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  • The Animate and The Inanimate - Copie

    Diunggah oleh

    Rohan Kunwer
    331 tayangan77 halaman
    What is fascinating about this book is that the deep amount of theory contained, a sort of theory of everything attempting to integrate the second law, with the nebular hypothesis, and evolution, among other phenomenon such as "black body stars" (black holes) as he called them, the "big collision" (big bang) theory of the origin of the universe, etc., was conceived in 1915-1916 as a sort of passing hobby by a seventeen-year-old child prodigy during his summer off who had just finished a mathematics degree at Harvard and was on his way to Law School at Cambridge. To give a decent representative quote: "Our theory of the origin of life is that there is no origin, but only a constant development and change of form." He mixes this in with discussions of endothermic and exothermic movements of matter in relation to animate matter (humans) and inanimate matter (food), into and out of the body, in way that seems to foreshadow the concept of free energy coupling developed in the 1920s through the 1940s, all in relation to chemical experiments and findings, such as the Haber process.

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    The Animate and the Inanimate - Copie

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    What is fascinating about this book is that the deep amount of theory contained, a sort of theory of everything attempting to integrate the second law, with the nebular hypothesis, and evolution, among other phenomenon such as "black body stars" (black holes) as he called them, the "big collision" (big bang) theory of the origin of the universe, etc., was conceived in 1915-1916 as a sort of passing hobby by a seventeen-year-old child prodigy during his summer off who had just finished a mathematics degree at Harvard and was on his way to Law School at Cambridge. To give a decent representative quote: "Our theory of the origin of life is that there is no origin, but only a constant development and change of form." He mixes this in with discussions of endothermic and exothermic movements of matter in relation to animate matter (humans) and inanimate matter (food), into and out of the body, in way that seems to foreshadow the concept of free energy coupling developed in the 1920s through the 1940s, all in relation to chemical experiments and findings, such as the Haber process.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Tandai sebagai konten tidak pantas
    331 tayangan77 halaman

    The Animate and The Inanimate - Copie

    Diunggah oleh

    Rohan Kunwer
    What is fascinating about this book is that the deep amount of theory contained, a sort of theory of everything attempting to integrate the second law, with the nebular hypothesis, and evolution, among other phenomenon such as "black body stars" (black holes) as he called them, the "big collision" (big bang) theory of the origin of the universe, etc., was conceived in 1915-1916 as a sort of passing hobby by a seventeen-year-old child prodigy during his summer off who had just finished a mathematics degree at Harvard and was on his way to Law School at Cambridge. To give a decent representative quote: "Our theory of the origin of life is that there is no origin, but only a constant development and change of form." He mixes this in with discussions of endothermic and exothermic movements of matter in relation to animate matter (humans) and inanimate matter (food), into and out of the body, in way that seems to foreshadow the concept of free energy coupling developed in the 1920s through the 1940s, all in relation to chemical experiments and findings, such as the Haber process.

    Hak Cipta:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Unduh sebagai DOCX, PDF, TXT atau baca online dari Scribd
    Tandai sebagai konten tidak pantas
    dari 77

    Page 1

    ===================================

    THEANIMATE
    ANDTHEINANIMATE

    WILLIAMJAMESSIDIS
    ________________________________
    sidis.net/freeprint

    ________________________________
    BOSTON
    RICHARDG.BADGER
    THEGORHAMPRESS

    ===================================

    Page 2
    COPYRIGHTT19255BYYRICHARDDG..BADGER
    ALLLRIGHTSSRESERVEDD
    PRINTEDDINNTHEEUNITEDDSTATESSOFFAMERICA
    THEEGORHAMMPRESS,,BOSTON,,MASS.,,U..S..A.
    sidis.net/freeprint

    compiledbydanatsidisdotnet
    bookbindingimagecourtesyofjaydillon

    Page 3
    PREFACE
    Thisworksetsforthatheorywhichisspeculativein
    nature,therebeingnoverifyingexperiments.Itisbasedon
    theideaofthereversibilityofeverythingintime;thatis,
    thateverytypeofprocesshasitstimeimage,a
    correspondingprocesswhichisitsexactreversewith
    respecttotime.Thisaccountsforallphysicallawsbut
    one,namely,thesecondlawofthermodynamics.Thislaw
    hasbeenfoundduringthenineteenthcenturytobea
    sourceofagreatdealofdifficulty.Theeminentphysicist,
    ClerkMaxwell,inthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury,
    whilegivingaproofofthatlaw,admittedthatreversals
    arepossiblebyimagininga"sortingdemon"whocould
    sortoutthesmallerparticles,andseparatetheslowerones
    fromthefasterones.Thissecondlawofthermodynamics
    broughtintheideaofenergylevel,ofunavailableenergy
    (or"entropy"asitwascalledbyClausius)whichwas
    constantlyincreasing.
    Inthetheoryhereinsetforth,wesupposethatreversals
    ofthesecondlawarearegularphenomenon,andidentify
    themwithwhatisgenerallyknownaslife.Thischanges
    theideaofunavailableenergyintothatofareservefund
    3

    Page 4
    ofenergy,usedonlybylife,andcreatedbynonliving
    forces.
    Thisisinaccordancewithsomerecentdiscoveries.The
    lateProf.WilliamJameshasdiscoveredinthedomainof
    mentalphenomenawhathecalls"reserveenergy,"which
    laterinvestigationhasshowntobepresenttoamore
    limitedextentinallbiologicalphenomena.Itremaineda
    mystery,however,wherethisenergycamefrom,andthe
    theoryofreserveenergyassetforthinthisworksuggests
    apossibleexplanationofthesephenomena.
    Inrelationtotheuniverseasawhole,thetheoryherein
    setforthrepresentstheideaofwhatisknownascyclical
    change.Thisideaisaveryoldone,beingfoundamongthe
    philosophersoftheIonianschool,andreappearingatlater
    periodsfromtimetotime.Ontheotherhand,thegenerally
    acceptedtheoryofthesecondlawofthermodynamics

    representsadifferentphilosophicaltendency,thetendency
    thatconsiderschangesoncemadeasirreparable.
    Aristotle'sphilosophyisagoodexampleofthattendency
    inancienttimes,butithasappearedmorerecently,
    especiallyinSpencer'stheoryofevolution,which,itis
    interestingtonote,ishardlymorethanastatementofthe
    secondlawofthermodynamicsinphilosophicalterms.
    Sincethemanuscriptwascompletedmyattentionwas
    attractedbyaquotationfromalecturebythegreat
    scientist,LordKelvin,inwhichatheoryissuggested
    whichisverysimilartomineinitsgeneraloutlines;Lord
    Kelvin,however,doesnotworkoutthetheory.He
    suggeststhatlifeworksthroughareversalofthesecond
    lawofthermodynamics;andthatlivingorganisms,
    especiallyanimallife,actuallyactthepartofClerk
    Maxwell's"sortingdemon."LordKelvin,however,
    regardsthisasanindicationofsomesuspensionofthe
    ordinaryphysicallaws,insteadofseekingforthe
    explanationofthisreversalinthesephysical
    lawsthemselves.
    ToquoteLordKelvin'sownwords:"Itisconceivable
    thatanimallifemighthavetheattributeofusingtheheat
    Preface
    4

    Page 5
    ofsurroundingmatter,atitsnaturaltemperature,asa
    sourceofenergyformechanicaleffect....Theinfluence
    ofanimalorvegetablelifeonmatterisinfinitelybeyond
    therangeofanyscientificenquiryhithertoenteredon.Its
    powerofdirectingthemotionsofmovingparticles,inthe
    demonstrateddailymiracleofourhumanfreewill,andin
    thegrowthofgenerationaftergenerationofplantsfroma
    singleseed,areinfinitelydifferentfromanypossibleresult
    ofthefortuitousconcurrenceofatoms."
    Herethesuggestionisobviousthatthephenomenaof
    lifeoperateasClerkMaxwell'ssupposed"sortingdemon,"
    throughreversingthesecondlawofthermodynamicsand
    utilisingtheunavailableorreserveenergyofmatter;only
    LordKelvin,insteadofderivingthisfromtheordinary
    physicallaws,immediatelyconcludedthatsome
    mysteriousvitalforcemustbeinoperation.Undermy
    theory,thisreversalcanbeexplainedonthepurebasisof
    thetheoryofprobability.
    ItisalsotobenotedthatthetheorywhichIsuggestin
    thisworksolvesnotonlythebiologicalproblemofreserve
    energy,butalsocertainastronomicalparadoxesin
    connectionwiththetheoryofthestructureoftheuniverse
    anditsevolution.
    Thelatterpartofthework,whichdealswiththetheory
    ofthereversibilityoftimeandthepsychologicalaspectof
    thesecondlawofthermodynamicsitself,isapurely
    speculativesection,partakingmoreofthemetaphysical
    thanofthescientific.However,eveninthatsection,itisto
    behopedthattherewillbefoundabasisforputtingthe
    theoryofthenatureoftimeonascientificbasisandfor
    takingitfinallyoutsideofthedomainofmetaphysics.
    Attheendofthework,anumberofobjectionstomy
    theoryarestatedinordertoshowwhatobjectionscanbe
    adduced.Idonotattempttoanswerthesearguments,but,
    forthesakeoffairnesstothereader,simplystatethemand
    leavethemunanswered,sothatthereadermaydecidefor
    himselfalltheprosandconsofthequestion,andcometo
    amoreunbiasedconclusion.
    Preface
    5

    Page 6
    AtfirstIhesitatedtopublishmytheoryofthe
    reversibilityoftheuniverse;butIwasencouragedon
    discoveringthequotationfromLordKelvinabove
    mentioned;sothatnow,knowingthatthisisnotthefirst
    timethatithasbeensuggestedthatlifeisareversalofthe
    secondlawofthermodynamics,Ihavedecidedtopublish
    theworkandgivemytheorytotheworld,tobeaccepted
    orrejected,asthecasemaybe.
    WILLIAMJAMESSIDIS
    January6,1920.
    Preface
    6

    Page 7
    CONTENTS

    (Clicktoread.)
    PREFACE
    IT
    HEREVERSEUNIVERSE

    9
    IIR
    EVERSIBLELAWS
    14
    IIIIRREVERSIBILITY
    17
    IVT
    HEPARADOX
    22
    VT
    HEPROBABILITIESINTHEPROBLEM
    31
    VIS
    OLUTIONOFTHEPARADOX
    34
    VIIT
    HEORIESOFLIFE
    42
    VIIIT
    HEEXTENSIONOFTHESECONDLAW
    51
    IXT
    HERELATIONBETWEENTHETENDENCIES
    58
    XE
    XOTHERMICANDENDOTHERMICSUBSTANCES
    62
    XIT
    HEORIESOFTHEORIGINOFLIFE
    67
    XIIT
    HEASTRONOMICALUNIVERSE
    74
    XIIIT
    HENEBULARHYPOTHESIS
    90
    XIVT
    HEREVERSIBILITYTHEORYOFCOSMOGONY
    102
    XVT
    HEPSEUDOLIVINGORGANISMS
    107
    XVIP
    SYCHOLOGICALASPECTOFREVERSAL
    114
    XVIIG
    ENERALSUMMARYOFTHETHEORY
    124
    XVIIIS
    OMEOBJECTIONSTOTHEREVERSIBILITYTHEORY
    133
    XIXC
    ONCLUSION
    138
    INDEX
    139

