ChE 206.01 Introduction To Hydrate Inhibition and Dehydration PDF

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
INTRODUCTION TO HYDRATE
INHIBITION AND DEHYDRATION
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Chemical
File Reference: CHE-206.01
For additional information on this subject, contact

PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Dehydration and Hydrate Inhibition

Introduction to Hydrate Inhibition and Dehydration
CONTENT
PAGE
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 6
APPROPRIATE METHODS OF DEHYDRATION OR HYDRATE INHIBITION.............. 7
Dehydration ......................................................................................................... 7
Liquid Desiccants (Glycols)....................................................................... 7
Solid Desiccants ..................................................................................... 10
Hydrate Inhibition............................................................................................... 13
Temperature Control............................................................................... 13
Methanol Injection................................................................................... 13
Glycol Injection ....................................................................................... 15
Major Saudi Aramco Dehydration Units .................................................. 17
Major Saudi Aramco Hydrate Inhibition Units ......................................... 17
PROBLEMS RELATED TO WATER IN PROCESS STREAMS ASSOCIATED
WITH NATURAL GAS PROCESSING AND COMPRESSED AIR FACILITIES ........... 18
Sources of Water............................................................................................... 18
Water Trapped in the Reservoir Rock..................................................... 18
Water Used for Extracting Oil and Gas From Wells................................ 20
Corrosion In Natural Gas Streams and Compressed Air Facilities .................... 20
Blockages In Natural Gas Streams and Compressed Air Facilities ................... 20
Examples of Problems Caused by Water in Saudi Aramco Process Streams... 20
METHODS AND EQUIPMENT USED TO MEASURE
THE WATER CONTENT OF NATURAL GAS STREAMS ........................................... 22
Bureau of Mines Dew Point Tester .................................................................... 22
Cobalt Bromide Method..................................................................................... 25
Electronic Moisture Analyzers ........................................................................... 26
Aluminum Oxide Humidity Sensor .......................................................... 26
Conductivity Cell ..................................................................................... 27

Electrolytic Moisture Analyzers ............................................................... 27

Titration with Karl Fischer Reagents.................................................................. 29
Valve Freeze Method ........................................................................................ 30
CALCULATING THE SATURATED WATER CONTENT
OF HYDROCARBON GASES AND LIQUIDS .............................................................. 31
Factors Affecting Water Content........................................................................ 31
Saturated Water Content of Natural Gas Streams............................................. 31
Graphs Plotting the Temperature and Pressure of Natural Gases.......... 32
Graphs Plotting the Temperature, Pressure,
and Acid-Gas Content of Natural Gases................................................. 32
Equations-of-State Methods ................................................................... 36
Saturated Water Content of Hydrocarbon Liquids ............................................. 37
WORK AID 1: PROCEDURES AND RESOURCES FOR CALCULATING
THE SATURATED WATER CONTENT OF NATURAL GAS
STREAMS AND HYDROCARBON LIQUID STREAMS...................... 38
Work Aid 1A: Procedures and Resources for Calculating
the Saturated Water Content of Natural Gas Streams .............. 38
Method 1................................................................................................. 38
Method 2................................................................................................. 43
Work Aid 1B: Procedures and Resources for Calculating the Saturated
Water Content of Hydrocarbon Liquid Streams ......................... 46
WORK AID 2: PROCEDURES AND RESOURCES FOR DETERMINING
THE HYDRATE-FORMATION TEMPERATURES OF
SWEET AND SOUR GAS STREAMS ................................................ 47
Work Aid 2A: Procedures and Resources for Determining the HydrateFormation Temperatures of Sweet and Sour Gas Streams
(Gravity Graphic Method) .......................................................... 47
Work Aid 2B: Procedures and Resources for Determining the HydrateFormation Temperatures of Sweet and Sour Gas Streams
(PRO/II) ..................................................................................... 49
ii

Work Aid 2C: Procedures and Resources for Determining the HydrateFormation Temperatures of Sweet and Sour Gas Streams
(HYSIM)..................................................................................... 50
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................. 51
ADDENDUM ................................................................................................................ 56
Hydrate-Formation Temperature (Gravity Graphic Method) .............................. 58
Hydrate-Formation Temperature (PRO/II) ......................................................... 58
Water Content (Inlet Temperature).................................................................... 59
Water Content (Chiller Temperature) ................................................................ 59
Rate of Water Condensed in Chiller .................................................................. 59
ADDENDUM A: MAJOR SAUDI ARAMCO DEHYDRATORS .................................... 60
Aramco Dehydration Facilities ........................................................................... 60
Khurais, Gas Lift for Crude Oil (Currently Mothballed)............................ 60
Udhailiyah, Gas Lift for Water Production (Currently Mothballed)........... 60
Abqaiq Plants, 340 (Currently Mothballed) ............................................. 60
Abqaiq Plant 462 (Currently Mothballed) ................................................ 60
Safaniya Onshore Facilities .................................................................... 61
Shedgum Gas Plant (Gas)...................................................................... 61
Shedgum Gas Plant (NGL) ..................................................................... 61
Uthmaniyah Gas Plant (Gas) .................................................................. 61
Uthmaniyah Gas Plant (NGL) ................................................................. 62
Berri Gas Plant ....................................................................................... 62
Ju'aymah Fractionation Plant (Ethane) ................................................... 62
Ju'aymah Fractionation Plant (Propane) ................................................. 63
Ju'aymah Fractionation Plant (Butane) ................................................... 63
Yanbu Fractionation Plant (Propane)...................................................... 63
Yanbu Fractionation Plant (Butane) ........................................................ 64
Ras Tanura Refinery, Plant 25................................................................ 64
iii

Ras Tanura Refinery, Plants 9, 10, 16, 40, 490 ...................................... 64

ADDENDUM B: EQUATIONS USED IN CHE 206.01................................................ 67
ADDENDUM C: WATER CONTENT CONVERSION TABLE..................................... 69
ADDENDUM D: VAPOR-SOLID EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS ................................. 71
List of Figures
Figure 1: Characteristics Of Glycols .............................................................................8
Figure 2: Typical Glycol Dehydration System...............................................................9
Figure 3: Characteristics Of Solid Desiccants ............................................................11
Figure 4: Solid Desiccant Dehydration System ..........................................................12
Figure 5: Methanol Injection System ..........................................................................14
Figure 6: Glycol Injection And Recovery System .......................................................15
Figure 7: Comparison Of Glycol And Methanol As Hydrate Inhibitors ........................16
Figure 8: Major Types Of Reservoir Traps .................................................................19
Figure 9: Bureau Of Mines Dew Point Tester.............................................................23
Figure 10: Mechanical Construction And Cross-Section
Of Aluminum Oxide Sensor ...................................................................26
Figure 11: Operation Of Electrolytic Moisture Analyzer..............................................28
Figure 12: Moisture Titrator Using Karl Fischer Reagents..........................................29
Figure 13: Effects Of CO2 And H2S On Water Content At 1,000 Psia.......................31
Figure 14: Comparison Of Calculated And Experimental Water Contents .................33
Figure 30: Water Content Of Hydrocarbon Gas .........................................................40
Figure 31: Effective Water Content Of CO2 ...............................................................41
Figure 32: Effective Water Content Of H2S................................................................42
iv

Figure 33: Water Content Of Acid Gases (Converted To Pseudo H2S

Concentrations) .....................................................................................44
Figure 34: Solubility Of Water In Liquid Hydrocarbons...............................................46
Figure 35: Pressure-Temperature Curves For Predicting Hydrate Formation ............48
Figure 36: Table For Calculating The Molecular Weight Of The Gas Stream ............57
Figure 37: Process Printout Of Hydrate-Formation Temperatures .............................58
Figure 38: Major Activated Alumina Dehydration Units ..............................................65
Figure 39: Major Molecular Sieve Dehydration Units .................................................66
Figure 40: Water Content Conversion Table ..............................................................69
Figure 41: Vapor-Solid Equilibrium Constants For Methane ......................................72
Figure 42: Vapor-Solid Equilibrium Constants For Ethane .........................................73
Figure 43: Vapor-Solid Equilibrium Constants For Propane.......................................74
Figure 44: Vapor-Solid Equilibrium Constants For Isobutane.....................................75
Figure 45: Vapor-Solid Equilibrium Constants For N-Butane .....................................76
Figure 46: Vapor-Solid Equilibrium Constants For Carbon Dioxide............................77
Figure 47: Vapor-Solid Equilibrium Constants For Hydrogen Sulfide .........................78

INTRODUCTION
ChE 206.01 reviews and further develops the information
covered in ChE 104.05. This module first identifies the methods
commonly used for dehydration and hydrate inhibition. It then
identifies problems caused by water in process streams
associated with natural gas facilities. ChE 206.01 then covers
the methods and equipment used to measure the water content
of natural gas streams.
Having covered the measurement of water in natural gas
streams, ChE 206.01 describes the calculation or prediction of
the water content of natural gas and liquid hydrocarbon
streams. This module then covers the use of equations and
graphical techniques to determine the hydrate-formation
temperatures of sweet and sour gas streams. The information
and methods covered in ChE 206.01 are used to determine the
process load on hydrate inhibition and dehydration systems.

