsreasonabletosuggestthatenduranceathletesshouldconsidersupplementingwith300to400milligramsof
vitaminEperday.Thislevelhasbeentestedwithathletesandappearstobewelltoleratedwithnoundesirablesideeffects.22Thisstrategyismeantasasecurity
blanketonly,sincethereisnoapparentdeficiencyofvitaminE,butonlyasuggestionthatoxidativestressmayexistandmaybemediatedsomewhatwithmorevitamin
Einthesystem.
ConcernsforFemaleEnduranceAthletes
Femaleenduranceathletesmustconsumesufficientenergyandnutrientstoavoidamenorrhea.Therearemanyreasonsforamenorrhea(cessationofregularmenstrual
periods),includinghighphysicalstress,highpsychologicalstress,inadequateenergyintake,poorironstatus,highcortisollevels,andlowbodyfatlevels.Itis
conceivablethatfemaleenduranceathleteshaveallofthesefactorsworkingagainstthem.Whilesomeofthesefactorsareclearlyoutofawoman'scontrol,food
intakeisnotoneofthose.Femaleathletesshoulddowhateveriswithintheirmeanstoconsumesufficienttotalenergythatishighincarbohydratesandprovidesallthe
nutrientsneededforgoodhealth.Amenorrheaisstronglyassociatedwithalossinbonedensityandanincreaseinstressfracturerisk.Inaddition,thisplacestheathlete
atincreasedriskforearlyosteoporosis.

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DistanceRunning

Distancerunningiscommonlythoughtofasanydistancethatis10,000meters(6.2miles)orlonger.Togothesedistances,runnersplaceapremiumonstayinginan
aerobicmetabolicpathwayduringthemajorityoftherun.Thismeansthatfatscontributetoasignificantproportionoftotalenergyused,limitingthedependenceon
carbohydrate.Sincecarbohydratestorageislimitedbutfatstorage,fromapracticalstandpoint,islimitless,fatstorageenableslongdistancerunnerstogoverylong
distancesprovidedtheystayaerobic.Thisisconfirmedbyarecentstudythatfoundthatonly2to7percentofthetotalenergyburnedinaerobicactivitywasderived
anaerobically.23However,carbohydratestorageisstillthekeytoperformancebecausewhenthecarbohydraterunsout,thefatsarenolongerefficientlyburnedasa
fuel.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforDistanceRunners
Amenorrhea,lowbonedensity,andstressfracturesarerisks.Thedistancesthatlongdistancerunnersrunweeklytotrainmaypredisposethemtostress
fractures,despiteencouraginganincreasedbonemassfromthestressesplacedontheskeleton.24Whilestressfracturesoccurmorefrequentlyinwomenrunnersthan
inmen(reduced

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estrogeninfemaleathletesnegativelyimpactsonbonedensity),allrunnersshouldassurethattheircalciumintakeisadequatetoreducetheriskoffracture.Thereisa
clearrelationshipbetweenamenorrheaandlowerbonedensity,soamenorrheicrunnersshouldseektheadviceofaphysiciantodetermineifthereareother
reasonablestepsthatcanbetakentoreducetheriskofstressfractures.25
Longdistancerunnersappeartohittheirpeakatanagethatisconsiderablyolderthanathletesinothersports.Forwomen,thismaybearealconcerniftherunningis
accompaniedwithamenorrhea(andassociatedwithlowestrogenlevels),whichcouldleadtoalonglastingbonediseasethathaslifelongimplications.Careshouldbe
takentoreducetheriskofosteoporosis,especiallyifthereislonglastingamenorrhea.Toreducetherisk,femaleathletesshoulddothefollowing:
Consumecalcium(1,500mg/day)fromfood,oracombinationoffoodandsupplements.
Avoidoverconsumptionofproteinasexcessproteinconsumptionisassociatedwithhigherurinarycalciumlosses.
Controltheproductionofstresshormones(particularlycortisol),bymaintaininghydrationandbloodsugarduringexercise.
Avoidovertraining,whichisassociatedwithamenorrhea.
Inadequateenergyintakeisaredflagthatnutrientintakemayalsobelow.Inastudycomparingthenutrientintakesoftrainedfemalerunnerswhoeitherwerenot
menstruatingornotmenstruatingnormally,itwasfoundthattherewereclearnutritionaldifferencesbetweenthesegroups,despitebeingmatchedonheight,weight,
trainingdistance,andbodyfatpercent.26Therunnerswhowerenotmenstruatinghadzincintakeswellbelowtherecommendedlevelofintakeandlowerthanthose
foundintherunnerswhohadnormalmenses.Inaddition,therunnerswhohadnormalmenseshadhigherintakesoffat.Itappearsthathigherfatintakeswere
associatedwithmoreadequatetotalenergyconsumption.Thissuggeststhathighcarbohydratediets,whicharepreferredforoptimalperformance,makeitmore
difficulttoconsumetheneededlevelofenergybecausecarbohydrateshavealowercaloricdensitythanhighfatfoods.Therefore,athletesneedtoconcentrateon
consumingmorefoodwhencarbohydratesconstitutethemainenergysource.Sincefailuretomenstruatenormallyisastrongriskfactorinthedevelopmentofweaker
bonesandresultingstressfractures,femalerunnershave

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goodcausetobefullyawareoftheadequacyoftheirenergyandnutrientintakes.Thereisalmostnoinjurythatismorefrustratingorcareerendingthanthe
developmentoffrequentstressfractures.
Enormousamountsofenergyareneeded.Itmaybehardtoimaginethatpeoplewhoareso''thin"needsomuchenergy.Infact,longdistancerunnersburnso
muchenergythattheyfinditdifficulttoreplacealltheyneed.Consuminglotsofsnacksbetweenmeals,eatingbefore,during,andafterpractice(andcompetitions),
andhavinggoodmealsthatarehighincarbohydrates,moderateinprotein,andlowinfatisimportant.
Taperingactivitypriortoacompetitionworksinimprovingcompetitionperformance.27Itdoessobyimprovingglycogenstores,butitalsohelpstomaketherunner
calmer,whichgivestherunneranimprovedeconomyofrunningmotionthatimprovesendurance.Theimportanceoftaperingexerciseandcarbohydrateloadingprior
toanimportanteventcannotbeoveremphasized.
Mostsurveysofdistancerunnersconfirmthattotalenergyandcarbohydrateintakearebelowtherecommendedlevels,suggestingthatrunnersmustmakeaconcerted
efforttoconsumetherecommendedamountsbefore,during,andafterexercise.28,29Inacasestudyassessingthenutrientintakeofanultraendurancerunnerduringa
race,itwasfoundthatifthepreeventandduringeventguidelinesforfoodandbeveragearefollowed,thenathleteswillhavesufficientenergyandfluidsto
successfullycompletetheevent.30
Fluidsarecrucial.Fluidconsumptionshouldbeonafixedtimeschedule(every10to15minutes)toavoidunderhydrationandthirst.Theremaybenosinglething
thatismoreimportantforassuringalongdistancerunner'ssuccess.Drinknow,drinkagainin15minutes,andwhenyouthinkyou'vehadenough,drinksomemore.
Sufficientfluidintakeiscriticalinendurancerunningsinceagreatdealofbodyheatisgeneratedoveralongperiodoftime,andthisheatisliberatedthroughsweat
evaporation.Manystudiesstronglysuggestthat7percentcarbohydratesolutionswithelectrolytesareeffectiveasbothwaterreplacementandenergyreplacement
beverages.31Longdistancerunnersshoulddevelopthehabitoffrequentfluidconsumptiontomaintainwaterstatus,whethertheyarethirstyornot.Ithasbeenfound
thatafluidintakeof0.5to1literperhourissufficienttopreventsignificantdehydrationinmostathletesin

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mildenvironmentalconditions,butagreaterintakeoffluidsisneededforathletesrunningathigherintensitiesorinmoresevereenvironmentalconditionsinorderto
avoidheatstress.32
Distancerunnerstypicallycarryverylowbodyfat.Successfullongdistancerunnerscommonlylook"thin,"andthisbodyprofilemaybeadvantageoustothemin
dissipatingheatduringlongruns.33Maintainingarelativelylowbodyfatpercentagemaythusbedesirableinlongdistancerunning,sincethatwouldcontributetoa
smallerbodymassandalso,byitself,improveheatdissipation.However,sinceverylowbodyfatlevelsareassociatedwithamenorrhea,femaleathletesshouldseeka
balancebetweenlowbodyfatlevelsandnormalhormonefunction.

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Triathlon

Muscularbalanceintheupperandlowerbodyisimportanttosuccessfultriathletes,becausethethreeeventseachhaveadifferentmuscularfocus.Sinceallthemajor
musclesareputtothetestintriathlons,theseathletesmustconsumeenoughtotalenergytoassurethatthefuelcapacityforeachworkingmusclestartsoutfull.
Swimmers,forinstance,haveamuchhigherupperbodystrengthrequirementthancyclists.34Triathletes,however,needstrengthinallthemuscles.Interestingly
enough,itmaybethisgeneralrequirementforuseofallthemusclesthatmakesthetriathlonasportwithnopreferenceforauniquebodytypeorshape.35Itlookslike
anyonewho'swillingtotrainreallyhardcandoit.
Triathlonshavedifferentlengths,dependingonthelocationandsponsor.AnOlympicDistanceTriathlonconsistsofa1.5kilometerswim,a40kilometercycle,anda
10kilometerrun.ThemostwellknownIronmancompetitioninHawaiiincludesa2.4mileswim,a112milebikerun,anda26mile,385yardrun.Arecentsurvey
oflowerleveltriathletesindicatedthateventheyhaveaverageweeklytrainingloadsthatwouldmakemostmeremortalswanttocry.This

Page264

surveydemonstratedthattheaverageswimmingdistanceperweekforthesetriathleteswas8.8kilometers,thecyclingdistancewas270kilometers,andtherunning
distancewas58.2kilometers.36Allthistrainingmakesyouwonderiftheseathletesevertaketimetorest.Infact,studieshaveshownthattriathleteswoulddowellto
taperdowntheiractivitypriortoacompetition.Onestudyshowedastatisticallysignificantimprovementinperformancevaluesthatwerewellabovetheirpretaper
traininglevelwhentriathletesreducedthetotaltimespenttrainingpriortoacompetition.37
Differentsportsapparentlyinduceathletestoconsumedifferentfoodsand,therefore,takeindifferentlevelsofnutrients.Calciumintakeappearstobelowerin
triathletesthaninathletesparticipatinginteamsportssuchasvolleyballandbasketball.OfalltheathletessurveyedinalargeFrenchstudywith10,373subjects,
calciumintakeswerebelowtherecommendedlevelforthetriathletes,andfemaleshadlowercalciumintakesthanmales.38Thisisbadnewsforathleteswhoplaceso
muchrepetitivestressontheskeleton,anditmayplacethematincreasedriskforstressfractures.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforTriathletes
Maintenanceofnormalhydration.Theremaybenomoreimportantperformancerelatedfactorfortriathletesthantocreateastrategyformaintaininghydration
stateduringthisgruelingevent.Triathletesneedtofindasportsbeveragethatiswelltoleratedanddevelopadrinkingschedulethat,attheendofthecompetition,
resultsinthesmallestpossibleweightloss.Drinkingenough(typicallybetween.25to.5litersevery15minutes)toavoidanylevelofunderhydrationisprobablythe
bestergogenicthingatriathletecando.
Therehasbeensomeconcernthattriathletes,whowearawetsuitduringtheswimmingphaseofthetriathlon,whenthewatertemperatureisrelativelywarm,may
predisposethemselvestoheatstressduringthecyclingandrunningportionsoftherace.Inastudyevaluatingthisissue,wearingawetsuitdidnotadverselyimpacton
theathlete'ssubsequentbodytemperatureduringthecyclingandrunningstates,providedthattheathletemaintainedagoodhydrationstate.39Theimportanceofgood
hydrationasitrelatestotriathlonperformanceisthethemeofnumerousstudies,allofwhichstatethatitisoneoftwokeystoasuccessfulrace(theotherbeing
maintenanceofcarbohydratestores).Italsoappearsthattriathletesaretypicallyunsuccessfulatmaintaininggoodhydrationduringacompetition,withawaterrelated
bodyweightlossthatcommonlyexceeds4

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40

percent. Italsoappearsthattriathletesmaybepredisposedtohyponatremia(lowbloodsodiumlevel),whichisaresultofusingreplacementfluidsthatcontainno
electrolytes.41,42Thelevelsofthewaterlossandthehyponatremiaarebothfactorsthatcanclearlyimpactonperformance,whichunderlinestheimportancethat
triathletesshouldgivetoproperfluidreplacementduringtrainingandduringanevent.Thefocusonproperfluidreplacementisimportant,sincetherearepublished
casesofGIdistressintriathleteswhoconsumedfluidsthatweretooconcentratedwithcarbohydrateand/orelectrolytes.43
Consumptionofsufficientenergy.Theenergyrequirementforcarbohydrateinthetriathleteexceedsthebody'sabilitytostoreit.Therefore,triathletesshould
developastrategyforadequateconsumptionofcarbohydrateenergyduringarace(typically1to1.5gramsofcarbohydrateperkilogramofbodyweightperhour).44
Todothis,theathleteshouldfindsportsbeveragesthatcontaincarbohydrateinaformandconcentrationthatarewelltolerated.Sometriathleteshavefoundthatthe
consumptionofcarbohydrategels,bananas,orcrackerscanbeconsumedduringthecycleportionoftherace(takenwithawaterchaser).Ifthisistolerated,itisan
excellentwaytoboostthecarbohydratefuellevelinthebodybeforethebeginningoftherunningportionoftherace.
Itisclearthatnutritioninterventionsthatprovidemorefluidsandcarbohydratestotriathleteswork.Followingsuchanintervention,triathleteswereabletoconsumea
levelofenergyandnutrientsthatwasclosertotheirrequirementthanbeforetheintervention,andthisimprovementledtoanimprovementinenduranceperformance.45
Riskofovertraining.Gettingsufficientrestandtaperingexercisepriortoaracehavebeenshowntobetwoofthebesttrainingstrategiesatriathletecanfollow.By
contrast,triathleteswhoincreasethetrainingfrequencypriortoanimportantracearenotlikelytodotheirbest.Sufficientrestisjustasimportantassufficienttraining
todowell.
Planningamealschedule.Thetriathlonincludesdifferentdistances,dependingonwhetherit'sasprint,theOlympicdistance,alongcourse,ortheironman.The
sprintcantakeaslittleas45minutestocomplete,andtheironmanoftentakeslongerthaneighthours.Regardlessofthecompetitiondistance,triathletestrainhard
andtheyfindthemselvesjugglingtheirtrainingwithworkorschool.Eatinganddrinkingoftentakesabackseattoalltheotherdemandsoflife,yettheyarecritically
importanttothesuccessanathletecan

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realize.Theonlysolutionistositdownandmakeaschedulethatincludesworking,training,eating,resting,anddrinking.Treatthemallashavingequalimportance.
Many(ifnotmost)triathleteshavemorethanoneworkouteachday,andsomeraceweeklyorbimonthly.Thisplacesatremendousenergyrequirementontheathlete
thatiscommonlynotmet.Themoretimeanathletetakestotrain,thelesstimethereistoeat,sothereisanaturalconflictbetweentheincreasedrequirementfor
energyandthereducedtimetosupplywhatisneeded.Thisproblemmakesaclearcaseforplanningtimeforeatingasmuchasplanningtimefortraining.Ifan
athlete'straininghasafixedschedule(itusuallydoes)buttheeatingdoesn't,theathletewillsuffer.

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LongDistanceSwimming

Distanceswimmersareuniquefolks,becausetheymustspendsomuchtimeinthewatertorealizeincrementallyminisculeimprovementsintime.Akeyto
performanceappearstobetheswimmer'scapacitytogofasterwithoutincreasingbloodlactatelevels,ortogofasterwhileutilizingalowerpercentageoftheir
maximalaerobiccapacity.46Thismeanstheswimmerisworkingharderbutstillabletomaintainapredominantlyaerobic(oxidative)metabolicpathway.Thistranslates
intoterrificaerobicfitnessandtheabilitytomaintainenoughglycogenandoxygeninthesystemtoassureandefficientenergyburn.Maintaininglowerbloodlactate
concentrationsmayalsobeafunctionofmaintainingasufficientbloodvolume(lactateinalargervolume=lowerlactateconcentration).Thisis,ofcourse,largely
dependentonadequatehydrationandagoodelectrolytestatus(sodiumhelpsmaintainbloodvolume).
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforDistanceSwimmers
Lowerbonedensities.Swimmers,whencomparedtootherathletes,appeartohavelowerbonedensities.47Thereasonforthisiseasytounderstand,sincethe
impactstressofbeinginwaterislessthanthatofthumpingyourlegsonhardground.However,itmayalsobe

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relatedtospendingmanyhoursdoinglapsinanindoorpoolwhileotherathletesarerunningoutside,wheretheycanincreasetheirexposuretosunlightand
manufacturemorevitaminD.ThevitaminDdifferencemaybeenoughtoinfluencebonedevelopment.Ofcourse,forthoselongdistanceswimmersluckyenoughto
liveinareaswarmenoughforoutdoorpools,thisisnotanissue.However,thereisonestudysuggestingthatswimmers,particularlyfemaleswimmers,maynot
consumesufficientcalcium,afactorthatcouldclearlycontributetolowerbonemineraldensity.48Clearly,havingsufficientcalcium(1,500milligrams/day)iscriticalto
maintainingstrongbones,butswimmersshouldalsomakeanefforttospendsometimeoutsidetoassureanadequatevitaminDsynthesis.
Replacementoffluids.Themainfocusforswimmersinvolvedinanalldaymeet(whichitusuallyis!)isthereplacementofadequatefluidstomaintainbloodvolume
andtoprovideaconstantsourceofcarbohydrate.It'shardtoimaginethatbeinginallthatwatercouldleadtodehydration,butfailuretodrinksufficientfluidscanbea
seriousperformancedetriment.
Consumptionofcarbohydratesduringlongcompetitions.Haveasnackingplanforcompetitionssoyoudon'tgethungry.Thesecompetitionscanlastalong
time,andtheymaymakeyouseriouslyhungrybythetimeyou'rereadytogetinthewater.Inanenduranceevent,youdon'twanttostartbybeinghungry!Sipon
sportsbeveragesandsnackoncrackersandothersimplecarbohydrate(mainlystarchy)foodstogetaconstanttrickleofcarbohydratesintothesystem.Thatway
you'llstarttheeventbeingfullyenergized.
Eatenoughtosupporttheactivity.Swimminglongdistancesusesatremendousamountofenergy,somakecertainenoughfoodisconsumedtomaintainweight
ortoincreaseweightifyou'retryingtobuildmuscle.Swimmersoftencomplainthattheycan'tkeeptheirweightsupduringthelongswimcompetitionseason,andthat
meansthey'reburningmuscletomeettheirneeds.

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Cycling

Thereareanumberofenduranceeventsthattakeplaceoverseveraldaysofcompetition.TheTourdeFrancecycleraceisnotableforitsextremeendurance
demandsonparticipatingathletes,andeachstageoftheraceplacesdifferentphysiologicaldemandsonthecyclist.Theypedalapproximately4,000kilometersover
threeweekswithonlyasingledayofrestallowed!Theenergyexpenditurerangesarethehighestvaluesthathaveeverbeenreportedforathletesoveraperiodlonger
thansevendays.49Theyconsumeapproximately62percentoftheirenergyfromcarbohydrates,15percentfromprotein,and23percentfromfat.Over49percentof
totalenergyconsumptiontakesplacebetweenmeals.Somedayshavelonghardhills,whileotherdayshaveroadsthataremorelevel.StudiesofTourdeFrance
cyclistsindicatethattheyconsumeapproximately30percentoftheirtotaldailyenergyintakeintheformofaliquidcarbohydrateenrichedbeverage.50Sincesomuch
timeduringthedayisspentonthebike,theremaybenootherwaytoadequatelyconsumesufficientenergy.
Instudiesofathletesatthe1996OlympicGamesinAtlanta,U.S.athletesparticipatingincyclingandmountainbikinghadthehighestprevalence(45percent)of
havingbeentoldthattheyhadasthma.51Bycontrast,20percentofthetotalU.S.athletesreportedtheyactually

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hadasthma.Thissuggeststhatasthmamaybeacontributingfactorindeterminingthesportanathleteselectstoparticipatein.Itispossible,forsomeathletes,that
asthmamightbetriggeredbyanallergicresponse,andthiscouldbeanallergicresponsetofood.Cyclistswithasthmashouldbeextremelycarefulaboutavoiding
foodsorothersubstancesthatcouldtriggeranasthmaticresponse.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforCyclists
Recoveringfrommultidayevents.Theenergycostofmultidaycyclingeventsisenormous,anditmaybethemealplanningoftheathlete'steamthatmakesthe
differencebetweenwinningandlosing.Thereisaclearrequirementforcarbohydrate,andthisconflictswiththehugerequirementforenergybecausecarbohydrate
foodshavealowenergydensity.(Bycontrast,fatshaveahighenergydensitybutarenotneededtothedegreethatcarbohydratesare.)Therefore,carbohydrates
shouldbeconsumedinlargequantitiesandfrequently,andthefocusshouldbeonstarchycarbohydrates(pasta,bread,rice,potatoes,etc.)
Consumptionoffoodandfluidduringlongrides.Cyclistshaveanadvantageoverotherenduranceathletesinthattheycaneasilycarryfluidsandfoodsonthe
bikeframeorinjerseypockets.Sincethereislessbouncingwhileridingthanwhilerunning,cyclistscanusuallyconsumesomesolidfoodswithoutexperiencingGI
distress.Cyclistsshouldtakeadvantageofthisonlongridesbybringingalongsportbeveragestodrinkandsomecrackers,bananas,carbohydrategel,orbreadto
eat.Thesehighcarbohydratefoodsshouldbewelltoleratedandcansignificantlyboostthecarbohydratedeliverytoworkingmuscles.
Trainingisverytimeandenergyconsuming.Thelongerathletestrain,themoreenergytheyneed,butthelesstimetheyhavetoconsumeit.Therefore,cyclists
shouldconsiderthetrainingperiodasatimetotakeinaproportionoftheirdailycaloricrequirements.Todothis,cyclistsshouldfindfoodsthatarewelltolerated,
suchasbananasandcrackers,andbringthemalongduringtheride.Sportsbeveragesarealsoanimportantsourceofenergy,sotheseshouldbeconsumedinsteadof
plainwaterasarehydrationbeverage.Afailuretoeatduringtrainingwillinevitablyleadtoaninadequatetotalenergyconsumptionandadecreaseinperformance.