    Page 8
    Page 9
    CHAPTERONE
    THEREVERSEUNIVERSE
    Amongthephysicallawsitisageneralcharacteristic
    thatthereisreversibilityintime;thatis,shouldthe
    wholeuniversetracebackthevariouspositionsthat

    bodiesinithavepassedthroughinagivenintervalof
    time,butinthereverseordertothatinwhichthese
    positionsactuallyoccurred,thentheuniverse,inthis
    imaginarycase,wouldstillobeythesamelaws.
    Totestreversibility,wemayimaginewhatwemay
    call"thereverseuniverse,"thatistosay,another,an
    imaginaryuniverse,inwhichthepositionsofallbodies
    atvariousmomentsoftimearethesameasinourreal
    universe,inwhichthosepositionsoccuratthesame
    respectiveintervalsoftimebutinthereverseorder.To
    assistinimaginingthisreverseuniverse,wemay
    remindourselvesthat,whenwelookinamirror,the
    imaginaryworldthatweseeinthatmirrorcorresponds
    ineverydetailtotheworldwearein,withthe
    exceptionthatonedimensionofspaceoccursinthe
    reverseorder,namelythedirectionperpendiculartothe
    planeofthemirror.If,now,weconceiveoftimeasa
    sortofadditionaldimensionoftheuniverse,thenour
    "reverseuniverse"wouldbeoneinwhichtherewasa
    similarreversalinthatdimension,leavingthethree
    dimensionsofspaceunaltered.Or,toputitinanother
    way,theseriesofimagesproducedbyrunninga
    motionpicturereelbackwardswouldgiveexactlythe
    impressionofsuchareverseuniverse.
    Withthisauxiliary,imaginaryuniverse,ourtestof
    thereversibilityofanygivenphysicallaworprocess
    9

    Page 10
    wouldbe,whetherthatlawholdsgood,whetherthat
    processstillsubsistsinthereverseuniverse.Inorderto
    seethatinanycase,wemayfirstfindouthowto
    translateanyphysicaloccurrenceintothe
    correspondingoccurrenceinourreverseuniverse.To
    startwith,allpositionsinspaceremainabsolutelythe
    sameinthereverseuniverseasintherealuniverse;
    intervalsoftime,however,remainthesamein
    magnitudebutarereversedindirection.Inotherwords,
    thoughtheabsoluteamountofanintervaloftime
    remainsunchanged,itisnecessary,intranslatinginto
    termsofthereverseuniverse,toreplace"before"by
    "after,"andviceversa.
    Thepathofamovingbodywillremainthesamein
    thereverseuniversebecauseallthepositionswhich
    constitutethatpathwillremainunchanged.Since,
    however,thepositionsarereachedinthereverseorder
    oftime,thebodymovesalongthepathinthereverse
    direction.Theabsoluteamountofcorresponding
    intervalsofspaceandtimeinthismotionremaining
    unchanged,itfollowsthatallvelocitiesmust,inthe
    reverseuniverse,bethesameinamountbutexactly
    reversedindirection.
    Wecometoaproblemofgreaterdifficultyin
    consideringwhatbecomesofacceleration.Acceleration
    istherateofchangeofvelocitywithrespecttotime.If,
    tomakethequestionsimpler,weassumeuniform
    acceleration,thentheaccelerationofabodyisequalto
    thedifferenceofvelocitydividedbytheintervaloftime
    requiredtoproducethisdifference.If,forexample,in
    anintervaloftimeTthevelocityAischangedtothe
    velocityB,theacceleration(vectoriallyrepresented)
    wouldbe(BA)/T.Inthecorrespondingmotioninthe

    reverseuniverse,intheintervaloftimeT,thevelocity
    changesfromBtoA,sothattheaccelerationis[(A)
    10
    TheReverseUniverse

    Page 11
    (B)]/T,or(BA)/T.Inotherwords,theaccelerationof
    abodyremainsunchangedinthereverseuniverse,both
    inamountandindirection,intranslationintotermsof
    thereverseuniverse.Theabovereasonassumesthatthe
    accelerationofthebodyisuniform,butanextensionof
    thesamereasoningwillshowthatthesameconclusion
    holdsevenwhentheaccelerationisconstantlyvarying.
    Somuchforpurekinematics.Fordynamicalterms,
    itisnecessarytofindwhathappenstothemassof
    bodiesinthereverseuniverse.Now,massbeingmerely
    amountofmatter,andunrelatedtotime,itfollowsthat
    massisnotintheleastchangedbyreversal.Fromthatit
    follows,bywhatwehaveseen,thatallmomentaare
    reversedindirectionbutunchangedinamount,while,
    inthereverseuniverse,theforceactingonabody,
    beingtheproductoftwomagnitudesthatremain
    unchangedinthereverseuniverse(namely,themassof
    thebodyandtheacceleration,assumingnootherforce
    toact),mustnecessarilyremainunchangedinthe
    reverseuniversenotonlyinamountbutalsoin
    direction.Itmighthavebeenexpectedthat,inthe
    reverseuniverse,forceswouldbereversedindirection;
    butthisisnotso.
    Energy,beingentirelydependentonsuchthingsas
    positionandforce(inthecaseofpotentialenergy)oron
    massandthesquareofspeed(inthecaseofkinetic
    energy),allofwhichremainentirelyunchangedinthe
    reverseuniverse,mustmanifestlyremainentirely
    unchanged.
    Wecome,however,toamorecomplicatedproblem
    inthequestionofthecausalrelation.Forthispurposeit
    isnecessarytodistinguishvariouskindsofcausality.
    Thetruerelationofcauseandeffectisoneoftemporal
    sequence;e.g.,theremovalofthesupportofanobject
    isthecauseofitsfalling.Theforceofgravityhasbeen
    11
    TheReverseUniverse

    Page 12
    thereallthetime;anditisalogicalconsequenceofthe
    existenceofsuchforcethatthefallofanobjectshould
    followtheremovalofitssupport.Strictlyspeaking,the
    forceofgravityisinthiscasenotacause,butan
    explanation,areasonfortheactualcausation,whichis
    itselfmerelyasequencewithanexplanation.Wehave
    thustodistinguishbetweentherelationofreasonand
    consequence,ontheonehand,and,ontheotherhand,
    therelationofcauseandeffect.Thelatterimplies
    sequenceintime,theformerisapurerelationoflogical
    deductionandessentiallyimpliessimultaneity,forthe
    reasonandtheconsequence,onebeingalogical
    deductionfromtheother,mustbothsubsisttogether.
    Now,inthereverseuniverse,wemustsupposethat
    alllogicalrelationsoffactsremainthesame.Thisdoes
    notimplyanythingconcerningmentalphenomena;of

    thatweshallfindoutlaterinourinvestigation.Infact,
    logicalrelationsoffactsmustofnecessitysubsistapart
    fromthequestionwhetherornotamindexistsinthe
    universe.Logicalrelationsmaybesaidtobesimplythe
    mostgeneralexternalfactsinexistence.IfAisBandB
    isC,therulethenis,notthatIthinkthatAisC;itisa
    factverifiablebyobservationthatAisC.Hence,even
    shouldthereverseuniversedestroycompletelyall
    mentalphenomena,logicalrelationsmustremain
    unchanged,andconsequentlyalsotherelationofreason
    andconsequence.
    Butwithtruephysicalcausality,itisotherwise.If
    somegenerallaworsomeparticularforceresulting
    therefromhasforitsconsequence,intherealuniverse,
    thateventAshouldbefollowedbyeventB,thenthe
    correspondinglawor,forceinthereverseuniversemust
    resultinthecorrespondingeventsA'andB'following
    oneanotherinthereverseorder.Thatistosay,ifone
    physicaleventcausesanotherintherealuniverse,then
    12
    TheReverseUniverse

    Page 13
    theeventcorrespondinginthereverseuniversetothe
    effectwill,ingeneral,causetheeventcorrespondingin
    thereverseuniversetothecause.Thatistosay,in
    translatingintotermsofthereverseuniverse,"cause"is
    tobetranslatedby"effect,"andviceversa.This,
    however,isnotanaccuraterule,therebeingexceptions,
    acausalrelationbeingsometimesaltogetherseveredor
    elseunrecognizablyalteredbythereversaloftime.
    Againinthereverseuniverse,suchpropertiesas
    density,specificheat,elasticity,amountofheat,
    temperature,etc.,alsoremainunchanged.Itcouldalso
    beshownthatsuchpropertiesaselectricityand
    magnetismremainunchanged,butthatthedirectionof
    anelectriccurrentwouldbereversed.Thusallphysical
    phenomenacouldreadilybetranslatedintotermsofthe
    reverseuniverse.Thevariousvarietiesofsubstance,
    dependingontheinternalstructureoftheatomand
    molecule,etc.,alsoremainunchangedinthereverse
    universe.
    Contents
    13
    TheReverseUniverse

    Page 14
    CHAPTERII
    REVERSIBLELAWS
    Nowweshallattempttofindoutwhatarethe
    physicallawswhichsubsistinthisimaginary"reverse
    universe."Tostartwiththesimplelawsofmechanics,
    wehaveitgivenintherealuniversethatabodyretains
    itsvelocityunlessthereissomeexternalforceto
    changethatvelocity.Now,astherecanbenochangeof
    velocityinthereverseuniversewithouta
    correspondingchangeofthereversevelocityinthereal
    universe,andsinceallforcesinbothuniversesare
    respectivelyequal,itfollowsthatthissamelawof
    motionappliesalsointhereverseuniverse.Inother
    words,thelawofinertiaisunchangedbythereversal

    intime,andisthereforewhatwemaycallareversible
    physicallaw.
    Thesecondlawofmotionisthatchangeof
    momentumisproportionaltoforceimpressed.Now,
    followingthereasoningwhichwehavealready
    followedinthecaseofaccelerations,therateofchange
    14

    Page 15
    ofmomentumremainsunchangedinourreverse
    universe.Furthermore,wehavealreadyseenthat,inthe
    reverseuniverse,theforceimpressedonabody
    remainsunchanged.Henceitfollowsthatthesecond
    lawofmotionsubsistsinthereverseuniverse,andis
    thereforereversible.
    Thethirdlawofmotionisthattoeveryaction
    (force)thereisalsoanequalandoppositereaction.
    Thislawisalsoobviouslyreversible,sinceinthe
    reverseuniverseneitherthemagnitudenorthedirection
    offorcesisaltered.
    Energybeingthesameinthereverseasinthereal
    universe,itsimilarlyfollowsthatthelawofthe
    conservationofenergyholdsinthereverseuniverse,
    andisthereforereversibleintime.Thesameholdstrue
    ofthelawoftheconservationofmatter.
    Oneoftheprincipalmethodsbywhichmotioncan
    bechangedisbyimpact.Animpactmaybeelasticor
    inelastic.Inthecaseoftheverysmallestparticlesof
    matter,thatkindofcollisiononlyispossiblewhich
    losesnoenergy,butinwhichthekineticenergy
    remainsthesameasbefore,thatistosay,anelastic
    collision;for,inthecaseofultimateparticles,noneof
    theoriginalenergycanbechangedintointernalmotion
    oftheparticles.Henceonlyelasticcollisionispossible
    inthecaseofultimateparticles;anditisnotdifficultto
    showthat,inthecaseofelasticcollision,thereversed
    finalvelocitiesofthesamemasseswillcause,asan
    effectoftheimpact,thereversedinitialvelocities.
    Now,sinceallmatterismadeupoftheseparticles,
    whatevertheymaybe,andthereforeallcollisionsof
    bodiesofmatteraremadeupofcountlesselastic
    collisionsofultimateparticles,itfollowsthat,inthe
    reverseuniverse,whereimpactoccurs,allparticlesof
    matterfollowthesamecourseastheywouldinthereal
    15
    ReversibleLaws