APPROPRIATE METHODS OF DEHYDRATION OR HYDRATE INHIBITION

Dehydration
Removing water from natural gas streams helps prevent the
following:
Line blockages and freezeups

Accelerated corrosion
Hydrate formation
Natural gases are also dehydrated to meet sales gas

specifications. Gases are normally dehydrated by:
Absorbing free water and water vapor with liquid

desiccants.
Adsorbing water vapor with solid desiccants.
Condensing out the water vapor using expansion or
refrigeration.
Liquid Desiccants (Glycols)

Liquid desiccants dry gases by absorbing water in a natural gas
stream. A typical cycle includes contacting the liquid desiccant
with the gas stream and then stripping the water from the
desiccant.
Liquid desiccant dehydration systems are the dehydration
systems most commonly used for noncryogenic applications.
Liquid dehydration systems have the following characteristics:
Automate easily.
Dry gases to moderately low dew points.
Easy to operate and maintain.
Lower dew points as much as 120F.
Susceptible to foaming.
Absorption - Liquid desiccants dehydrate fluids by absorbing the
water out of the process stream.

Types - The following four types of glycols are the most common
liquid desiccants used for dehydration:
Monoethylene glycol (MEG):

hydrate inhibition.
Diethylene glycol (DEG).
Triethylene glycol (TEG).
Tetraethylene glycol (TREG).
generally used for
Figure 1 summarizes the characteristics of the different glycols.

Note that TEG is most commonly used for dehydration and that
viscosity commonly limits the use of glycols.
GLYCOL
TYPES
MEG
DEG
USES/
APPLICATIONS
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Used for hydrate

inhibition only
--
--
First glycol used

commercially
Provides reasonable
dew point control
Can be regenerated
to only 95% MAX
Low thermal
degradation
temperature
TEG
Glycol most
commonly used
for dehydration
Requires lower
circulation rates than
DEG
Can reach lower dew
points than DEG (down
to -20F in special
applications)
High viscosity (not

used when gas
temperature is less
than 50F)
Can be regenerated to
about 99.95% purity
TREG
Used when a
stripping gas or
vacuum
regeneration is
required
High viscosity
--
Figure 1: Characteristics of glycols

Glycol Dehydration System - Figure 2 shows the process flow of a
simple glycol dehydration system. Having passed through the

inlet scrubber, the wet gas enters the bottom of the contactor
and rises through the contactor trays. Lean glycol enters the
top of the contactor and flows down through the contactor trays.
As the glycol and wet gas flow against each other, the glycol
absorbs water out of the gas stream.
The dry gas leaves the dehydrator through the top of the
contactor. The rich glycol leaves the contactor and flows
through the still column to the flash drum separator, which
degasses the glycol. The flash drum prevents high glycol
losses and foaming by removing residual hydrocarbons from the
glycol. The rich glycol then flows to the reboiler.
The reboiler heats the rich glycol above the boiling point of
water but below the boiling point of the glycol. The water boils
off, leaving lean glycol. Finally, the lean glycol flows back to the
top of the contactor to begin the cycle again.
Source:
EPRCO
Figure 2: Typical glycol dehydration system

Solid Desiccants
Adsorption - Solid desiccants adsorb water molecules onto their
surfaces. Adsorption is the physical phenomenon of molecules
clinging to a molecular surface. The molecules do not react with
the surface material. Instead, van der Waals forces hold them
to the surface.
To be effective, solid desiccants need very large surface areas.

Solid desiccants gain their large surface areas from their
porosity. This porosity results in very large surface-area-toweight ratios (up to 4 million ft2/lb).
Solid desiccant dehydration systems have the following
characteristics:
Best method for processing very sour gases.

Cost more than glycol systems to build and to
operate.
Reach very low dew points.
Types - The following are the most commonly used types of solid
desiccants:
Activated alumina
Calcium
chloride
regenerated)
Molecular sieves
Silica gel
(consumable,
cannot
be
Figure 3 summarizes the characteristics of these solid

desiccants. However, the following is a brief description of the
important characteristics of each solid dessicant. Activated
alumina can adsorb up to twice as much water as molecular
sieves, but molecular sieves can reach lower dew points than
activated alumina. Molecular sieves, however, are the most
expensive desiccants. Silica gel adsorbs twice as much water
as molecular sieves, but is destroyed by free water.
10

SOLID
DESICCANTS
Activated
Alumina
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES/
LIMITATIONS
Adsorbs twice as much water as

Does not adsorb selectively
molecular sieves for saturated gases
Costs about half as much as silica
gel and molecular sieves
Resists physical damage best
Silica Gel
Adsorbs twice as much water as

Not used where free water present
molecular sieves for saturated gases (free water destroys silica)
Regenerates at much lower
temperatures
Molecular Sieve Possesses high water capacity at

low relative humidities.
Produces lowest dew points.
Simultaneously sweetens and dries.
Does not coadsorb heavy
hydrocarbons.
Does not adsorb selectively

Most expensive solid desiccant.
More easily contaminated by
carryover of amine, glycol, or
methanol from upstream.
Average 3-year life in industry.
Within Saudi Aramco, up to 10-year
life is typical.
Require up to 16% more heat to
regenerate.
Where lower dewpoints are
necessary, molecular sieves, despite
their lower bulk density and lower
water capacity (for saturated gases),
can require smaller towers due to a
significantly smaller mass transfer
zone when compared to that of silica
gels or activated alumina.
Cannot be regenerated, consumable

desiccant
Calcium
Chloride
Low dehydration capacity
Does not require heat or fuel

Efficient for remote location
Figure 3: Characteristics of solid desiccants
11

Solid Desiccant Dehydration System - The dehydration cycle of a
typical solid desiccant dehydrator involves the following steps:
Contacting the solid desiccant with the gas stream

(typically for 12 to 36 hours).
Drying the solid desiccant with a hot regeneration gas

(450F to 600F). The higher the temperature of the
regeneration gas, the lower the dew point of the gas
stream being dried.
Cooling the solid desiccant with cool regeneration

gas.
Solid desiccant dehydration systems normally consist of two,

three, or four drying towers. Multiple towers allow the solid
desiccant to be cycled without disrupting the flow of the gas
stream. For instance, in the two-tower system shown in Figure
4, one tower dries the process gas while the other regenerates
the desiccant.
Regeneration gas
Regeneration gas
compressor
Water
knockout
Regeneration gas
cooler
Inlet
separator
Wet
feed
gas
Adsorbing
Water
Regenerating
and
cooling
Regeneration gas
-Valve open
600F
Regeneration gas
heater
FRC
-Valve closed
Dry
gas
ChE 206.01 009 vgp
2/3/93
CMP
Source:
GPSA
Figure 4: Solid desiccant dehydration system
12

Hydrate Inhibition
Hydrates form ice-like solids when free water combines with the
components of a gas stream. These ice-like solids form at
temperatures higher than the freezing temperature of pure
water.
The ice-like solids can block gas pipelines and
accelerate corrosion.
The following conditions promote hydrate formation:
Gas stream at or below its dew point (free water is present).

High pressure.
Low temperature.
Temperature Control
Hydrate formation conditions may be avoided by carefully
choosing where to expand the gas stream or by directly heating
the gas stream. When hydrate-forming conditions cannot be
avoided, several methods can be used to inhibit hydrate
formation. Since free water is necessary for hydrate formation,
dehydration also inhibits hydrate formation.
Gas temperatures can be controlled by
heating the gas stream or by carefully choosing where to
expand a gas stream while the temperature of the gas is still
well above its hydrate formation temperature.
Downhole
regulators are used to monitor gas pressures and prevent
pressure drop.
Downhole Regulators -
Indirect heaters can be used to control the temperature of a gas
stream and inhibit hydrate formation. Indirect heaters are used

to heat gas streams at the wellhead and in pipelines.
Methanol Injection
The injection of methanol into gas streams inhibits the formation
of hydrates. Because methanol is relatively inexpensive, it
generally does not need to be recovered. This simplifies the
system and saves the capital expense of a methanol recovery
system. Also, methanol's low viscosity makes it useful for
cryogenic applications.
13

Figure 5 shows a simple methanol injection system. The

system in Figure 5 inhibits hydrate formation in a choke. It uses
a gas powered pump to inject methanol into the gas stream
ahead of the choke. This system does not recover the
methanol.
MeOH
Temperature
controller
Power-gas
Choke
Methanol
Power-gas
Gas stream
MeOH
injection
point
CHE 206.02 005vg

a/pro fig a
11/5/92
Source:
Dehydration and Hydrate Inhibition; Exxon Production Research Co., Production Operations Division; July
1986; p. 15, Figure 11.
Figure 5: Methanol Injection System
14

Glycol Injection
Dissolving free water into a solvent lowers the temperature at
which hydrates form. The injection of solvents into a gas stream
also dehydrates the gas. The design goal of the system,
however, is to inhibit hydrate formation. Figure 6 shows a glycol
injection and recovery system.
The system shown in Figure 6 inhibits hydrate formation in a
choke. The separator removes injected glycol from the gas
stream. The reboiler removes the absorbed water from the
glycol.
Temperature
controller
Driver
Gas to sales
Pump
Three phase
separator
Well
Choke or
pressure
reducing
valve
Glycol
injection
point
Water vapor
vent
Water and
glycol
Condensate
to tankage
Glycol
tank
Reboiler
Concentrated glycol
solution to injection pump
che 206.01 030vg
mm/pro
2/3/93
Source:
EPRCO
Figure 6: Glycol Injection and Recovery system
15