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Summary
Enduranceathletesspendmanyhourstrainingandhaveenormousenergyneeds.However,thesetrainingtimesmakeitdifficulttoconsumetheneededfoods.Athletes
shouldplanmultipleeatingbreaksthroughouttheday(somethinghighincarbohydratetoconsumeeverythreehours)toassureanadequatetotalenergyconsumption.
Fluidintakeisalsocriticallyimportant,andenduranceathletesshoulddevelopthehabitofdrinkingfrequently(every10to15minutes)regardlessofthirst.Thereisa
largebodyofevidencethatsuggestslowerlevelsofeithercarbohydratesorfluidsinhibitendurance.

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11
CombinedPowerandEnduranceSports
TraditionDoesn'tAlwaysWin
Severalyearsago,theuniversityIworkedathiredatopnotch,experiencedcoachforour
basketballteam.Hedidwondersinrecruitment,andhispracticeswere,fromwhatI
heard,characterbuildingexperiences.Theteamwentwellbeyounditsexpectationsduring
thefirstyear,chalkingupthebestseasoninthehistoryoftheuniversity.Allthiswas
accomplisheddespiteateamthatwas,essentially,inheritedfromearlierrecruitmentefforts.
Atthebeginningofthenextseason,disasterloomedahead.Severaloftheplayerswere
ineligiblebecauseofacademicdifficulties,acoupleofrecruitsweretransferswhocouldn't
playrightawaybecauseofNCAArules,andthestarguardbrokehisfootduringthefirst
gameoftheseason.Putsimply,duetofactorswelloutofthecoach'scontrol,thebench
wasthinverythin.
ThereisnoeasygameinNCAADivisionIbasketball,andI'veyettoseeagamebetween
DivisionIteamswhereoneteamhastrulycoasted.Itdoesn'tmatterifit'sapreseason
game,anoutofdivisiongame,ora''HolidayClassic,"theseteamsplaytowin.Froma
physiologicalstandpoint,it'sdifficulttoimagineanyonewhocouldstandtherigorsofan
entiregameplayedatthepacetheseathletesplay.Basketballisasportthatcombines
powerandendurance,andit'sallout,befasterthanyouropponentoryoulosegame.
Whenabenchisthin,itforcesthosewhodoplayintoapositionwheretheyneedallthe
nutritionalandtraininghelptheycanget.
WhenIobservedoneofthegames,Inoticedthattheplayersweren'tfollowinganoptimal
hydrationstrategyduringthegame.Thiswashappeningdespitethegoodeffortsofthe
athletictrainingstaff,whichwasobviouslytryingtodoeverythingwithintheirmeanstoget
theplayerstodrinkonschdule.Besides,thesetrainerswerebusytryingtokeepthe
playerstheyhadphysicallyfunctional(I'veneverseensomuchtape).Afterobservingthis,
IthoughtI'dsendoffamemotothecoachandathletictrainingstafftoremindthemofthe
importanceofwhattheyalreadyknew,thatgametimehydration(withcarbohydrate)is
criticaltoperformancesaltingthememowithscienceasmycrutch.Themostimportant
responsetothismemowasthatthecoachwantedtotalkwithme.(This,bytheway,isa
characteristicofallsuccessfulcoaches.Theywantalltheinformationtheycanget,and
theywantitnow).Afternumberousattemptsatschedulejuggling,wetalkedanditall
boileddowntothis:theuniversityhadacontractwithabeveragecompanytosupplythe
sportsbeverage,andtheathletesdidn'tlikeit.Asaresult,theathleteswereprovidedwith
plain

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waterduringthegames.Plainwaterduringgameshasproblems,nottheleastofwhichis
thatitdoesn'tprovidetheallimportantcarbohydrate.Inaddition,becauseitcontainsno
sodium,itdoesn'tdrivethedesiretodrink.Therefore,athletestendtodrinklessthanthey
need.
Aftersomeexperimentation,wefoundabeveragetheathleteslikedanditwas"hidden"in
thecontainersofthecontratcompany.(Thisisknowasawinwinsolution!)Theresult
was,tosaytheleast,verygood.Theexperiencehelpedtosolidifymybeliefthatifyou
havepartieswillingtolistentothefacts,goodthingswillhappen.

Thischapterprovidesnutritioninformationforsportswhereathletesintermittentlyperformathighintensity.Thatis,thehighintensityeffortsareinterspersedthroughout
acompetitionthathasperiodsoflowerphysicaleffort.Thisischaracteristicofteamsportssuchasbasketball,volleyball,andsoccer,andisalsotypicaloffigure
skating.Thisisdifferentthanothersports,wherethefocusiseithermainlypowerormainlyendurance.Forinstance,thereisnothingingymnasticstrainingor
competitionthatrequiresagreatdealofaerobicendurance,andmarathonrunnersspendalltheirtimetryingtohaveabetteraerobicendurance.Inmanyteamsports,
thepremiumisonboth.Soccerplayersmustrunthefieldbackandforthatacontrolledpaceuntilanopportunitypresentsitselfwhereplayersmustrunatpeakspeed
totakeadvantageofanoffensiveopportunitytoquicklygetbackinanappropriatedefensiveposition.Basketballplayersmayjogbackandforthinasteadyaerobic
pace,butaplayerhastohavesomeclearjumpingpowertograbareboundorsomequickmovesprintingabilitytosplitthedefense.
In1995,MarkDavisattheUniversityofSouthCarolinafoundthatrepeatedsprintworkisenhancedwithconsumptionofacarbohydrateelectrolytebeverage.1
Whileithasbeenwellestablishedforyearsthatcarbohydrateelectrolytebeveragesenhancesubmaximal(belowmaximalaerobiccapacity)enduranceperformance,
thiswasthefirstfindingtoclearlyshowthebenefitsofsuchabeverageduringhighintensity,shortdurationeffortssuchasthosefoundinfootballorbasketball.
Comparedtoatrialwhenaplacebo(water)wasconsumed,subjectsperformedsevenadditionaloneminutesprintsofcyclingat120to130percentofpeak

whentheyconsumeda6percentcarbohydrateelectrolytebeverage.Thisisequivalenttomakingadramaticimprovementinsprintcapabilityduringthelast5to10
minutesofabasketballgame.
Inasimilarstudy,alsoin1995,Nicholasetal.foundthatsportsdrinks(i.e.,carbohydrateelectrolytebeverages)canhelpmaintain

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2

highintensityeffortsduringhighintensityactivitiesthatconsistofintermittentsprinting,running,andjogging. Again,thesefindingshavestrongimplicationsfor
improvedmaintenanceofhighintensityactivityoverthecourseofatypicalbasketballandsoccergame.
Theeffectsoftheintakeoftheindividualcomponentsofasportsbeverage(electrolytes,water,orcarbohydrate)andthecombinationofallcomponentsonexercise
performancehavealsobeenstudied.Comparedtotheelectrolyteonlytrial,performanceduringthewateronlyandcarbohydrateonlytrialswereapproximately6
percentfaster.However,thecombinationofcarbohydrateandfluidcausedaperformanceenhancementthatwasapproximately12percentfasterthantheelectrolyte
trial,and5to6percentfasterthanwhenwateronlyorcarbohydrateonlywereconsumed.3Thesefindingssupportthethesisthatcarbohydrateenhanceswater
absorption,andthatcarbohydratehasthemostlimitedstorageofanyenergysubstrateinthesystem.Thehighdemandsoncarbohydrateduringhighintensitywork
requireaconstantvigilancetoassureproperandspeedyreplacement.Thisstudywasbasedonearlierwork,whichfoundthatexerciseperformanceimproved
significantlywithcarbohydratefeedings.4Ithasalsobeenfoundthattheoptimallevelofcarbohydrateconcentrationduringexerciseis6percent.Thisconcentration
wasbestforfluidabsorptionandalsohelpedtoefficientlydelivercarbohydrate.Alevelgreaterthanthis(about8percent)causedfluidabsorptiontobereducedor,
dependingonthesourceofcarbohydrate,tostoptotally.5
Whenbasketballplayersjump(leap!)fortheball,orsoccerplayerssprinttowardtheballandjumphightokickit,theseactivitiescanbecomparedtocertainforms
ofstrengthtraining.Inastudyofresistancetrainedathletes,itwasfoundthatathletestendedtoperformmorerepetitionsforthesameweightwhencarbohydratewas
consumedversusawaterplacebo.Bloodglucoseandlactateconcentrationswerehigherwiththecarbohydratetrial,suggestingthatmorecarbohydratewasavailable
andusedtosustainthehighintensityexercise.6Inastudyrecentlypublished,headtoheadcomparisonsofGatorade,Powerade,andAllSportweremade.7Itwas
foundthatGatoradestimulatesfluidabsorptionfasterthaneitherPoweradeorAllSport.Thisdifferencecanbeattributedtoboththetypeofcarbohydrateandthe
concentrationofcarbohydrateinthebeverages.Gatoradehasacarbohydrateconcentrationlevelthatisconsistentwiththepositivefindingsinvirtuallyallthestudies
(6percent)andcontainsanequalmixtureofsucroseandglucose.PoweradeandAllSporthavehighercarbohydrateconcentrationsandincludealargequantityof
fructose.Fructosehasbeen

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showntocausegastrointestinal(GI)distressitisalsolessefficientinraisingbloodglucosebecauseitrequiresasecondaryconversionintheliverfollowingabsorption.
A1998studyhasfoundthatathleteswhodorepeatedorsustainedhighpowereffortsexperienceareductioninperformancewhentheyaredehydrated.8Giventhe
importanceofcarbohydratebeveragesineffectiverehydrationduringexercise,itseemsclearthatthismightbeastrategythatwouldhelpmaintainthepowerand
enduranceoftheathletesonthebasketballteam.ThefluidconsumptionguidelinesestablishedbytheAmericanCollegeofSportsMedicinearesummarizedintable
11.1.9
Thereareseveralgeneralnutritionguidelinesinvolvingwhattodobefore,during,andafterexerciseandcompetitionthataregoodforvirtuallyallathletesinvolved
insportsthatincludeperiodsofmaximalintensity.Seetable11.2fortheseguidelines.
Thetwokeystotheseguidelinesarefluidsandcarbohydratesinthecontextofagenerallyvarieddiet.Athletesshouldfindwaystoconsumebothfluidsand
carbohydratesat,literally,everyopportunity.Recentfindingstendtocontradictthetraditionalandcommonlyfollowedbeliefthatcarbohydratecontainingbeverages
areusefulonlyforendurance(aerobic)activitiesthatlastlongerthan60minutes.Thebestpredictorsofathleticperformancearemaintenanceofbloodvolumeand
maintenanceofglycogen/glucose.Whatfollowsaresomestrategiesthatmightbeusefulforachievingbothenhancedhydrationandimprovedmaintenanceofsystem
carbohydrateindifferentsports.
Table11.1ACSMFluidIntakeGuidelines
Timing

Amount

Adaptation

Beforeexercise(2
hoursprior)

Drink500milliliters(17ounces)

None

Duringexercise

Drink6001,200milliliters(2040
ounces)perhour

Drink150300milliliters(510ounces)
every1520minutes

Afterexercise

Basedonpreandpostexercise
bodyweight,drinkenoughfluid
torestorebodyweight(16
ouncesfluid=1poundbody
weight ).

Drink50percentoverandabovethe
volumeingestedtorestorepreexercise
bodyweight.Thiscompensatesforurine
losses,whichmayinducehypohydration
whenonly100percentoffluidis
consumed.

1.5timeslossinbodyweightshouldbeconsumedasfluid.

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Table11.2GeneralGuidelinesforAthletesInvolvedinSportsThatIncludeIntermittentPeriodsof
HighIntensityWork
Generalnutrition

Maintainadiethighincomplexcarbohydrates,moderateinprotein,
andrelativelylowinfat.Striveforavariedconsumptionoffoodsto
assureexposuretoallthenutrientsthatthebody'scellsneed.
Varyingyourintakealsohelpstoassurethatyoudon'toverexpose
yourcellstosubstancesinfoodsthatmaybe,withfrequentexposue,
harmfultogeneralhealth.

Thepreexerciseor
precompetitionmeal

Consumestarchy,easytodigest,highcarbohydratefoods.Consume
plentyoffluidswithmealsandduringtheperiodbetweenthemeal
andtheexercisesessionorcompetition.Whenpossible,consumethe
highcarbohydratemealabout3hoursbeforeexercise.

Duringexercise
replenishment

Consumeasportsdrinkthatisapproximatelya6to7percent
carbohydratesolution.Thedrinkshouldalsocontainasmallamount
ofsalttoencouragedrinkingduringthecompetition.Drink20to40
ouncesoffluidperhour,dependingontheenvironmental
temperatureandhumidityandyourpredispositiontosweating.In
somesports,therearenonaturalbreaksintheaction,whichmakesit
difficulttoconsumefluidsatthisrate.Insuchcases,athletesand
coachesshoulddevelopaclearstrategyforfluidconsumptionthat
cantakeplaceduring"timeouts"inthegame.Agoodstrategywill
assurethatthereareadequatepersonnelavailabletoprovidefluids
quicklyandefficientlytoeveryplayeronthefieldwheneverabreak
intheactionoccurs.

Postexerciseor
postcompetition
replenishment

Drinkasportsdrinktoensurequickrehydrationandreplenishmentof
depletedglycogenstores.Consumeapproximately24ouncesper
poundofbodyweight(1.5litersperkilogramofbodyweight)lost
duringtheactivity.Muscleglycogenstoresareefficientlyreplacedif
theathleteconsumescarbohydrateimmediatelyfollowingtheactivity.
Forthetwohoursimmediatelyfollowingactivity,consumehigh
glycemicindexfoods(i.e.,foodshighinnaturalsugarsorfoodsthat
arequicklyandeasilydigestedintosugars).Thegoalistoconsume
atleast50grams(200calories)ofcarbohydrateeveryhouruntilthe
nextmealtime.Ingeneral,strivetoconsumeapproximately4gramsof
carbohydrateperpoundofbodyweightduringthe24hours
followingexerciseorcompetition.

AdaptedfromWilliamsandNicholas1998.

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Basketball

Basketballcombinesmanyofthebestaspectsofteamcooperationandindividualeffort,withtwoguards,twoforwards,andonecenterwhoallplaybothdefense
andoffenseduringthe32(highschool)to48(professional)minutesofthegame.Basketballisagameplayedaroundtheworldbybothmen'sandwomen'steamsand
hasbeenahighlyvisiblepartoftheOlympicGamessincethe1936OlympicsinBerlin.Amongthemostimpressivewinningstreaksinbasketballwasthe10national
championships(7wonconsecutively)bytheJohnWoodencoachedUCLAmen'steams.Inaconversationmanyyearslater,oneofJohnWooden'splayerssaidthat
Woodenwasbrilliantatmakingsurehisteamwasthebestconditionedonthefloor,andpartofthatconditioningregimenwasmakingcertaintheplayersworked
harderduringpracticethanwouldbeneededduringanygameagainstanyopponent.Buthealsomadecertainalloftheplayersateandrestedwellenoughtobeready
togivea100percenteffort.
Itisclearfromstudiesinintermittenthighintensitysports,thatbasketballplayerscangainanadvantagebyfocusingontheconsumptionoftherightfoodsandfluids
duringthepre,during,andpostgameperiods.Inastudythatsurveyedthenutritionknowledgeofcollegebasketballcoachesandcoachesinothersports,itwas
foundthatonly33percentofthecoacheswereconfidentthatthey

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10

respondedcorrectlytoquestionsrelatedtonutrition. Inaddition,thissurveynotedthatcoachesfeltcollegeathleteshadproblemswiththeconsumptionofjunkfood,
hadgenerallypooreatinghabits,andgenerallyconsumedunbalanceddiets.Inasurveyofmaleandfemalebasketballplayers,itwasfoundthatthedietofthefemale
playerswaslackinginanumberofnutrients,andthattherewasanexcessiverelianceonnutrientsupplements.11Noneofthis,ofcourse,isconsistentwithwhat
basketballplayersneedtodotocompeteeffectively.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforBasketball
Basketballplayershaveahalftimethatcanbeusedtoreplenishfluidsandcarbohydrates.Basketballgameshavetheadvantageofhavinga10to20minute
halftimebreak.Thisisanexcellentopportunityforplayerstosiponasportsbeveragetoreplacelostfluidsandcarbohydrates.Someplayersmayalsofindtheydo
wellbyeatingsomeplaincrackersanddrinkingwater.However,thisisnotagoodtimetoconsumecandybarsandotherfoodsthat,whiletheycontainsomesugar,
arealsohighinfat.Whatbasketballplayersreallyneedatthistimeiscarbohydrateandwater,andeatinganythingelsedetractsfromwhattheyshouldhave.
Timespentonthebenchshouldbeusedtomaintainhydrationstate.Naturalbreaksinthegamefromofficialtimeoutsorsubstitutionsshouldbetaken
advantageofbysippingonsportsbeverages,whethertheplayersfeeltheyneeditornot.Sippingonbeveragesshouldbecomepartofthegameplan,justas
importantasmakingtherightteamdefensiveoroffensiveplays.Aplayermaynotwanttodoit,butit'sthe"team"thingtodo.
Frequentpracticesandgamescanwearaplayerout.Basketballplayerstypicallypracticesixdayseachweek,andoftenhavetwopracticesinasingleday.Add
tothatamatchschedulethathasthemplayingaleastonegameduringtheweek,andit'seasytoseewhyatypicalbasketballseasoncanwearaplayerout.Ingeneral,
playersshouldeatenoughcarbohydratetosupportbothglycogenstorage(criticaltobasketballperformance)andalsoconsumesufficientenergytomaintainmuscle
mass.Acommoncomplaintofcoachesisthattheyfinditdifficulttokeeptheweightofmanyplayersashighastheywouldliketo,andthisisasuresignthatthe
playersarenoteatingenoughtosupporttheintenseactivityofpracticeandgames.Teams

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thatcanmakeitthroughtheseasonwithweightmaintainedgenerallyarestrongerandhavebetterendurancethanthosewhodon't.
Playingaswellinthesecondhalfasinthefirsthalfwinsgames.Teamsthatcanmanagetokeeptheirstrengthandenduranceupduringthesecondhalfofthe
gametendtodobetteronthescoreboardthanteamsthatdon't.Todothis,playersshouldestablishapatternoffrequentsippingonacarbohydratecontaining
beverage,whethertheythinktheyneeditornot.Studiesshowthatthisfrequentsippingpatternhelpsplayerskeeptheirstrengthandendurancelongerthanifthey
drinkwateraloneorfailtodrinkatall.

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FigureSkating

Figureskatingtookitsnamefromthe"figures"thatcompetitorswererequiredtocomplete.Thesefigureswereliterallyoutlinedontheiceastwoorthreelobedfigure
eightsthat"figure"skatershadtoskateoverandmatchascloselyaspossibletoreceiveatopscore.In1991,however,the"figures"incompetitiveskatingwere
removedandreplacedwithashortandlongprogram,butthename''figureskating"hasremained.Competitivefigureskatersaimtoproduceperformancesthatare
smooth,graceful,artistic,andappeartobeeffortless.Theshort,curvedbladesandtoepicksusedbyfigureskaterspermittheseathletestocreatemovementswith
sharpturnsandhighjumpswithspins.Figureskatershavethreeseparateevents,andtrainingisspecializedforeachofthese:individualfigureskating,pairsskating,
andicedancing.Figureskatingisasinglegendercompetition(i.e.,malescompeteagainstmales,andfemalescompeteagainstfemales),andpairsskatingandice
dancingaremixedgenderevents.
Inindividualfigureskating,thereisanexpectationofgraceandeffortlessnessintheperformance,butthereisalsoacompetitivepremiumplacedonachievingdifficult
spinsandjumpsthatfavorstrongbutsmallerathletes.Sincethedensityofairandtheresistanceoficedonotchangeforeachathlete,largeathleteshaveagreaterice

Page282

resistanceandareconfrontedwithgreaterrelativeairresistancethansmallercompetitors.Therefore,largerskatersrequiresignificantlygreaterstrengthtodothesame
skillsassmallerskaters.Thetopsuccessfulfigureskatershaverecentlybeensmallerthaninpreviousyears.
Inpairsskating,itiscommontoseethemalepartnerconsiderablylargerandstrongerthanthefemale.Foranyonewhohasseenapairscompetition,thereasonis
obvious:themalemustliftandthrowhisfemalepartnerfrequentlyduringthecompetition,andthisiseasierifhe'sliftingsomeonesmaller.Findingtherightphysical
matchisdifficult,andpoorlymatchedpairsskatershavedifficultyperformingatthetopleveleveniftheyaresuperbindividualskaters.
Inicedancing,thereisamuchsmallerpremiumonalargemaleandsmallerfemalesincetherearenothrowsoroverheadliftsinthecompetition.Giventheintricacyof
footmovementandgracefoundinicedancing,thesportiswellnamed.Theconstantmovementcoupledwithalowerpowerrequirementmakesthisthemost
"aerobic"ofthethreeskatingdisciplines.
Instudiesoffigureskaters,ithasbeenfoundthattheypossessanaverageaerobiccapacitybuthavetheabilitytoproducehighpowerpeaks.12Thatis,whenthey
needto,theycancallupontheirmusclestoproduceatremendousamountofpowerallatonce.Ithasalsobeenfoundthatyoungfemaleskatersconsumedietsthat
arerelativelyhighinfatandproteinandrelativelylowincarbohydrate,calcium,andiron.13Althoughtherehasbeenatraditionalconcernthatcompetitivefigureskaters
maynotconsumesufficienttotalenergy,arecentstudysuggeststhatthisconcernmaybeunfoundedformostskaters.14However,thereappearstobeaportionof
theseskaterswhomaybeatriskforcertaindisorderedeatingpatternsand,whenthisoccurs,nutrientintakeislikelytobelow.
Aswithanyelitesport,injuriesoccur.Thereisparticularconcernabouttherateofinjuriesamongpairsskaters.Inonestudy,thefemaleseniorpairsskatersreported
anaverageof1.4seriousinjuriesoveraninemonthperiod,whileotherskatershadinjuryratesthatwereaveraging0.5seriousinjuriesperskateroverthissametime
period.15Mostoftheseinjuriesarelowerextremityinjuriesthatmightberelatedtobootdesign,butotherresearcherssuggestthatinjuriesmightberelatedtopoor
conditioning.16

Page283

NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforFigureSkating
Skatersareextremelyconcernedabouttheirweight,sinceappearanceontheiceisimportantinthissport.Achievementofoptimalweightisbestachieved
throughtheconsumptionofalowfat,moderateprotein,highcomplexcarbohydrateintakeplusagoodexerciseandconditioningprogram.Althoughdietingis
counterproductive,thereisgoodevidencethatthisistheweightmanagementstrategyofchoiceamongskaters.Theconsumptionofadequateenergyfrom
carbohydrateisimportantforbothperformanceandachievementofadesirablebodycomposition.Inadequateenergyintakemaypredisposetheskatertonutrient
deficiencies,lowenergyexpenditure,andhighbodyfatlevelsthatcanincreasetheriskofinjury,createillhealth,andreduceathleticperformance.
Thehighjumpsinfigureskatingplaceagreatdealofrelianceonphosphocreatineandmuscleglycogen.Adequateenergyintakefromcarbohydrate,
interspersedwitharegularintakeofmeats(toprovidecreatineorsufficientproteintomakecreatine)isimportantforskaters.Forvegetarianskaters,assuringan
adequatetotalproteinandtotalenergyconsumptioniscriticaltomaintainingmusclemassandsynthesizingcreatine.Thequickburstofmuscularactivityassociated
withthehighjumpsrequiredincompetitivefigureskatingisnotpossiblewithoutsufficientstorageofphosphocreatineandmuscleglycogen.Fordanceskating
competitions,thefuelrequirementinvolvesmoremuscleglycogenthanphosphocreatine,sotheseathletesarelikelytodobetterwithslightlylessprotein(ormeat),but
stillrequireanadequatetotalenergyintaketoperformadequately.
Practicesareconsiderablylongerthanperformances.Althoughskatingperformancesmayonlylastseveralminutes,practicesmaylastforanhourorlonger,they
mayoccurmorethanonceeachday,andtheymaybeveryearlyinthemorningorverylateatnight(icetimeishardtofind).Thismeansthatskatersmustaltereating
patternstosatisfytheirpracticeneeds.Forveryearlymorningpractices,skatersshouldeatanddrinksomethingbeforetakingtheice,tobecertainthatmusclesare
wellfueled.Forlatenightpractices,asmalldinnertwohoursbeforepracticefollowedbyanothersmalldinnerimmediatelyafterpracticewillhelpassurethatmuscles
arewellfueled.Skatingwhilethemusclesareon"empty"willnothelpthembecomemoreconditionedandmayactuallybecounterproductiveininducingatraining
benefit.