    Page 16
    universeunderthesameinitialconditions.Hencethe
    lawsofimpact,whenbroughtdowntoultimate
    particles,areperfectlyreversibleandalsoremain
    unalteredinthereverseuniverse.
    Thevariouslawsofattractionandrepulsionthatare
    foundtosubsistintheobjectiveuniverse,suchas
    gravitation,electricalandmagneticattractionand
    repulsion,etc.,dealingastheydowiththedirectionsof
    forces,mustalsoremainunchangedinthereverse
    universe.Similarlywithmanyothergeneralphysical
    laws.
    Eventhelawsofreflectionandrefractionoflight
    willremainunalteredinthereverseuniverse,andare

    thereforeperfectlyreversible.
    Asaresult,wemaysayingeneralthat,lookingto
    theultimateparticlesofmatter,enoughphysicallaws
    subsistinthereverseuniversetodetermine,fromthe
    positionsandvelocitiesofallparticlesofmatterata
    giveninstant,theentirepastandfutureoftheuniverse.
    Theresultisthat,giventhosephysicallawswhichwe
    assumetoremainalwaystrue,ifweshouldimagine
    that,intherealuniverse,atonegivenmoment,all
    particlesofmattershould,whileretainingtheir
    respectivepositions,reversetheirvelocities,itwould
    followthatthiswouldbeenough,ofitself,tomakeall
    particlesofmattertracebacktheirpreviouspositionsin
    thereverseorderandthus,asitwere,createareverse
    universe.
    Contents
    16
    ReversibleLaws

    Page 17
    CHAPTERIII
    IRREVERSIBILITY
    Sofar,wehaveseenthatthephysicallawsessential
    tothedeterminationofthecourseoftheuniversefrom
    itspresentmomentaryconditionareallreversible.From
    thisitmightbeconcludedthatallphysicallawsmustin
    consequencebereversible,andthat,therefore,therecan
    benoessentialdifferencebetweentherealuniverseand
    thereverseuniverse.Andthismuchistrue,that,
    providedweexaminethemotionsoftheparticlesof
    matter,everythingthathappensinthereverseuniverse
    canbedescribedintermsofthephysicalpropertiesof
    matterasweknowthem.
    Butatthesametime,ifwetakethemostordinary
    eventsoftherealuniverseandattempttofindoutwhat
    isthecorrespondingeventinthereverseuniverse,
    somethingstrangewillatonceimpressusaboutthe
    reverseuniverse.Takethis,forexample:aballrolls
    downastaircase,bouncesalittleatthebottom,and
    finallystops.Inthereverseuniversetheinitial
    conditionistheballatthebottom,onafloornearthe
    footofastaircase.Theheatenergyinthefloorcollects
    atonepointunderneaththeball,soastopushtheball
    suddenlyupward.Eachtimethattheballfallsbackto
    thefloorthisprocessisrepeated,untilfinallythefloor
    throwstheballontothefirststair.Thestairs,eachin
    17

    Page 18
    turn,throwtheballinasimilarmannerupthestaircase,
    tillfinallytheballstopsatthetop.Themolecular
    vibrationsintheball,floor,andstaircase,had
    previouslybeensoarrangedthatconcentrationof
    energywouldhappenataparticularspotandtime,
    whiletheballsomovedthatitjusthappenedtobeat
    thosespotsexactlyintime.
    Soitwillbewiththeoccurrencescorrespondingin
    thereverseuniversetoalmostanycommonoccurrence
    inthephysicalworldofourexperience.Everything
    seemstobeperfectlyexplicableintermsofphysical
    laws,butatthesametimethecombinationsofmotions

    seemtohavesomethingutterlystrangeaboutthem.
    Hencethereissomepointofdifferencebetweenthe
    realuniverseandthereverseuniverse,andhencethere
    mustbesomepropertyoftherealuniversethatis
    irreversible.
    Thisirreversiblepropertyisfoundinwhatiscalled
    thesecondlawofthermodynamics.This,takeninits
    mostgeneralaspect,amountstothis:thattheenergyof
    theuniverseisconstantlyrunningdowntoonecommon
    level.Inotherwords,whereenergyofthesamevariety
    ispresentindifferentdegreesofconcentration,those
    differenceswillbeequalised,andenergyofastill
    higherlevelortoagreateramountmustbecome
    dissipatedinordertorecreatethesedifferencesof
    concentration.Ofthevariousvarietiesofenergy,all
    kindstendtoturnintoheat,whichistheleast
    concentratedformofenergy;and,eventhoughsomeof
    thatheatmaybereconvertedintosomeotherformof
    energy,still,ateachstep,someenergyisirretrievably
    lostintheformofheat.
    Thisphysicallaw,aswellasallthosewhichare
    derivedfromit,isirreversible.Furthermore,onlysuch
    physicallawsasarederivedfromthesecondlawof
    18
    Irreversibility

    Page 19
    thermodynamicsareirreversible;sothatthislaw
    constitutesthesoledifferencebetweentherealandthe
    reverseuniverse.Where,intherealuniverse,energy
    runsdowntoacommonlevel,itfollowsthat,inthe
    reverseuniverse,energytendstobuilditselfupinto
    differentlevels.
    Wemaysay,then,thatthecharacteristicirreversible
    partoftheuniverseconsistsinthis,thatenergytendsto
    evolve(ordevolve)frommolarmotionofextremely
    largemasses,whichisthemostconcentratedformof
    energy,toaconditioninwhichallenergyisintheform
    ofheat,whichistheleastconcentratedform,andata
    uniformconcentration,thatistosay,ataconstant
    temperaturethroughout.Afinalconditionwouldresult
    inwhichadeadlevelofenergywouldbereached,and
    afterthatnothingfurthercouldeverhappeninthe
    universe.
    Thefact,forinstance,thatperfectlyelasticcollisions
    oflargemassesofmatterdonotoccur,butthatsuch
    collisionsareinelastic,isadirectconsequenceofthe
    secondlawofthermodynamics.Thecharacteristicofan
    inelasticcollisionisthatsomeofthemolarkinetic
    energyofthecollidingbodiesislostbytheimpact.This
    lostkineticenergyischangedintoheat,whichisalways
    producedbyaninelasticcollision.Thisisinstrict
    accordwiththesecondlawofthermodynamics.Inthe
    reverseuniverse,onthecontrary,animpactwouldbe
    anoccasionforheattobeconvertedintomolarmotion,
    thusincreasingthetotalamountofkineticenergy.Such
    acollisionwemaycallsuperelastic,andisnotwithin
    ourexperience.
    Again,theresistanceofferedbyonebodytoanother,
    whetherintheformoffrictionorotherwise,isbutan
    exampleofthesecondlawofthermodynamics,being
    anothercaseofchangeofmolarenergyintoheat.Inthe

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    reverseuniverse,theveryoppositeprocesswouldtake
    place.Accordinglywefindasmightbeexpected,that
    thelawsoffriction,etc.,areirreversible.
    Manychemicalreactionsareirreversible,though
    somearereversible.Asageneralrule,theirreversible
    chemicalreactionsarecasesofconversionofchemical
    energyintoheat,inaccordancewiththesecondlawof
    thermodynamics.Sowithallirreversibleprocesses.
    Inthecaseofamachine,theratiooftheenergy
    obtainedtotheenergyputin(usuallyexpressedasa
    percentage)iscalledthemechanicalefficiencyofthat
    machine.Theremainingenergy,thatthemachinehas
    lost,becomesheat.Thesecondlawofthermodynamics,
    expressedintermsofmechanicalefficiency,meansthat
    allphysicalphenomenahaveamechanicalefficiencyof
    lessthan100%.Thereverseuniverse,onthecontrary,
    isdistinguishedfromtheuniverseofourexperiencein
    thatthemechanicalefficiencyofitsphenomenaisover
    100%.
    Again,toexpressitinanotherway.Supposetwo
    bodies,oneatatemperatureof0Fahrenheit,theother
    atatemperatureof200.Theonlyavailableheat
    energyinthosebodieswouldbetheamountrepresented
    by200degreesinthehotterbody.Atthesametime,the
    colderbodybeing460degreesaboveabsolutezero,
    thereisunavailableenergy,which,accordingtothe
    secondlawofthermodynamics,cannotbereached,
    amountingto460degreesineachofthetwobodies.If
    bothbodieshavethesamemassandspecificheat,the
    energywhich,underthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics,isavailableforconversionintoother
    formsofenergy,couldthusberepresentedby200,
    whilethetotalheatenergyinthetwobodieswouldbe
    representedby460+660=1120.Theratioofavailable
    tototalenergyinthiscasewouldbe200:1120,or5:28.
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    Irreversibility

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    Inotherwords,only18%ofthetotalheatenergyis
    availableforconversion.Thesecondlawof
    thermodynamicsstates,notmerelythatnotallthe
    availableenergycanactuallybeusedforanypurpose
    exceptheat,butalsothatallenergyinanavailableform
    (aformotherthanheat,orelseheatenergyintheform
    ofadifferenceoftemperature)tendstoturninto
    unavailableenergy,thattheamountofavailableenergy
    intheuniverseisconstantlydecreasing.
    Inthereverseuniversewehaveadifferentsituation,
    sincethesecondlawofthermodynamicsisirreversible.
    Eventheheatenergybelowthetemperatureofthe
    coldestbodiesintheenvironmentisnotmerely
    available,butconstantlydrawnon.Thesameimmense
    fundofenergywhichintherealphysicaluniverseis
    constantlystoredupandunavailable,nowceasestobe
    unavailable,butbecomesareservefundofenergywith
    whichdifferenceofconcentrationofenergyis