Glycols are also used to inhibit hydrates. Monoethylene glycol

(MEG) is the form of glycol most commonly used to inhibit
hydrate formation. Figure 7 compares the characteristics of
methanol and glycol injection.
INHIBITORS
Glycol
ADVANTAGES
Usually lower operating cost

than methanol when both
systems recover injected
chemical
Low vapor losses (low
volatility)
Methanol
DISADVANTAGES/ LIMITATIONS
High initial cost

Possibility of glycol
contamination
Limited use (only
noncryogenic applications)
Cannot attack (dissolve
hydrates already formed)
Relatively low initial cost
High operating cost
Simple system
Generally, use glycol injection

if methanol injection rate is
over 30 gph
Does not generally need to be

recovered
Low viscosity
When injected, distributes well
into gas streams
Large vapor losses (high

volatility)
Can attack (dissolve) hydrates

already formed
Figure 7: comparison of Glycol and Methanol as Hydrate Inhibitors
16

Major Saudi Aramco Dehydration Units

Saudi Aramco liquefies large volumes of natural gas for export.
Liquefaction requires the dehydration of the gases to very low
dew points and the removal of large volumes of water.
Dehydrating with solid desiccants is the most efficient method
for most of Saudi Aramco's applications. Saudi Aramco's
inventory of solid desiccants is about 4 million pounds.
Saudi Aramco uses molecular sieves to dry NGL gas and
activated alumina to dry NGL liquid. In the past, activated
alumina suffered short desiccant lives and high coadsorption
losses of the heavier hydrocarbons when Saudi Aramco used it
to dry hydrocarbon gas. Now, Saudi Aramco tries to use
activated alumina only for the drying of hydrocarbon liquids.
Addendum A lists Saudi Aramcos major desiccant dehydrators,
their desiccant types, and their process flow rates.
Major Saudi Aramco Liquid Desiccant Dehydrators - Saudi Aramco
mostly uses solid desiccants to dehydrate gases. The onshore

facility at Safaniya, however, uses TEG to dehydrate 860
MMSCFD of natural gas to a water content of 7 lb H20/MMSCF.
Additionally, an offshore TEG dehydrator is under construction
at Marjan.
Major Saudi Aramco Hydrate Inhibition Units
Generally, Saudi Aramco does not need to inhibit hydrates in its
plants and its pipelines. During the winter months, however,
hydrates do form in Saudi Aramco plants and pipelines.
Because of these intermittent problems, the gas plants at Berri,
Shedgum, and Uthmaniya have methanol injection systems
installed in case they are needed.
17

PROBLEMS RELATED TO WATER IN PROCESS STREAMS ASSOCIATED WITH

NATURAL GAS PROCESSING AND COMPRESSED AIR FACILITIES
Sources of Water
Most natural gas contains substantial amounts of water. The
following are the primary sources of water in natural gas:
Water trapped in the reservoir rock while the rock was being
formed.
Water used for extracting oil and gas from wells.
Water Trapped in the Reservoir Rock

Figure 8 shows typical ways in which water, oil, and gas are
trapped in rocks. Typically, the gas is trapped between a layer
of oil or water and a layer of impervious caprock. The natural
gas absorbs water until it becomes saturated.
18


Gas
Gas
Water
Oil
Water
Oil
Oil
Water
Gas
Gas
Water
Water
Oil
Oil
ChE 206.01 018vg

pro
12/4/92
Source:
Katz, Donald L. and Robert L. Lee; Natural Gas Engineering: Production and Storage; McGraw-Hill;
1990; p. 24, Figure 1-13.
Figure 8: Major Types of Reservoir traps
19

Water Used for Extracting Oil and Gas From Wells

In addition to the water already in the well, natural gas also
absorbs the water pumped into wells to extract the oil and gas.
Corrosion In Natural Gas Streams and Compressed Air Facilities
Water accelerates the corrosion processes in natural gas
streams and compressed air facilities. Some corrosion does not
take place unless water is present.
Corrosion must be
prevented because it accelerates the wear and tear on
equipment.
Blockages In Natural Gas Streams and Compressed Air Facilities
Ice - Water forms ice in natural gas and compressed air streams
in low temperature conditions, particularly in cryogenic
conditions. Ice can block flow lines and cause blockages in
equipment.
Hydrates - At temperatures that are generally above the
freezing point of water, hydrates can form in natural gas
streams at high pressures and low temperatures. Hydrates can
block flow lines and cause blockages in equipment.
Corrosion Products - Can block flow lines and cause
blockages in equipment. They also increase the use and cost of
filters and separators.
Examples of Problems Caused by Water in Saudi Aramco Process Streams
This section briefly summarizes some of the problems that
water has caused in Saudi Aramco gas streams.
In January of 1992, hydrates blocked the supply of fuel gas to
the Al-Wusta desalination plant. The sales gas system supplies
450 MMSCFD of fuel gas to this plant.
20

The Shedgum gas plant supplies fuel gas to the Shedgum

power plant and the Saudi cement plant. It also requires fuel
gas for its own uses. During the summer, the gas plant can use
wet regeneration gas from the dehydrators for fuel without any
hydrate problems. As temperatures drop with the approach of
winter, however, the formation of hydrates forces the gas plant
to use more expensive dry fuel gas instead of wet regeneration
gas.
Like the Shedgum gas plant, the Berri gas plant also uses wet
regeneration gas for its internal fuel. This use of wet fuel gas
also results in occasional hydrate problems.
Since the
Uthmaniyah gas plant uses dry gas for its internal fuel, it does
not suffer hydrate problems.
GOSPs at Abu Ali have had problems with hydrates forming
across the hydrocarbon liquid and water level control valves of
their high pressure production traps.
During cold weather, Saudi Aramco has also had problems with
the formation of hydrates in smaller pipelines and tubing as well
as instruments. Since smaller tubing and instruments, such as
level indicators, are more exposed and cool down to ambient
temperatures more quickly, hydrates form in them more readily.
Dry sales gas has caused virtually no corrosion problems in
Saudi Aramco pipelines. The pipelines that carry sour gas and
condensate from the GOSPs to the gas plants have
experienced some corrosion and metal loss. However, external
corrosion threatens Saudi Aramco pipelines more than internal
corrosion.
21

METHODS AND EQUIPMENT USED TO MEASURE THE WATER CONTENT OF

NATURAL GAS STREAMS
This section discusses the following methods and equipment
used to measure the water content of natural gas streams:
Bureau of Mines Dew Point Tester

Cobalt bromide method
Electronic moisture analyzers
Titration with Karl Fischer Reagents
Valve freeze method
Measuring the water content of natural gas streams with dew

points less than -40F [less than 10 ppm(wt)], can be very
difficult.
Bureau of Mines Dew Point Tester
The Bureau of Mines Dew Point Tester measures the dew point
of a gas sample by measuring the temperature at which water
begins to condense on a highly polished stainless steel mirror.
This tester can measure dew points above 32F with
uncertainties as low as 1F, but it can only measure dew points
between -80F and -100F with a precision of 4F.
The
method used with a dewpoint tester is defined by an ASTM
standard. Figure 9 shows a Bureau of Mines dew point tester.
22

200 300
100
0
400
500
Gas outlet valve

Chiller outlet

Deflector
Mirror
Window
Gas inlet valve
Stainless
steel mirror
Cooling
tube
Chiller
Thermometer
Deflector
Cooling
tube
Refrigerant valve
ChE 206.01 021vg

pro
12/9/92
Source:
Deaton and Frost in Manning, Francis S. and others, Oilfield Processing of Petroleum, Volume One:
Natural Gas; PennWell Books, Tulsa: 1991; p. 48, Figure 4-4.
Figure 9: Bureau of Mines Dew Point Tester
23

As shown in Figure 9, gas enters a high-pressure, stainless

steel or nickel plated brass chamber through the inlet valve.
The deflector, in the chamber, directs the gas onto the stainless
steel mirror and then the gas exits through the outlet valve.
Refrigerant in the cooling tube (attached to the chiller) cools the
stainless steel mirror. As the stainless steel mirror cools, water
in the gas stream condenses on the mirror.
The dew point of the gas is measured by using an exterior
mirror to simultaneously observe the interior stainless steel
mirror and the thermometer through the window.
The
temperature at which dew begins to form on the stainless steel
mirror is the dew point temperature of the gas stream.
The Bureau of Mines dew point tester can not be operated
automatically. The use of the dewpoint tester can be time
consuming, and its accuracy depends on operator skill. The
following precautions and actions can improve the quality of test
results:
Being sure that the dew condensed on the stainless steel

mirror is water and not hydrocarbon liquids or glycol.
Cooling the mirror slowly (2F/min.) when within 5F of the

dew point of the gas.
Allowing of the mirror to warm and observe at what

temperature the dew clears. Compare this result with the
test result.
Measuring of the water content at several different

pressures.
Removing air from the tester.
Using an illuminated magnifier and /or an LED temperature

readout in poor lighting conditions.
24

Cobalt Bromide Method

Cobalt bromide changes color when moisture contacts it.
Therefore, the cobalt bromide method measures the moisture
content of propane LPG by intimately contacting it with cobalt
bromide. Cobalt bromide changes color at a water content of 25
ppm to 30 ppm.
Briefly summarized, GPA Publication 2140-90 specifies the
following procedure:
1. The temperature of the gas is controlled with an ice bath.
2. The cobalt bromide is exposed to the propane LPG at a
specified pressure.
3. After a specified time, the color of the cobalt bromide is
observed and recorded.
4. If the color is unchanged, the pressure is reduced and the
test repeated.
5. If the color is still unchanged, the LPG is considered dry.
25