Page284

Soccer

Thepopularityofsoccerworldwideisenormous,andisincreasinginpopularityintheUnitedStates.Thisisawonderfulsportfromafitnessstandpoint,astheaverage
distancecoveredbyatypicalsoccerplayerduringamatchisapproximately10kilometers.17Inaddition,soccerplayersappeartohavesignificantlygreaterbone
mineraldensities(likelytobeduefromalltherunningstressesplacedonthebones)thanageandweightmatchedcontrols.18,19Whilemuchofthisactivityisaerobic,
agooddealofitisanaerobicasplayerssprinttogofortheball.Itappearsasifthereislessactivityinthesecondhalfofthegamewhencomparedtothefirst,andthat
lowermuscleglycogenlevelsmaybethecauseofthisreductioninactivity.Itwassuggestedlongagothattheingestionofcarbohydratesimmediatelybefore,during,
andafteragamemayplayanimportantroleinreducingplayerfatigueduringagame.20
Instudiesofprofessionalsoccerplayers'nutrientconsumption,itwasfoundthatenergyandnutrientintakewassimilartothatofthegeneralpopulation,despitehaving
afarhigherenergyandnutrientrequirement.21,22Whiletherecommendedtrainingdietforsoccerplayersshouldbecomprisedof55to65percentcarbohydrate,12to
15percentprotein,andlessthan30percentfat,23theathletesinthisandothersurveyshaddietsthatwereconsiderablylowerincarbohydrateandhigherinfat.24Itis
generallybelievedthatplayingsoccer

Page285
25

placesahighdemandonglycogenstores,soglycogendepletioncouldcauseprematurefatigueandreducedperformanceduringamatch. Ofcourse,adequate
energyintake,estimatedtobeapproximately4,000caloriesformalesand3,200caloriesforfemales,isalsoimportant.Withoutsufficientenergyintake,glycogenwill
becomedepletedregardlessofthemakeupofthediet.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforSoccer
Playinsoccerisexpectedtobecontinuous,makingitdifficultforplayerstoconsumefluids.Sincesoccerplayersmaynothaveanopportunitytoregularly
consumefluidsduringagame,pregamehydrationstatusisparticularlyimportant.Whenpossible(betweenperiodsandduringofficialbreaks),playersshoulddo
whateverisreasonablypossibletoconsumesomesportsbeveragetorehydrateandtoreplacecarbohydrates.
Surveyssuggesttheconsumptionofcarbohydratesislessthanoptimalforsoccerplayers.Carbohydrateconsumptioniscriticalfortheachievementofoptimal
soccerperformance.Sincesurveyssuggestthatsoccerplayerstypicallyconsumedietsthatmatchthoseofthegeneralpublic,withacarbohydrateintakeofaround50
percentoftotalcalories,playersshouldmakeaconsciousefforttoimprovecarbohydrateintake.
Pregameglycogenstorageiscritical.Soccerplayersspendalotoftimerunningupanddownthefield,andthisplacesatremendousdrainonmuscleglycogen.
Playerswhobeginthegamewithmorestoredglycogenwillexperienceanenduranceadvantage.Toachieveahigherglycogenstorage,playersshouldconsistently
consumeplentyofcarbohydratesandfluidsandalsofocusmainlyoncarbohydratesduringthepregamemeal.

Page286

Tennis

Itisgenerallyagreedthattennishasbothaerobicandanaerobiccomponents,butthemajorityofenergysupplyappearstocomefromanaerobicsystems.26,27Itisthis
heavyrelianceontheanaerobicmetabolicsystemthatislikelytobethereasonwhyithasbeenfoundthatcarbohydratesupplementationimprovesthestrokequality
duringthefinalstagesofatennismatch.28Sincelonglasting,highintensityexerciseishighlydependentoncarbohydrateasafuel,itmakesperfectsensethattennis
playersshouldassurethatcarbohydrateisavailabletothemusclesasafuel.
Whilecarbohydrateconsumptionmaybeofconcern,itappearsthatcollegiatetennisplayers(DivisionI)havebeenwellcoachedtoconsumesufficientfluidsinhot
environments.Inastudyevaluatingfluidandelectrolytebalanceduringmultidaymatchplayinahotenvironment,itwasfoundthattheathletessuccessfullymaintained
overallbalance,resultinginnooccurrenceofheatillness.29
Italsoappears,fromdataonyoungtennisplayers,thattheadequacyofenergyintakeisbetterthanthatseeninothersports(gymnasticsandswimming).Itiswell
establishedthatmenstrualonsetis,toagreatdegree,dependentontheadequacyofenergyintake.Ingeneral,femalesexperiencethefirstmensesatage13.Females
whohaveenergydeficits,however,mayhaveuptoatwo

Page287

yeardelayintheageofmenarche.Tennisplayers,however,appeartohaveonlyaslightdelay(13.2years)intheageofmenarche,suggestingthatenergy
consumptionisgood.30Typically,thereislessconcernintennison"makingweight."Thefocusisonconditioning,regardlessofwheretheweightendsup.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforTennis
Tennisiscommonlyplayedoutsideoncourtswherethereflectivetemperatureoffthecourtishigherthantheenvironmentaltemperature.Theheatat
courtsidecanquicklycauseheatillnessiftennisplayersfailtotakestepstoadequatelyhydratethemselves.Playersshouldbeawareofthesignsofheatdisorders
(thirst,fatigue,visionproblems,inabilitytospeaknormally)andtakequickactionifthey,apartner,oranopponentappearstohaveanyheatrelatedsymptoms(see
table11.3).
Tennishasnaturalbreaksaftereachoddgame,whentheopponentschangesides.Thesenaturalbreaksinatennismatchare,perhaps,whyithasbeenfound
thattennisplayersareinrelativelygoodhydrationstateduringandfollowingamatch.However,sincecarbohydratesupplementationhasbeenfoundtoimproveend
ofgamestrokes,playersshouldmakecertainthatthebeverageconsumedcontains
Table11.3HeatDisorderSymptoms
Heatcramps

Musclespasmsthatoccurinvoluntarilyduringorafterexercise,typicallywith
themusclesthatdidmostoftheworkduringtheexercise.

Heatexhaustion

Weakandrapidheartratewithlowbloodpressure,headache,dizziness,and
severeweakness.Bodytemperatureisnotelevatedtodangerouslevels,but
sweatratemaybereduced,increasingtheriskofhighbodytemperature.
Bloodvolumeistypicallylow.Atthisstage,theathleteshouldstop
exercising,gotoashadyareaorcoolbuilding,andconsumefluidsto
rehydrate.

Heatstroke

Afailureofthebody'sabilitytomaintaintemperature.Characterizedbya
failuretosweat.Circulatorysystemcollapsemayleadtodeath.Immediate
stepsshouldbetakentocoolthebodybyapplyingice,placingthepersonin
coldwater,and/orapplyingalcoholrubs.Thisisanemergencycondition,so
medicalassistanceshouldbecalledimmediately.

ReprintedbypermissionfromM.H.Williams,1997,Nutritionforfitnessandsport,5thed.(NewYork:
McGrawHill),208209.ReproducedwiththepermissionofTheMcGrawHillCompanies.

Page288

carbohydrate.Thesesportsbeverages,ifsippedduringamatch,willhelptoassurethathighintensityactivitycanbemaintainedforalongerperiodoftime.
Summary
Sportsthatrequireacombinationofpowerandendurancehaveonlyrecentlyreceivedthesamekindofscientificattentionthatendurancesportshaveenjoyedfor
manyyears.Interestingly,studiesonthesesportsindicatethatcarbohydrateconsumptionisusefulinenhancingperformanceeveniftheactivitylastslessthanone
hour.Thisisanimportantfinding,sincethetraditionalthoughthasbeenthatwaterisanappropriatehydrationbeverageforactivitieslastinglessthanonehour,butthat
carbohydratecontainingsportsbeveragesareimportanttoconsumeforactivitieslastinglongerthanonehour.Wenowknowthatevenintheseshorteractivites,
carbohydrateconsumptionisperformanceenhancing.Sincemanyofthesesports(basketball,soccer,tennis)placeanenormouscaloricdrainonthesystem,athletes
shoulddevelopeatingstrategies(i.e.,eatingenough)thatencouragemaintenanceofmusclemassduringlongandarduousseasons.

Page289

AppendixA
Followingaresixsamplemealplanstoassistathletesandcoachesinplanningmealsthatmeetneededenergyandnutrientrequirements.Energyrequirementsare
calculatedas30to50caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight,althoughenergyrequirementsvarybydurationandintensityofactivityandbygrowthphase.Thesemeal
plansmeetcarbohydraterequirementscalculatedas8gramsperkilogramofbodyweight,andalsoprovideaminimumof1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbody
weight.DataforthesemealplansarederivedfromUSDAnutrientdatabaseforstandardreference(releaseSR11,1996).

Page290

2,500Calories

Food

Breakfast

1cupwholewheatcereal

1cupskimmilk

Cal

Carb

Prot

Fat

166

37.7

5.1

0.6

86

11.9

8.4

0.4

1banana

105

26.7

1.2

0.6

Subtotals(19%oftotalcalories)

470

102.1

16.4

2.1

MidAM
snack

5saltinecrackers

63

10.2

1.3

1.7

1cupapplejuice

117

29.0

0.2

0.3

Subtotals(7%oftotalcalories)

180

39.2

1.5

2.0

Lunch

chickenbreast(broiled)

142

0.0

26.7

3.1

2slicesbread,crackedwheat

132

26.0

4.4

1.1

cupsalad(lettuceandvegetables)

17

3.4

1.3

0.1

1tbsplemonjuice(fordressing)

1.3

0.1

0.0

Subtotals(17%oftotalcalories)

409

60.1

33.6

4.3

MidPM
snack

2ouncescheese,cheddar

225

0.7

13.9

18.6

1apple(raw)

81

21.1

0.3

0.5

Subtotals(13%oftotalcalories)

306

21.8

14.2

19.1

Dinner

2.5cupsspaghettiandmeatballs

720

83.8

40.3

25.2

1rool

119

19.6

2.9

3.0

1cupCaesarsalad

1.3

0.9

0.1

1tbspCaesarsaladdressing

57

3.5

0.1

4.9

1orange

72

15.4

1.2

0.2

Subtotals(40%oftotalcalories)

123.6

45.4

33.5

Evening
snack

1cuppopcorn(airpopped)

35

6.9

1.1

0.5

8ouncesGatorade

75

21.1

0.0

0.2

Subtotals(5%oftotalcalories)

110

28.0

1.1

0.5

2,452

375

112

61

60

18

22

977

Dailytotals(grams)

Percentoftotalcalories

OtherKeynutrientsProvidedbythisfoodintake
Nutrient

Amount

Nutrient

Calcium

1,242mg

Thiamin

1.8mg

Iron

18mg

Riboflavin

2.2mg

VitaminC

417mg

Amount

Note:Thisleveloffoodintakeisappropriateforanathlete
weighingabout125lbs.

Page291

2,500Calories(Lactovegetarian)

Food

Breakfast

1cuporangejuice

1cupwholewheatcereal

1cupskimmilk

Cal

Carb

Prot

112

25.8

1.7

0.5

166

37.7

5.1

0.6

86

11.9

8.4

0.4

1banana

105

26.7

1.2

0.6

Subtotals(19%oftotalcalories)

470

102.1

16.4

2.1

MidAM
snack

5saltinecrackers

63

10.2

1.3

1.7

1cupapplejuice

117

29.0

0.2

0.3

Subtotals(7%oftotalcalories)

180

39.2

1.5

2.0

Lunch

2cupssobanoodles

226

48.9

11.5

0.2

4piecestofu,fried

141

5.5

8.9

10.5

2slicescrackedwheatbread

132

26.0

4.4

1.1

cupsalad

17

3.4

1.3

0.1

1tbsplemonjuice(fordressing)

1.3

0.1

0.0

1cupfruitcocktail

114

29.4

1.1

0.0

Subtotals(26%oftotalcalories)

632

114.5

27.4

11.9

MidPM
snack

2ouncescheese,cheddar

225

0.7

13.9

18.6

1apple

81

21.1

0.3

0.5

Subtotals(13%oftotalcalories)

306

21.8

14.2

19.1

Dinner

8ouncespasta(madewithoutegg)

283

57.3

10.0

2.2

1cupmarinarasauce

170

25.5

4.0

8.4

2tbspparmesancheese

46

0.4

4.2

3.0

1roll

119

19.6

2.9

3.0

1cupcaesarsalad

1.3

0.9

0.1

1tbspceasarsaladdressing

57

3.5

0.1

4.9

Subtotals(31%oftotalcalories)

123.6

45.4

33.5

Evening
snack

1cuppopcorn(airpopped)

35

6.9

1.1

0.5

8ouncesGatorade

75

21.1

0.0

0.2

Subtotals(5%oftotalcalories)

110

28.0

1.1

0.5

428.3

83.8

57.3

67

13

20

977

Dailytotals(grams)

Percentoftotalcalories

2,440

Otherkeynutrientsprovidedbythisfoodintake
Nutrient

Amount

Nutrient

Amount

Calcium

1,359mg

Thiamin

2.0mg

Iron

18mg

Riboflavin

2.1mg

VitaminC

401mg

Note:Thisleveloffoodintakeisappropriateforan
athleteweighingabout125lbs.

Fat

Page292

3,000Calories

Food

Breakfast

1cuporangejuice

111.6

25.8

1.7

0.5

1cupstrawberries

44.7

10.5

0.9

0.6

1cupwholewheatcereal

116.2

26.0

3.3

0.7

1cup1%milk

102.2

11.7

8.0

2.6

1roll

75.0

13.4

2.0

1.3

1tspmargarine

33.8

0.0

0.0

3.8

1tbspstrawberryjam

54.4

14.0

0.1

0.0

Subtotals(18%oftotalcalories)

537.4

101.4

16.2

9.4

MidAM
snack

1plainbagel

199.9

38.0

7.0

2.0

1tspmargarine

33.8

0.0

0.0

3.8

1tbspjamorpreserves

54.4

14.0

0.1

0.0

16ouncesGatorade

100.2

28.1

0.0

0.0

Subtotals(11%oftotalcalories)

388.4

80.1

7.2

5.8

Lunch

2slicesturkey(forsandwich)

46.8

0.0

9.6

0.7

2slicesbread(forsandwich)

131

26.1

4.4

1.1

Lettuce(forsandwich)

2.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

1tbspmayonnaise(forsandwich)

49.5

0.2

0.1

5.5

1cupcranberryjuice

216.3

54.7

0.0

0.4

1mediumapple

81.4

21.1

0.3

0.5

1/3cuppotatosalad

216.6

25.7

2.9

11.5

Subtotals(25%oftotalcalories)

744.6

128.1

17.4

19.6

MidPM
snack

3Dutchtypepretzels

187.2

36.4

4.7

2.2

16ouncesGatorade

100.2

28.1

0.0

0.0

cupgrapes

29.0

8.0

0.3

0.2

Subtotals(13%oftotalcalories)

316.4

72.4

5.0

2.3

Dinner

1cupschickenchowmein

382.5

15.0

46.5

15.0

1cuprice

199.5

43.3

4.0

0.5

6ouncestea

1.7

0.5

0.0

0.0

1orange

61.6

15.4

1.2

1.2

Subtotals(21%oftotalcalories)

654.4

74.2

51.7

15.6

Evening
snack

1banana

104.9

26.7

1.2

0.6

2ouncescheddarcheese

112.7

0.4

7.0

9.3

2squaresgrahamcrackers

109.1

20.8

2.3

2.7

8ouncesGatorade

50.0

14.0

0.0

0.0

Subtotals(13%oftotalcalories)

376.8

61.9

10.4

12.5

Dailytotals(grams)

3,009

518

108

65

Percentoftotalcalories

67.1

14.0

18.9

Cal

Carb

Prot

Fat

Otherkeynutrientsprovidedbythisfoodintake
Nutrient

Amount

Nutrient

Amount

Calcium

1,200mg

Thiamin

3.7mg

Iron

37.3mg

Riboflavin

4.2mg

VitaminC

528.8mg

Note:Thisleveloffoodintakeisappropriateforanathleteweighingabout170lbs.

Page293

3,500Calories

Food
Breakfast

1.5cupsorangejuice

Cal

Carb

Prot

Fat

167.4

38.7

2.6

0.8

44.7

10.5

0.9

0.6

1cupstrawberries

1.5cupswholewheatTotal

174.2

39.0

5.0

1.0

1cup1%milk

102.2

11.7

8.0

2.6

1roll

75.0

13.4

2.0

1.3

1tspmargarine

33.8

0.0

0.0

3.8

1tbspstrawberryjam

54.4

14.0

0.1

0.0

Subtotals(19%oftotalcalories)

651.3

127.3

18.7

199.9

38.0

7.0

2.0

MidAM
snack

1plainbagel

10.0

1tspmargarine

33.8

0.0

0.0

3.8

1tbspjamorpreserves

54.4

14.0

0.1

0.0

16ouncesGatorade

100.2

28.1

0.0

0.0

Subtotals(11%oftotalcalories)

388.4

80.1

7.2

5.8

1roastbeefsandwich

346.1

33.4

21.5

13.8

1cupcranberryjuice

216.3

54.7

0.0

0.4

1mediumapple

81.4

21.1

0.3

0.5

2/3cuppotatosalad

216.6

25.7

2.9

11.5

1peach

37.4

9.7

0.6

0.1

Subtotals(25%oftotalcalories)

897.9

144.5

25.3

26.2

3Dutchtypepretzels

187.2

36.4

4.7

2.2

16ouncesGatorade

100.2

28.1

0.0

0.0

1cupgrapes

57.9

15.8

0.6

0.3

Subtotals(10%oftotalcalories)

345.4

80.3

5.3

2.5

1.5cupschickenchowmein

382.5

15.0

46.5

15.0

1cuprice

199.5

43.3

4.0

0.5

6ouncestea

1.7

0.5

0.0

0.0

1orange

61.6

15.4

1.2

0.2

1cup1%milk

102.2

11.7

8.0

2.6

1tspsugar(fortea)

15.4

34.0

0.0

0.0

Subtotals(21%oftotalcalories)

762.9

89.8

59.8

18.2

1banana

104.9

26.7

1.2

0.2

1cup1%milk

102.1

11.7

8.0

2.6

3grahamcrackers

163.6

31.2

3.4

4.0

16ouncesGatorade

100.3

28.1

0.0

0.0

Subtotals(13%oftotalcalories)

470.9

97.7

12.6

7.2

Dailytotals(grams)

Percentoftotalcalories

Lunch

MidPM
snack

Dinner

Evening
snack

3,517

620

129

70

68.4

14.2

17.4

Otherkeynutrientsprovidedbythisfoodintake
Nutrient

Amount

Nutrient

Amount

Calcium

1,760mg

Thiamin

5.1mg

Iron

51.3mg

Riboflavin

6.2mg

VitaminC

639.4mg

Note:Thisleveloffoodintakeisappropriateforanathleteweighingabout190lbs.