    constantlybeingbuiltup.Underthesecondlawof
    thermodynamicsareservefundofenergyisconstantly
    storedupintheformofheatandneverafterwards
    touched;underthereverseofthatsecondlaw,onthe
    contrary,westartwiththisreservefundofenergyand
    constantlydrawonittobuildupenergydifferences.
    Contents
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    CHAPTERIV
    THEPARADOX
    Thesecondlawofthermodynamicsis,aswehave
    seen,anirreversiblephysicallaw,andseemstobethe
    onedistinguishingcharacteristicbetweenthereal
    universeandthereverseuniverse.Atthesametime,
    thatlawisofsuchanature,that,fortheultimate
    particlesofmatter,itdoesnotexist;itisessentiallya
    lawconcerningtransformationsofenergyoflarge
    masses.Andyetalllargebodiesaremadeupof
    countlessnumbersoftheultimateparticlesofmatter,
    thelawsofwhosemotionareallperfectlyreversible.
    Allphenomenaofthereverseuniverse,however
    strangetheymaylook,areperfectlyexplicableinterms
    oftheordinaryphysicallawsasappliedtothesmallest
    materialparticles.Itwouldseem,then,asthoughthere
    mustbesomereasonintermsofthereversiblephysical
    lawswhythesecondlawofthermodynamicsmustbe
    true;thatis,thesecondlawofthermodynamics,iftrue,
    shouldbeaconsequenceofthereversiblephysicallaws
    applicabletoultimateparticles.Weare,then,
    confrontedwiththeparadoxofhavingtodeducean
    irreversiblelawfromperfectlyreversibleones.
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    Page 23
    Andyet,sincethereverseuniverseconsistsofa
    perfectlyconsistentseriesofpositions,obeyingall
    reversiblephysicallaws,itfollowsthatanylogical
    deductionfrompremiseswhicharereversiblelaws
    mustinevitablyapplytothereverseuniverse,andthat
    thereforetheconclusionmustbetrueinthereverse
    universeaswellasintherealphysicaluniverse.Thatis
    tosay,anydeductiveconclusionfromreversiblelaws
    mustitselfbereversible.Andyet,inthecaseofthe
    secondlawofthermodynamics,thereversiblelaws
    whichgovernthemotionsofultimateparticlesof
    matterseemtocompoundthemselvessomehowintothe
    bestpossibleexampleofanirreversiblelawgoverning
    themotionsoflargemasses.
    Weare,therefore,inevitablyledtotheconclusion
    thatthesecondlawofthermodynamicscannotbe
    deducedfromthereversiblelawsbystrictdeductive
    reasoning.Thereversiblelawsmustofnecessityleave
    someroomforthepossibilityofthetruthofthereverse
    ofthesecondlawofthermodynamics.But,sincethe
    secondlawofthermodynamicssimplyrepresentsa
    generaltendency,wecometotheconclusionthatthe
    onlypossibilitythatthesecondlawofthermodynamics
    representsacorrectphysicallaw,is,thatitistobe

    deducedfromthereversiblelawsnotasastrictlogical
    consequence,butasagreat,orevenanoverwhelming
    probability.Suchasolutionofthisparadoxofthe
    secondlawwaspropoundedbyClerkMaxwelland
    otherphysicistsofthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury.
    Letus,then,examinethereasoningbywhichClerk
    Maxwellwasenabledtoreconcilereversiblepremises
    withanirreversibleconclusion.Accordingtohis
    reasoning,bothprocessesarephysicallypossible,
    concentrationanddiffusionofenergy.Theoneprocess
    obeysthesecondlawofthermodynamics,theother
    23
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    reversesit.Underthesecondlawofthermodynamics,a
    collisionoflargemasseswillgenerateheat(conversion
    ofmolarenergyintoheatenergy);underitsreversal,
    theheatgeneratesmolarmotioninandofitself.Now,
    saysClerkMaxwell,ifparticlesmoveinagroup,or
    ratherintwoapproachinggroups,theparticlesare
    likelytostrikeoneanotheratallsortsofangles,sothat,
    aftertheimpact,theresultingvelocitieswillbecome
    scattered,whichmeansthatsomeoftheenergywillbe
    convertedintoheat.Onthecontrary,areversalofthe
    processmeansaconcentrationofthemotionsofthe
    particlesattheverypointandtimeoftheimpact,which
    isaverymuchmoreimprobablecombination,and,
    requiringasitdoesthatthisconcentrationshould
    happeninaparticulardirection,ataparticularpoint,at
    aparticulartime,inordertohavethedesiredeffect,it
    followsthatsuchareversalofthesecondlawof
    thermodynamicsissooverwhelminglyimprobableasto
    bealmostimpossible.Thesecondlawof
    thermodynamicsisthusbasednotonnecessitybuton
    extremeprobability.Areversalofthesecondlawis
    possibleunderthereversiblephysicallaws,aswehave
    seen,butthisreasoningtendstoprovethatitis
    overwhelminglyimprobable,andthereforewould
    almostneverhappen.
    But,again,ifthepremisesofthereasoningare,as
    wesuppose,reversiblephysicallaws,itmustbe
    possibletoapplythesamereasoningtothereverse
    universe.Consequently,asimilarlineofreasoning,
    whichmustbeexactlyascorrectlogically,canbe
    followedbytracingeventsbackwardsfromeffectto
    causeinsteadoftracingfromcausetoeffect,asClerk
    Maxwellhasdone.
    Anymomentarycondition,oftheuniversemaybe
    regardedeitherasthecauseofallfutureconditionsof
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    TheParadox

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    theuniverseorastheeffectofallpastconditions.And
    notonlycanagivenmomentaryconditionofall
    particlesintheuniversedetermineoneandonlyone
    possibleeffect,oneandonlyonepossiblefuture;that
    samegivenmomentarycondition(positionandvelocity
    ofeveryparticle)couldonlyhavebeencausedbyone
    possiblepastseriesofconditions.Henceitisjustas

    possibletotraceourcausalrelationsstepbystep
    backwards,asitistotracethemsimilarlyforwards.
    Now,tracingcausationthusbackwards,wefindthat
    molarmotions,whentracedbackwardsintothepast,
    will,inallprobability,bringustoatimewhentwo
    masseswhicharenowinmotionhavebeentogether,in
    contact.FollowingClerkMaxwell'sreasoning,wemust
    saythat,whentwoparticlesmoveawayfromcontact
    witheachother,animpactmusthavebeenthecause,at
    leastsomeformofimpactofparticles,butitisaform
    ofimpactwhichproducedmolarmotion.Inall
    probability,thosetwoparticularmasseswillnothave
    motionswhichtracebacktoareboundofallparticlesat
    thesameangle;whichnecessitates,accordingtothe
    rulesofelasticcollision,thatbeforetheimpactthe
    motionsoftheparticlesmusthavebeenscattered.Thus,
    tracingthereasoningbackwards,wearriveatthe
    probabilitythatthemolarmotionsmusthavebeen
    partiallyatleastcausedbyheat,thatis,tothe
    probabilityofareversalofthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics.Onthecontrary,inordertohavea
    caseinaccordancewiththesecondlawof
    thermodynamics,onthisanalogousreasoning,itwould
    benecessarytosupposetwobodiesbeingtracedbackto
    contactatsomeparticulartime,andthattheheat
    motionsofthosebodies,whenthustracedback,should
    suddenly,attheparticularmomentandpointofcontact,
    tracebacktoaconcentrationofmotionoftheparticles
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    TheParadox

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    ofeachbodyawayfromtheother,foronlysuch
    concentrationcouldbetheeffectofamolarmotion
    bringingthebodiesintocollision.Now,theprobability
    ofsuchacombinationisextremelysmall,sothat,by
    merelyshiftingourreasoninggearintoreverse,thevery
    samereasoningtellsusthatthesecondlawof
    thermodynamicsismostextremelyimprobable,but
    that,onthecontrary,itsreversalisanoverwhelming
    probability.
    Tracingthusfromagivenmomentaryconditionof
    theuniverse,ourforwardandbackwardreasoning
    combinedmightbeinterpreted,ifsuchreasoningcould
    betrusted,tomeanthatthesecondlawof
    thermodynamicsholdsgoodasaprobabilityastothe
    future,butthatitsreversalholdstrueastothepast.
    Asidefromthisresultbeinguntrueinpointoffact,itis
    selfcontradictory,foranygivenmomentoftimeis
    alwaysfutureastomomentsthatprecedeit,andpastas
    tomomentsthatfollowit.Itfollows,then,thatthere
    mustbesomefallacyinClerkMaxwell'sreasoning,
    which,whenextended,givesusthesecondlawof
    thermodynamicsinthegeneralform.
    Takethespecialcasethatwehavebeenusingasan
    illustration.Molarmotionwithoutheat,itistrue,is
    likely,asamatterofpuretheory,toproduce,after
    impact,lessmolarmotionandsomeheat(thetotal
    amountofenergyremaininginvariable).Butsuchan
    initialconditionis,initself,extremelyimprobable.If
    initialvelocitiesofparticlesmaybeselectedinitiallyas
    inanydirection:andinanyamount,itisextremely

    improbablethatallthevelocitieswillhavethesame
    directionandamount,orevenapproximatelyso.The
    smallerthenumberofparticles,thegreaterthe
    probabilityofaconcentratedmotionresulting.Also,the
    smallerthemass,thegreatertheprobableaverage
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    TheParadox

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    velocityofthemassatagiventime,whentheparticles
    aremovingatrandom.Hence,whenthereisimpactof
    bodiesinwhichparticlesmoveatrandom,the
    probabilitiesarethat,atthatmoment,atthepointof
    contact,thesmallmassofparticlesintheimmediate
    vicinitywillhaveagreaterspeedinallprobabilitythan
    theentiremass.Thus,whenthecollisionoccurs,the
    forceavailableforproducingmolarmotionwillconsist,
    intheimmediatevicinityofthepointofcontact,oftwo
    averagespeedsgreaterthanthoseoftherespective
    masses.Ifthosegreaterspeedstendtobemoretowards
    oneanotherthanthemassesasawhole,thenitwould
    bemostprobablethatsomeoftheheatenergyofthe
    twobodieswillbeconvertedintomolarmotion.Onthe
    otherhand,iftherespectivespeedsinthevicinityofthe
    pointofcontactaremoreawayfromeachotherthanthe
    velocitiesofthemassesthemselves,thereversewill
    happen.Besides,whilewehavethispossibilityofheat
    turningintomolarenergyorintosomeotherformof
    energy,andofdifferencesofenergyconcentration
    buildingthemselvesupinthismanner,wehavethe
    contrarytendencysuppliedbyClerkMaxwell's
    reasoning.Theresultis,thatweasyetcanformno
    conclusionsastowhichtendencyismorelikely.
    If,furthermore,weconsiderthatwemustregardfor
    agivenmomentoftime,allpositionsandvelocitiesas
    equallylikely,andthatforallsuchinitialpositionsand
    velocitieswhichwillgiveauniverseobeyingthe
    secondlawofthermodynamics,thereisareverse
    universe,equallyprobable,reversingthatlaw,wecome
    totheconclusionthatthesecondlawanditsreverseare
    equallyprobable.Ifthisistrueforanygivenevent,then
    theprobabilityoftheobservedfacts,thatistosay,that
    alleventsobeythesecondlaw,mustbeinfinitesimally
    small.Sothat,again,weareforcedtotheconclusion
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    thatthesecondlawofthermodynamics,beingan
    observedfactwhichcanonlybeexplainedasan
    extremelyprobableresultofthereversiblephysical
    lawsis,onthecontrary,mostextremelyimprobable.
    Notmerelythat,butthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics,whenpushedtoitslogicalconclusion,
    producesratherabsurdresults.Inthefirstplace,we
    have,seenthatitinvolvesasortofdeathoftheuniverse
    intheremotefuture,atimewhenallwillbeonedead
    levelofheat;thoughallthiswill,inallprobability,
    comeaboutslowly.Buttherateofdecreaseofthe
    availableenergyunderthissecondlawisapproximately
    proportionaltotheamountofavailableenergyinthe