Electronic Moisture Analyzers

Aluminum Oxide Humidity Sensor
The aluminum oxide humidity sensor consists of a thin, porous
layer of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) sandwiched between two
electrodes. One electrode is aluminum and the other is a
permeable metal such as gold. This arrangement creates an
aluminum oxide capacitor in which the aluminum oxide acts as a
dielectric. Figure 10 shows the mechanical construction and a
cross-section of an aluminum oxide sensor.
Anodized (Al203) surface

Gold electrode
Aluminum electrode

Permeable gold
Pore
Pore base
Aluminum
ChE 206.01 023vg

pro
12/9/92
Source:
TF-2: Aluminum Oxide Moisture Sensor Probe; Panametrics ltd.; Shannon, Ireland; October 1991.
Figure 10: Mechanical Construction

and Cross-Section of Aluminum Oxide Sensor
26

As the aluminum oxide adsorbs water, the impedance of the

capacitor changes. The amount of water adsorbed by the
aluminum oxide depends on the partial pressure of the water in
the sample gas. Therefore, an electronic circuit can be used to
measure the water content of the sample gas.
The accuracy of aluminum oxide sensors compares favorably
with that of the Bureau of Mines dew point tester. Other
advantages of these sensors include their light weight,
portability, and continuous measurements and readings.
Aluminum oxide sensors are especially suitable for the analysis
of very dry gases. The disadvantages of aluminum oxide
sensors include slow response times and the relatively difficult
removal of contaminants.
Conductivity Cell
Conductivity cells (Hygromat measuring cells) consist of two
stainless steel plates separated and electrically insulated by a
ceramic layer with eight holes. These holes are partially filled
with a hygroscopic salt-glycerin solution. This liquid absorbs
water until it and the surrounding sample gas reach equilibrium.
The conductivity of the salt-glycerin solution increases as its the
water content increases. Conductivity cells offer long term
stability (typically better than 4F over 6 months), but the meter
must be kept at a constant temperature.
Electrolytic Moisture Analyzers
Electrolytic moisture analyzers are one of the most accurate and
fundamental means of measuring water content. They use the
adsorption and electrolysis of the water in a sample gas to
measure water content. An electrolytic cell consists of two wires
spirally wound around the inner wall of an insulating tube. A thin
film of phosphorous pentoxide separates the two wires. A
semipermeable membrane separates the electrolytic cell and
the sample gas.
Figure 11 shows a schematic of the operation of an electrolytic
moisture analyzer. In Figure 11, the sample gas flows across
the membrane, which absorbs water in the sample gas. The
water diffuses into the phosphorus pentoxide film, then the film
electrolyzes the water quantitatively. The electrolytic cell then
produces a current that is directly proportional to the watervapor content of the sample gas.
27

H 2O
molecules

Electrolytic
cell
Sample flow
Display meter
Membrane
ChE 206.01 028vg

12/22/92
CP
Source:
Mayeaux (1987) and Ranarex (1988) in Manning, Francis S. and others, Oilfield Processing of Petroleum,
Volume One: Natural Gas; PennWell Books, Tulsa: 1991; p. 49, Figure 4-3.
FIGURE 11: Operation of Electrolytic Moisture Analyzer

Only the ammeter and flow meter of an electrolytic moisture
analyzer requires calibration. However, this calibration requires
the use of a calibration gas with a known water content. The
accuracy of electrolytic moisture analyzers compares favorably
with that of the Bureau of Mines Dew point tester. They are also
light in weight, portable, give continuous readings, have fast
response times, and readily interface with alarms and other
process monitors.
On the other hand, electrolytic cells do not work well below 32F
and the phosphorous coating is susceptible to contamination.
Improved methods of cleaning and recoating, however, are
reducing the effects of contamination.
28

Titration with Karl Fischer Reagents

Titration with Karl Fischer reagents measures the absolute
water content (free and dissolved) of a distillate gas. This
method is designed especially for measuring gas samples in
which free water has settled out. The method measures the
absolute water content of a gas by using a dewatered titration
solvent. Figure 12 shows a moisture titrator that uses Karl
Fischer reagents.
Pressure
reducing
regulator
Theory of operation
Exhaust
Flow meter
Sample
inlet
Reaction
cell
Pump
head
and
check
assembly
Pump
Electronic
circuitry

Platinum
electrodes
Reagent
supply
Spent
reagent
Orifice
Orifice
Operating
pressure
inlet
Exhaust
Solenoid
valves
(normally
closed)
ChE 206.01 022vg
pro
12/8/92
Source:
UGC Industries in Manning, Francis S. and others, Oilfield Processing of Petroleum, Volume One: Natural
Gas; PennWell Books, Tulsa: 1991; p. 50, 4-4.
FIGURE 12: Moisture Titrator Using Karl Fischer Reagents
29

In the titrator shown in Figure 12, the sample gas enters the
reaction cell and bubbles through a known quantity of reagent
(0.5 mL). The sample gas then exits via the reagent trap, the
pressure reducing regulator, and the flow meter. The platinum
electrodes sense when the reagent has reacted with all of the
water in the sample, the end of the titration. When the sensors
measure the end of the titration, they activate the solenoid
valves which signal the pump to inject a new sample of reagent
into the reaction cell.
Valve Freeze Method
GPA Publication 2140-90 specifies the procedure for performing
the valve freeze method. This method is valid for testing
propane-type products. It is not valid for propane containing
antifreeze agents.
The valve freeze method is a functional test. The method does
not test for water content directly. Instead, it tests for an effect
of the water, the freezing up of a test valve. Freezeups are a
common result of excessive water in LPG streams.
Briefly summarized, GPA Publication 2140-90 specifies the
following procedure:
1. The valve is cooled by flowing a liquid-phase sample of
propane through it.
2. The valve is closed to allow a predetermined flow rate.
3. The time required for the valve to freeze up and block the
flow is measured and recorded.
4. The test is repeated several times to obtain the average time
for the valve to freeze up.
30

CALCULATING THE SATURATED WATER CONTENT OF HYDROCARBON GASES

AND LIQUIDS
Factors Affecting Water Content
Pressure, temperature, and composition affect the water content
of natural gases. Increases in temperature or pressure increase
the saturation water content of a gas, particularly increases in
temperature. For instance, changing the temperature of a gas
dramatically affects how much water it can hold. Increasing the
temperature of a natural gas at 1000 psia from 80F to 90F
increases its saturated water capacity by 36%. The saturated
water content of a natural gas is decreased when the pressure
is increased.
CO2 or H2S can significantly increase the equilibrium water
concentration. Figure 13 tabulates the effects of CO2 and H2S
on the water content of saturated natural gas. Note the
dramatic effect that temperature has on water content.
VOL % H2S
VOL % CO2
lb H2O/MMSCF
AT 100F
lb H2O/MMSCF
AT 200F
58.9
630
10
10
63.9
20
20
71.9
733
Source:
Robinson, et al in Kohl, Arthur and Fred Rosenfield; Gas Purification, 4th Ed.; Gulf Publishing Co.,
Houston; 1985, p. 584, Table 11-1.
FIGURE 13: Effects of CO2 and H2S on Water content at 1,000 PSIA
Saturated Water Content of Natural Gas Streams
Methods of determining the water content of natural gases
generally fall into one of the three following classes:
Graphs plotting the temperature and pressure of sweet

natural gases.
31

Graphs plotting the temperature, pressure, and acid-gas

content of natural gases.
Equations of state with rigorous multicomponent equilibrium

calculations that are generally performed on computers.
Graphs Plotting the Temperature and Pressure of Natural Gases

Graphs plotting the temperature and pressure of sweet gases
are suitable for many applications.
Pressure-temperature
graphs estimate the water content for lean, sweet natural gases
containing only small amounts of heavy ends. At pressures
below 500 psia, these graphs reliably (about 5% average error)
predict water contents of gases containing up to about 10% CO2
and/or H2S.
Graphs Plotting the Temperature, Pressure, and Acid-Gas Content of Natural
Gases
Graphs plotting the temperature, pressure, and acid-gas content
of natural gases adapt pressure-temperature graphs to account
for acid-gas content. The method described in Work Aid 1
supplements the pressure-temperature graph used for sweet
gases with graphs plotting the water content of H2S and CO2.
Equation 2 in Work Aid 1 relates the graphs plotting the effective
water content of H2S and CO2 with the graph that plots water
content of sweet natural gases. Equation 2 predicts the water
content of gases containing up to about 30% acid-gas
components. This equation may give acceptable results when
acid-gas concentrations are between 30% and 50%, but it can
lead to serious errors when acid-gas concentrations are greater
than 50%.
Graphs that plot the water content of acid-gas mixtures can also
be used to calculate the water content of sour gases. Instead of
calculating an effective water content for each of the CO2 and
H2S components, the mole fraction of the CO2 component is
converted into an equivalent H2S mole fraction. This is done by
multiplying the mole fraction of CO2 by 0.75.
32