Page294

4,000Calories

Food
Breakfast

Cal

1.5cupsorangejuice

Carb

Prot

167.4

38.7

2.6

0.8

44.7

10.5

0.9

0.6

1cupstrawberries

2cupswholewheatTotal

232.3

52.0

6.6

1.4

2cups1%milk

204.3

23.3

16.1

5.2

1roll

75.0

13.4

2.0

1.3

1tspmargarine

33.8

0.0

0.0

3.8

1tbspjam

54.4

14.0

0.1

0.0

Subtotals(21%oftotalcalories)

811.5

152.0

28.4

13.0

199.9

38.0

7.0

2.0

MidAMsnack

1plainbagel

1tspmargarine

33.8

0.0

0.0

3.8

1tbspjam

54.4

14.0

0.1

0.0

16ouncesGatorade

100.2

28.1

0.0

0.0

Subtotals(11%oftotalcalories)

388.4

80.1

7.2

5.8

1roastbeefsandwich

346.1

33.4

21.5

13.8

1mediumbakedpotato

145.1

33.6

3.1

0.2

1tbspsourcream(forpotato)

25.7

0.5

0.4

2.5

1.5cupstossedsalad

33.1

6.7

2.6

0.1

1tbspItaliandressingforsalad

68.7

1.5

0.1

7.1

1.5cupscranberryjuice

216.3

54.7

0.0

0.4

1apple

81.4

21.1

0.3

0.5

1peach

37.4

9.7

0.6

0.1

Subtotals(24%oftotalcalories)

953.9

161.1

28.5

24.6

3Dutchtypechowmein

187.2

36.4

4.7

2.2

16ouncesGatorade

100.2

28.1

0.0

0.0

1cupgrapes

57.9

15.8

0.6

0.3

Subtotals(10%oftotalcalories)

345.4

80.3

5.3

2.5

2cupschickenchowmein

510.0

20.0

62.0

20.0

2cupsrice

399.5

86.6

8.0

1.0

6ouncestea

1.8

0.5

0.0

0.0

1orange

61.6

15.4

1.2

0.2

1cup1%milk

102.2

11.7

8.0

2.6

1tspsugar(fortea)

15.4

34.0

0.0

0.0

Subtotals(28%oftotalcalories)

138.1

79.3

23.7

Lunch

MidPMsnack

Dinner

1089.9

1cup1%milk

102.1

11.7

8.0

2.6

3grahamcrackers

163.6

31.2

3.4

4.0

16ouncesGatorade

100.3

28.1

0.0

0.0

Subtotals(13%oftotalcalories)

470.9

97.7

12.6

7.2

697

153

74

68.6

15.1

16.4

Eveningsnack

Dailytotals(grams)

Percentoftotalcalories

3,958

Otherkeynutrientsprovidedbythisfoodintake
Nutrient

Amount

Nutrient

Amount

Calcium

1,986mg

Thiamin

6.5mg

Iron

65.5mg

Riboflavin

7.3mg

VitaminC

745.4mg

Note:Thisleveloffoodintakeisappropriateforanathleteweighingabout220lbs.

Fat

Page295

5,000Calories

Food

Cal

Carb

Prot

1.5cupsorangejuice

167.4

38.7

2.6

0.8

1cupstrawberries

44.7

10.5

0.9

0.6

2cupswholewheatTotal

232.3

52.0

6.6

1.4

2cups2%milk

242.4

23.3

16.3

9.4

1roll

75.0

13.4

2.0

1.3

1tspmargarine

33.8

0.0

0.0

3.8

1tbspjam

54.4

14.0

0.1

0.0

Subtotals(17%oftotalcalories)

849.6

152.1

28.6

17.2

1plainbagel

199.9

38.0

7.0

2.0

2tbspcreamcheese

195.5

1.5

4.2

19.5

1banana

104.9

26.7

1.2

0.6

16ouncesGatorade

100.2

28.1

0.0

0.0

Subtotals(12%oftotalcalories)

600.5

94.3

12.4

22.1

1hamburgerwithroll

401.4

54.7

22.6

22.9

1mediumbakedpotato

145.1

33.6

3.1

0.2

1tbspsourcream(forpotato)

25.7

0.5

0.4

2.5

1.5cupstossedsalad

33.1

6.7

2.6

0.1

1tbspItaliandressing(forsalad)

68.7

1.5

0.1

7.1

1.5cupscranberryjuice

216.3

54.7

0.0

0.4

1mediumapple

81.4

21.1

0.3

0.5

1servingcoffeecake

150.7

24.5

2.95

4.5

Subtotals(22%oftotalcalories)

168.0

32.0

38.2

Breakfast

MidAMsnack

Lunch

1122.5

3sliceswholewheattoast

182.1

35.7

7.9

2.3

1tbspjam

54.4

14.0

0.1

0.0

16ouncesGatorade

100.2

28.1

0.0

0.0

1banana

104.9

26.7

1.2

0.6

Subtotals(11%oftotalcalories)

542.9

104.6

9.3

14.2

2cupschickenchowmein

510.0

20.0

62.0

20.0

2cupsrice

399.5

86.6

8.0

1.0

6ouncestea

1.8

0.5

0.0

0.0

1tspsugar(fortea)

15.4

34.0

0.0

0.0

1orange

61.6

15.4

1.2

0.2

1cup2%milk

121.2

11.7

8.1

4.7

1slicechocolatecake

162.4

24.6

2.0

7.2

Subtotals(25%oftotalcalories)

162.7

81.4

33.0

MidPMsnack

Dinner

1271.3

1cupicecream

269.2

31.7

4.8

14.3

3grahamcrackers

163.6

31.2

3.4

4.0

16ouncesGatorade

100.3

28.1

0.0

0.0

Subtotals(13%oftotalcalories)

637.9

117.7

9.4

18.9

Dailytotals(grams)

799

173

144

Percentoftotalcalories

61.7

13.4

24.9

Eveningsnack

5,025

Otherkeynutrientsprovidedbythisfoodintake
Nutrient

Amount

Nutrient

Calcium

2,338mg

Thiamin

6.8mg

Iron

69.0mg

Riboflavin

8.1mg

VitaminC

755.4mg

Note:Thisleveloffoodintakeisappropriateforanathleteweighingabout240lbs.

Fat

Amount

Page296

AppendixB
IronContentofSelectedFoodsinDescendingIronAmount
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount

Iron(mg)

Product19cereal(1oz)

18.00

Totalcereal(1oz)

18.00

Oysters,raw(1cup)

15.60

Enchilada(1enchilada)

11.00

CreamofWheat(1cup)

10.90

MaltOMeal(1cup)

9.60

Cashewnuts,dryroasted(1cup)

8.20

40%BranFlakes,Kellogg(1oz)

8.10

Seaweed,spirulina,dried(1oz)

8.10

Cap'nCrunchcereal(1oz)

7.50

Oatmeal,cookedfrominstant(1pkt)

6.70

Peaches,dried(1cup)

6.50

Spinach,cooked(1cup)

6.40

Apricots,dried,uncooked(1cup)

6.10

Duck,roasted,fleshonly(duck)

6.00

Limabeans,dry,cooked(1cup)

5.90

Beefliver,fried(3oz)

5.30

Chickpeas,cooked,drained(1cup)

4.90

Hamburger,4ozpattyandroll(1sandwich)

4.80

Redkidneybeans,dry,canned(1cup)

4.60

Cereal,mostpopularbrands(1oz)

4.50

Cheeseburger,4ozpattyandroll(1sandwich)

4.50

Chiliconcarnew/beans(1cup)

4.30

Figs,dried(10figs)

4.20

Roastbeefsandwich(1sandwich)

4.00

Page297
CalciumContentofSelectedFoodsinDescendingCalciumAmount
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount

Calcium(mg)

Yogurt,w/lowfatmilk,plain(8oz)

415.00

Macaroniandcheese(1cup)

362.00

Enchilada(1enchilada)

322.00

Milk,lowfat,1%fat(1cup)

313.00

Milk,skim,nofat(1cup)

302.00

Orangejuice,calciumfortified(1cup)

300.00

Milk,lowfat,2%fat(1cup)

297.00

Milk,whole,3.3%fat(1cup)

291.00

Figs,dried(10figs)

269.00

Spinach,cooked(1cup)

245.00

Cheeseburger,4ozpattyandroll(1sandwich)

236.00

Oysters,raw(1cup)

226.00

Turnipgreens,cooked(1cup)

200.00

Oatmeal,cookedfrominstant(1pkt)

168.00

Pasteurizedprocessedcheesefood,American(1
oz)

163.00

Bokchoy,cooked(1cup)

160.00

Fetacheese(1oz)

140.00

Spaghettiw/meatballsandtomatosauce(1cup)

124.00

Tofu(1piece)

108.00

Kale,cooked(1cup)

90.00

Chiliconcarnew/beans(1cup)

82.00

Chickpeas,cooked,drained(1cup)

80.00

Hamburger,4ozpattyandroll(1sandwich)

75.00

Redkidneybeans,dry,canned(1cup)

74.00

Raisins(1cup)

71.00

Broccoli(1cup)

70.00

Page298
BVitaminContentofSelectedFoodsinDescendingBVitaminAmount
Fooddescriptionandcommonserving
amount

B1(mg)

Niacin(mg)

Product19cereal(1oz)

1.50

1.70

20.00

Totalcereal(1oz)

1.50

1.70

20.00

Seaweed,spirulina,dried(1oz)

0.67

1.40

3.60

Duck,roasted,fleshonly(duck)

0.57

1.40

11.30

Oatmeal,cookedfrominstant(1pkt)

0.53

0.38

5.90

Cap'nCrunchcereal(1oz)

0.50

0.55

6.60

MaltOMeal(1cup)

0.48

0.24

5.80

Roastbeefsandwich(1sandwich)

0.40

0.33

6.00

Hamburger,4ozpattyandroll(1sandwich)

0.38

0.38

7.80

40%BranFlakes,Kellogg(1oz)

0.37

0.43

5.00

Cereal,mostpopularbrands(1oz)

0.37

0.43

5.00

Cornflakes,Kellogg(1oz)

0.37

0.43

5.00

RiceKrispiescereal(1oz)

0.37

0.43

5.00

Oysters,raw(1cup)

0.34

0.43

6.00

Cheeseburger,4ozpattyandroll(1
sandwich)

0.33

0.48

7.40

Chickenpotpie,homerecipe(1piece)

0.32

0.32

4.90

Cashewnuts,dryroasted(1cup)

0.27

0.27

1.90

Bagels,plain(1bagel)

0.26

0.20

2.40

Limabeans,dry,cooked(1cup)

0.25

0.11

1.30

Spaghettiwithmeatballsandtomatosauce
(1cup)

0.25

0.30

4.00

CreamofWheat(1cup)

0.24

0.00

1.50

Raisins(1cup)

0.23

0.13

1.20

Rice,white,cooked(1cup)

0.23

0.02

2.10

Macaroniandcheese(1cup)

0.20

0.40

1.80

Enchilada(1enchilada)

0.18

0.26

0.00

Beefliver,fried(3oz)

0.18

3.52

12.30

Chickpeas,cooked,drained(1cup)

0.18

0.09

0.90

Spinach,cooked(1cup)

0.17

0.42

0.90

Redkidneybeans,dry,canned(1cup)

0.13

0.10

1.50

Figs,dried(10figs)

0.13

0.16

1.30

Yogurt,w/lowfatmilk,plain(8oz)

0.10

0.49

0.30

Milk,lowfat,2%fat(1cup)

0.10

0.40

0.20

Milk,lowfat,1%fat(1cup)

0.10

0.42

0.20

Turkey,roasted,light+dark(1cup)

0.09

0.25

7.60

Milk,whole,3.3%fat(1cup)

0.09

0.40

0.20

Milk,skim,nofat(1cup)

0.09

0.34

0.20

Chiliconcarnew/beans(1cup)

0.08

0.18

3.30

Raisinbread(1slice)

0.08

0.15

1.00

Tofu(1piece)

0.07

0.04

0.10

Beefsteak(3oz)

0.06

0.21

3.30

Tunasalad(1cup)

0.06

0.14

13.30

Chicken,roasted,breast(3oz)

0.06

0.10

11.80

Fetacheese(1oz)

0.04

0.24

0.30

Beef,corned(3oz)

0.02

0.20

2.90

Apricots,dried,uncooked(1cup)

0.01

0.20

3.90

Pasteurizedprocessedcheesefood,
American(1oz)

0.01

0.13

0.00

Peaches,dried(1cup)

0.00

0.34

7.00

[B1=ThiaminB2=Riboflavin]
(Source:USDAHomeandGardenBulletin#72)

B2(mg)

Page299
EnergyDistributionofFoodsCommonlyConsumed,inAlphabeticalOrder
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount

Carb
%

Prot%

Fat%

Calories

100%NaturalCereal(1Oz)

52

39

138

1000Island,saladdrsng,reglr(1Tablespoon)

13

87

62

40%BranFlakes,Kellogg(1Oz)

78

14

113

40%BranFlakes,Post(1Oz)

88

12

100

AlfalfaSeeds,Sprouted,Raw(1Cup)

50

50

AllBranCereal(1Oz)

77

15

109

Almonds,Whole(1Oz)

13

13

74

183

AngelfoodCake,FromMix(1Piece)

91

128

AppleJuice,Canned(1Cup)

100

116

ApplePie(1Piece)

58

39

414

Apples,Raw,Unpeeled(1MediumApple)

100

84

Applesauce,Canned,Sweetened(1Cup)

100

204

Applesauce,Canned,Unsweetened(1Cup)

100

112

ApricotNectar(1Cup)

97

148

Apricots,Canned,JuicePack(1Cup)

94

132

Apricots,Canned,Unsweetened(3Halves)

91

44

Apricots,Dried,Uncooked(1Cup)

92

349

Apricots,Raw(3Apricots)

92

52

Artichokes,Globe,Cooked(1Artichoke)

80

20

60

Asparagus,CookedFrmRaw(4Spears)

60

40

20

Avocados,Florida(1Avocado)

29

65

371

Bagels,Egg(1Bagel)

77

14

198

Bagels,Plain(1Bagel)

77

14

198

BakingPwdrBiscuits,HomeRecipe(1Biscuit)

50

43

105

Bananas(1Banana)

89

121

BarbecueSauce(1Tablespoon)

100

BeanSprouts,Mung,Cooked(1Cup)

63

38

36

BeanSprouts,Mung,Raw(1Cup)

67

33

36

BeanWithBaconSoup,Canned(1Cup)

52

18

30

178

BeefAndVegetableStew(1Cup)

27

29

44

223

BeefGravy,Canned(1Cup)

35

29

36

125

BeefNoodleSoup,Canned(1Cup)

43

24

33

83

BeefPotpie,HomeRecipe(1Piece)

31

16

53

510

BeefRoast,Rib,LeanOnly(2.2Oz)

46

54

BeefSteak,Sirloin,Broil,Lean(2.5Oz)

62

38

142

BeetGreens,Cooked(1Cup)

67

33

48
(continued)

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Page300

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
EnergyDistributionofFoodsCommonlyConsumed,inAlphabeticalOrder(continued)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount

Carb% Prot% Fat%

Beets,Cooked,Drained,Diced(1Cup)

85

15

52

Beets,Cooked,Drained,Whole(2Beets)

88

13

32

BlackBeans,Dry,Cooked(1Cup)

70

26

233

BlackEyedPeas,Dry,Cooked(1Cup)

70

26

201

Blackberries,Raw(1Cup)

85

11

85

BlueCheese(1Oz)

24

72

100

BlueCheeseSaladDressing(1Tablespoon)

90

80

Blueberries,Raw(1Cup)

86

10

93

BlueberryMuffins,FromMix(1Muffin)

61

31

145

BlueberryMuffins,HomeRecipe(1Muffin)

58

33

137

BlueberryPie(1Piece)

57

39

389

Bologna(2Slices)

16

80

180

BostonBrownBread(1Slice)

83

101

BranMuffins,FromMix(1Muffin)

67

25

144

BranMuffins,HomeRecipe(1Muffin)

54

38

142

BrazilNuts(1Oz)

84

203

Broccoli,Frozen,Cooked(1Piece)

67

33

12

Broccoli,Raw,Cooked(1Spear)

58

29

13

69

BrownAndServeSausage(1Link)

15

85

53

BrownGravyFromDryMix(1Cup)

65

14

21

86

Browniesw/Nuts(1Brownie)

43

53

102

BrusselsSprouts,Raw,Cooked(1Cup)

68

21

12

77

Butter,Salted(1Tablespoon)

100

99

Buttermilk,Fluid(1Cup)

49

33

18

98

Cabbage,Common,Cooked(1Cup)

88

13

32

Cabbage,Common,Raw(1Cup)

80

20

20

Cabbage,Red,Raw(1Cup)

80

20

20

CamembertCheese(1Wedge)

28

72

113

Cantaloupe,Raw(sMelon)

84

105

Cap'nCrunchCereal(1Oz)

75

22

123

Caramels,PlainOrChocolate(1Oz)

74

23

119

Carrots,Raw,Whole(1Carrot)

88

13

32

CashewNuts,DryRoasted,Salted(1Cup)

22

10

68

831

Catsup(1Tablespoon)

100

16

Cauliflower,CookedFromRaw(1Cup)

75

25

32

Cauliflower,Raw(1Cup)

71

29

28

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Calories

Page301

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount

Carb% Prot% Fat%

Celery,Raw(1Stalk)

100

Calories
4

CheddarCheese(1Oz)

26

74

109

CheeriosCereal(1Oz)

70

14

16

114

CheeseCrackers,Plain(10Crackers)

44

49

55

CheeseCrackers,Sandwich(1Sandwich)

48

10

43

42

CheeseSaucew/Milk(1Cup)

30

21

50

309

Cheeseburger,Regular(1Sandwich)

36

20

44

307

Cheesecake(1Piece)

36

57

286

Cherries,Sweet,Raw(10Cherries)

77

16

57

CherryPie(1Piece)

58

38

422

ChickenlaKing,HomeRecipe(1Cup)

10

23

66

462

ChickenAndNoodles,HomeRecipe(1Cup)

29

25

46

354

$jtChickenChowMein,Canned(1Cup):

72

28

100

ChickenChowMein,HomeRecipe(1Cup)

16

49

35

254

ChickenGravy,Canned(1Cup)

26

10

64

198

ChickenNoodleSoup,Canned(1Cup)

51

23

26

70

ChickenPotpie,HomeRecipe(1Piece)

31

17

52

539

ChickenRiceSoup,Canned(1Cup)

45

26

29

62

CghickenFried,Batter,Breast(4.9Oz)

15

40

46

354

Chicken,Fried,Batter,Drumstick(2.5Oz)

13

34

53

187

Chicken,Fried,Drumstick(1.7Oz)

44

53

119

Chicken,Fried,Flour,Breast(3.5Oz)

58

38

213

Chicken,Roasted,Breast(3.0Oz)

80

20

135

Chicken,Roasted,Drumstick(1.6Oz)

73

27

66

Chicken,Stewed,Light+Dark(1Cup)

65

35

233

Chickpeas,Cooked,Drained(1Cup)

65

22

13

276

ChiliConCarnew/Beans,Cnnd(1Cup)

36

22

42

344

ChocolateChipCookies(4Cookies)

49

47

211

ChocolateMilk,Lowfat1%(1Cup)

64

20

17

163

ChocolateMilk,Regular(1Cup)

50

15

35

208

ChopSueyw/Beef+Pork(1Cup)

17

34

50

309

ClamChowder,Manhattan,Canned(1Cup)

59

20

22

82

ClamChowder,NewEng,w/Milk(1Cup)

41

22

38

167

Clams,Raw(3Oz)

13

72

15

61

Coconut,Raw,Shredded(1Cup)

16

80

303

Coffeecake,Crumb,FromMix(1Piece)

65

27

235

Cola,Regular(12FlOz)

100

164
(continued)

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Page302

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
EnergyDistributionofFoodsCommonlyConsumed,inAlphabeticalOrder(continued)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount

Carb
%

Prot%

Fat%

Collards,CookedFromRaw(1Cup)

71

29

28

CornChips(1Oz)

42

53

153

CornFlakes,Kellogg(1Oz)

92

104

CornFlakes,Toasties(1Oz)

92

104

CornGrits,CookedWithSalt(1Cup)

91

136

CornMuffins,FromMix(1Muffin)

57

35

154

CornMuffins,HomeRecipe(1Muffin)

60

32

141

CornOil(1Tablespoon)

100

126

Corn,Canned,CreamStyle(1Cup)

88

209

Corn,Canned,WholeKernel(1Cup)

85

10

193

Corn,CookedFromRaw,Yellow(1Ear)

78

12

97

CottageCheese,Creamed,LargeCurd(1Cup)

11

50

40

226

CottageCheese,Creamed,SmallCurd(1Cup)

11

50

39

209

Crabmeat,Canned(1Cup)

75

22

123

CrackedWheatBread(1Slice)

74

12

14

65

CranberryJuiceCocktailw/VitC(1Cup)

100

152

CranberrySauce,Canned,Sweetened(1Cup)

99

436

CreamCheese(1Oz)

88

102

CreamOfChickenSoupw/Milk,Canned(1Cup)

32

15

53

187

CreamOfMushroomSoupw/H2O,Canned(1Cup)

29

65

125

CreamOfMushroomSoupw/Milk(1Cup)

29

11

60

210

CreamOfWheat,Cooked,Instant(1Cup)

88

12

132

CreamePie(1Piece)

52

45

455

Croissants(1Croissant)

46

46

236

Cucumber,w/Peel(6Slices)

100

CustardPie(1Piece)

43

11

46

333

Custard,Baked(1Cup)

38

18

44

307

DanishPastry,Fruit(1Pastry)

46

48

245

DanishPastry,Plain,NoNuts(1Ring)

46

48

1,331

Dates(10Dates)

97

252

DevilsFoodCakeWithChocFrosting(1Piece)

66

30

244

Doughnuts,CakeType,Plain(1Doughnut)

44

50

216

Doughnuts,YeastLeavened,Glazed(1Doughnut)

44

49

237

Eggnog(1Cup)

39

12

49

347

Eggplant,Cooked,Steamed(1Cup)

86

14

28

Eggs,Cooked,Fried(1Egg)

26

69

91

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Calories

Page303

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount

Carb
%

Prot%

Fat%

Calories

Eggs,Cooked,HardCooked(1Egg)

29

66

82

Eggs,Cooked,Poached(1Egg)

29

66

82

Eggs,Cooked,Scrambled/Omelet(1Egg)

26

67

108

Enchilada(1Enchilada)

30

25

45

320

EnglishMuffin,Egg,Cheese,Bacon(1Sandwich)

35

20

45

358

EnglishMuffins,Plain(1Muffin)

79

15

137

EvaporatedMilk,Skim,Canned(1Cup)

58

38

201

EvaporatedMilk,Whole,Canned(1Cup)

29

20

50

339

Fats,Cooking/VegetblShorteng(1Tablespoon)

100

117

FetaCheese(1Oz)

22

73

74

FigBars(4Cookies)

79

17

212

Figs,Dried(10Figs)

92

530

Filberts,(Hazelnuts)Chopped(1Cup)

83

780

Filberts,(Hazelnuts)Chopped(1Oz)

84

194

FishSandwich,Reg,w/Cheese(1Sandwich)

37

15

48

427

FlounderOrSole,BakedWithMargarine(3Oz)

54

46

118

Frankfurter,Cooked(1Frank)

14

83

141

FrenchBread(1Slice)

77

13

10

93

FrenchSaladDressing,Regular(1Tablespoon)

95

85

FrenchToast,HomeRecipe(1Slice)