    universe;thereforetherateoftherunningdownof
    energyintotheunavailableformmustbeconstantly
    decreasing.Tracingbackwards,wefindthat,inthe
    past,thefartherbackwego,themorewegetalarger
    percentageofavailableenergyintheuniverse,
    increasingatanevergreaterrate.Thereforeitfollows
    thatwemustarriveatsomedefinitetimeinthepast
    andthatnotataninfinitetimebackwhenthe
    availableenergywas100%ofthetotalenergyofthe
    universe.Atatimeprobablynotmuchfartherback,all
    themotionintheuniversemusthaveconsistedofmolar
    motionofmasseswhich,aswegoback,musthave
    increasedinsizetillwearriveatatimewhenallthe
    energymusthaveconsistedoftheenergyoftwohalves
    oftheuniversemovingtogether,eachhalfofthe
    universebeingatatemperatureofabsolutezeroandall
    itspartsmovingsidebysideatexactlythesame
    velocity.Thispossibility,itistrue,issomewhat
    corroboratedbythefactthatatpresentthestarsare
    movingintwooppositedirections,intwoopposite
    currents,asitwere,whichmaybesupposedtobethe
    remnantsofthetwooriginallargegroupsofstarswhose
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    collisionformedthepresentuniverseaccordingtothis
    hypothesis.
    Atthesametimethetwooriginalhalvesofthe
    universecannothavebeenaltogethermutually
    impenetrable,forinthatcasetheresultofthecollision
    wouldbuthavemadethemrebound,thoughproducing
    agreatamountofinternalheatenergyineach,and
    possiblybreakingsomesmallpiecesoffeach.Itwould
    seem,then,asthoughtheoriginalhalvesoftheuniverse
    musthaveconsistedofseparatedarkstars,witha
    structuresomewhatsimilartothepresentuniverse.At
    thetimeofthecollision,allthestars,evenallthe
    particles,ineachsemiuniversemustallbemoving
    togetheratthesamespeedandinthesamedirection.
    Thesecondlawofthermodynamics,then,mustdate
    fromsomesortofGreatCollisionoutofwhichthe
    presentuniverseevolved.Butwhathappenedbefore
    thisGreatCollision?Theanswerwouldhavetobe,
    everythingwasatatemperatureofabsolutezero,there
    weretwosemiuniverseswhichweremovingtowards
    eachother,ineachofwhichtherewasnotevenatrace
    ofrelativemotion.Althougheachofthetwosemi
    universeswasinmotion,yetwithineachtherewasno
    motion,nointernalenergy.
    ButifsuchwasthesituationatthetimeoftheGreat
    Collision,itcannothavebeensoforaneternitypast,
    unlessweconceiveofthelawofgravitationalattraction
    nottohavebeentrueinthosetimes.Takingeachsemi
    universebyitself,itsreverseuniversewillalsoshow
    thesameconditionsaswehavealreadydescribed,
    exceptthatthesemiuniversesaremovingawayfrom
    eachother,sothatwecanproceedinpeacewithout
    dangerfromtheimpendingGreatCollision.Eachsemi
    universemay,forthepurposeofinternaloccurrences,
    beregardedasatrest.Gravitationwillthendrawallthe
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    starsofeachsemiuniversetowardsitscenterof
    gravity,tillallofthemfallinthere.Reversingonce
    more,soastoobtaintheprocessasitmusthavebeen
    supposedtohappen,wegetthefollowingresult:Each
    semiuniverseoriginallyconsistedofonegreatbody;
    suddenly,somehow,thatbodyexplodedintopieces,
    whichformedstars,eachpiece,though,remainingata
    temperatureofabsolutezero.Finally,ineachsemi
    universe,mutualgravitationofthestarsslowedthem
    downtorelativerest.Justwhenthisrelativerestwas
    reached,thetwosemiuniversescollided,andoutof
    thiscollisioncameourpresentuniverse.Thuswetrace
    alittlefartherbacktotheGreatExplosions;butthese
    explosionscannotpossiblybetracedbackanyfarther
    accordingtotheknownphysicallawswithoutviolating
    thesecondlawofthermodynamics.Inconsequence,if
    wewishtopreservethesecondlawofthermodynamics,
    wemusteitherdispensewithsomeoftheotherphysical
    laws,orassomephysicistshavedone,interspersea
    creation.Inotherwords,thesecondlawof
    thermodynamicscannothavebeentrueforaneternity
    past,thoughitmaybetrueforoneternityinthefuture.
    Andeventheassumptionofacreationwouldbe
    assumingaprocessdifferentfromtheprocessescoming
    undertheordinaryphysicallaws.
    Inotherwords,wecometotheinevitable
    conclusionthatthesubsistenceoftheirreversible
    secondlawofthermodynamicsinthesameuniverseas
    thereversiblelawsconcerningthemotionofparticlesis
    aparadox,bothfromthatpointofviewandfromthe
    factthatthissecondlaw,pushedtoitslogical
    conclusion,leadsbacktoamysteriouscreationwhich
    deniesallphysicallawswhatever.
    Contents
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    CHAPTERV
    THEPROBABILITIESINTHEPROBLEM
    Tohelpustowardsasolutionofthisparadox,we
    mustfirstfindoutwhattheprobabilitiesactuallylead
    ustoconclude.Wehavealreadyseenthat,inagiven
    case,thechancesareevenastowhetherenergywillrun
    downorbuildup.Therearealsosmallchancesofa
    neutralcondition,inwhichenergyremains,onthe
    whole,atthesamedifferenceofconcentrationas
    before.Buttheprobabilityofthisneutralityis
    negligible,andwemaysaythattheprobabilitiesare,
    thatin50%ofthecasesthesecondlawof
    thermodynamicswillbeobeyed,andin50%ofthe
    casesitwillbereversed.Ifsuchisthecase,theuniverse
    asawholewillbeneutral;thatis,takingallthe
    occurrencesoveralloftimeandspace,therewillbeno
    tendencyinonedirectionortheother.
    Inthisreasoningwecanbeassuredastothe
    probabilitiesinanygivenoccasion,forwemustassume
    allcombinationsofinitialpositionsandvelocitiestobe

    equallylikely.Inasmuchasanyeventoccupiesacertain
    amountoftime,letusfigureontheprobabilitiesofthe
    positionsandinitialvelocitiesatthemiddleofthat
    interval.Foranyrangeofpositionsandvelocities
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    resultinginacombinationobeyingthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics,wehaveanequalandthereforean
    equallyprobablerangeofpositionsandvelocities
    reversingthatlaw;namely,theidenticalpositionswith
    thereversevelocities.Wherethepositionsand
    velocitieshappentoborderbetweenthetwokindsof
    combinations,wewillhaveasortofneutralresult,
    whichissoimprobableastohaveazeroprobability
    (thoughthatdoesnotmakeitimpossible).Asidefrom
    that,thesecondlawofthermodynamicsis,onany
    occasion,equallyprobablewithitsreverse,andthe
    probabilityofeachmaybetakenas50%.The
    probabilityofthesecondlawofthermodynamicsbeing
    followedontwocertainoccasionsis,asaresult,only
    25%;andsoon,whileitsprobabilityforalloccasionsis
    almostanullity.
    Theprobabilityis,however,asaresultofthis50%
    probability,thatapproximatelyhalftheeventsofthe
    universe,takingallofspaceandtime,willbein
    accordancewiththesecondlawofthermodynamics,
    whileabouthalfwilltendtoreverseit.Theformer
    tendencywewill,forshort,callthepositive,whilethe
    lattertendencywewillcallthenegativetendency.
    Betweenthesetwothereisabordering,orneutral,
    tendency,which,asawhole,neitherbuildsenergyup
    norlevelsitdown.
    Theuniverseasawhole,includingalloftimeand
    space,willtendtowardsthisneutraltendency,butthis
    neutraltendencywillsimplybeacompoundofpositive
    andnegativetendenciesatdifferentpartsofspaceand
    timetendingtocanceloneanother.Takingdefinite
    portionsofspaceandtime,thechancesarethatthere
    willbesomesortofpreponderanceoftendencyinone
    directionortheother,thepreponderancebeinggreater
    thesmallerthesectionofspaceandtimethatwetake
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    intoconsideration.Wemay,therefore,assumethat,in
    thepartofspaceandtimeunderourobservation
    (which,weknowisverylimited)thepreponderanceis
    towardsthepositivetendency.Wemaysupposethat
    thereareotherpartsofspace,andotherperiodsoftime,
    whenthepreponderancewillbeinthereversedirection.
    Butevenwherethepreponderanceistowardthe
    positivetendency,itstillremainsmerelya
    preponderance,andinstancesofthenegativetendency
    wouldbealmostcertaintooccur.Itistruethatthe
    probabilitiesarethat,insuchapartofspaceandtime,
    instancesofthenegativetendencywilloccurtoavery
    limitedamount;but,allthesame,theywilloccur.
    Theprobabilitiesofthesituation,then,areas
    follows:thewholeuniverse,includingallofspaceand

    time,willtendtohaveasmuchofthepositiveasofthe
    negativetendency,withacertainamountoftheneutral
    tendency.Ataparticularmomentoftimethe
    probabilitiesarethattherewillalsobeaboutasmuchof
    onetendencyasoftheother,butthatinsomesections
    ofspacetherewillbeapreponderancetowardsthe
    positivetendency,whileinothersectionsofspacethe
    preponderancewillbethereverse;abouthalfofspace
    fallingunderoneheading,andabouthalfofspace
    fallingundertheother.Ineachofthoseportionsof
    spacetherewillbeinstancesofeventsopposedtothe
    prevailingtendency,presumablyincertainmaterial
    objects.Thesameappliestoamorelimitedextentifwe
    takeonesectionofspacewithrespecttothedifferent
    momentsoftime.
    Contents
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    Page 34
    CHAPTERVI
    SOLUTIONOFTHEPARADOX
    Wehaveseenthatthesecondlawofthermodynamics,
    ifpushedtoitslogicalconclusion,leadstoabsurdities;
    that,onthebasisoftheotherphysicallaws,itismost
    extremelyimprobable;andthatitcannothavebeen
    universalforalltimepastunlessweassumesomesort
    ofcreationorsomeotherformofmiracle.Onthe
    contrary,wehaveseenthattheprobabilitiesfromthe
    physicallawsgoverningthemotionofparticles,which
    areallreversible,andwhoseconsequencesmust
    thereforebealsoreversible,leadustotheconclusion
    that,thoughtheuniverseasawholewilltendtobe
    neutralinthatrespect,yet,incertainlimitedportionsof
    spaceandtime,thesecondlawofthermodynamics
    representsaprevailingtendency.Wemayeasily,
    therefore,supposethattheportionofspaceandtime
    underourobservation(which,asweknow,isvery
    limited)isjustsuchasection,andthatthesecondlaw
    ofthermodynamicsrepresentsaprevailingtendencyof
    energytoleveldowninourvicinityandinourepoch.
    Thiswouldseemtobetheonlywayleadingoutofthe
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    paradoxwhichseemstofollowfromthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics;sothatasthislawisthussupposedto
    betrueonlyforalimitedepoch,thereisnonecessityto
    supposeanycreationorothermiracles;andtherefore
    theruleforthewholeuniverseisreallyreversible.
    Thiswouldapparentlysolveourparadox,ifnotfor
    thefactthat,accordingtothisproposedsolution,the
    secondlawofthermodynamicswouldrepresent,nota
    constantlaw,asobservationswouldindicate,but,on
    thecontrary,merelyaprevailingtendency,witha
    numberofinstancesofreversalsofthatlawinourown
    partofspaceandtime.Thuswefindadifficultyin
    acceptingthissolutionoftheparadox,namely,thatour
    proposedsolutionrequiresthat,eveninourownsection
    ofspaceandtime,theremustbemanyinstancesofthe
    reversalofthesecondlawofthermodynamics;which