The table in Figure 14 compares the results calculated using

these methods and results determined by experiment. Note that
some of the calculated results are within 12% of the
experimental data, but that some of the calculated results err by
almost 300%.
WATER CONTENT, lb/MMSCF

Mixture
psig
Experimental
Work Aid 1A
Method 1
Work Aid 1A
Method 2
11% CO2
100
2,000
40.6
39.5
39.2
160
1,000
286
276
287
100
2,000
40.6
40.8
44.1
160
1,000
282
285
287
130
1,500
111
111
112
27.5% H2S
72.5% C1
160
1,367
247
303
273
17% H2S
83% C1
160
1,000
292
210
290
30% C1
100
1,100
81
72
NA
100
1,900
442
122
NA
89% C1
11% CO2
89% C1
20% CO2
80% C1
20% CO2
80% C1
8% H2S
92% C1
60% CO2
10% H2S
9% C1
10% CO2
81% H2S
Source:
Engineering Data Book, Vol. 2, 10th ed.; GPSA; Tulsa; 1987; p. 20-6, Figure 20-10.
Figure 14: Comparison of Calculated and Experimental Water Contents
33

Addendum C tabulates equivalent water contents in various

units of measurement including dew point temperature,
ppm(wt), and ppm(vol).
Work Aid 1 describes the procedure and provides the resources
required to calculate the saturated water content of hydrocarbon
gases and liquids.
Sample Problem: Calculating the Saturated Water Content of
Hydrocarbon Gases and Liquids
Using both methods described in Work Aid 1A, calculate the
saturation water content of the inlet gas described below.
Given:
Operating line pressure
2000 psig
Gas inlet temperature
160F
Composition of gas stream =
80% methane, 20% CO2
Molecular weight of gas
21.6 lb/mole
Solution: (Method 1):

1.
From Figure 30, the uncorrected water content of the gas

at 160F and 2000 psig is determined to be
170 lb H2O/MMSCF.
2.
From Figure 30, the correction factor for gas gravity (MW =
21.6 lb/mole) at 160F is determined to be 0.98.
3.
Since the gas is not in equilibrium with brine, CS = 1.
4.
The use of Eqn. 1 to determine the corrected water content

of the hydrocarbon component, WHC, results in the
following:
WHC = WHC(unc) (CG)(CS)
(Eqn. 1)
= (170 lb H2O/MMSCF) (0.98) (1)

= 167 b H2O/MMSCF
5.
From Figure 31, the effective water content of the CO2

component
(WCO2)
is
determined
to
be
255 lb H2O/MMSCF.
34

6.
There is no H2S component.
7.
The use of Eqn. 2 to calculate the total saturated water

content of the gas stream results in the following:
(Eqn. 2)
W = yHC (WHC )+ y CO2 (WCO 2 )+ yH2S (WH2S )

0. 80 moles HC 167 lb H2 O 0. 20 moles HC 255 lb H2O
=
+
mole gas
MMSCF
mole gas
MMSCF
= 185 lb H2 O / MMSCF
Solution (Method 2)
1.
2.
The use of Eqn. 3 to convert the actual mole fraction of

CO2 to the pseudo mole fraction of H2S results in the
following:
yH2S(pseudo) = yCO2 (0.75) (Eqn. 3)
=
(0.20 mole CO2/mole gas) (0.75)
0.15 mole fraction (pseudo)
The use of Eqn. 4 to convert the actual mole fraction of the

hydrocarbon to a pseudo mole fraction based on the
pseudo mole fraction of H2S results in the following:
yHC(pseudo) = 1 - yH2S - yH2S(pseudo)
(Eqn. 4)
yHC(pseudo) = 1.0 - yH2S - yH2S(pseudo)

0.15 mole (pseudo) H2 S
mole gas
0.85 mole (psuedo) H2S
=
mole gas
= 1.0 -
3.
From Figure 33, the water content of the gas stream is

determined to be 0.49 bbl/MMSCF.
4.
The use of Eqn. 5 to convert the units of measure of the

water content determined in Step 3 to lb H2O/MMSCF
results in the following:
W = Wbbl ( H2O)
(Eqn. 5)
35

W = W bbl (H2O )
=
0.49 bbl H2O 350 lb H2 O

MMSCF bbl H2 O
= 172 lb H2 O MMSCF
Answer:
Through the use of Method 1, the saturated water content of the
gas is calculated to be 185 lb H2O/MMSCF. Through the use of
Method 2, the saturated water content of the gas is calculated to
be 172 lb H2O/MMSCF.
Equations-of-State Methods
Graphs plotting temperature, pressure, and acid-gas contents
do not predict the distribution of the hydrocarbons between
hydrocarbon liquid, aqueous liquid, and gas phases. Nor do
these graphs predict the water content of hydrocarbon-liquid
phases. Calculations that account for distribution across these
phases require the use of equations of state.
The
Santis-Breedveld-Prausnitz,
Nakamura-BreedveldPrausnitz, and Peng-Robinson equations of state can be used
to calculate the water content of a hydrocarbon-rich or
inorganic-rich gas in equilibrium with a water-rich liquid. The
Soave-Redlich-Kwong and Peng-Robinson equations of state
have been used to calculate the water contents of three-phase
(water or vapor; water-rich liquid; hydrocarbon-rich liquid)
systems.
The use of equations of state to calculate water content is too
complex and involved to be done routinely by hand. Therefore,
computer programs have been designed to perform these
calculations. Generally, these programs produce results that
agree very well with experimental results.
36

Saturated Water Content of Hydrocarbon Liquids

The solubility of water in hydrocarbon liquids is a function of
temperature. Therefore, graphs plotting the solubility of water
against temperature can be used to determine the water content
of hydrocarbon liquids.
Water solubility can be substantially higher in sour hydrocarbon
liquids. The accurate estimation of the solubility of water in sour
hydrocarbon liquids requires the use of equations of state.
Computer programs such as SimSci PRO/II, or Hyprotech
HYSIM perform these calculations.
Work Aid 1B describes the procedures and provides the
resources required to calculate the saturated water content of
hydrocarbon liquids.
The following sample problem demonstrates the use of Work
Aid 1B for calculating the saturated water content of
hydrocarbon liquids.
Sample Problem: Calculating Saturated Water Content of
Hydrocarbon Liquids
Given:
A new propane coalescer dryer needs to be sized for field
installation. Refer to Work Aid 1B and determine the saturated
water content of propane leaving a coalescer dryer at 80F.
Solution:
From Figure 34, 80F (x-axis) intersects the propane curve at
0.015 lb water/100 lb of hydrocarbon.
Answer:
The saturated water content of propane at 80F is 0.015 lb
water/100 lb of hydrocarbon, or 150 ppm(wt).
37

WORK AID 1:
PROCEDURES AND RESOURCES FOR CALCULATING THE

SATURATED WATER CONTENT OF NATURAL GAS STREAMS
AND HYDROCARBON LIQUID STREAMS
Work Aid 1A:
Procedures and Resources for Calculating the Saturated Water

Content of Natural Gas Streams
Method 1
To calculate the saturated water content of a sweet natural gas
stream, perform Steps 1 through 4. To calculate the saturated
water content of a sour natural gas stream, perform Steps 1
through 7.
1.
Use Figure 30 to determine the uncorrected water

content of the hydrocarbon components, WHC(unc).
2.
Use the graph inset in Figure 30 to determine the

correction factor for gas gravity, CG.
3.
If necessary, use the graph inset in Figure 30 to

determine the correction factor for salinity, CS.
4.
Use Eqn. 1 to determine the corrected water content of

the hydrocarbon components, WHC.
(Eqn. 1)
where:
WHC
= Corrected water content

hydrocarbon components
WHC(unc) = Uncorrected water content

hydrocarbon components
CG
= Factor to correct for gas gravity
CS
= Factor to correct for gas salinity
of
the
of
the
38

5.
If necessary, use Figure 31 to determine the effective

water content of the CO2 component, WCO2.
6.
If necessary, use Figure 32 to determine the effective

water content of the H2S component, WH2S.
7.
Use Eqn. 2 to calculate the total saturated water content of

the gas stream.
W = yHC (WHC)+ yCO2 (WCO2) + yH2S (WH2S)
(Eqn. 2)
where:
W = Saturated water content of gas stream, lb H2O/MMSCF
Wxx = Effective saturated water content of each component,
lb H2O /MMSCF
yxx = Mole fraction of component in gas stream
39

Source:
Figure 30: Water content of hydrocarbon gas
40

Source:
Figure 31: Effective Water Content of CO2
41

Source:
Figure 32: Effective Water Content of H2S
42

Method 2
1.
Use Eqn. 3 to convert the actual mole fraction of CO2 to a

pseudo mole fraction of H2S.
yH2S(pseudo) = yCO2 (0.75)
(Eqn. 3)
where:
yH2S(pseudo)
= Mole fraction of CO2 converted to a

pseudo mole fraction of H2S
yCO2 = Mole fraction of CO2 in gas stream

2.
Use Eqn. 4 to convert the actual mole fraction of the

hydrocarbon to a pseudo mole fraction based on the total
pseudo mole fraction of H2S.
yHC(pseudo) = 1.0 - yH2S - yH2S(pseudo)
(Eqn. 4)
where:
yHC(pseudo)
= Pseudo mole fraction of hydrocarbon

component (based on the pseudo mole
fraction of H2S)
yH2S(pseudo)
= Mole fraction of CO2 converted to the

pseudo mole fraction of H2S
3.
Use Figure 33 to determine the water content of the gas

stream. For gas with pressures other than 300 psia, 1000
psia, and 2000 psia, use logarithmic interpolation.
43