44

15

41

155

FrootLoopsCereal(1Oz)

85

117

FruitCocktail,Canned,JuicePack(1Cup)

97

120

FruitPunchDrink,Canned(6FlOz)

100

88

Fruitcake,Dark(1Piece)

58

37

171

Fudge,Chocolate,Plain(1Oz)

73

23

115

GelatinDessert,Prepared(Cup)

89

11

76

GingerAle(12FlOz)

100

128

GingerbreadCake,FromMix(1Piece)

74

21

172

GoldenGrahamsCereal(1Oz)

85

113

GrahamCracker,Plain(2Crackers)

77

16

57

GrapeDrink,Canned(6FlOz)

100

104

GrapeJuice,Canned(1Cup)

97

156

GrapeSoda(12FlOz)

100

184

GrapeNutsCereal(1Oz)

88

12

104

GrapefruitJuice,Raw(1Cup)

96

96

Grapefruit,Raw,Pink(Fruit)

91

44

Grapes,Raw(10Grapes)

100

40
(continued)

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Page304

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
EnergyDistributionofFoodsCommonlyConsumed,inAlphabeticalOrder(continued)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount

Carb
%

Prot%

Fat%

GreatNorthernBeans,Dry,Cooked(1Cup)

70

26

217

GroundBeef,Broiled,Regular(3Oz)

33

67

242

Haddock,Breaded,Fried(3Oz)

16

38

46

177

HalfAndHalf,Cream(1Tablespoon)

18

82

22

Halibut,Broiled,Butter,LemonJuice(3Oz)

60

40

134

Hamburger,RegularWithRoll(1Sandwich)

43

19

38

259

HardCandy(1Oz)

100

112

Herring,Pickled(3Oz)

37

63

185

HollandaiseSce,w/H2O,FrmMx(1Cup)

22

70

256

Honey(1Tablespoon)

100

68

HoneyNutCheeriosCereal(1Oz)

81

11

113

HoneydewMelon,Raw(1/10Melon)

92

52

IceCream,Vanilla,Regular(1Cup)

47

46

274

IceCream,Vanilla,SoftServe(1Cup)

39

53

387

IceMilk,Vanilla,4%Fat(1Cup)

61

11

28

190

IceMilk,Vanilla,SoftServe3%(1Cup)

66

14

20

229

ItalianBread(1Slice)

85

15

80

ItalianSaladDressing,Regular(1Tablespoon)

95

85

JamsAndPreserves(1Tablespoon)

100

56

Jellies(1Tablespoon)

100

52

JellyBeans(1Oz)

100

104

Kale,CookedFromRaw(1Cup)

62

18

20

45

Kiwifruit,Raw(1Kiwi)

92

48

Lamb,Chops,Arm,Braised,Lean(1.7Oz)

52

48

131

Lamb,Chops,Loin,Broil,Lean(2.3Oz)

58

42

130

Lamb,Leg,Roasted,LeanOnly(2.6Oz

60

40

134

Lard(1Tablespoon)

100

117

LemonJuice,Canned(1Cup)

83

12

77

LemonMeringuePie(1Piece)

59

35

358

LemonLimeSoda(12FlOz)

100

156

Lemons,Raw(1Lemon)

83

17

24

Lentils,Dry,Cooked(1Cup)

68

28

225

Lettuce,Crisphead,Raw,Wedge(1Wedge)

75

25

16

Lettuce,Looseleaf(1Cup)

67

33

12

Light,CoffeeOrTableCream(1Tablespoon)

13

87

31

LimaBeans,Dry,Cooked(1Cup)

73

24

269

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Calories

Page305

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount

Carb
%

Prot%

Fat%

Calories

LimaBeans,Frozen,Cooked(1Cup)

72

23

177

LimeJuice,Raw(1Cup)

96

92

LimeJuice,Canned(1Cup)

83

12

77

Limeade,Concen,Frozen,Diluted(6FlOz)

100

80

LuckyCharmsCereal(1Oz)

81

11

113

MacadamiaNuts,OilRoasted,Salted(1Cup)

90

1035

MacaroniAndCheese,Canned(1Cup)

45

16

39

230

MacaroniAndCheese,HomeRecipe(1Cup)

38

16

46

426

Macaroni,Cooked,Firm,(1Cup)

81

15

193

MaltOMeal,WithSalt(1Cup)

87

13

120

Mangos,Raw(1Mango)

92

153

Margarine,Regulr,Hard,80%Fat(1Tablespoon)

100

99

Margarine,Regulr,Soft,80%Fat(1Tablespoon)

100

99

Margarine,Spread,Hard,60%Fat(1Tablespoon)

100

81

Margarine,Spread,Soft,60%Fat(1Tablespoon)

100

81

Marshmallows(1Oz)

96

96

MayonnaiseTypeSaladDressing(1Tablespoon)

26

74

61

Mayonnaise,Regular(1Tablespoon)

100

99

MelbaToast,Plain(1Piece)

80

20

20

MilkChocolateCandy,Plain(1Oz)

42

53

153

MilkChocolateCandy,WithRiceCrispies(1Oz)

50

44

143

MilkChocolateCandy,w/Almonds(1Oz)

37

56

162

MilkChocolateCandy,w/Peanuts(1Oz)

31

10

59

167

Milk,Whole,3.3%Fat(1Cup)

30

22

49

148

Milk,LowFat,1%Fat(1Cup)

45

30

25

107

Milk,LowFat,2%,NoAddedSolid(1Cup)

38

26

36

125

Milk,Skim(1Cup)

60

40

80

MinestroneSoup,Canned(1Cup)

51

18

31

87

MixedGrainBread(1Slice)

74

12

14

65

MixedNutsw/Peanuts,Dry,Salted(1`Oz)

15

11

74

183

MozzarellaCheese,Skim,LowMoisture(1Oz)

40

56

81

MuensterCheese(1Oz)

26

74

109

MushroomGravy,Canned(1Cup)

44

10

46

118

Mushrooms,Raw(1Cup)

75

25

16

NatureValleyGranolaCereal(1Oz)

57

34

133

Nectarines,Raw(1Nectarine)

83

12

77

Noodles,Egg,Cooked(1Cup)

76

14

194
(continued)

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EnergyDistributionofFoodsCommonlyConsumed,inAlphabeticalOrder(continued)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount

Carb% Prot% Fat%

OatmealBread(1Slice)

74

12

14

65

Oatmealw/RaisinsCookies(4Cookies)

59

37

246

Oatmeal,Cooked,Instant(1Cup)

70

17

13

142

OceanPerch,Breaded,Fried(1Fillet)

15

34

52

191

OkraPods,Cooked(8Pods)

75

25

32

OliveOil(1Tablespoon)

100

126

Olives,Canned,Green(1Medium)

100

18

OnionRings,Breaded(2Rings)

40

56

81

Onions,Raw,Chopped(1Cup)

86

14

56

OrangeJuice,Raw(1Cup)

93

112

OrangeSoda(12FlOz)

100

184

Oranges,Raw(1Orange)

94

64

Oysters,Breaded,Fried(1Oyster)

24

24

53

85

Oysters,Raw(1Cup)

22

54

24

148

Pancakes,Buckwheat(1Pancake)

48

16

36

50

Pancakes,Plain,HomeRecipe(1Pancake)

58

13

29

62

ParmesanCheese,Grated(1Oz)

36

61

133

Parsley,Raw(10Springs)

100

Parsnips,Cooked,Drained(1Cup)

94

128

PasteurizedProceesedCheese,Swiss(1Oz)

29

66

95

PasteurizedProcessedCheese,American(1Oz)

23

77

105

Peabeans,Dry,Cooked(1Cup)

70

26

229

Pea,Green,Soup,Canned(1Cup)

63

21

16

171

PeachPie(1Piece)

59

37

409

Peaches,Frozen,Sweetened(1Cup)

97

248

Peaches,Canned,Juicepack(1Cup)

94

124

Peaches,Dried(1Cup)

92

425

Peaches,Raw(1Peach)

91

44

PeanutButter(1Tablespoon)

12

19

69

104

PeanutButterCookies(4Cookies)

44

50

254

PeanutOil(1Tablespoon)

100

126

Peanuts,OilRoasted,Salted(1Cup)

12

17

71

903

Pears,Raw,DAnjou(1Pear)

90

133

Pears,Canned,JuicePack(1Cup)

97

132

Pears,Raw,Bartlett(1Pear)

88

113

Peas,EdiblePod,Cooked,Drained(1Cup)

69

31

64

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Calories

Page307

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount

Carb% Prot% Fat%

Peas,Green,FrozenCooked(1Cup)

74

26

Calories
124

PecanPie(1Piece)

47

48

600

Pecans,Halves(1Cup)

10

85

769

PepperTypeSoda(12FlOz)

100

164

Peppers,HotChili,Raw,Gren(1Pepper)

80

20

20

Peppers,Sweet,Cooked,Green(1Pepper)

100

12

Peppers,Sweet,Raw,Green(1Pepper)

80

20

20

Pickles,Cucumber,Dill(1Pickle)

100

PineNuts(1Oz)

11

83

185

Pineapple,Juice,Canned,Unsweetened(1Cup)

97

140

Pineapple,Canned,JuicePack(1Cup)

98

160

Pineapple,Raw,Diced(1Cup)

85

10

89

PineappleGrapefruitJuiceDrink(6FlOz)

100

92

PintoBeans,Dry,Cooked(1Cup)

74

23

265

PistachioNuts(1Oz)

16

13

71

178

PitaBread(1Pita)

80

15

165

Pizza,Cheese(1Slice)

53

20

27

297

Plums,Canned,JuicePack(1Cup)

97

156

Plums,Raw(1MediumPlum)

100

16

Popcorn,AirPopped(1Cup)

86

14

28

Popsicle(1Popsicle)

100

72

PorkChop,Loin,Broiled,Lean(2.5Oz)

56

44

164

PorkFreshHam,Roasted,Lean(2.5Oz)

53

47

152

Pork,Cured,Bacon,Regular,Cooked(3Slices)

23

77

105

Pork,Cured,CanadianBacon(2Slices)

52

43

84

Pork,Link,Cooked(1Link)

25

75

48

Pork,LuncheonMeat,CookedHam,Lean(2Slices)

59

36

75

PotatoChips(10Chips)

37

59

107

PotatoSaladMadew/Mayonnaise(1Cup)

34

57

329

Potatoes,AuGratin(1Cup)

34

15

52

331

Potatoes,BakedWithSkin(1Potato)

91

224

Potatoes,BoiledAndPeeled(1Potato)

90

10

120

Potatoes,MashedWithMilk(1Cup)

86

173

Potatoes,Scalloped(1Cup)

49

13

38

213

Potatoes,FrenchFried,Rrozen,OvenCooked(10Strips)

61

32

112

PoundCake,FromHomeRecipe(1Slice)

53

40

113

Pretzels,Stick(10Pretzels)

100

8
(continued)

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EnergyDistributionofFoodsCommonlyConsumed,inAlphabeticalOrder(continued)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount

Carb
%

Prot%

Fat%

Pretzels,Twisted,Dutch(1Pretzel)

75

12

13

69

Product19Cereal(1Oz)

89

11

108

ProvoloneCheese(1Oz)

27

69

104

PruneJuice,Canned(1Cup)

96

188

Prunes,Dried(5Large)

97

128

Pudding,Choc,CookedFromMix(Cup)

66

11

24

152

Pudding,Chocolate,Canned(5Oz)

52

43

231

Pudding,Rice,FromMix(Cup)

68

10

23

160

Pudding,Tapioca,FromMix(Cup)

66

11

24

152

Pudding,Vanilla,Canned(5Oz)

57

39

230

Pudding,Vanilla,From0Mix(Cup)

66

11

24

152

Pudding,Vanilla,InstantFromMix(Cup)

68

10

23

160

PumpernickelBread(1Slice)

75

14

11

85

PumpkinAndSquashKernels(1Oz)

12

17

71

165

PumpkinPie(1Piece)

46

47

325

QuicheLorraine(1Slice)

19

72

600

Radishes,Raw(4Radishes)

100

RaisinBran,Kellogg(1Oz)

80

11

105

RaisinBran,Post(1Oz)

80

11

105

RaisinBread(1Slice)

75

12

13

69

Raisins(1Cup)

94

489

Raspberries,Raw(1Cup)

81

13

69

RedKidneyBeans,Dry,Canned(1Cup)

71

25

237

RefriedBeans,Dry,Canned(1Cup)

67

24

303

Relish,Sweet(1Tablespoon)

100

20

RiceKrispiesCereal(1Oz)

93

108

Rice,Brown,Cooked(1Cup)

87

229

Rice,White,Cooked(1Cup)

93

216

RicottaCheese,PartSkimMilk(1Cup)

16

33

51

335

RoastBeefSandwich(1Sandwich)

40

26

34

341

Rolls,Dinner,Commercial(1Roll)

68

10

22

82

Rolls,Dinner,HomeRecipe(1Roll)

67

10

23

119

Rolls,Frankfurter+Hamburger(1Roll)

73

11

16

110

Rolls,Hard(1Roll)

76

13

11

158

Rolls,HoagieOrSubmarine(1Roll)

71

11

18

404

RootBeer(12FlOz)

100

168

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Calories

Page309

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount

Carb
%

Prot%

Fat%

Calories

RyeBread,Light(1Slice)

74

12

14

65

RyeWafers,WholeGrain(2Wafers)

75

17

53

SafflowerOil(1Tablespoon)

100

126

Salami,CookedType(2Slices)

24

73

135

Salmon,Baked,Red(3Oz)

65

35

129

Salmon,Canned,Pink,w/Bones(3Oz)

60

40

113

Salmon,Smoked(3Oz)

50

50

144

Saltines(4Crackers)

73

18

49

SandwichSpread,Pork,Beef(1Tablespoon)

21

10

69

39

SandwichTypeCookie(4Cookies)

59

37

196

Sardines,CannedInOil(3Oz)

50

50

161

Sauerkraut,Canned(1Cup)

83

17

48

Scallops,Breaded,Frozen,Reheat(6Scallops)

21

32

47

190

SemisweetChocolate(1Cup)

40

57

965

SesameSeeds(1Tablespoon)

17

75

48

Shakes,Thick,Chocolate(10Oz)

69

10

21

348

Shakes,Thick,Vanilla(10Oz)

62

14

25

325

Sheetcake,WithFrosting(1Piece)

68

28

450

Sherbet,2%Fat(1Cup)

84

13

280

ShortbreadCookies(2Cookies)

46

49

148

ShreddedWheatCereal(1Oz)

81

11

113

Shrimp,Canned,Drained(3Oz)

87

97

Shrimp,FrenchFried(3Oz)

22

32

45

198

SnackCakes,DevilsFood,CreameFilled(SmallCake)

63

33

108

SnackTypeCrackers(1Cracker)

47

53

17

SnapBean,Cooked,Green(1Cup)

83

17

48

SourCream(1Tablespoon)

13

87

31

SoySauce(1Tablespoon)

50

50

16

Soybeans,Dry,Cooked(1Cup)

31

33

37

246

Spaghetti,WithMeatballsAndTomatoSauce(1Cup)

46

22

32

340

Spaghetti,Cooked,Firm(1Cup)

81

15

193

Spaghetti,Cooked,Tender(1Cup)

82

13

157

SpecialKCereal(1Oz)

78

22

108

SpinachSuffle(1Cup)

20

74

218

Spinach,Cooked,Tender(1Cup)

58

42

48

Spinach,Raw(1Cup)

50

50

16

Squash,Summer,Cooked,Drained(1Cup)

65

16

18

49
(continued)

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

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EnergyDistributionofFoodsCommonlyConsumed,inAlphabeticalOrder(continued)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount

Carb
%

Prot%

Fat%

Calories

Strawberries,Raw(1Cup)

75

17

53

SugarCookies(4Cookies)

52

45

240

SugarFrostedFlakes,Kellogg(1Oz)

96

108

SugarSmacksCereal(1Oz)

85

117

Sugar,White,Granulated(1Tablespoon)

100

48

SunflowerOil(1Tablespoon)

100

126

SunflowerSeeds(1Oz)

12

14

74

170

SuperSugarCrispCereal(1Oz)

93

112

Sweet(Dark)Chocolate(1Oz)

41

57

158

SweetenedCondensedMilk(1Cup)

66

10

24

1003

SweetPotatoes,Baked,Peeled(1Potato)

93

120

SwissCheese(1Oz)

30

67

108

Syrup,ChocolateFlavored,Fudge(2Tablespoons)

61

33

137

TableSyrup(CornAndMaple(2Tablespoons)

100

128

Taco(1Taco)

31

18

51

195

Tahini(1Tablespoon)

13

13

75

96

Tangerines,Raw91Fruit)

90

10

40

TartarSauce(1Tablespoon)

95

76

Tea,Instnat,Prepared,Unsweetened(8FlOz)

100

Tea,Instant,Prepared,Sweetened(8FlOz)

100

88

Tofu(1Piece)

13

39

48

93

TomatoJuice,CannedWithSalt(1Cup)

83

17

48

TomatoSauce,CannedWithSalt(1Cup)

86

14

84

TomatoSoupw/Water,Canned(1Cup)

72

19

94

TomatoSoupWithMilk,Canned(1Cup)

53

14

33

166

Tomatoes,Raw(1Tamato)

83

17

24

Tortillas,Corn(1Tortilla)

75

12

13

69

TotalCereal(1Oz)

81

11

109

TrixCereal(1Oz)

93

108

Trout,Broiled,w/ButterAndLemonJuice(3Oz)

51

49

165

TunaSalad(1Cup)

20

35

45

379

Tuna,CannedInOil,(3Oz)

60

40

159

Tuna,CannedInWater(3Oz)

93

129

Turkey,Roasted,DarkMeat(4Pieces)

64

36

150

Turkey,Roasted,LightMeat(2Pieces)

79

21

127

TurnipGreens,CookedFromRaw(1Cup)

75

25

32

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount

Carb
%

Prot%

Fat%

VanillaWafers(10Cookies)

62

34

187

VealCutlet,MedFat,Braised,Broiled(3Oz)

53

47

173

VegetableBeefSoup,Canned(1Cup)

49

29

22

82

VegetableJuiceCocktail,Canned(1Cup)

85

15

52

VegetarianSoup,Canned(1Cup)

65

11

24

74

ViennaBread(1Slice)

75

12

13

69

ViennaSausage(1Sausage)

18

82

44

VinegarAndOilSaladDressing(1Tablespoon)

100

72

Waffles(1Waffle)

52

13

35

208

Walnuts,Black,Chopped(1Cup)

15

78

819

Watermelon,Raw(1Piece)

82

11

170

WheatBread(1Slice)

74

12

14

65

WheatBread,Toasted(1Slice)

70

17

13

69

WheatThinCrackers(4Crackers)

61

12

27

33

WheatiesCereal(1Oz)

88

12

104

WhippedTopping,Pressurized(1Tablespoon)

100

WhippingCream,Unwhipped,Heavy(1Tablespoon)

100

54

WhippingCream,Unwhipped,Light(1Tablespoon)

100

45

WhiteBread(1Slice)

74

12

14

65

WhiteCakeWithWhiteFrosting(1Piece)

64

31

261

WhiteSaucew/MilkFromMix(1Cup)

35

17

49

241

WhiteSauce,Medium,HomeRecipe(1Cup)

24

10

67

406

WholeWheatBread(1Slice)

71

16

12

73

WholeWheatWafers,Crackers(2Crackers)

48

10

43

42

YellowCakeWithChocolateFrosting(1Piece)

66

30

244

YellowCakeWithChocolateFrosting(1Piece)

59

38

263

Yogurt,w/LowFatMilk,Plain(8Oz)

43

32

24

148

Yogurt,w/NonfatMilk(8Oz)

57

43

120

Yogurt,WithLowFatMilk,FruitFlavored(8Oz)

75

17

230

(Source:USDAHomeandGardenBulletin#72)

Calories

Page312

ENDNOTES

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18Hargreaves,M.1996.Physiologicalbenefitsoffluidandenergyreplacementduringexercise.Aust.J.Nutr.Diet53(4Suppl):S3S7.
19Burke,L.M.1996.Rehydrationstrategiesbeforeandafterexercise.Aust.J.Nutr.Diet53(4Suppl):S22S26.
20Nadel,E.R.,Mack,G.W.,andNose,H.1990.Influenceoffluidreplacementbeveragesonbodyfluidhomeostasisduringexerciseandrecovery.InFluid
homeostasisduringexercise,ed.Gisolfi,C.V.,andLamb,D.R.,vol.3,Perspectivesinexercisescienceandsportsmed.,181205.Carmel,IN:Benchmark
Press.
21KristalBoneh,E.,Glusman,J.G.,Shitrit,R.,Chaemovitz,C.,andCassuto,Y.1995.Physicalperformanceandheattoleranceafterchronicwaterloadingand
heatacclimation.Aviat.SpaceEnviron.Med.66:733738.
22Burke,L.M.1996.Rehydrationstrategiesbeforeandafterexercise.Aust.J.Nutr.Diet53(4Suppl):S22S26.
23Lyons,T.P.,Riedesel,M.L.,Meuli,L.E.,andChick,T.W.1990.Effectsofglycerolinducedhyperhydrationpriortoexerciseintheheatonsweatingandcore
temperatures.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.22:477483.
24Burke,L.M.1996.Rehydrationstrategiesbeforeandafterexercise.Aust.J.Nutr.Diet53(4Suppl):S22S26.