    seemscontrarytoobservedfacts.
    Andyet,consideringthatthesecondlawof
    thermodynamicsitselfleadstoabsurdities,itmightbe
    worthwhiletoinquirewhether,afterall,theremight
    notbeinourportionofspaceandtimecertaininstances
    ofthereversalofthesecondlaw,certaineventswith
    whatwehavecalleda"negativetendency,"which
    mighthaveescapedourattention.
    Inordertoconductthisinquiry,wewouldhaveto
    findsomewaytorecognizesuchareversal,shouldany
    befound.Thiscanbedoneintwoways:eitherby
    translatingcommonoccurrencesintothereverse
    universe,andthusfamiliarisingourselveswithhow
    suchareversallooks(amovingpictureoutfitcould
    easilybringthisreverseuniversebeforethesenseof
    sight,byoperatingthereelbackwards);orelsewecan
    reasonfromtheabstractsecondlawitselfandinfer
    fromitsreversalcertaineasilyrecognisableoutstanding
    characteristics.Weshallproceedinbothways,starting
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    withtheabstractmethod,thenusingtheothermethod
    tofillin,asitwere,bywayofillustration.
    Onecharacteristicofthesecondlawof
    thermodynamicsisthatthereis,underit,atendency
    thatlargecausesshouldproducesmallereffects(some
    energybecominglostalwaysinspreadingheat
    throughouttheuniverse),whilesmallcausesrarely,
    thoughoccasionally,producelargeeffects.Now,since
    itisalwayspossibletoregardanyeventeitheras
    causedbypastconditions(reasoningfromcauseto
    effect)orasbeingthecausewhichwillproducethe
    conditionsofthefuture(reasoningfromeffectto
    cause),bothcauseandeffectofagiveneventbeinga
    determinedthing,wemaysaythat,underthesecond
    lawofthermodynamics,sinceagiveneventislikelyto
    havemorevisiblecausesandlessvisibleeffectsthat
    itself,itfollowsthat,underthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics,itiseasiertoexplainaneventasthe
    effectofpastcausesthanasthecauseoffutureeffects.
    Inotherwords,underthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics,thoughreasoningfromeffecttocause
    ispossible,itisalmostnecessarytoreasonfromcause
    toeffect,asthephysicalsciencesusuallydo.
    Onthecontrary,whenwehavethenegative
    tendency,whenthesecondlawofthermodynamicsis
    reversed,thereverseisthecase.Underthenegative
    tendency,energyisconstantlybeingreclaimedfromthe
    enormousheatreservewhichotherwiseliesunused,
    andthiswillbehappeningateveryoccurrencetaking
    placeunderthereversedsecondlaw.Thusthetendency
    insuchacasewillbethat,whileoccasionallylarge
    causeswillproducesmallereffects,yetasageneralrule
    smallercauseswillproducelargereffects.Inother
    words,agiveneventismostlikelytohavelessvisible
    causesandmorevisibleeffectsthanitself,sothat,ifwe
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    trytoexplainaneventastheeffectofpastconditions,
    weshallalwayshavedifficulty,becausepartofthe
    causeinanycase,andsometimeseventheentirecause,
    willconsistmerelyofdiffusedandundifferentiated
    energywhichcannotbeobservedunlesswecankeep
    trackofeveryindividualparticleofmatter.But,onthe
    contrary,ifwetrytoexplainsuchaneventasbeingthe
    causedeterminedbyfutureconditionswhichareits
    effects,suchanexplanationissimple,becausethefull
    effectisobservable,andtheeffectisusuallymore
    visiblethanthecause.
    Theresultisthatwegetonedistinguishing
    characteristicofthatreversalofthesecondlawof
    thermodynamicsforwhichwearelooking.Ifwefind
    suchareversal,wewill,inallprobability,befinding
    somesortofeventswhichitiseasiertoexplainfrom
    thefuturethanfromthepast;inotherwords,wemust,
    inlookingforsuchareversal,lookforsomething
    which,whileitactsundertheordinaryformof
    causationlikethecommonphysicalbodies,yetappears
    teleologicalinnature.Thisteleologyisonlyapparent,
    forcausationunderthenegativetendencyisno
    differentfromordinaryphysicalcausation.Incausation
    ingeneral,thereverseorpseudoteleological
    explanationisalwayspossible,butismoreobviousin
    thecaseofareversalthanintheordinarycaseof
    positivetendency.Thus,whenwewishtofinda
    reversalofthesecondlawofthermodynamicsinour
    sectionofspaceandtime,wemustlookforphenomena
    withanappearanceofteleology.
    Anotheroutstandingcharacteristicofareversalof
    thesecondlawistheabilitytousetheimmensestoreof
    energywhich,underthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics,isunavailable.Inotherwords,a
    reversal,besidesthepropertyofapparentteleology,
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    mustalsopossessthepropertyofabilitytouseastore
    ofreserveenergy,someofwhichisalwaysused,while
    attimesevenallofitcouldtheoreticallybeusedand
    convertedintovisibleforms.
    Sowethusgettheoreticallytwooutstanding
    characteristicsofthereversalforwhichwearelooking;
    namely,apparentteleologyandtheabilitytouseafund
    ofreserveenergy.Ifwecanfindanythinginoursection
    ofspaceandtimewhichhasthesetwoproperties,then
    inallprobabilitywehavefoundthereversalforwhich
    wearelooking.
    Now,totakethemoreconcretemethod,thatof
    observingthereverseuniverse,eitherbyreversingany
    commonoccurrence,orelseinobservationbyreversing
    amotionpicturefilm,etc.Wehavealreadyseenthata
    reversalofsuchanincidentasaballrollingdowna
    flightofstairsbecomes,inthereverseuniverse,the
    following:thefloorandthestairssuccessivelythrow
    theballupstairs;theballitselfaidstheprocessby
    givingajump,asitwere,eachtimeitlands.Thiswould
    givefloor,stairs,andballsomewhatanappearanceof
    beingalive.Infact,inanycase,allordinaryphysical

    objectswillactinthereverseuniversesomewhatasif
    alive.Insteadofriversrunningdowntosea,wewould
    haveinthereverseuniversethesituationofseawater
    rejectingitssaltandthenjumpinguptheriverchannel
    tothesource,wherethewater,separatingitselffirstinto
    dropsandthenfinallyintomolecules,makesafinal
    jumpuptotheclouds;inotherwords,thewateris
    constantlyjumpingupwards,asthoughofitsown
    volition,andaidedateachstepbythegroundpushingit
    upwardsoreventhrowingitup.Hereagainthereisan
    appearanceoflifeinobjectsthatwewouldcertainly,in
    ouruniverse,considerasdead.
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    Takeamorecomplicatedinstance:Thebehaviorof
    dropsofmercuryonasmoothsurface,consisting,we
    maysuppose,partlyofmetal.Thesedrops,inour
    universe,wouldrollaroundundertheinfluenceofany
    externalforcesthatmayhappentobepresent,uniteif
    twohappentocometogether,and,incasetheytouch
    metal,thedropwillshrinkandpartlyamalgamatewith
    themetal.Inthereverseuniverse,onthecontrary,we
    haveadifferentarrangement:thedropswillrollaround
    asbefore,but,intheirrolling,willavoidthepuremetal
    surfaces,butwilltendtorollovertheamalgam
    surfaces.Whenincontactwiththeamalgam,theywill
    extractthemercury,andthusthedropswillkeep
    growing.Whenthedropgrowsinthismannertoalarge
    size,therewillappearaconstriction,andfinallya
    divisionintotwodrops,eachliketheoriginal.This
    actionofordinarymercurydropsinthereverseuniverse
    correspondsinmanydetailstothegrowthanddivision
    oflivingcellsinouruniverse.
    Inshort,wemaysaythat,ingeneral,eventsinthe
    reverseuniverseappearasthoughtheywereliving
    phenomena;andthegeneraleventsofthereverse
    universemaybetakenasthetypeofnegative
    phenomena,ofthereversalofthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics.Weshouldthusexpect,inthereal
    universe,tofindsuchreversalsinsomesortoflivingor
    apparentlylivingphenomena.Furthermore,ifwefind
    inthereverseuniversesomephenomenathat,contrary
    towhatmightbeexpected,obeythesecondlawof
    thermodynamics,itmustfollowthatthecorresponding
    phenomenaintherealuniversemustbepreciselythose
    reversalsforwhichwearelooking.
    Inasmuchaswehaveseenthatordinaryinanimate
    phenomenatakeonanappearanceoflifeinthereverse
    universe,letusseewhatbecomesoflivingphenomena
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    SolutionoftheParadox

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    inthereverseuniverse.Letusinjectsomesortofliving
    agencyintoanypreviousillustrationofthereverse
    universe.Suppose,inthecaseoftheballrollingdown
    stairs,thatitwasoriginallythrownbysomeone.The
    beginningoftheincident(whichwillcorrespondtothe
    endinthereverseuniverse)willconsistofahumanarm

    startingtomove,carryingtheballforwardagainstthe
    resistanceoftheair,finallylettingtheballgo,after
    whichtheball,onthemomentumthusacquired,
    proceedstobouncedownthestairs.Inthereverse
    universetheballproperlyaidedbythefloorandthe
    stairs,comesjumpingupstairsintothehand;theball,
    thoughittendstobespeededupbytheairpushingthe
    ballalong,andbytheheatenergyoftheballsimilarly
    reactingontheair,yetslowsdownquicklyandfinally
    comestoastop:theacquiredmomentumoftheball
    movesthehand,swingsthearm,andfinallythemolar
    energythustransferredtothearmbecomestransformed
    intoheat,andthearmstops.Thisverylastpartofthe
    incidentisaratherunexpectedcaseofthesecondlaw
    ofthermodynamicsinthereverseuniverse;andwemay
    note,asaresult,thatthelivingbody,whenreversed,
    becomesamereobstacleinsteadofamovingforce.We
    maythereforeconclude:first,thatinanimate
    phenomena,whenreversed,becomeanimate:second,
    thatanimatephenomena,whenreversed,losethe
    appearanceofanimation;andthird,thatanimate
    phenomena,whenreversed,losethisappearance
    because,whenreversed,theytendtofollowthesecond
    lawofthermodynamics.Thelogicalconclusionfrom
    thesewouldbe:thatinanimatephenomenaarepositive
    tendencies,andfollowthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics,whileanimatephenomena,onthe
    contrary,arenegativetendenciesandtendtoreverse
    thatlaw.Thuswehavefoundwhereourpartofthe
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    universecontainsreversals,andcometoasolutionof
    ourparadox.
    Contents
    41
    SolutionoftheParadox

