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Top-down approach:
The top-down approach is a well matured technology commonly used in the field of micro-electronics. The most
important steps involved in this process are Lithography, Etching (either Dry or Chemical) and metal deposition.
Depending on the resolution aiming for, one can chose from several lithographic techniques available such as
Photo Lithography, Electron beam Lithography, laser interferometer lithography, and nano-imprint lithography.
However, there exists also other techniques such as so-called soft-Lithography. Soft-lithography is commonly
used in the biological fields to make microfluidics etc., is described in the chapter Bio-Nanotechnology. There are
several techniques available to etch the substrates depending on the purpose, the constraints with morphology
and the cost, which I will mention briefly in this chapter.
http://www.almaden.ibm.com/st/chemistry/lithography/process/
http://www.memsnet.org/news/
The steps involved in the Lithography process are:
1. Cleaning the wafer
2. Apply (e-beam /photo) Resist
3. Expose pattern
4. Develop film
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Schematic drawing of the current MBE growth chamber at NTNU. Only four of the effusion
cells are included in the drawing. Ti-ball, ion pump, mass spectrometer, and viewports are not
included in the drawing.
MBE is one of the most versatile and widely used non-equilibrium growth techniques for growing thin, epitaxial
films of a wide variety of materials []. The deposition of material on the substrate is performed by evaporating
the material from the effusion cells in a chamber maintained under ultrahigh vacuum (UHV). Due to the
presence of UHV in the chamber, the mean free path of elements evaporating from the furnaces will be very high
which leads to no collisions until they reach the sample surface. So, deposition rates of as low as 0.1 ML/s can be
achieved by changing the temperatures of the effusion cells. In addition, a flux of molecules or atoms towards
the substrate can be abruptly released (closed) by controlling the shutter in front of the cell. This allows growing
heterostructures with abrupt interfaces. Performing the deposition in UHV chamber not only makes it possible
to grow highly pure materials but also to install in-situ characterization techniques such as reflection high energy
electron diffraction (RHEED).
Characterization techniques:
Characterization of nanomaterials involve determining the structural, optical, electrical, magnetic, and
mechanical properties, depending on their applications. Structural characterization involves determining the
morphology (Shape and size) of nanomaterials, arrangement of atoms (crystal structure), and material
composition of nanomaterials. Optical characterization involves determining the light emission and light
absorption characteristics of the structures. More details about the light emitting materials and their properties
has been discussed in the Nano-photonics page.
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Crystal Structure:
Crystal structure of any material indicates the pattern in which atoms are arranged. The most common crystal
structures are SCC, BCC, and FCC. RECIPROCAL SPACE..
Determining the crystal structure, chiral number of CNTs
Electron Microscopy:
The most common technique used to determine the structural properties of the nano materials is by using
electron microscopes. An electron microscope is a technique that uses an electron beam to illuminate a
specimen and create a highly-magnified image. The advantage of using electrons instead of light is that the
better resolution can be achieved, in the ~nm- range, compared to m for light microscopy, due to the lower
wavelengths of electron beam (resolution ~ half of the wavelength). The wavelength () of electron beam
depends on the energy of the electron beam; = 1.22/E^1/2 giving a of only 4 pm for 100 keV electrons.
However, the spatial resolution of TEM, which uses the electron beam energy of 300 keV is worse than this, ~2
3 for conventional TEMs because of the aberrations in the lens system used in TEM. More details about the
lens aberrations which includes chromatic aberration, spherical aberration can be found else where
[http://www.matter.org.uk/tem/].
When an electron beam interacts with a specimen, electrons scatter in different directions as shown in Fig. 3.6.
SEM generates the image by detecting the electrons scattered above the surface of a specimen. TEM generates
the image by detecting the electrons transmitted through the specimen, and so the TEM sample should be thin
enough allowing the electron beam to pass through the sample. The schematic diagrams of SEM and TEM is
shown in the Fig. highlighting the basic difference between them. SEM is commonly used for determining the
morphology and distribution of nanomaterials, while TEM is used to investigate the crystal structure, crystal
defects and crystal composition, and to check the abruptness of the interface of heterostructure materials. Of
course, the EDS equipped with SEM enables to determine the composition also by SEM although with less
resolution compared to that of TEM.
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http://barrett-group.mcgill.ca/teaching/nanotechnology/nano02.htm
Some of the important terms the electron microscopy users usually know is resolution, depth of focus.
More details about the TEM can be found in http://www.matter.org.uk/tem/
and the latest developments in the TEM field can be found in http://superstem.com/
Scanning Probe Microscopy:
Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) involves running a nanometre-sized probe along a surface, and measuring its deflection. This allows the topography of the
surface to be mapped out. Variations of the technique allow different aspects of the surface to be mapped out (such as density, viscoelastic response, magnetic
behavior, density of electronic states, etc.). The simplest SPM technique is Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM).
http://barrett-group.mcgill.ca/teaching/nanotechnology/nano02.htm
Fluorescence Microscopy:
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Fluorescence
microscopy
is
https://whynano.wordpress.com/material-synthesis-and-characterization/
rapid
expanding
technique,
both
in
the
medical
and
biological
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http://www.fluorescence-microscopes.com/
Scanning Near Optical Microscopy:
Name of Laureate
Discovered
Herbert Kroemer
Quantum wells
2000
Charles K. Kao
Optical Comm.
2009
CCD camera
2009
Graphene
2010
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