Page318

25Montner,P.,Stark,D.M.,Riedesel,M.L.,Murata,G.,Robergs,R.,Timms,M.,andChick,T.W.1996.Preexerciseglycerolhydrationimprovescycling
endurancetime.Int.J.SportsMed.17:2733.
26Lyle,D.M.,Lewis,P.R.,Richards,D.A.B.,Richards,R.,Bauman,A.E.,Sutton,J.R.,andCameron,I.D.1994.HeatexhaustionintheSunHeraldcitytosurf
funrun.Med.J.Aust.161:361365.
27McConnell,G.,Burge,C.M.,Skinner,S.L.,andHargreaves,M.1995.Ingestedfluidvolumeandphysiologicalresponsesduringprolongedexerciseinamild
environment[abstract].Med.Sci.SportsExerc.27:S19.
28Walsh,R.M.,Noakes,T.D.,Hawley,J.A.,andDennis,S.C.1994.Impairedhighintensitycyclingperformancetimeatlowlevelsofdehydration.Int.J.Sports
Med.15:392398.
29Maughan,R.J.,Fenn,C.E.,andLeiper,J.B.1989.Effectsoffluid,electrolyteandsubstrateingestiononendurancecapacity.Eur.J.Appl.Physiol.58:481486.
30Mitchell,J.B.,Costill,D.L.,Houmard,J.A.,Fink,W.J.,Pascoe,D.D.,andPearson,D.R.1989.Influenceofcarbohydratedosageonexerciseperformanceand
glycogenmetabolism.J.Appl.Physiol.67:18431849.
31Tsintzas,O.K.,Liu,R.,Williams,C.,Campbell,I.,andGaitanos,G.1993.Theeffectofcarbohydrateingestiononperformanceduringa30kmrace.Int.J.
SportNutr.3:127139.
32Coggan,A.R.,andCoyle,E.F.1987.Reversaloffatigueduringprolongedexercisebycarbohydrateinfusionoringestion.J.Appl.Physiol.63:23882395.
33Coyle,E.F.,Hagberg,J.M.,Hurley,B.F.,Martin,W.H.,Ehami,A.A.,andHolloszy,J.O.1983.Carbohydratefeedingduringprolongedstrenuousexercisecan
delayfatigue.J.Appl.Physiol.55:230235.
34Coyle,E.F.,Coggan,A.R.,Hemmert,M.K.,andIvy,J.L.1986.Muscleglycogenutilizationduringprolonged,strenuousexercisewhenfedcarbohydrate.J.
Appl.Physiol.61:165172.
35Tsintzas,O.K.,Williams,C.,Boobis,L.,andGreenhaff,P.1995.Carbohydrateingestionandglycogenutilizationindifferentmusclefibertypesinman.J.
Physiol.489:243250.
36Hargreaves,M.,Costill,D.L.,Coggan,A.R.,Fink,W.J.,andNishibata,I.1984.Effectofcarbohydratefeedingsonmuscleglycogenutilizationandexercise
performance.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.16:219222.
37Yaspelkis,B.B.,Patterson,J.G.,Anderla,P.A.,Ding,Z.,andIvy,J.L.1993.Carbohydratesupplementationsparesmuscleglycogenduringvariableintensity
exercise.J.Appl.Physiol.75:14771485.
38Below,P.R.,MoraRodriguez,R.,GonzalezAlonso,J.,andCoyle,E.F.1995.Fluidandcarbohydrateingestionindependentlyimprovesperformanceduringone
hourofintenseexercise.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.27:200210.
39Below,P.R.,MoraRodriquez,R.,GonzalezAlonso,J.,andCoyle,E.F.1995.Fluidandcarbohydrateingestionindependentlyimproveperformanceduring1h
ofintenseexercise.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.27:200210.
40Nicholas,C.W.,Williams,C.,Lakomy,H.K.A.,Phillips,G.,andNowitz,A.1995.Influenceofingestingacarbohydrateelectrolytesolutiononendurance
capacityduringintermittent,highintensityshuttlerunning.J.SportsSci.13:283290.
41Simard,C.,Tremblay,A.,andJobin,M.1988.Effectsofcarbohydrateintakebeforeandduringanicehockeymatchonbloodandmuscleenergysubstrates.
Res.Q.Exerc.Sport59:144147.
42Coyle,E.F.,Coggan,A.R.,Hemmert,M.K.,andIvy,J.L.1986.Muscleglycogenutilizationduringprolonged,strenuousexercisewhenfedcarbohydrate.J.
Appl.Physiol.61:165172.
43Murray,R.,Paul,G.L.,Seifert,J.G.,Eddy,D.E.,andHalaby,G.A.1989.Theeffectsofglucose,fructose,andsucroseingestionduringexercise.Med.Sci.
SportsExerc.21:275282.
44Owen,M.D.,Kregel,K.C.,Wall,P.T.,andGisolfi,C.V.1986.Effectsofingestingcarbohydratebeveragesduringexerciseintheheat.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.
18:568575.

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45Murray,R.,Paul,G.L.,Seifert,J.G.,Eddy,D.E.,andHalaby,G.A.1989.Theeffectsofglucose,fructose,andsucroseingestionduringexercise.Med.Sci.
SportsExerc.21:275282.
46Bjorkman,O.,Sahlin,K.,Hagenfeldt,L.,andWahren,J.1984.Influenceofglucoseandfructoseingestiononthecapacityforlongtermexerciseinwelltrained
men.Clin.Physiol.4:483494.
47Hargreaves,M.1996.PhysiologicalbenefitsoffluidandenergyreplacementduringexerciseAust.J.Nutr.Diet53(4Suppl):S3S7.
48Mason,W.L.,McConell,G.K.,andHargreaves,M.1993.Carbohydrateingestionduringexercise:Liquidvs.solidfeedings.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.25:966
969.
49Coggan,A.R.,andCoyle,E.F.1987.Reversaloffatigueduringprolongedexercisebycarbohydrateinfusionoringestion.J.Appl.Physiol.63:23882395.
50Coyle,E.F.,andMontain,S.J.1992.Benefitsoffluidreplacementwithcarbohydrateduringexercise.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.24(suppl):324S330S.
51Wagenmakers,A.J.M.,Brouns,F.,Saris,W.H.M.,andHaliday,D.1993.Oxidationratesoforallyingestedcarbohydratesduringprolongedexerciseinmen.J.
Appl.Physiol.75:27742780.
52Broad,E.M.,Burke,L.M.,Gox,G.R.,Heeley,P.,andRiley,M.1996.Bodyweightchangesandvoluntaryfluidintakesduringtrainingandcompetitionsessions
inteamsports.Int.J.SportNutr.6:307320.
53Noakes,T.D.,Adams,B.A.,Myburgh,K.H.,Greff,C.,Lotz,T.,andNathan,M.1988.Thedangerofinadequatewaterintakeduringprolongedexercise.Eur.
J.Appl.Physiol.57:210219.
54Rothstein,A.,Adolph,E.F.,andWills,J.H.1947.Voluntarydehydration.InPhysiologyofmaninthedesert,ed.Adolph,E.F.,254270.NewYork:
Interscience.
55Carter,J.E.,andGisolfi,C.V.1989.Fluidreplacementduringandafterexerciseintheheat.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.21:532539.
56GonzalezAlonso,J.,Heaps,C.L.,andCoyle,E.F.1992.Rehydrationafterexercisewithcommonbeveragesandwater.Int.J.SportsMed.3:399406.
57Maughan,R.J.,andLeiper,J.,B.1995.Sodiumintakeandpostexerciserehydrationinman.Eur.J.Appl.Physiol.71:311319.
58Maughan,R.J.,Leiper,J.B.,andShirreffs,S.M.1996.Restorationoffluidbalanceafterexerciseinduceddehydration:Effectsoffoodandfluidintake.Eur.J.
Appl.Physiol.73:317325.
59Burke,L.M.1996.Rehydrationstrategiesbeforeandafterexercise.Aust.J.Nutr.Diet53(4Suppl):S22S26.

Chapter3
1Williams,M.H,1992.Nutritionforfitnessandsport.(Dubuque,IO:WilliamC.BrownPublishers).224225.
2Katch,F.I.,andMcArdle,W.D.1993.Introductiontonutrition,exercise,andhealth.4thed.Philadelphia:Lea&Febinger.
3Williams,M.H.1999.Nutritionforhealth,fitness,andsport.(NewYork:WCBMcGrawHill).317318.
4ArchimedeswasaGreekmathematician,engineer,andphysicist.Hediscoveredformulasfordeterminingtheareaandvolumeofdifferentshapestheprincipalof
buoyancy.
5Grediagan,M.A.,Cody,M.,Rupp,J.,Benardot,D.,andShern,R.1995.Exerciseintensitydoesnoteffectbodycompositionchangeinuntrained.Moderately
overfatwomen.J.Am.DieteticsAss.95(6):661665.
6Saltzman,E.,andRoberts,S.B.1995.Theroleofenergyexpenditureinenergyregulation:findingsofadecadeofresearch.Nutr.Rev.53(8):209220.
7Forbes,G.F.,Brown,M.R.,Welle,S.L.,andLipinski,B.A.1986.Deliberateoverfeedinginwomenandmen:energycostandcompositionoftheweightgain.Brit.
J.ofNutr.56:19.

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8Roberts,S.B.,Young,V.R.,Fuss,P.,etal.1990.Energyexpenditureandsubsequentnutrientintakesinoverfedyoungmen.Am.J.Clin.Nutr.259:R4619.
9Diaz,E.O.,Prentice,A.M.,Goldberg,G.R.,Murgatroyd,P.R.,andCoward,W.A.1992.Metabolicresponsetoexperimentaloverfeedinginleanandoverweight
healthyvolunteers.Am.J.Clin.Nutr.56:64155.
10Leibel,R.L.,Rosenbaum,M.,andHirsch,J.1995.Changesinenergyexpenditureresultingfromalteredbodyweight.NewEng.J.Med.332:6218.

Chapter4
1Greenhaff,P.L.,Casey,A.,Short,A.H.,Harris,R.,Soderlund,K.,andHultman,E.1993.Influenceoforalcreatinesupplementationofmuscletorqueduring
repeatedboutsofmaximalvoluntaryexerciseinman.Clin.Sci.84:565571.
2Harris,R.C.,Soderlund,K.,andHultman,E.1992.Elevationofcreatineinrestingandexercisedmuscleofnormalsubjectsbycreatinesupplementation,Clin.Sci.
83:367374.
3Maughan,R.J.1995.Creatinesupplementationandexerciseperformance.Intl.J.SportNutr.5:94101.
4Walker,J.B.1979.Creatinebiosynthesis,regulation,andfunction.Adv.Enzmmol.50:117142.
5Butterfield,G.,Cady,C.,andMoynihan,S.1992.Effectofincreasingproteinintakeonnitrogenbalanceinrecreationalweightlifters.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.
24:S71.
6Nagle,F.J.,andBassett,D.R.1989.Energymetabolism.InNutritioninexerciseandsport,ed.Hickson,J.F.,andWolinsky,I.BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress,
87106.
7Costill,D.L.,andHargreaves,M.1992.Carbohydratenutritionandfatigue.SportsMed.13(2):86
8Valeriani,A.1991.Theneedforcarbohydrateintakeduringenduranceexercise.SportsMed.12(6):349.
9Williams,M.H.1992.Nutritionforfitnessandsport.NewYork:WCB/McGrawHill,5864.
10Bergstrom,J.,Hermansen,L.,Hultman,E.,andSaltin,B.1967.Diet,muscleglycogen,andphysicalperformance.Acta.Physiol.Scand.71:140.
11Costill,D.L.,andHargreaves,M.1992.Carbohydratenutritionandfatigue.SportsMed.13(2):86.
12Nagle,F.J.,andBassett,D.R.1989.Energymetabolism.InNutritioninexerciseandsport,ed.Hickson,J.F.,andWolinsky,I.BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress,
87106.
13Coyle,E.F.1983.Effectsofglucosepolymerfeedingsonfatigabilityandthemetabolicresponsetoprolongedstrenuousexercise.InRosssymposiumonnutrient
utilizationduringexercise,ed.Fox,E.L.Columbus,OH:RossLaboratories,411.
14Nagle,F.J.,andBassett,D.R.1989.Energymetabolism.InNutritioninexerciseandsport,ed.Hickson,J.F.,andWolinsky,I.BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress,
87106.
15Greenhaff,P.L.1995.Creatineanditsapplicationasanergogenicaid.Int.J.SportNutr.5:S100S110.
16Greenhaff,P.L.,Casey,A.,Short,A.H.,Harris,R.,Soderlund,K.,andHultman,E.1993.Influenceoforalcreatinesupplementationonmuscletorqueduring
repeatedboutsofmaximalvoluntaryexerciseinman.Clin.Sci.84:565571.
17Maughan,R.J.1995.Creatinesupplementationandexerciseperformance.Intl.J.SportNutr.5:94101.
18Kozak,C.J.,Benardot,D.,Cody,M.,Doyle,J.A.,andThompson,W.R.1996.Theeffectofcreatinemonohydratesupplementationonanaerobicpowerand
anaerobicenduranceinelitefemalegymnasts.Master'sthesis,GeorgiaStateUniversity.
19Harris,R.C.,Soderlund,K.,andHultman,E.1992.Elevationofcreatineinrestingandexercisedmuscleofnormalsubjectsbycreatinesupplementation,Clin.
Sci.83:367374.
20Maughan,R.J.1995.Creatinesupplementationandexerciseperformance.Intl.J.SportNutr.5:94101.
21Walker,J.B.1979.Creatinebiosynthesis,regulation,andfunction.Adv.Enzmmol.50:117142.

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22Pritchard,N.R.,andKalra,P.A.1998.Creatinesupplementslinkedtorenaldamage.TheLancet351:12521253.
23Maughan,R.J.1995.Creatinesupplementationandexerciseperformance.Intl.J.SportNutr.5:94101.
24Lyons,T.P.,Riedesel,M.L.,Meuli,L.E.,andChick,T.W.1990.Effectsofglycerolinducedhyperhydrationpriortoexerciseintheheatonsweatingandcore
temperature.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.22(4):477483.
25Montgomery,D.L,andBeaudin,P.A.1982.Bloodlactateandheartrateresponseofyoungfemalesduringgymnasticroutines.J.SportsMed.22:358365.
26Butterfield,G.,Cady,C.,andMoynihan,S.1992.Effectofincreasingproteinintakeonnitrogenbalanceinrecreationalweightlifters.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.
24:S71.
27Tarnopolsky,M.A.,MacDougallJ.D.,andAtkinson,S.A.1988.Influenceofproteinintakeandtrainingstatusonnitrogenbalanceandleanbodymass.J.Appl.
Physiol.64(1):187193.
28Spriet,L.L.1995.Caffeineandperformance.Int.J.SportNutr.5:S84S99.
29Bucci,L.1993.Nutrientsasergogenicaidsforsportsandexercise.BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress.
30Kanter,M.M.,andWilliams,M.H.1995.Antioxidants,canritine,andcholineasputativeergogenicaids.Int.J.SportNutr.5:S120S131.
31Bucci,L.1993.Nutrientsasergogenicaidsforsportsandexercise.BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress,620.
32Babayan,V.K.1967.Mediumchaintriglycerides:Theircomposition,preparation,andapplication.J.Am.OilChem.Soc.45:23.
33Bach,A.S.,andBabayan,V.K.1982.Mediumchaintriglycerides:Anupdate.Am.J.Clin.Nutr.36:950.
34Avakian,E.V.,andSugimoto,B.R.1980.EffectofPanaxginsengextractonbloodenergysubstratesduringexercise.Fed.Proc.39:287.

Chapter5
1Horswill,C.A.1993.Weightlossandweightcyclinginamateurwrestlers:Implicationsforperformanceandrestingmetabolicrate.Int.J.SportNutr.3:245260.
2Strauss,R.H.,Lanese,R.R.,andLeizman,D.J.1988.Illnessandabsenceamongwrestlers,swimmers,andgymnastsatalargeuniversity.Am.J.SportsMed.
16:653655.
3Ryan,A.J.1981.Anabolicsteroidsarefool'sgold.Fed.Proc.40:26822688.
4Kleiner,S.M.1995.Theroleofmeatintheathlete'sdiet:It'seffectonkeymacroandmicronutrients.GatoradeSportsSci.Inst.:SportsSci.Exch.8(5).
5BarOr,O.,Clarkson,P.,Coyle,E.,Davis,J.M.,Ekblom,B.,Gisolfi,C.,Hagerman,F.,Horswill,C.,Kanter,M.,Kraemer,W.,Lamb,D.,Maughan,R.,
Murray,R.,andSpriet,L.1993.GatoradeSportsSci.Inst.:SportsSci.Exch.Roundtable4(4).
6Gregory,J.,Greene,S.,Thompson,j.,Scrimgeour,C.,andRennie,M.1992.Effectsoforaltestosteroneundecanoateongrowth,bodycomposition,strengthand
energyexpenditureofadolescentboys.Clin.Endocr.37:207213.
7Binnerts,A.,Swart,G.,Wilson,J.,Hoogerbrugge,N.,Pols,H.,Birkenhager,J.,andLamberts,S.1992.Theeffectofgrowthhormoneadministrationingrowth
hormonedeficientadultsonbone,protein,carbohydrate,andlipidhomeostasis,aswellasonbodycomposition.Clin.Endocr.37:7987.
8Deyssig,R.,Frisch,H.,Blum,W.,andWaldhor,T.1993.Effectofgrowthhormonetreatmentonhormonalparameters,bodycomposition,andstrengthinathletes.
Acta.Endocr.128:313318.
9Yarasheki,K.,Campbell,J.,Smith,K.,Rennie,M.,Holloszy,J.,andBier,D.1992.Effectofgrowthhormoneandresistanceexerciseonmusclegrowthinyoung
men.Am.J.Phys.E261E267.
10Williams,M.H.1993.Nutritionalsupplementsforstrengthtrainedathletes.GatoradeSportsSci.Inst.:SportsSci.Exch.6(6).
11Bucci,L.,Hickson,J.,Pivanik,J.,Wolinsky,I.,McMahon,J.,andTurner,S.1990.Ornithineingestionandgrowthhormonereleaseinbodybuilders.Nutr.Res.
10:239245.

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12Fogelholm,M.,Naveri,H.,Kiilavuori,K.,andHarkonen,M.1993.Lowdoseaminoacidsupplementation:Noeffectsonserumhumangrowthhormoneand
insulininmaleweightlifters.Int.J.SportNutr.3:290297.
13Lambert,M.,Hefer,J.,Millar,R.,andMacfarlane,P.1993.Failureofcommercialoralaminoacidsupplementstoincreaseserumgrowthhormoneconcentrations
inmalebodybuilders.Int.J.SportNutr.3:298305.
14Bucci,L.,Hickson,J.,Wolinksy,I.,andPivarnrnik,J.1992.Ornithinesupplementationandinsulinreleaseinbodybuilders.Int.J.SportNutr.2:287291.
15Summinski,R.,Robertson,R.,Goss,E.,Robinson,A.,DaSilva,S.,Kane,J.,Utter,A.,andMetz,K.1993.Theeffectofaminoacidingestionandresistance
exerciseongrowthhormoneresponsesinyoungmales[Abstract].Med.Sci.SportsExer.25:S77.
16Fry,A.,Kraemer,W.,Stone,M.,Warren,B.,Keamey,J.,Maresh,C.,Weseman,C.,andFleck,S.1993.Endocrineandperformanceresponsestohigh
volumetrainingandaminoacidsupplementationinelitejuniorweightlifters.Int.J.SportNutr.3:306322.
17Elam,R.1988.Morphologicalchangesinadultmalesfromresistanceexerciseandaminoacidsupplementation.J.SportsMed.Phys.Fitness28:3539.
18Elam,R.,Hardin,D.,Sutton,R.,andHagen,L.1989.Effectsofarginineandornithineonstrength,leanbodymass,andurinaryhydroxyprolineinadultmales.J.
SportsMed.Phys.Fitness29:5256.
19Barron,R.,andVanscoy,G.1993.Naturalproductsandtheathlete:Factsandfolklore.Ann.Pharmacother.27:607615.
20Williams,M.1992.Nutritionforfitnessandsport.Dubuque,IA:BrownandBenchmark.
21Hawkins,C.J.,WalbergRankin.J.,andSebolt,D.1991.Oralargininedoesnotaffectbodycompositionormusclefunctioninmaleweightlifters.Med.Sci.Sports
Exer.23:S15.
22Cynober,H.,Vaubourolle,M.,Dore,A.,andGiboudeau,J.1984.Kineticsandmetaboliceffectsoforallyadministeredornithinealphaketoglutarateinhealthy
subjects.Am.J.Clin.Nutr.39:514519.
23Williams,M.H.1993.Nutritionalsupplementsforstrengthtrainedathletes.GatoradeSportsSci.Inst.:SportsSci.Exch.476(6).
24BarOr,O.,Clarkson,P.,Coyle,E.,Davis,J.M.,Ekblom,B.,Gisolfi,C.,Hagerman,F.,Horswill,C.,Kanter,M.,Kraemer,W.,Lamb,D.,Maughan,R.,
Murray,R.,andSpriet,L.1993.Physiologyandnutritionforcompetitivesport.GatoradeSportsSci.Inst.:SportsSci.Exch.Roundtable144(4).
25Geil,P.B.,andAnderson,J.W.1994.Nutritionandhealthimplicationsofdrybeans:Areview.J.Am.Coll.Nutr.13:549558.
26MaresPerlman,J.A.,Subar,A.F.,Block,G.,Greger,J.L.,andLuby,M.H.1995.ZincintakeandsourcesintheU.S.adultpopulation:19761980.J.Am.
Coll.Nutr.14:349357.
27Pate,R.R.,Miller,B.J.,Davis,J.M.,Slentz,C.A.,andKlingshirn,L.A.1993.Ironstatusoffemalerunners.Int.J.SportNutr.3:222231.
28Telford,R.D.,Bunney,C.J.,Catchpole,E.A.,Catchpole,W.R.,Deakin,V.,Gray,B.,Hahn,A.G.,andKerr,D.A.1992.Plasmaferritinconcentrationand
physicalworkcapacityinathletes.Int.j.SportNutr.2:335342.
29Singh,A.,Moses,E.,andDeuster,P.1992.Chronicmultivitaminmineralsupplementationdoesnotenhancephysicalperformance.Med.Sci.SportsExer.
24:726732.
30Telford,R.,Catchpole,E.,Deakin,V.,Hahn,A.,andPlank,A.1992.Theeffectof78monthsofvitamin/mineralsupplementationonathleticperformance.Int.
J.SportNutr.2:135153.
31Clancy,S.,Clarkson,P.,DeCheke,M.,Nasaka,K.,Cunningham,J.,andFeedson,P.1993.Chromiumsupplementationinfootballplayers[Abstract].Med.Sci.
SportsExer.24:S194.
32Hallmark,M.,Reynolds,T.,DeSouza,C.,Dotson,C.,Anderson,R.,andRogers,M.1993.Effectsofchromiumsupplementationandresistivetrainingonmuscle
strengthandleanbodymassinuntrainedmen[Abstract].Med.Sci.SportsExer.25:S101.
33Nielsen,E.1992.Factsandfallaciesaboutboron.Nutr.Today27:612.
34Ferrando,A.,andGreen,N.1993.Theeffectofboronsupplementationonleanbodymass,plasmatestosteronelevels,andstrengthinbodybuilders.Int.J.Sport
Nutr.3:140149.