Source:
Figure 33: Water Content of Acid Gases

(Converted to Pseudo H2S Concentrations)
44

4.
Use Eqn. 5 to convert the units of measure of the water

content determined in Step 3 to lb H2O/MMSCF.
W = Wbbl ( H2O)
(Eqn. 5)
where:
W = Water content of natural gas stream, lb H2O/MMSCF
Wbbl = Water content of natural gas stream, bbl H2O/MMSCF
H2O = Density of water, lb H2O/bbl
= 350 lb H2O/bbl H2O
45

Work Aid 1B: Procedures and Resources for Calculating the Saturated Water
Content of Hydrocarbon Liquid Streams
Use Figure 34 to calculate the water content of hydrocarbon
liquids.
Source:
Figure 34: Solubility of Water in liquid hydrocarbons
46

WORK AID 2: PROCEDURES AND RESOURCES FOR DETERMINING THE

HYDRATE-FORMATION TEMPERATURES OF SWEET AND SOUR
GAS STREAMS
Work Aid 2A: Procedures and Resources for Determining the Hydrate-Formation
Temperatures of Sweet and Sour Gas Streams (Gravity Graphic
Method)
1.
Calculate the weight of component per mole of gas mixture

by multiplying the mole fraction of each component by the
molecular weight of each component. Record the partial
molecular weight of each component in the right column of
the table provided with the exercise.
2.
Calculate the total molecular weight of the gas mixture. To

make this calculation, total the partial molecular weights in
the right column of the table provided with the exercise.
Record the total weight at the bottom of the right column of
the table provided with the exercise.
3.
Use Eqn. 6 to calculate the specific gravity (relative to air)

of the gas mixture.
sp. gr.(gas) =
where:
MW gas
(Eqn. 6)
MW air
sp. gr.(gas) = Specific gravity of the gas stream

MWgas = Molecular weight of gas stream, lb/mole
MWair = Molecular weight of air
= 29 lb/mole
4.
Use Figure 35 to determine

temperature of the gas stream.
the
hydrate-formation
47

Source:
Figure 35: Pressure-Temperature Curves for predicting Hydrate formation
48

Work Aid 2B: Procedures and Resources for Determining the Hydrate-Formation
Temperatures of Sweet and Sour Gas Streams (PRO/II)
A separate PRO/II printout is required for each gas stream

composition. Therefore, each exercise provides a printout for
the composition of the gas stream to be analyzed. The
following procedure details the steps for using a PRO/II printout
to determine the hydrate-formation temperature of a gas stream.
1.
Locate the intersection of the hydrate formation curve and

the operating pressure.
2.
Read the corresponding temperature.
49

Work Aid 2C: Procedures and Resources for Determining the Hydrate-Formation
Temperatures of Sweet and Sour Gas Streams (HYSIM)
A separate HYSIM printout is required for each gas stream

composition. Therefore, each exercise provides a printout for
the composition of the gas stream to be analyzed. The
following procedure details the steps for using a HYSIM printout
to determine the hydrate-formation temperature of a gas stream.
1.
Identify the phase envelope of the gas stream.
2.
Identify the hydrate-formation line of the gas stream.
3.
Identify the intersection of the hydrate-formation curve and

the operating pressure.
4.
Read the corresponding temperature.
50

GLOSSARY
absorption
The assimilation of one material into another.

In natural gas dehydration, the use of an
absorptive liquid to selectively remove water
vapor from a gas stream.
activated alumina
A regenerable aluminum oxide base desiccant.
adsorption
Adhesion of molecules of gases, liquids, or

dissolved substances to a solid surface,
resulting in a relatively high concentration of
the molecules at the place of contact.
associated gas
Associated gas that is recovered during the

processing of crude oil is very rich in liquifiable
components.
BPOD
Barrels per operating day.
butane (C4)
C4H10. Light hydrocarbon found in natural

gas.
Butane is a gas at atmospheric
conditions.
calcium chloride
A consumable desiccant that cannot be

regenerated.
connate water
Water retained in the pores, or interstices, of a

reservoir formation from the time the formation
was created. Connate water is also called
interstitial water.
debutanizer
A piece of equipment that separates butane,

with or without lighter components, from a
mixture of hydrocarbons and leaves a bottoms
product that is virtually butane free.
DEG
Diethylene glycol.
dehydration
The act or process of removing water from

gases or liquids.
51

depropanizer
A piece of equipment that separates propane,

with or without lighter components, from a
mixture of hydrocarbons and leaves a bottoms
product that is virtually propane free.
desiccant
A substance used in a dehydrator to remove

gaseous and/or liquid water.
dew point
The temperature and pressure at which a liquid

begins to condense out of a gas.
dry gas
A gas whose water content has been reduced

by a dehydration process or a gas containing
few or no hydrocarbons commercially
recoverable as liquid product. Dry gas is also
called lean gas.
ethane (C2)
C2H6. Light hydrocarbon found in natural gas.

Ethane is a gas at atmospheric conditions.
free water
Condensed (liquid) water.
gas processing
The separation of constituents from natural gas

for the purpose of making marketable products.
glycol
A group of compounds used to dehydrate

gaseous or liquid hydrocarbons or to inhibit the
formation of hydrates.
GOSP
Gas-oil separator plant.

separator.
heavy ends
The parts of a hydrocarbon mixture that have

the highest boiling point and viscosity.
Hexanes and heptanes in a natural gas
stream.
heptanes plus
(C7+)
The parts of a hydrocarbon mixture or the last

component of a hydrocarbon analysis that
contains the heptanes and all hydrocarbons
heavier than heptane.
See oil and gas
52

hydrate
Ice-like solids that form when free water

combines with components in a gas stream.
These ice-like solids form at temperatures
higher than the freezing temperature of pure
water.
interstitial water
Same as connate water.
lean gas
The residue gas remaining after recovery of

natural gas liquids in a gas processing plant.
Unprocessed gas containing few or no
recoverable natural gas liquids. Lean gas is
also called dry gas.
liquefied natural
gas (LNG)
Natural gas that has been liquefied for

shipping. Requires severe cooling (-256F).
Not as easily liquefied as LPG. Requires high
pressure
and
very
low
(cryogenic)
temperatures.
liquefied
petroleum gas
(LPG)
Butane, propane, and other light ends

separated from gasoline or crude oil by
fractionation or other processes. Liquefied
petroleum gases revert to a gaseous state at
atmospheric conditions.
MBOD
1000 barrels of oil per day.
MEG
Monoethylene glycol. Also referred to as EG.
mercaptan
A compound chemically similar to alcohol in

which sulfur replaces oxygen in the chemical
structure. Many mercaptans have an offensive
odor and are used to odorize gas.
MMSCF
Million standard cubic feet.
MMSCFD
Million standard cubic feet per day.
molecular sieves
Solid desiccants composed of crystalline metal

aluminosilicates (zeolites) that can be
regenerated.
53

natural gas
A highly compressible and expandable mixture

of hydrocarbons having a low specific gravity
and occurring naturally in gaseous form. May
be found as either a gas or a liquid depending
on temperature and pressure conditions.
natural gas liquids

(NGL)
Those hydrocarbons liquefied above ground at

field facilities or at gas processing plants.
Natural gas liquids include propane, butanes,
and natural gasoline.
natural gas plant
A facility that recovers natural gas liquids

(heavier hydrocarbon components including
butane and propane) from natural gas.
oil and gas

separator
Processing equipment that separates liquid

components from gaseous components in a
gas stream directly from a well. Separators are
either vertical or horizontal and either spherical
or cylindrical. Separation usually relies on
gravity. The heavier liquids settle to the bottom
and the gases rise to the top.
regeneration
A process by which a catalyst or a chemical

reagent is restored close to its original
reactiveness.
rich gas
Same as wet gas.
saturated vapor
A vapor at its dew point.
sour
Hydrocarbon gas containing sulfur compounds

such as hydrogen sulfide and methyl
mercaptan.
sour gas
A gas containing substantial quantities of

hydrogen sulfide and/or mercaptans.
specific gravity
(gas)
The ratio of the weight of a gas at a specific

temperature and pressure to the weight of air
at the same temperature and pressure.
54

stripping
The process of removing the more volatile

components from a mixture. Stripping sweeps
out the volatile components by passing the hot
bottoms from a flash drum or tower through a
stripping vessel through which steam or inert
gas is passed.
sweet gas
A gas that has no more than the maximum

sulfur content allowed by a sales gas contract
or by law.
sweeten
To remove sulfur or sulfur compounds from

gas or oil.
TEG
Triethylene glycol.
TREG
Tetraethylene glycol.
van der Waal's

forces
Secondary bonds arising from structural

polarization. Bonding between atoms caused
only by transient electrostatic dipoles.
water dew point
The temperature at which water vapor in a gas

mixture starts to condense.
wet gas
A gas containing water or a gas that has not

been dehydrated. Wet gas is also called rich
gas.
55

ADDENDUM
Determine the process load on the gas stream described below.
The gas stream is entering a chiller. To determine the process
load, perform the following tasks:
Use the gravity graphic method to determine the hydrateformation of the gas stream.
Use the PRO/II printout shown in Figure 37 to determine the

hydrate-formation of the gas stream.
Calculate the water content of the gas stream at the

saturation temperature of the inlet gas.
Calculate the water content of the gas stream at the

temperature of the chiller.
Determine the process load on a hydrate inhibition system.