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    CHAPTERVII
    THEORIESOFLIFE
    Wefindthatthetheoriesofthenatureoflifedivide
    themselvesintotwovarieties:themechanisticandthe
    vitalistic.Theformerkindoftheorystatesthatallliving
    phenomenaaretobeexplainedsolelybytheordinary
    physicallaws,andthatlifediffersfromother
    phenomenaonlyonaccountofitscomplexity,orin
    someotherincidentalmanner.Ontheotherhand,the
    vitalistictheoriesaretotheeffectthatliving
    phenomenaarecharacterizedbysomemysterioussort
    of"vitalforce"whichwouldseemtohavethepowerto
    suspendoraltertheoperationofthephysicallawsthat
    governtherestoftheuniverse.Inthecourseofthe
    historyofscience,muchhasbeensaidbothforthe
    vitalisticandthemechanistictheories,and,asyet,no
    agreementhasactuallybeenreachedonthatsubject.
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    Page 43
    Intheattempttosolveourparadoxofthesecond

    lawofthermodynamics,wehaveincidentallyreached
    asuggestionofthenatureoflife.Accordingto
    theconclusionswehavereached,thereareinthe
    universewhatwehavecalledpositivetendencies,
    neutraltendencies,andnegativetendencies,allof
    whicharepossibleresultsofthereversiblephysical
    lawsgoverningthemotionofparticlesofmatter.The
    neutraltendencybeinganextremelyimprobableresult,
    veryfewcasesofitarelikelytotakeplace;but,inany
    givencase,unlessfurtherspecialcircumstancesalter
    theprobabilities,thepositiveorthenegativetendency
    hasa50%probability,andwillthereforeresultfromthe
    reversiblelawsinabouthalfofthecasesoccurringin
    theuniverse.Inoursectionoftheuniversethepositive
    tendency,however,preponderates,though,inasmuchas
    itwouldbeextremelyimprobablethatanysectionof
    theuniverseisentirelywithoutinstancesofthenegative
    tendency,itfollowsthattheremustbephenomenaof
    thenegativetendencywithinourobservation.The
    phenomenaofthenegativetendencyaretheliving
    phenomena;whilethephenomenaofthepositive
    tendencyarethenonlivingphenomena.
    Thistheoryoflifeisstrictlymechanisticinsofaras
    lifeisassumedtooperatesolelyunderthephysicallaws
    applyingtothemotionofparticles,whichlawsare
    sufficienttodetermineacompletechainofcausation.
    Onthecontrary,physicists,confiningtheirobservation
    entirelytoinanimatematter,havereachedthe
    conclusionthatthereisafurtherphysicallaw,theso
    calledsecondlawofthermodynamics,whichis
    suspendedbylivingphenomena.Thereisaccordingto
    ourtheory,thisessentialdifferencebetweenlivingand
    nonlivingphenomena;andthisdifferencewould
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    supplythebasisfortheideaof"vitalforce."Thusthe
    twotheoriesoflifecanbereconciled.
    Onthematterofthedifferencebetweenlivingand
    nonlivingbodies,thereisstilllessagreement.For
    instance,itisstatedthatlifelesssubstances,insofaras
    theyformdefiniteshapes,formonlygeometrical
    shapes,whilelivingsubstancesformirregularshapes.
    Outsideofthefactthatthisdoesnotdistinguishliving
    bodiesfrombodieswhichwereoncealivebutwhich
    havelostthepropertyoflife,andoutsideofthefactthat
    notallinorganicsubstancesbutonlycertainsolid
    substancesformgeometricallyshapedcrystals,wemay
    refutethestatementthatlivingbodiesalways
    haveirregularshapesbysimplyadducingtheexample
    oftheegg.Thisdistinctionisthereforeonallsides
    untenable.
    Again,ithasbeensaidthatthedifferencebetween
    livingandlifelesssubstancesisthequestionofthe
    presenceoforgans.Butwillthatalonedistinguishthe
    averageorganismfromamachine?Thesameobjection
    canbeurgedagainsttheproposeddistinctiononthe
    groundthatlivingbodieshaveacomplexorganization.
    However,eitheroftheseproposeddistinctionsmay
    meanthatalivingbodyissoorganizedthateverything
    hasitsteleologicalfunction;andthisleadsustoa

    proposeddistinctionbetweenlivingandnonliving
    bodies,namely,thatlivingphenomenaareessentially
    teleological.Inthecaseofamachinewehavethe
    organization,buttheteleologymustbesoughtforinthe
    livingbeingthatassembledthemachine.Apparently,
    teleologyisacharacteristicoflife;butyeteverythingis
    explicableonaphysicochemicalbasis;thereforewe
    haveinlifethepropertyofapparentteleologyasa
    distinguishingcharacteristic.Onlyinthisformcanthe
    proposeddifferentiationonthebasisof"organization"
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    betenable.But,aswehaveseen,apparentteleologyis
    oneofthecharacteristicsbywhichareversalofthe
    secondlawofthermodynamicscanberecognized.It
    thereforefollowsthat,inallprobability,ourdistinction
    onthebasisofthesecondlawofthermodynamicsis
    reallythefundamentalpointofdifferencebetween
    livingandnonlivingbodies.
    Anothersuggestedmethodofdifferentiationisinthe
    capabilityofreproduction.But,whenwecomedownto
    theultimatelivingunits,thecells,thisreproduction
    consistsmerelyofconstrictionanddivision;inwhichit
    ishardlytobedifferentiatedfromthebreakingupinto
    smallerdropsofadropofoilinwateroradropof
    mercuryonaglasssurfaceunderaslightshock.Aswe
    haveseen,whileunderordinarycircumstancesashock
    isnecessarytoaccomplishthisdivisioninthesecases,
    yet,underthereversalofthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics,thisformofdivisionisanormal
    phenomenon.
    Afurthersuggestionastoamethodof
    differentiationisthatlifeisalwaysderivedfromother
    life,whileinanimatemattermaybederivedfromeither
    livingornonlivingbodies.Thisdistinctionisageneral
    one,simplystatingafact,butcannotserveasa
    definitionorasameansofdifferentiation,becauseit
    wouldnotshowwhetheranyindividualcasewasoneof
    livingorlifelesssubstance.Shouldwetrytoapplythe
    test,weshouldhavetoaskwhetheritcouldonlyhave
    beenderivedfromotherlivingmatter.Whatitcould
    havebeenderivedfromwecannotexperimentallyfind
    out;theactualcausesmightbediscovered,andthenwe
    arereducedtothequestionwhetherlifeistobefound
    amongthosecauses,andwearenownobetteroffthan
    atfirst.Itisliketryinginanunknownregiontofindthe
    eastbythedirectionsinSchedrin'sstory:Facethe
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    north,andtheeastisonyourright.Suchdirections
    obviouslyareuselesswherethenorthisasunknownas
    theeast.Thebasisoffactbehindthisproposed
    distinctionbetweenlivingandlifelessbodies,however,
    wewillexaminemoreindetaillateron.
    Thesuggestionthatorganicbodiesgrowby
    absorbingparticles,whilegrowth,whereitisfound
    amonginorganicbodies,isalwaysbyaccretionof

    matterontheoutside,turnsout,whenanalysed,tobe
    ratheradistinctionbetweensolidsandliquidsthanone
    betweenlivingandlifelesssubstance.Theabsorptionof
    particlescanbeduplicatedinthelaboratoryunder
    certaincircumstancesbyliquidsenclosedin
    membranes,andalivingcellconsistsofamembrane
    containingliquids.
    Finally,wecometothedynamicaldistinctions.The
    mostobviousoftheseis,tosaythatlifeisdistinguished
    bymovement.Thisisobviouslyanincorrect
    distinction,sinceallobjectsareinmotion.Butthereis
    obviouslysomethingpeculiaraboutlivingmovement
    thatseemstomakeitseemmoremobilethanother
    movement.Itisthus,forinstance,alleged,thatliving
    movementcomesfrominternalcauses,orelsethat
    livingbodiesworkofthemselves,whileotherobjects
    needtobesuppliedwithenergy.Eventhatisnot
    descriptive,fortherearealways"external"causesfor
    allmovements,andlifedoesnotcreateenergy;ifituses
    upenergy,itmustobtainthatenergyfromsomewhere.
    Similarlywiththedistinctionbetweenstatic
    equilibriumoflifelessbodiesandthesocalled
    "dynamic"equilibriumoflife,oftenmoreaccurately
    definedasthemetabolicprocess;suchadynamic
    equilibriumexists(asmolarenergy)inthecaseof
    almostallmachines,andchemicallyinthecaseofany
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    catalyticagent,whichisalsobeingconstantly
    decomposedandrecomposed.
    Buttherearemoreaccuratedefinitionsofthis
    mobilitywhichissopeculiarlycharacteristicoflife.We
    maynotice,forinstance,thetheoryadvancedbythe
    lateProf.WilliamJames,thetheoryoftheexistenceof
    a"reserveenergy"inthecaseofbiological,and
    especiallyinpsychological,activities,whichisabsent
    inthecaseoflifelessactivities.Accordingtothis,while
    thelivingorganismcannormallyuseacertainamount
    ofitsenergy;yetinsomemysteriouswayitcan,under
    specialcircumstances,drawonanimmensesurplus
    fundof"reserveenergy."Thispropertybeingabsentin
    physicalbodies,wemaydrawadistinctiononthatbasis
    betweenlivingandlifelessbodies,andthiswouldseem
    tobeanabsolutedistinction.Now,ithaslongbeen
    knownthatphysicalbodiescontainanimmenseamount
    ofenergywhichisunavailableforconversioninto
    anythingelse;andthephysicallawthatlimitsthe
    amountofenergywhichitispossibleforaphysical
    bodytoutilizeispreciselythissecondlawof
    thermodynamicsthathasgivenussomuchtrouble.We
    mustthereforecometotheconclusionthat,sincelife
    doesnotcreateenergy,andthis"reserveenergy"is
    evidentlyrealphysicalenergy,thatthepeculiarityof
    lifeisitsabilitytodrawonmoreenergythanthe
    secondlawofthermodynamicswouldallow;thatis,its
    ability,insomecircumstancesatleast,toreversethat
    secondlaw.Andagain,wehaveseenthatreversalsof
    thesecondlawarecharacterizedbyabilitytouseafund
    ofreserveenergythatphysicalbodiescannotuse.Let
    ussaythatthemechanicalefficiencyofasetofbodies