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35Brilla,L.,andHaley,T.1992.Effectofmagnesiumsupplementationonstrengthtraininginhumans.J.Am.Coll.Nutr.11:326329.
36Williams,M.H.1993.Nutritionalsupplementsforstrengthtrainedathletes.GatoradeSportsSci.Inst.:SportsSci.Exch.476(6).

Chapter6
1Ekblom,B.,andBergh,U.1994.Physiologyandnutritionforcrosscountrysiking.InPerspectivesinexercisescienceandsportsmedicine:Physiologyand
nutritionforcompetitivesport,ed.Lamb,D.,Knuttgen,H.,andMurray,R.,373.Indianapolis,IN:BenchmarkPress.
2Economos,C.D.,Bortz,S.S.,andNelson,M.E.1993.Nutritionalpracticesofeliteathletes.SportsMed.16:383.
3Burke,L.,Gollan,R.,andRead,R.1991.DietaryintakesandfooduseofgroupsofeliteAustralianmaleathletes.Int.J.SportNutr.1:378.
4Murray,R.,andHorswill,C.A.1998.Nutrientrequirementsforcompetitivesports.InNutritioninexerciseandsport,3rded.,ed.Wolinsky,I.,BocaRaton,FL:
CRCPress.521558.
5Pate,R.R.,andBranch,J.D.1992.Trainingforendurancesport.Med.Sci.SportsExer.24:S340.
6Armstrong,L.1991.Considerationsforreplacementbeverages:Fluidelectrolytebalanceandheatillness.InFluidreplacementandheatstress,ed.Marriott,B.
andRosemont,C.Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress.
7Sawka,M.N.,andWenger,C.B.1988.Physiologicalresponsestoacuteexerciseheatstress.InHumanperformancephysiologyandenvironmentalmedicine
atterrestrialextremes,ed.Pandolf,K.B.,Sawka,M.N.,andGonzalez,R.R.BenchmarkPress:Indianapolis,IN.
aWilliams,M.H.1999.Nutritionforhealth,fitnessandsport,5thed.NewYork,NY:WCBMcGrawHill,76.
8Hargreaves,M.,Dillo,P.,Angus,D.,andFebbraio,M.1996.Effectoffluidingestiononmusclemetabolismduringprolongedexercise.J.Appl.Physiol.80(1):
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17:456.
10Walsh,R.M.,Noakes,T.D.,Hawley,J.A.,andDennis,S.C.1994.Impairedhighintensitycyclingperformancetimeatlowlevelsofdehydration.Int.J.Sport
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11Maughan,R.1991.Carbohydrateelectrolytesolutionsduringprolongedexercise.InPerspectivesinexercisescienceandsportsmedicine:Ergogenics
enhancementofperformanceinexerciseandsport,ed.Lamb,D.,andWilliams,M.Indianapolis,IN:BrownandBenchmark.3550.
12Coyle,E.F.,Coggan,A.R.,Hemmert,M.K.,andIvy,J.L.1986.Muscleglycogenutilizationduringprolongedstrenuousexercisewhenfedcarbohydrate.J.Appl.
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14Williams,C.,Wilson,W.,andBurrin,J.1996.Influenceofcarbohydratesupplementationearlyinexerciseonendurancerunningcapacity.Med.Sci.Sports
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15Tsintzas,O.K.,Williams,C.,Singh,R.,Wilson,W.,andBurrin,J.1995.Influenceofcarbohydrateelectrolytedrinksonmarathonrunningperformance.Eur.J.
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16Murray,R.,Paul,G.L.,Seifert,J.G.,Eddy,D.E.,andHalaby,G.A.1989.Theeffectsofglucose,fructose,andsucroseingestionduringexercise.Med.Sci.
SportsExerc.21:275282.
17Davis,J.M.,Cokkinides,V.E.,Burgess,W.A.,andBartoli,W.P.1989.Effectsofacarbohydrate/electrolytedrinkorwateronthestresshormoneresponseto
prolongedintensecycling:Renin,angiotestinI,aldosterone,ACTH,andcortisol.InHormonesandSport,vol.55,Seronosymposiapublication,ed.Laron,Z.,and
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18Costill,D.L.,andHargreaves,M.1992.Carbohydratenutritionandfatigue.SportsMed.13:86.

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19Coyle,E.F.,andCoyle,E.1993.Carbohydratesthatspeedrecoveryfromtraining.PhysicianSportsMed.21:111.
20Sherman,W.M.1995.Metabolismofsugarsandphysicalperformance.Am.J.Clin.Nutr.62:228S.
21Coggan,A.R.,andSwanson,S.C.1992.Nutritionalmanipulationsbeforeandduringenduranceexercise:Effectsonperformance.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.
24:S331.
22AmericanCollegeofSportsMedicine.1996.Positionstandonexerciseandfluidreplacement.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.28:i.
23Broad,E.M.,Burke,L.M.,Cox,G.R.,Heeley,P.,andRiley,M.1996.Bodyweightchangesandvoluntaryfluidintakesduringtrainingandcompetitionsessions
inteamsports.Int.J.SportNutr.6:307.
24Eichner,E.R.,Laird,R.,Nadel,E.,andNoakes,T.1994.Hyponatremiainsport:Symptomsandprevention.GatoradeSportsSci.Inst.:SportsSci.Exch.
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25Lambert,G.P.,Bleiler,T.L.,Change,R.T.,Johnson,A.K.,andGisolfi,C.V.1993.Effectsofcarbonatedandnoncarbonatedbeveragesatspecificintervals
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26Lugo,M.,Sherman,W.M.,Wimer,G.S.,andGarleb,K.1993.Metabolicresponseswhendifferentformsofcarbohydrateenergyareconsumedduringcycling.
Int.J.SportNutr.3:398.
27Sherman,W.M.,andLamb,D.R.1988Nutritionandprolongedexercise.InPerspectivesinexercisescienceandsportsmedicine:Prolongedexercise,ed.
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28Coyle,E.F.,andCoyle,E.1993.Carbohydratesthatspeedrecoveryfromtraining.PhysicianSportsMed.21:111.
29Tarnopolsky,M.,MacDugall,J.,andAtkinson,S.1988.Influenceofproteinintakeandtrainingstatusonnitrogenbalanceandleanbodymass.J.Appl.Physiol.
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30Grandjean,A.1989.MacronutrientintakeofU.S.athletescomparedwiththegeneralpopulationandrecommendationsmadeforathletes.Am.J.Clin.Nutr.
49:1070.
31Murray,R.,Bartoli,W.P.,Eddy,D.E.,andHorn,M.K.1995.Physiologicalandperformanceresponsestonicotinicaciddigestionduringexercise.Med.Sci.
SportsExerc.27(7):10571062.

Chapter8
1Maughan,R.J.,andShirreffs,S.M.1997.Preparingathletesforcompetitionintheheat:DevelopinganeffectiveacclimatizationStrategy.GatoradeSportsSci.
Inst.:SportsSci.Exch.2:65(10).
2GatoradeSportsNutritionAdvisoryBoard.1996.Eatingontheroad.Chicago,IL:GatoradeSportsScienceInstitute.
3Mielcarek,J.,andKleiner,S.1993.Timezonechanges.InSportsnutrition:Aguidefortheprofessionalworkingwithactivepeople,ed.Benardot,D.
Chicago:AmericanDieteticAssociation.
4Loat,E.R.,andRhodes,E.C.1989.Jetlagandhumanperformance.SportsMed.8:226238.

Chapter9
1Grivetti,L.E.,andApplegate,E.A.1997.FromOlympiatoAtlanta:Aculturalhistoricalperspectiveondietandathletictraining.J.Nutr.127(5):860S868S.
2Recht,L.D.,Lew,R.A.,andSchwartz,W.J.1995.Baseballteamsbeatenbyjetlag.Nature377(6550):583.
3Whitley,J.D.,andTerrio,T.1998.Changesinpeaktorquearmshoulderstrengthofhighschoolbaseballpitchersduringtheseason.Percept.MotorSkills
86:13611362.
4MacWilliams,B.A.,Choi,T.,Perezous,M.K.,Chao,E.Y.,andMcFarland,E.G.1998.Characteristicgroundreactionforcesinbaseballpitching.Am.J.Sports
Med.26:6671.
5Yoshida,T.,Nakai,S.,Yorimoto,A.,Kawabata,T.,andMorimoto,T.1995.Effectofaerobiccapacityonsweatrateandfluidintakeduringoutdoorexercisein
theheat.Eur.J.Appl.Physiol.71:235239.

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6Bast,S.C.,Perry,J.R.,Poppiti,R.,Vangsness,C.T.,andWeaver,F.A.1996.Upperextremitybloodflowincollegiateandhighschoolbaseballpitchers:A
preliminaryreport.Am.J.SportsMed.24(6):847851.
7Schulz,R.,andCurnow,C.1988.Peakperformanceandageamongsuperathletes:Trackandfield,swimming,baseball,tennis,andgolf.J.Gerontology43
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8Hickson,J.F.,Johnson,T.E.,Lee,W.,andSidor,R.J.1990.Nutritionandtheprecontentpreparationsofamalebodybuilder.J.Am.Diet.Assoc.90(2):264
267.
9Britschgi,F.,andZund,G.1991.Bodybuilding:Hypokalemiaandhypophosphatemia.SchweizMed.Wochenschr.121(33):11631165.
10Hickson,J.F.,Johnson,T.E.,Lee,W.,andSidor,R.J.1990.Nutritionandtheprecontentpreparationsofamalebodybuilder.J.Am.Diet.Assoc.90(2):264
267.
11Barron,R.L.,andVanscoy,G.J.1993.Naturalproductsandtheathlete:Factsandfolklore.Ann.Pharmacother.27(5):607615.
12Kleiner,S.M.,Bazzarre,T.L.,andLitchford,M.D.1990.Metabolicprofiles,diet,andhealthpracticesofchampionshipmaleandfemalebodybuilders.J.Am.
Diet.Assoc.90(7):962967.
13Bosselaers,I.,Buemann,B.,Victor,O.J.,andAstrup,A.1994.Twentyfourhourenergyexpenditureandsubstrateutilizationinbodybuilders.Am.J.Clin.
Nutr.59:1012.
14Andersen,R.E.,Barlett,S.J.,Morgan,G.D.,andBrownell,K.D.1995.Weightloss,psychological,andnutritionalpatternsincompetitivemalebodybuilders.Int.
J.Eat.Disord.181(1):4957.
15Kreider,R.B.,Ferreira,M.,Wilson,M.,Grindstaff,P.,Plisk,S.,Reinardy,J.,Cantler,E.,andAlmada,A.L.1998.Effectsofcreatinesupplementationonbody
composition,strength,andsprintperformanceMed.Sci.SportsExerc.30(1):7382.
16Clancy,S.P.,Clarkson,P.M.,DeCheke,M.E.,Nosaka,K.,Freedson,P.S.,Cunningham,J.J.,andValentine,B.1994.Effectsofchromiumpicolinate
supplementationonbodycomposition,strength,andurinarychromiumlossinfootballplayers.Int.J.SportNutr.4(2):142153.
17Burke,L.M.,andHawley,J.A.1997.Fluidbalanceinteamsports:Guidelinesforoptimalpractices.SportsMed.24(1):3854.
18Criswell,D.,Powers,D.,Lawler,J.,Tew,J.,Dodd,S.,Iryiboz,Y.,Tulley,R.,andWheeler,K.1991.Influenceofacarbohydrateelectrolytebeverageon
performanceandbloodhomeostasisduringrecoveryfromfootball.Int.J.SportNutr.1(2):178191.
19Parks,P.S.,andRead,M.H.1997.Adolescentmaleathletes:Bodyimage,diet,andexercise.Adolescence32(127):593602.
20Wang,M.Q.,Downey,G.S.,Perko,M.A.,andYesalis,C.E.1993.Changesinbodysizeofelitehighschoolfootballplayers:19631989,Percept.MotorSkills
76(2):379383.
21Gomez,J.E.,Ross,S.K.,Calmbach,W.L.,Kimmel,R.B.,Schmidt,D.R.,andDhanda,R.1998.Bodyfatnessandincreasedinjuryratesinhighschoolfootball
linemen.Clin.J.SportMed.8(2):115120.
22Kaplan,T.A.,Digel,S.L.,Scavo,V.A.,andArellana,S.B.1995.Effectofobesityoninjuryriskinhighschoolfootballplayers.Clin.J.SportMed.5(1):4347.
23Huddy,D.C.,Nieman,D.C.,andJohnson,R.L.1993.Relationshipbetweenbodyimageandpercentbodyfatamongcollegemalevarsityathletesand
nonathletes.Percept.MotorSkills77(3):851857.
24DePalma,M.T.,Koszewski,W.M.,Case,J.G.,Barile,R.J.,DePalma,B.F.,andOliaro,S.M.1993.Weightcontrolpracticesoflightweightfootballplayers.
Med.Sci.SportsExerc.25(6):694701.
25Hickson,J.F.,Jr.,Duke,M.A.,Risser,W.L.,Johnson,C.W.,Palmer,R.,andStockton,J.E.1987.Nutritionalintakefromfoodsourcesofhighschoolfootball
athletes.J.Am.Diet.Assoc.87(12):16561659.
26Jehue,R.,Street,D.,andHuizenga,R.1993.Effectoftimezoneandgametimechangesonteamperformance:NationalFootballLeague.Med.Sci.Sports
Exerc.25(1):127131.
27Maddux,G.T.1970.Men'sgymnastics.PacificPalisades,CA:GoodyearPublishing,9.

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28Houtkooper,L.B.,andGoing,S.B.1994.Bodycomposition:Howshoulditbemeasured?Doesitaffectsportperformance?GatoradeSportsSci.Inst.:Sports
Sci.Exch.52:7(5s).
29Bortz,S.,Schoonen,J.C.,Kanter,M.,Kosharek,S.,andBenardot,D.1993.Physiologyofanaerobicand.aerobicexercise.InSportsnutrition:Aguide
fortheprofessionalworkingwithactivepeople,ed.Benardot,D.,210.Chicago,IL:AmericanDieteticAssociation.
30Benardot,D.,andCzerwinski,C.1991.Selectedbodycompositionandgrowthmeasuresofjuniorelitegymnasts.J.Am.Diet.Assoc.91(1):2933.
31Benardot,D.,Schwarz,M.,andHeller,D.W.1989.Nutrientintakeinyoung,highlycompetitivegymnasts.J.Am.Diet.Assoc.89:401403.
32Benardot,D.1996.Workingwithyoungathletes:ViewsofanutritionistontheSportsMedicineteam.Int.J.SportNutr.6(2):110120.
33Loosli,A.R.1993.Reversingsportsrelatedironandzincdeficiencies.Phys.Sportsmed.21(6):7078.
34Benardot,D.,andCzerwinski,.C.1991.Selectedbodycompositionandgrowthmeasuresofjuniorelitegymnasts.J.Am.Diet.Assoc.91(1):2933.
35Burns,J.,andDugan,L,1994.Workingwithprofessionalathletesintherink:TheevolutionofanutritionprogramforanNHLteam.Int.J.SportNutr.4
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36Akermark,C.,Jacobs,I.,Rasmussen,M.,andKarlsson,J.1996.DietandmuscleglycogenconcentrationinrelationtophysicalperformanceinSwedisheliteice
hockeyplayers.Int.J.SportNutr.6(3):272284.
37Houston,M.E.1979.Nutritionandicehockeyperformance.Can.J.Appl.SportSci.4(1):9899.
38Tegelman,R.,Aberg,T.,Pousette,A.,andCarlstrom,K.1992.Effectsofadietregimenonpituitaryandsteroidhormonesinmaleicehockeyplayers.Int.J.
SportsMed.13(5):424430.
39Horswill,C.A.,Hickner,R.C.,Scott,J.R.,Costill,D.L.,andGould,D.1990.Weightloss,dietarycarbohydratemodifications,andhighintensity,physical
performance.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.22(4):470476.
40Grediagin,M.A.,Cody,M.,Rupp,J.,Benardot,D.,andShern,R.1995.Exerciseintensitydoesnoteffectbodycompositionchangeinuntrained,moderately
overfatwomen.J.Am.Diet.Assoc.(95)6:661665.
41Kreider,R.B.,Ferreira,M.,Wilson,M.,Grindstaff,P.,Plisk,S.,Reinardy,J.,Cantler,E.,andAlmada,A.L.1998.Effectsofcreatinesupplementationonbody
composition,strength,andsprintperformance.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.30(1):7382.
42Nevill,M.E.,Williams.C.,Roper,D.,Slater,C.,andNevill,A.M.1993.Effectofdietonperformanceduringrecoveryfromintermittentsprintexercise.J.Sports
Sci.11(2):119126.
43Sherman,W.M.,Doyle,J.A.,Lamb,D.R.,andStrauss,R.H.1993.Dietarycarbohydrate,muscleglycogen,andexerciseperformanceduringsevendaysof
training.Am.J.Clin.Nutr.57(1):2731.
44Berning.J.R.,Troup,J.P.,VanHandel,P.J.,Daniels,J.,andDaniels,N.1991.Thenutritionalhabitsofyoungadolescentswimmers.Int.J.SportNutr.1(3):240
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45Guinard,J.X.,Seador,K.,Beard,J.L.,andBrown,P.L.1995.Sensoryacceptabilityofmeatanddairyproductsanddietaryfatinmalecollegiateswimmers.Int.
J.SportNutr.5(4):315328.
46Lamb,D.R.Basicprinciplesforimprovingsportperformance.1995.GatoradeSportsScienceExchange(#55)8(2).
47Microsoft.19931996.''Wrestling."Encarta97Encyclopedia.CDROM:MicrosoftCorporation.
48Sossin,K.,Gizis,F.,Marquart,L.F.,andSobal,J.1997.Nutritionbeliefs,attitudes,andresourceuseofhighschoolwrestlingcoaches.Int.J.SportNutr.7
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49Oppliger,R.A.,Case,H.S.,Horswill,C.A.,Landry,G.L.,andShelter,A.C.1996.AmericanCollegeofSportsMedicinepositionstand:Weightlossinwrestlers.
Med.Sci.SportsExerc.28(6):ixxii.

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50Wroble,R.R.,andMoxley,D.P.1998.Weightlosspatternsandsuccessratesinhighschoolwrestlers.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.30(4):625628.
51Wroble,R.R.,andMoxley,D.P.1998.Acuteweightgainanditsrelationshiptosuccessinhighschoolwrestlers.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.30(6):949951.
52Roemmich,J.N.,andSinning,W.E.1997.Weightlossandwrestlingtraining:Effectsongrowthrelatedhormones.J.Appl.Physiol.82(6):17601764.
53Roemmich,J.N.,andSinning,W.E.1997.Weightlossandwrestlingtraining:Effectsonnutrition,growth,maturation,bodycomposition,andstrength.J.Appl.
Physiol.82(6):17511759.
54Rankin,J.W.,Ocel,J.V.,andCraft,L.L.1996.Effectofweightlossandrefeedingdietcompositiononanaerobicperformanceinwrestlers.Med.Sci.Sports
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55Choma,C.W.,Sforzo,G.A.,andKeller,B.A.1998.Impactofrapidweightlossoncognitivefunctionincollegiatewrestlers.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.30
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56Horswill,C.A.1993.Weightlossandweightcyclinginamateurwrestlers:Implicationsforperformanceandrestingmetabolicrate.Int.J.SportNutr.(3):245
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57Oppliger,R.A.,Harms,R.D.,Hernmann,D.E.,Streich,C.M.,andclark,R.R.1995.TheWisconsinwrestlingminimumweightproject:Amodelforweight
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Chapter10
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2AmericanCollegeofSportsMedicine.1999.Overtraining:Consensusstatement.SportsMedicineBulletin31(1):29.
3AmericanCollegeofSportsMedicine.1999.Overtraining:Consensusstatement.SportsMedicineBulletin31(1):29.
4Asp,S.,Rohde,T.,andRichter,E.A.1997.ImpairedmuscleglycogenresynthesisafteramarathonisnotcausedbydecreasedmuscleGLUT4content.J.Appl.
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5Farber,H.W.,Schaefer,E.J.,Franey,R.,Grimaldi,R.,andHill,N.S.Theendurancetriathlon:Metabolicchangesaftereacheventandduringrecovery.Med.Sci.
SportsExerc.23(8):959965.
6Dressendorfer,R.H.,andWade,C.E.1991.Effectsofa15draceonplasmasteroidlevelsandlegmusclefitnessinrunners.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.23(8):954
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7Sherman,W.M.,andMaglischo,E.W.1991.Minimizingchronicathleticfatigueamongswimmers:Specialemphasisonnutrition.SportsSci.Exch.4(35).
8Niekamp,R.A.,andBaer,J.T.1995.Inseasondietaryadequacyoftrainedmalecrosscountryrunners.Int.J.SportNutr.5:4555.
9Butterworth,D.E.,Nieman,D.C.,Butler,J.V.,andHerring,J.L.1994.Foodintakepatternsofmarathonrunners.Int.J.SportNutr.4(1):17.
10Houtkooper,L.1992.Foodselectionforendurancesports.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.24(9):S349S359.
11Hickner,R.C.,Fisher,J.S.,Hansen,P.A.,Racette,S.B.,Mier,C.M.,Turner,M.J.,andHolloszy,J.O.1997.Muscleglycogenaccumulationafterendurance
exerciseintrainedanduntrainedindividuals.J.Appl.Physiol.83(3):897903.
12Helmich,P.,Christensen,S.W.,Darre,E.,Jahnsen,F.,andHartvig,T.1989.Nonelitemarathonrunners:Health,training,andinjuries.Br.J.SportsMed.23
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13Fogelholm,M.,Tikkanen,H.,Naveri,H.,andHarkonen,M.1989.Highcarbohydratedietforlongdistancerunners:Apracticalviewpoint.Br.J.SportsMed.
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14Nieman,D.C.,Gates,J.R.,Butler,J.V.,Pollett,L.M.,Dietrich,S.J.,andLutz,R.D.1989.Supplementationpatternsinmarathonrunners.J.Am.Diet.Assoc.89
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15Rokitzki,L.,Hinkel,S.,Klemp,C.,Cufi,D.,andKeul,J.1994.Dietary,serum,andurineascorbicacidstatusinmaleathletes.Int.J.SportsMed.15(7):435
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16Rokitzki,L.,Sagredos,A.N.,Reuss,F.,Buchner,M.,andKeul,J.1994.AcutechangesinvitaminB6statusinenduranceathletesbeforeandafteramarathon.
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17Terblanche,S.,Noakes,T.D.,Dennis,S.C.,Marais,D.,andEckert,M.1992.Failureofmagnesiumsupplementationtoinfluencemarathonrunningperformance
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18Barnett,D.W.,andConlee,R.K.1984.Theeffectsofacommercialdietarysupplementonhumanperformance.Am.J.Clin.Nutr.40(3):586590.
19Davies,K.J.A.,Quintanilha,A.T.,Brooks,G.A.,andPacker,L.1982.Freeradicalsandtissuedamageproducedbyexercise.Biochim.Biophys.Res.
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20Wolinsky,I.,andDriskell,J.A.1997.Sportsnutrition:Vitaminsandtraceelements.NewYork:CRCPress.
21Margaritis,I.,Tessier,F.,Richard,M.J.,andMarconnet,P.1997.Noevidenceofoxidativestressafteratriathlonraceinhighlytrainedcompetitors.Int.J.
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22Rokitzki,L.,Logemann,E.,Sagredos,A.N.,Murphy,M.,WetzelRoth,W.,andKeul,J.1994.Lipidperoxidationandantioxidativevitaminsunderextreme
endurancestress.Acta.Physiol.Scan.4(2):149158.
23Sloniger,M.A.,Cureton,K.J.,andO'Bannon,P.J.1997.Onemilerunwalkperformanceinyoungmenandwomen:Roleofanaerobicmetabolism.Can.J.
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24Penn,I.W.,Wang,Z.M.,Buhl,K.M.,Allison,D.B.,Burastero,S.E.,Heymsfield,S.B.1994.Bodycompositionandtwocompartmentmodelassumptionsin
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25Reeder,M.T.,Dick,B.H.,Atkins,J.K.,Pribis,A.B.,andMartinez,J.M.1996.Stressfractures:Currentconceptsofdiagnosisandtreatment.SportsMed.22
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26Deuster,P.A.,Kyle,S.B.,Moser,P.B.,Vigersky,R.A.,Singh,A.,andSchoomaker,E.B.1986.Nutritionalintakesandstatusofhighlytrainedamenorrheicand
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27Houmard,J.A.,Scott,B.K.,Justice,C.L.,andChenier,T.C.1994.Theeffectsoftaperonperformanceindistancerunners.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.26
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28Beidleman,B.A.,Puhl,J.L.,andDeSouza,M.J.1995.Energybalanceinfemaledistancerunners.Am.J.Clin.Nutr.61:303311.
29Rontoyannis,G.P,Skoulis,T.,andPavlou,K.N.1989.Energybalanceinultramarathonrunning.Am.J.Clin.Nutr.49:976979.
30Eden,B.D.,andAbernethy,P.J.1994.Nutritionalintakeduringanultraendurancerunningrace.Int.J.SportNutr.4:166174.
31MillardStafford,M.L.,Sparling,P.B.,Rosskopf,L.B.,andDiCarlo,L.J.1992.Carbohydrateelectrolytereplacementimprovesdistancerunningperformancein
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32Noakes,T.D.,Adams,B.A.,Myburgh,K.H.,Greeff,C.,Lotz,T.,andNathan,M.1988.Thedangerofaninadequatewaterintakeduringprolongedexercise:A
novelconceptrevisited.Eur.J.Appl.Physiol.57(2):210219.
33Dennis,S.C.,andNoakes,T.D.1999.Advantagesofasmallerbodymassinhumanswhendistancerunninginwarm,humidconditions.Eur.J.Appl.Physiol.
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34Bentley,D.J.,Wilson,G.J.,Davie,A.J.,andZhou,S.1998.Correlationsbetweenpeakpoweroutput,muscularstrength,andcycletimetrialperformancein
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35Laurenson,N.M.,Fulcher,K.Y.,andKorkia,P.1993.Physiologicalcharacteristicsofeliteandclublevelfemaletriathletesduringrunning.Int.J.SportsMed.14
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36Gulbin,J.P,andGaffney,P.T.1999.Ultraendurancetriathlonparticipation:Typicalracepreparationoflowerleveltriathletes.J.SportsMed.Phys.Fitness39
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37Banister,E.W.,Carter,J.B.,andZarkadas,P.C.1999.Trainingtheoryandtaper:Validationintriathlonathletes.Eur.J.Appl.Physiol.79(2)182191.