-
Calculate the rate of water condensed out of the gas

stream by the chiller.
Determine how far below the hydrate formation

temperature of the gas stream the chiller temperature is.
The operating conditions of the gas stream are as follows:

Saturation temperature of gas
= 80F
Chiller temperature
= 47F
Operating pressure
= 450 psig
Figure 36 lists the composition of the gas stream.
56

COMPONENT
MOLE
FRACTION
N2
0.0060
28.0
CO2
0.0004
44.0
H2S
0.00
34.3
C1
0.6094
16.0
C2
0.2134
30.1
C3
0.1222
44.1
i-C4
0.0092
58.1
n-C4
0.0288
58.1
i-C5
0.0039
72.2
n-C5
0.0053
72.2
n-C6
0.0013
86.2
C7+
0.0001
100.2
Total Gas
Stream
1.00
MOLECULAR
WEIGHT
lb/mole OF
MIXTURE
--
Figure 36: Table for Calculating the Molecular weight of the gas stream
57

Hydrate-Formation Temperature (Gravity Graphic Method)

Determine the hydrate-formation temperature of the gas stream
described in Figure 36. Use the gravity graphic method
described in Work Aid 2A. Use the right column of Figure 36 to
help calculate the specific gravity of the gas stream.
Hydrate-Formation Temperature (PRO/II)
Use the PRO/II printout shown in Figure 37 to determine the
hydrate-formation temperature of the gas stream. Refer to
Work Aid 2B.
Figure 37: PROCESS Printout of Hydrate-Formation Temperatures
58

Water Content (Inlet Temperature)

Calculate the saturated water content of the gas stream at the
saturation temperature of the inlet gas stream. Use Method 1
described in Work Aid 1A. For this calculation, consider this gas
stream to be 100% hydrocarbon. Use the molecular weight that
was calculated in Figure 36.
Water Content (Chiller Temperature)
Calculate the saturated water content of the gas stream at the
temperature of the chiller. Use Method 1 described in Work Aid
1A. For this calculation, consider this gas stream to be
100% hydrocarbon.
Use the molecular weight that was
calculated in Figure 36.
Rate of Water Condensed in Chiller
Since the temperature of the chiller is lower than the hydrateformation temperature (calculated above) of the gas stream,
hydrate inhibition or dehydration is required. If hydrate inhibition
is to be used, the designer must determine the rate at which the
water is condensed. He must also calculate the difference
between the hydrate-formation temperature and the chiller
temperature.
To calculate the rate at which water is condensed ( W),
subtract the water content of the gas at the chiller temperature
(Wchiller) from the water content of the gas at the saturation
temperature of the inlet gas (Winlet). This calculation does not
account for the condensation of hydrocarbons. If significant
quantities of hydrocarbons condense, overall mass balances
must be performed to determine the amount of free water
formed.
To calculate the difference between the hydrate-formation
temperature and the chiller temperature ( T), subtract the
chiller temperature (Tchiller) from the hydrate-formation
temperature (TH).
Use the hydrate-formation temperature
determined with PRO/II.
59

ADDENDUM A: MAJOR SAUDI ARAMCO DEHYDRATORS

Aramco dehydration facilities
Khurais, Gas Lift for Crude Oil (Currently Mothballed)
Dehydration method:
Glycol (TEG) contactor
Total gas flow:
50 MMSCFD
Number of units:
Product gas spec:
8 lbs H2O/MMSCF
Udhailiyah, Gas Lift for Water Production (Currently Mothballed)
Dehydration method:
Total gas flow:
720 MMSCFD
Number of units:
Product gas spec:
1.8 lbs H2O/MMSCF
Abqaiq Plants, 340 (Currently Mothballed)
Dehydration method:
Glycol (MEG) injection
Total gas flow:
30 MMSCFD
Condensers per deethanizer: 1

Product gas spec:
40 F dew point depression
Abqaiq Plant 462 (Currently Mothballed)
Dehydration method:
Molecular sieve
Total gas flow:
170 MMSCFD
Number of dehydrator towers: 2

in
adsorption,
regeneration/standby
Product gas spec:
5 ppm(vol) H2O
Regeneration gas:
Dry deethanizer overheads
Adsorption:
Downwards
Regeneration:
Downwards
Cooling:
Downwards
in
60

Safaniya Onshore Facilities
Dehydration method:
Total gas flow:
860 MMSCFD
Number of units:
Product gas spec:
7 lbs H2O/MMSCF
Shedgum Gas Plant (Gas)
Dehydration method:
Total gas flow:
Number of parallel modules:
Number of dehydrator towers
per module:
Product gas spec:
Regeneration gas:
Adsorption:
Regeneration:
Cooling:
Molecular sieve
1100 MMSCFD
4
2 in adsorption, 1 in regeneration/standby
< 0.1 ppm(vol) H2O
Dry product gas
Downwards
Upwards
Upwards
Shedgum Gas Plant (NGL)
Dehydration method:
Total NGL flow:
Number of parallel modules
per module:
Product liquid spec:
Regeneration gas:
Adsorption:
Regeneration:
Cooling:
Activated alumina/molecular sieve

60 MBOD
4
1 in adsorption, 1 in regeneration
< 0.1 ppm(vol) H2O
Dry product gas
Downwards
Upwards
Upwards
Uthmaniyah Gas Plant (Gas)
Dehydration method:
Total gas flow:
per module:
Product gas spec:
Molecular sieve
1100 MMSCFD
4
< 0.1 ppm(vol) H2O
61

Regeneration gas:
Adsorption:
Regeneration:
Cooling:
Demethanizer overhead gas

Downwards
Upwards
Upwards
Uthmaniyah Gas Plant (NGL)
Dehydration method:
Total liquid NGL flow:
per module:
Product liquid spec:
Regeneration gas:
Adsorption:
Regeneration:
Cooling:
Activated alumina
60 MBOD
4
1 in adsorption, 1 in regeneration
< 0.1 ppm(vol) H2O
Demethanizer overhead gas
Downwards
Upwards
Upwards
Berri Gas Plant
Dehydration method:
Total gas flow:
per module:
Product gas spec:
Regeneration gas:
Adsorption:
Regeneration:
Cooling:
Molecular sieve
600 MMSCFD
1
1 ppm(vol) H2O
Dry product gas
Downwards
Upwards
Upwards
Ju'aymah Fractionation Plant (Ethane)
Dehydration method:
Total ethane gas flow:
per module:
Product gas spec:
Regeneration gas:
Adsorption:
Regeneration:
Cooling:
Molecular sieve
90 MMSCFD
1
Not available
Wet ethane gas
Downwards
Upwards
Upwards
62

Ju'aymah Fractionation Plant (Propane)
Dehydration method:
Total propane LPG flow:
per module:
Product spec:
Regeneration gas:
Adsorption:
Regeneration:
Cooling:
Molecular sieve
95 MBOD
2
3.5 ppm(wt)
Vaporized propane product
Upwards
Downwards
Downwards
Ju'aymah Fractionation Plant (Butane)
Dehydration method:
Total butane LPG flow:
per module:
Product spec:
Regeneration gas:
Adsorption:
Regeneration:
Cooling:
Molecular sieve
46 MBOD
2
2.0 ppm(wt)
Vaporized butane product
Upwards
Downwards
Downwards
Yanbu Fractionation Plant (Propane)
Dehydration method:
per module:
Product spec:
Regeneration gas:
Adsorption:
Regeneration:
Cooling:
Molecular sieve
122 MBOD
2
3.5 ppm(wt)
Vaporized propane product
Upwards
Downwards
Upwards
63

Yanbu Fractionation Plant (Butane)
Dehydration method:
Total butane LPG flow:
per module:
Product spec:
Regeneration gas:
Adsorption:
Regeneration:
Cooling:
Molecular sieve
58 MBOD
2
2.0 ppm(wt)
Vaporized butane product
Upwards
Downwards
Upwards
Ras Tanura Refinery, Plant 25
Dehydration method:
Total gas flow:
per module:
Product spec:
Regeneration gas:
Adsorption:
Regeneration:
Cooling:
Molecular sieve
50 MMSCFD
1
2 ppm(wt) H2O
Dry product gas
Downwards
Upwards
Downwards
Ras Tanura Refinery, Plants 9, 10, 16, 40, 490
Dehydration method:
Plant 9: molecular sieve

Plants 10, 16, 40, 490: activated alumina
Plant 9: 34 MBOD
Plant 10: 62 MBOD
Plant 16: 27 MBOD
Plant 40: 30 MBOD
Plant 490: 66 MBOD
Number of parallel modules: Plant 9: 3 (1 in standby)
Plants 10, 16, 40, and 490: 1
64