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38Guezennec,C.Y.,Chalabi,H.,Bernard,j.,Fardellone,P.,Krentowski,R.,Zerath,E.,andMeunier,P.J.1998.Istherearelationshipbetweenphysicalactivity
anddietarycalciumintake?Asurveyin10,373youngFrenchsubjects.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.30(5):732739.
39Kerr,C.G.,Trappe,T.A.,Starling,R.D.,andTrappe,S.W.1998.HyperthermiaduringOlympictriathlon:Influenceofbodyheatstorageduringtheswimming
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40Rogers,G.,Goodman,C.,andRosen,C.1997.Waterbudgetduringultraenduranceexercise.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.29(11):14771481.
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6Lambert,C.P.1991.Effectsofcarbohydratefeedingonmultipleboutresistanceexercise.J.Appl.SportsSci.Res.5:129197.

Page330

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12Mannix,E.T.,Healy,A.,andFarber,M.O.1996.Aerobicpowerandsupramaximalenduranceofcompetitivefigureskaters.J.SportsMed.Phys.Fitness36
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13Delistraty,D.A.,Reisman,E.J.,andSnipes,M.1992.Aphysiologicalandnutritionalprofileofyoungfemalefigureskaters.J.SportsMed.Phys.Fitness32
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19Duppe,H.,Gardsell,P.,Johnell,O.,andOrnstein,E.1996.Bonemineraldensityinfemalejunior,senior,andformerfootballplayers.Osteoporos.Int.6
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20Tumilty,D.1993.Physiologicalcharacteristicsofelitesoccerplayers.SportsMed.16(2):8096.
21RicoSanz,J.1998.Bodycompositionandnutritionalassessmentsinsoccer.Int.J.SportNutr.8(2):113123.
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24Kirkendall,D.T.1993.Effectsofnutritiononperformanceinsoccer.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.25(12):13701374.
25Hargreaves,M.1994.Carbohydrateandlipidrequirementsofsoccer.J.SportsSci.12:S13S16.
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27Bergeron,M.F.,Maresh,C.M.,Kraemer,W.J.,Abraham,A.,Conroy,B.,andGabaree,C.1991.Tennis:Aphysiologicalprofileduringmatchplay.Int.J.
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29Bergeron,M.F.,Maresh,C.M.,Armstrong,L.E.,Signorile,J.F.,Castellani,J.W.,Kenefick,R.W.,LaGasse,K.E.,andRiebe,D.A.1995.Fluidelectrolyte
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30BaxterJones,A.D.,Helms,P.,BainesPreece,J.,andPreece,M.1994.Menarcheinintensivelytrainedgymnasts,swimmers,andtennisplayers.Ann.Hum.
Biol.21(5):407415.

Page331

INDEX
A
absorptionofnutrients6466
aerobicpower,eatingfor:
carbohydrates164167,177
aftercompetition/practice172
beforecompetition/practice168169
duringcompetition/practice170172
eatingerrorinenduranceathletes159160
fat174175,177
fluids162,164,177
minerals176,178
protein173174,178
summaryon176178
vitamins175176,178
alcohol26,205206
amenorrhea:
andbodyfat101
andcalcium4748
inenduranceathletes258
ingymnasts230231,232233
inrunners259260,262
aminoacids.
Seealsoproteins
defined15,16
asergogenicaid132133
formuscledevelopment150152
anaerobicmetabolism146149
anaerobicpower,eatingfor:
eatingbehaviorsofpowerathletes150
andenergydemands142149
nutrientscontrollingmuscledevelopment150157
protein141142,150,153154
summaryon157158
anemia5457,61
antioxidants:
forenduranceactivities176,178
formuscledevelopment155
selenium58,63
vitaminA4041,44
vitaminC3638,39
vitaminE4243,44,257258
B
balance,nutrient:
carbohydrates6,1214,25,71.
Seealsocarbohydrates
digestionandabsorption6466
fats6,1924,25.
Seealsofats
FoodGuidePyramid810
foodsourcesofessentialnutrients297312
functionsofnutrients67
importanceof36
intakeguidelines711
macrominerals4553
microminerals5463
proteins6,1419,25.
Seealsoproteins
RDAs1011
rules68
sampledailyintake6871
samplemealplans289295
summaryon7172
vitamins24,2644.
Seealsovitamins
baseball215219
basketball273280
betacarotene4041,44
bicarbonate131
bioelectricalimpedanceanalysis(BIA)111112
biotin(vitaminH)35,39
bodybuilding220223
nutrientscontrollingmuscledevelopment150157
andproteinintake125,141142,150,153154
bodycompositionassessment:
bioelectricalimpedanceanalysis(BIA)111112
bodyfatpercent102
commonissueswith119122
dualenergyxrayabsorptiometry(DEXA)47,113,121
fatmassandleanmass100102
hydrostaticweighing108110
influencesonbodycomposition114116
performanceandbodycomposition103107
purposeof103
skinfolds110111
summaryon122
weight116119
bodyfat:
arbitrarilylowlevelsof121

Page332

bodyfat(continued):
rangesformaleandfemaleathletes106107
inwomen101,115
bonedensity47,233,267268
boron155
Bvitamincontentofselectedfoods299
Bvitamins:
cobalamin(vitaminB12)3233,39
forenduranceactivities175,178
niacin(vitaminB3)30,38
pantothenicacid(vitaminB5)3536,39
pyridoxine(vitaminB6)3032,38
riboflavin(vitaminB2)2829,38
thiamin(vitaminB1)2728,38
C
caffeine133135,205
calcium4648,52
calciumcontentofselectedfoods298
carbohydrateloading126128
carbohydrates:
foraerobicpower164167
complex1314
dailyintakeof71
forenduranceathletes164167,177
functionsof6
simple1213
typesof165166
carnitine135
chloride51,53
choline152
chromium6061,62,155
cobalamin(vitaminB12)3233,39,155
combinedpowerandendurancesports:
basketball273280
figureskating281283
fluidintakefor273277
soccer274,275,284285
summaryon288
tennis286288
copper59,61
creatine:
asergogenicaid123124,128130,145
andmuscledevelopment152
forsprinters238239
forswimmers243
cycling269270
D
Davis,Mark274
digestionandabsorption6466
distancerunning259262
distanceswimming267268
dualenergyxrayabsorptiometry(DEXA)47,113,121
E
eatingdisorders99100,101
enduranceactivities,eatingguidelinesfor:
carbohydrates164167,177
aftercompetition/practice172
beforecompetition/practice168169
duringcompetition/practice170172
eatingerrorinenduranceathletes159160
fat174175,177
fluidintake162,164,168172,177
glycerolandwater130131
minerals176,178
protein14,173174,178
summaryon176178
vitamins175176,178
endurancesports.
Seealsocombinedpowerandendurancesports
cycling269270
dietaryadequacyfor255257
distancerunning259262
distanceswimming267268
overtrainingfor252253,265
overuseinjuryfrom254255
oxygenuptakein251
supplementusagefor257258
triathlons249250,263266
energy(fuel)systems:
aerobicmetabolism144,148
anaerobicmetabolism(glycolysis)146149
andmusclefibertypes142143
phosphagensystem(creatinephosphate)144,145146,148
ergogenicaids:
bicarbonate131
caffeine133135,205
carbohydrateloading126128
carnitine135
creatine123124,128130,145,152,238239
defined124125
forenduranceathletes257258
ginseng136137
glycerol20,21,8788,130131
mediumchaintriglycerides(MCTs)2223,136,156
omega3fattyacids135136
proteinsandaminoacids132133
summaryon137
vitaminE257258
essentialfats2021
essentialnutrients:
balanceof56
carbohydrates6,1214,25,71

Page333

digestionandabsorptionof6466
fats6,1924,25.
Seealsofats
foodsourcesof297312
functionsof67
intakeguidelines711
macrominerals4553
microminerals5463
proteins6,1419,25.
Seealsoproteins
sampledailyintake6871
simplerulesfor68
sixclassesof45
summaryon7172
vitamins24,2644.
Seealsovitamins
water7.
Seealsowater
eveningcompetitions199
F
fats:
defined1920
determinationoffatneeds24,25
forenduranceathletes174175
essential2021
fishoils20,2324
functionsof6
lipidstructure2123
formuscledevelopment156157
fatsolublevitamins:
defined40
vitaminA4041,44
vitaminD4142,44
vitaminE4243,44,257258
vitaminK43,44
fattyacids:
defined20
omega3135136,156
femaleathletes:
amenorrheain4748,101,258.
Seealsoamenorrhea
andbodyfat101,106107,115
eatingdisordersin99100,101
inendurancesports258
figureskaters282
gymnasts230231,232233
irondeficiencyanemiain54
runners259260,262
swimmers268
tennisplayers286287
femaleathletetriad101
figureskating281283
fishoils2324
flouride62
fluidintake.Seehydration
folicacid3335,39
FoodGuidePyramid810
football224228
G
gammaoryzanol156,157
Gatorade81,91,208,213,275
ginseng136137
glandulars152
glucosetolerancefactor6061,62,155
glycemicindex167
glycerol20,21,8788,130131
glycolysis146149
gymnastics229233
H
Halberstam,David215
heatcramps287
heatexhaustion287
heatstroke287
Herbert,Victor37
hockey234236
humangrowthhormone150151
hydration:
forbaseballplayers216217
forbasketballplayers273274,279
forcombinedpowerandendurancesports273277
forcyclists270,271
fordistancerunners261262
forenduranceactivities162,164,168172,177
duringexercise8995
factorsaffectinggastricemptying8285
forfootballplayers228
functionsofwater7
Gatorade81,91,208,213,275
withglycerol20,21,8788,130131
forhockeyplayers236
importancetoathletes7375
monitoringoffluidbalance7882
postexercisefluidconsiderations9597
preexercisefluidconsiderations8689
forsoccerplayers285
summaryon9798
forswimmers243,268
temperatureregulationandwaterbalance7678
fortennisplayers287288
duringtravel204,205,208209
fortriathletes264265
hydrostaticweighing108110
I
inosine153
iodine58,61
iron5457,61
ironcontentofselectedfoods297

Page334

J
jetlag204206
L
Laertius,Diogenes214
LaRosa,Joseph244
M
macrominerals:
calcium4648,52
chloride51,53
defined45
magnesium4950,53,155156
phosphorus4849,52
potassium5152
sodium5051,53
sulfur53
magnesium4950,53,155156
manganese5960,63
meals:
ontheroad201214
samplemealplans289295
timingof179200
mediumchaintriglycerides2223,136,156
microminerals:
chromium6061,62
copper59,61
fluoride62
iodine58,61
iron5457,61
manganese5960,63
molybdenum63
selenium58,63
zinc5758,62
MiloofCrotona149,150
minerals:
forenduranceactivities176,178
functionsof7,4445
macrominerals4553
microminerals5463
molybdenum63
monounsaturatedfats2122
morningcompetitions197199
muscledevelopment,nutrientsfor
aminoacids150152
choline152
creatine123124,128130,145,152,238239
fatsandfatderivatives156157
inosine153
glandulars152
proteinintake141142,153154
vitaminsandminerals154156
yohimbine153
musclefibertypes142143
myths,nutritional6671
N
niacin(vitaminB3)30,38
nutrients,essential:
balanceof56
carbohydrates6,1214,25,71
digestionandabsorptionof6466
fats6,1924,25.
Seealsofats
foodsourcesof297312
functionsof67
intakeguidelines711
macrominerals4553
microminerals5463
proteins6,1419,25.
Seealsoproteins
sampledailyintake6871
simplerulesfor68
sixclassesof45
summaryon7172
vitamins24,2644.
Seealsovitamins
water7.
Seealsowaterandsportsdrinks
nutritionalmyths6671
O
omega3fattyacids135136,156
overtraining252253,265
overuseinjury254255
P
pantothenicacid(vitaminB5)3536,39
phosphorus4849,52
phylloquinone43,44
polyunsaturatedfats22
potassium5152
powersports.:
Seealsocombinedpowerandendurancesports
baseball215219
bodybuilding220223
foodinlockerroomafter213214
football224228
gymnastics229233
hockey234236
summaryon247
swimming240243
trackandfield237239
wrestling244247
proteins:
aminoacids15,16,132133
foranaerobicpower141142,150,153154
determinationofproteinneeds1618
forenduranceathletes14,173174,178
asergogenicaids132133
functionsof6
formuscledevelopment153154
andtotalenergyintake1819
pyridoxine(vitaminB6)3032,38

Page335

R
RecommendedDietaryAllowances1011
Reese,Jeff244
restaurantfood209,210
riboflavin2829,38
running:
distance259262
sprinting237239
S
samplemealplans289295
saturatedfats2122
Saylor,Billy244
selenium58,63
simplecarbohydrates1213
skating,figure281283
skinfolds110111
smilax157
soccer274,275,284285
sodium5051,53
sports,combinedpowerandendurance:
basketball273280
figureskating281283
fluidintakefor273277
soccer274,275,284285
summaryon288
tennis286288
sports,endurance:
cycling269270
dietaryadequacyfor255257
distancerunning259262
distanceswimming267268
overtraining252253
overuseinjury254255
oxygenuptakein251
supplementusagefor257258
triathlons249250,263266
sports,power:
baseball215219
bodybuilding220223.
Seealsobodybuilding
foodinlockerroomafter213214
football224228
gymnastics229233
hockey234236
summaryon247
swimming240243
trackandfield237239
wrestling244247
sprinters237239
sulfur53
supplements:
bicarbonate131
caffeine133135,205
carbohydrateloading126128
carnitine135
creadne123124,128130,145,152
forenduranceathletes257258
ginseng136137
glycerol20,21,8788,130131
mediumchaintriglycerides(MCTs)2223,136,156
omega3fattyacids135136
proteinsandaminoacids132133
summaryon137
vitaminE257258
swimming:
asendurancesport267268
aspowersport240243
T
tennis286288
thiamin2728,38
timingofmeals:
backloading179
competitionday197199
fivedaysbeforecompetition188189
fourdaysbeforecompetition190192
goalstoachievepriortocompetition181
importanceof180181
onedaybeforecompetition192,194196
sevendaysbeforecompetition183185
sixdaysbeforecompetition185187
summaryon199200
andtaperedtraining181182
threedaysbeforecompetition190192
twodaysbeforecompetition192,193194
traceminerals:
chromium6061,62
copper59,61
fluoride62
iodine58,61
iron5457,61
manganese5960,63
molybdenum63
selenium58,63
zinc5758,62
trackandfield237239
travelandnutrition:
familiarfoods201202,207208
generalguidelinesforeating203204
jetlag204206
restaurantfood209,210
snacks203,205
summaryon209210
watersupply204,205,208209
triathletes249250,263266
triglycerides:
defined19,20

Page336

triglycerides(continued):
glycerolin20,21,8788,130131
mediumchain2223,136,156
V
vegetarians:
carnitinefor135
ironintakein54,55
proteinintakeof17,18
vitaminB12statusof33
zincintakein226
vitaminA(retinolbetacarotene)4041,44
vitaminB1(thiamin)2728,38
vitaminB2(riboflavin)2829,38
vitaminB3(niacin)30,38
vitaminB5(pantothenicacid)3536,39
vitaminB6(pyridoxine)3032,38
vitaminB12(cobalamin)3233,39,155
vitaminC(ascorbicacid)3638,39
vitaminD(cholecalciferol)4142,44
vitaminE(tocopherol)4243,44,257258
vitaminH(biotin)35,39
vitaminK(phylloquinone)43,44
vitamins:
foranaerobicpower154,155
defined24
forenduranceathletes175176,178
fatsoluble4044
functionsof6,3839,44
watersoluble2639
W
waterandsportsdrinks(fluidintake):
forbaseballplayers216217
forbasketballplayers273274,279
forcombinedpowerandendurancesports273277
forcyclists270,271
fordistancerunners261262
forenduranceactivities162,164,168172,177
duringexercise8995
factorsaffectinggastricemptying8285
forfootballplayers228
functionsofwater7
Gatorade81,91,208,213,275
andglycerol20,21,8788,130131
forhockeyplayers236
importancetoathletes7375
monitoringoffluidbalance7882
postexercisefluidconsiderations9597
preexercisefluidconsiderations8689
forsoccerplayers285
summaryon9798
forswimmers243,268
temperatureregulationandwaterbalance7678
fortennisplayers287288
duringtravel204,205,208209
fortriathletes264265
watersolublevitamins2639
biotin(vitaminH)35,39
defined2627
folicacid3335,39
niacin(vitaminB3)30,38
pantothenicacid(vitaminB5)3536,39
vitaminB1(thiamin)2728,38
vitaminB2(riboflavin)2829,38
vitaminB6(pyridoxine)3032,38
vitaminB12(cobalamin)3233,39,155
vitaminC3638,39
weight116119.Seealsobodycompositionassessment
weightloss
andeatingdisorders99100,101
inwrestlers244247
women:
amenorrheain4748,101,258.
Seealsoamenorrhea
andbodyfat101,106107,115
eatingdisordersin99100,101
inendurancesports258
figureskaters282
gymnasts230231,232233
irondeficiencyanemiain54
runners259260,262
swimmers268
tennisplayers286287
Wooden,John278
wrestling244247
Y
yohimbine153
Z
zinc:
forfootballplayers226
functionsandsourcesof5758,62
forvegetarians226

Page337

ABOUTTHEAUTHOR

DanBenardot,PhD,RD,isanassociatedeanforresearchandisonthefacultyofthedepartmentsofnutritionandkinesiologyandhealthatGeorgiaState
Universityandhasbeeninvolvedinsportsnutritionresearchsince1981.HeisthecodirectoroftheLaboratoryforEliteAthletePerformanceatGSU,whichprovides
trainingandnutritionplansthathelpathletesintheirpursuitofexcellence.
AsthenationalteamnutritionistandchairoftheAthleteWellnessProgramforUSAGymnastics,Benardotworkedwiththegoldmedalwinningwomen'sgymnastics
teamatthe1996AtlantaOlympicGames.HehasbeenfundedbytheUnitedStatesOlympicCommitteetodoresearchwitheliteathletesandhasalsoworkedwith
topathletesfromavarietyofteamandindividualsports.
BenardotservedaseditorinchiefofSportsNutrition:AGuideforProfessionalsWorkingwithActivePeopleandhasearnednumerousawardsforoutstanding
servicefromtheAmericanDieteticAssociation.BorninGreece,BenardotgainedhisloveforsportwhilegrowingupintheLakePlacidregionofnorthernNewYork
State.HenowliveswithhiswifeandtwochildreninAtlanta,Georgia,whereheenjoystennis,skiing,andphotography.