Number of dehydrator
towers per module
(Plants 9, 40):
(Plants 10, 16, 490):
Product spec:
Regeneration gas:
Adsorption:
Regeneration:
Cooling:
Plant 9: 10 ppm(wt) H2O
Plant 10: 2 ppm(wt) H2O
Plants 16, 40: 5 ppm(wt) H2O
Plant 490: 3.5 ppm(wt) H2O
Vaporized LPG product
Upwards
Downwards
Upwards
Figure 38 and Figure 39 summarize Saudi Aramco's major

desiccant dehydration units. Saudi Aramco uses mostly mole
sieves and activated alumina in its solid desiccant dehydrators.
PLANT/UNIT
TYPE OF SERVICE
FLOW RATE
DRYING
SPECIFICATION
Uthmaniyah Gas
Plant
Sweet NGL liquid
60 MBOD
0.1 ppm(vol)
Shedgum Gas Plant
Sweet NGL liquid
60 MBOD
0.1 ppm(vol)
Ras Tanura #10
LPG (propane)
62 MBOD
2 ppm(wt)
Ras Tanura #16
LPG (propane)
27 MBOD
5 ppm(wt)
Ras Tanura #40
LPG (propane)
30 MBOD
5 ppm(wt)
Ras Tanura #490
LPG (propane)
66 MBOD
3.5 ppm(wt)
Figure 38: Major Activated Alumina Dehydration Units
65

PLANT/UNIT
TYPE OF SERVICE
FLOW RATE
DRYING SPEC (H20)
Shedgum Gas
Sweet NGL gas
1100 MMSCFD
0.1 ppm(vol)
Plant
Sweet NGL liquid
60 MBOD
0.1 ppm(vol)
Uthmaniyah Gas
Plant
Sweet NGL gas
1100 MMSCFD
0.1 ppm(vol)
Berri Gas Plant
Sweet NGL gas
600 MMSCFD
0.1 ppm(vol)
Ju'aymah NGL
Ethane
90 MMSCFD
N/A
Fractionation
LPG (propane)
95 MBOD
3.5 ppm(wt)
Plant
LPG (butane)
46 MBOD
2.0 ppm(wt)
Yanbu NGL
LPG (propane)
122 MBOD
3.5 ppm(wt)
Fractionation
LPG (butane)
58 MBOD
2.0 ppm(wt)
Plant
Ethane
90 MMSCFD
N/A
Ras Tanura #9
LPG (propane)
34 MBOD
10 ppm(wt)
Ras Tanura #25
Sour gas
50 MMSCFD
2.0 ppm(vol)
Abqaiq
Sour gas
N/A
N/A
Figure 39: Major Molecular Sieve Dehydration Units
66

ADDENDUM B: EQUATIONS USED IN ChE 206.01

where: WHC =
(Eqn. 1)
Corrected water content of the hydrocarbon

gas component
WHC(unc) =
Uncorrected
water
content
hydrocarbon gas component
CG
Factor to correct for gas gravity
CS
Factor to correct for gas salinity
W = yHC (WHC)+ yCO2 (WCO2) + yH2S (WH2S)

where: W
the
(Eqn. 2)
Saturated water
H2O/MMSCF
content
Wxx
Effective saturated water content of each

component, lb H2O /MMSCF (from Figure X
or Figure Y)
yxx
Mole fraction of component in gas stream
yH2S(psuedo) = yCO2 (0.75)

where: yH2S(psuedo)
yCO2
where: yHC(psuedo)
yH2S(psuedo)
of
gas,
lb
(Eqn. 3)
= Mole fraction of CO2 converted to

the psuedo mole fraction of H2S
Mole fraction of CO2 in gas stream
yHC(psuedo) = 1.0 - yH2S - yH2S(psuedo)
of
(Eqn. 4)
= Psuedo
mole
fraction
of
hydrocarbon component (based on
the psuedo mole fraction of H2S)
= Mole fraction of CO2 converted to
the psuedo mole fraction of H2S
67

W = Wbbl ( H2O)
where: W
Water content
lb H2O/MMSCF
Wbbl =
H2O =
(Eqn. 5)
of
natural
gas
stream,
Water content of
bbl H2O/MMSCF
natural
gas
stream,
Density of water, lb H2O/bbl
sp. gr.(gas) =
MW gas
MW air
(Eqn. 6)
where: sp. gr.(gas) = Specific gravity of the gas stream

MWgas
= Molecular weight of gas stream, lb/mole
MWair
= Molecular weight of air

= 29 lb/mole
Kvs =
where:
y
xs
(Eqn. 7)
Kvs =
Vapor-solid equilibrium K-value of a hydrateforming molecule
Mole fraction of a hydrocarbon in the gas

(water-free) phase
xs =
Mole fraction of a hydrocarbon in the solid on

a water-free basis
68

ADDENDUM C: WATER CONTENT CONVERSION TABLE
Source:
Choosing an Alcoa Activated Alumina Desiccant: Basics of Dehydration Design, p. 15.
Figure 40: Water Content Conversion Table
69

Source:
Choosing an Alcoa Activated Alumina Desiccant: Basics of Dehydration Design, p. 15.
Figure 40: Water Content Conversion Table (Contd)
70

ADDENDUM D: VAPOR-SOLID EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS
Figure 41 plots the vapor-solid equilibrium constants for

methane. Figure 42 plots the vapor-solid equilibrium constants
for ethane. Figure 43 plots the vapor-solid equilibrium constants
for propane.
Figure 44 plots the vapor-solid equilibrium
constants for isobutane.
Figure 45 plots the vapor-solid
equilibrium constants for n-butane. Figure 46 plots the vaporsolid equilibrium constants for CO2. Figure 47 plots the vaporsolid equilibrium constants for H2S. These figures can be used
to compare the effects of composition on hydrate formation
conditions.
71

Source:
GPSA
Figure 41: Vapor-Solid Equilibrium Constants for Methane
72

Source:
GPSA
Figure 42: Vapor-Solid Equilibrium Constants for ethane
73

Source:
GPSA
Figure 43: Vapor-Solid Equilibrium Constants for propane
74

Source:
GPSA
Figure 44: Vapor-Solid Equilibrium Constants for Isobutane
75

0.5
0.4
0.3
I L1
0.2
400
35
0
0.06
30
25
20
0.1
0.09
0.08
0.07
500
600
7001500
L1
Kvs
V lin
L2 H
0.05
Pressure, psia
0.04
Transition zone about 55-61F or

1500-2000 psia.
At low concentrations of
n-C 4 (1mol %) Kvs goes to infinity at
low end of transition zone range.
At high concentrations of
n-C 4 (6 mol %) Kvs goes to infinity at
high end of transition zone range.
0.03
0.02
0.01
30
Source:
35
40
45
50
Temperature, F
55
60
65
GPSA
Figure 45: Vapor-Solid Equilibrium Constants for N-Butane
76

Figure 46 plots the vapor-solid equilibrium constants for carbon

dioxide. Figure 47 plots the vapor-solid equilibrium constants
for hydrogen sulfide. These figures can be used to show the
effects of composition on hydrate-formation temperatures.
Source:
GPSA
Figure 46: Vapor-Solid Equilibrium Constants for Carbon Dioxide
77

Source:
GPSA
Figure 47: Vapor-Solid Equilibrium Constants for Hydrogen Sulfide
78

ChE 206.01 Introduction To Hydrate Inhibition and Dehydration PDF

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Judul Asli

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

ChE 206.01 Introduction To Hydrate Inhibition and Dehydration PDF

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

For additional information on this subject, contact

Dehydration and Hydrate Inhibition

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Dehydration and Hydrate Inhibition

Electrolytic Moisture Analyzers ............................................................... 27

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Dehydration and Hydrate Inhibition

Dehydration and Hydrate Inhibition

Ras Tanura Refinery, Plants 9, 10, 16, 40, 490 ...................................... 64

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Dehydration and Hydrate Inhibition

Figure 33: Water Content Of Acid Gases (Converted To Pseudo H2S

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Dehydration and Hydrate Inhibition

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Dehydration and Hydrate Inhibition

APPROPRIATE METHODS OF DEHYDRATION OR HYDRATE INHIBITION

Line blockages and freezeups

Natural gases are also dehydrated to meet sales gas

Absorbing free water and water vapor with liquid

Liquid Desiccants (Glycols)

Absorption - Liquid desiccants dehydrate fluids by absorbing the

water out of the process stream.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Dehydration and Hydrate Inhibition

liquid desiccants used for dehydration:

Monoethylene glycol (MEG):

generally used for

Figure 1 summarizes the characteristics of the different glycols.

Used for hydrate

First glycol used

High viscosity (not

Figure 1: Characteristics of glycols

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Dehydration and Hydrate Inhibition

Glycol Dehydration System - Figure 2 shows the process flow of a

simple glycol dehydration system. Having passed through the

Figure 2: Typical glycol dehydration system

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Dehydration and Hydrate Inhibition

To be effective, solid desiccants need very large surface areas.

Best method for processing very sour gases.

Figure 3 summarizes the characteristics of these solid

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Dehydration and Hydrate Inhibition

Adsorbs twice as much water as

Adsorbs twice as much water as

Molecular Sieve Possesses high water capacity at

Does not adsorb selectively

Cannot be regenerated, consumable

Low dehydration capacity

Does not require heat or fuel

Figure 3: Characteristics of solid desiccants

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Dehydration and Hydrate Inhibition

Solid Desiccant Dehydration System - The dehydration cycle of a

typical solid desiccant dehydrator involves the following steps:

Contacting the solid desiccant with the gas stream

Drying the solid desiccant with a hot regeneration gas

Cooling the solid desiccant with cool regeneration

Solid desiccant dehydration systems normally consist of two,