    is85%;thereciprocal,or118%,isthatofthesameset
    inthereverseuniverse.Butas,undersome
    circumstances,producingspecialresultsinthewayof
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    heat,etc.,notquite85%oftheenergywillbeused,but,
    letussay,only50%,thenunderthosespecialcasesin
    thereverseuniverserequiringmoreenergy,the
    mechanicalefficiencywillbenot118%,but200%,thus
    usingoverfivetimestheamountofreserveenergy
    normallyused.ThisexcessconstitutesJames's"reserve
    energy."
    Anotherdefinitionofthemobilityoflifeiswhatis
    called"irritability,"thatistosay,theabilitytomakea
    largeresponsetosmallstimuli.This,itisalleged,is
    possessedonlybylife,sothatlifemaybedefinedby
    irritability.AgainstthisVerwornobjectsthatsuch
    inanimatesubstancesasnitroglycerinealsopossessthis
    property,thatsubstanceproducingapowerfulexplosion
    undertheinfluenceofaslightshock.Butinthecaseof
    nitroglycerine,wehaveanunstableequilibrium,anda
    slightshocksimplyletsloosethedifferenceoflevel
    necessarytoreducetoastableequilibrium;whileinthe
    caseoflife,irritabilityispartofthesocalled"dynamic
    equilibrium"anddoesnotdisturbthatequilibrium.
    Irritability,asitisfoundinbiologicalphenomena,isthe
    abilitytoproducenormallyalargeeffectfromasmall
    stimuluswithoutanirreparablelevelingdownof
    energy;inotherwords,theirritabilitythatdistinguishes
    lifeconsistsoftheabilitytobuilduphigherdifferences,
    ofenergylevelfromlowerones,inexactlytheinverse
    ordertothatrequiredbythesecondlawof
    thermodynamics.Inotherwords,irritabilityisidentical
    withthe"negativetendency"or,inotherwords,with
    thereversalofthesecondlawofthermodynamics.Thus
    weareagainreducedtoourformofdistinctionbetween
    livingandnonlivingbodies,namely,thatbetweenthe
    negativeandthepositivetendency.
    Verwornproposedthedistinctiononthebasisof
    chemicalconstituencynamely,thatlivingbodies
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    consistofcomplicatedcarboncompounds,suchas
    albumen,protein,etc.,whichcannotbeproduced
    outsideoflife.Butinwhatwaywouldthisdefinition
    distinguishalivingbodyfrom,letussay,acorpse?Or,
    accordingtothedefinitionbychemicalcomposition,
    everywoodenobjectisalive.Itisobvious,therefore,
    thatthisdistinctionisuntenable.
    Onthecontrary,wehavetheextrememechanistic
    view,representedbyDr.JacquesLoeb,thatsucha
    distinctioncannotbedrawn.Theactualexistenceofa
    hardandfastdistinctionofthissortis,indeeddifficult
    toprove,butthereiscertainlyadifferencein
    appearance,whichmustbebasedonsomething,
    howeverflimsythatsomethingmightbe.Dr.Loebcalls
    alivingbody"achemicalmachine,"andstatesasthe

    onlybaseofdifferentiation"thepowerofautomatic
    development,selfpreservation,andreproduction."Itis
    notquiteclearwhetherornotallthreepropertiesare
    essential;andnotalllivingbodiespossessatalltimes
    allthesethreeproperties;while,onthecontrary,these
    propertiesseparatelyarepossessedundercertain
    circumstancesbycertainnonlivingbodies;sothat,to
    saytheleast,thisattempteddistinctionmustbecleared
    upsomewhatbeforeitcanbeofanyserviceatall.
    Thus,ofallthedistinguishingcharacteristicsthat
    maybeusedtodefinelife,wehaveleftsimplythese
    three:apparentteleology,reserveenergy,and
    irritability.Thelatterproperty(irritability)is,aswe
    haveseen,acondensedstatementofthereverseofthe
    secondlawofthermodynamics;whilewehaveseen
    beforethattheothertwoproperties,apparentteleology
    andreserveenergy,aretheoutstandingcharacteristics
    bywhichareversalofthesecondlawof
    thermodynamicscanberecognized.Itfollows,
    therefore,thatthefundamentaldefinitionbehindall
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    theseis:Lifeisareversalofthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics.Or,toputitinotherterms,sincewe
    haveseenthatmechanicalefficiencyunderthepositive
    tendencyislessthan100%,undertheneutraltendency
    just100%,andunderthenegativetendencymorethan
    100%,wemaydefine:Lifeconsistsofbodieswitha
    mechanicalefficiencyofover100%.
    Contents
    50
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    CHAPTERVIII
    THEEXTENSIONOFTHESECONDLAW
    Wehave,then,cometotheconclusionthatthe
    secondlawofthermodynamicsisnottrueasageneral
    propertyofmatter.Itwill,accordingtoourtheory,have
    tobeomittedfromthelistofthephysicallaws.But
    whatistherethatwecanputinplaceofit?Wecansay,
    inthefirstplace,thateveryphysicallawisreversible,
    orrather,tobemoreaccurate,thatifanyphysicallawis
    true,itsreversemustalsobetrue.
    Furthermore,takingtheconceptionof"mechanical
    efficiency,"thesecondlawofthermodynamics,iftrue,
    wouldsetanupperlimittotheamountofenergyabody
    canuse;namely,whateverdifferenceinenergylevel
    thereis.Now,ifthissecondlawisomittedfromthelist
    ofphysicallaws,thereisnosuchupperlimit,there
    beingmoreenergythanthatinthebodies,an
    inaccessiblefundintowhichallenergytendstoleak.
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    Butwecanstillusethislimit,andexpresstheamount
    ofenergyusedbythebodyasapercentageofthislimit.
    Ifweconsiderthatthesecondlawofthermodynamics
    isnolongerageneralphysicallaw,thispercentagemay

    be100%(neutraltendency),orlessthan100%(positive
    tendency),ormorethan100%(negativetendency).The
    mechanicalefficiencyofabodymaythusfallintoany
    ofthethreecategories,butwehaveseenthat100%isa
    criticalpoint,andwhenthemechanicalefficiency
    changesfromlessthan100%tomorethan100%,or
    viceversa,wehaveachangeintheappearanceofthe
    actionsofthebody.Thiscriticalpointofmechanical
    efficiencyconstitutesthedividinglinebetweenliving
    andnonlivingphenomena.
    Aswehaveseen,auniversefollowingthepositive
    tendencycannothaveexistedforaninfinitetimepast;
    andthereverseofthisrulemustalsobetrue,thata
    universefollowingthenegativetendencycannot
    continuetoexistforaninfinitetimeinthefuture.
    Hence,ifwesupposetheuniversetohaveexistedfrom
    eternitypasttoeternityfuture,itfollowsthatthe
    averagemechanicalefficiencyoftheuniverse,taking
    allpartsofspaceandtime,mustbeexactly100%.On
    thecontrary,inoursectionofspaceandtime,though
    wehavefoundinstancesofthenegativetendency(that
    istosay,life),yetthepositivetendencyvisibly
    prevails,sothatthemechanicalefficiencyatpresentof
    ourpartoftheuniverseisconsiderablylessthan100%.
    Astheprobabilitiesarethatinourpartofspaceforall
    time,oratthepresentmomentforallspace,the
    mechanicalefficiencyoftheuniverseisabout100%,it
    followsthattheremustbeotherpartsofspaceandtime
    inwhichthemechanicalefficiencyisover100%;and
    suchpartsofspaceandtimesupplyuswithexamplesof
    areverseuniverse.
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    Wehaveseenthatthepositivetendencyis
    characterizedbyaconstantrunningdownofenergy
    levelsandastorageofenergyintoaninaccessible
    reservestore,whichcaninitsturnbeutilizedandbuilt
    upagainintodifferencesofenergylevelonlybythe
    negativetendency.Thatistosay,thepositivetendency
    storesupreserveenergy,andthenegativetendency
    oncemoreutilizesit.
    Sincemostofthesubstanceswithinourobservation
    followthepositivetendency,wemayobtain
    characteristicsofthetwotendenciestosomeextentby
    observation,usingourobservationsforthepositive
    tendency,andreversingforthenegativetendency.For
    instance,ithasbeenobservedontheearththatthereis
    constantdissociationofatomsgoingon,especiallyin
    thecaseofsubstancesofverygreatatomicweight(e.g.,
    uraniumandradium).Itmustbesupposedthatthese
    substancesmusthavebeenthereinthefirstplacein
    muchlargeramountsthanatpresent,whentheearth
    wasinahotterconditionthanatpresent;and
    accordinglywemightexpect,inveryhotbodiessuchas
    thesunandstars,tofindmanysubstanceswithlarge
    atomicweightandfewwithsmallatomicweight,andin
    nebulasandnewlyformedstarstofindsubstances
    almostentirelywithlargeatomicweight,andalmostno
    suchsubstancesashydrogen,helium,etc.,whose
    atomicweightisverysmall.Thecontrary,however,is

    true.Inthesun,thereisverylittletobeseenof
    substancesofverylargeatomicweight;evensucha
    substanceasgold,whichismorestablethanuraniumor
    radiumandmuchmorecommonontheearth,butwitha
    largeatomicweight,isconspicuouslyabsent,while
    hydrogenandheliumarepresentinlargequantities
    (heliumwasfirstdiscoveredinthesolarspectrumasits
    nameindicates).Furthermore,thenearerastaristothe
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    nebularstage,themoreconspicuouslyisthistrue;while
    innebulae,temporarystars,etc.,hydrogen,whichhas
    theverylightestatomsofanyknownsubstance,
    constitutesmostofthesubstanceofthestarornebula.It
    thusfollowsthatinsuchhotbodiesasstarsand
    nebulae,thereisanoppositeprocessgoingon,which
    wemaycalltheintegrationofatoms,thebuildingupof
    largeratomsoutofsmallerones.
    Allthisisoccurringunderthepositivetendency.If
    wesupposeasectionoftheuniverse(eitherinspaceor
    intime)inwhichthenegativetendencyprevails,the
    reversewillbetrue.Theintegrationofatomswilltake
    placeatlowertemperatures,thedissociationathigher
    temperatures.Itfollows,that,ifweconsideracyclein
    timeofabody(orrather,ofalargegroupofbodies),or
    ofaspatialsectionoftheuniverse,whilewehavetwo
    stagesofmechanicalefficiency,firstbuildingup
    reserveenergy,thenusingupthatsamereserveenergy
    foravailableenergy,wehaveinacorrespondingperiod
    acycleoffourstagesintheevolutionofatoms.Inthe
    firstpartofour"positive"epochatomsarebeingbuilt
    up,intomoreandmorecomplicatedforms;inthelatter
    partofour"positive"epochtheyaredissociatedonce
    more;duringthebeginningofthe"negative"epochthe
    atomsarereintegrated,untilsufficientlylarge
    differencesofheatlevelarebuiltuptoreversethe
    process,andtheatomsbecomeoncemoredissociated.
    WhythisprocessshouldtakeplaceinjustthiswayI
    cannotattempttoexplain;butitmayeasilybethatboth
    dissociationandintegrationofatomsisconstantly
    takingplace,andtheexcessofoneovertheotherwould
    differunderdifferentcircumstances.
    However,bethatasitmay,undertheneutral
    tendencytherewouldbenotendencywhateverforthe
    ultimateparticlesofmattertoformintobodiesor
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    compoundparticles;sothatwemayexpectthat,even
    shouldtheneutraltendencybefoundtoexist,thatthere
    wouldbeno"neutral"bodies,butthatitwouldbe
    entirelywhatevertheultimateparticlesmaybe;e.g.,
    thatitwouldconsistofseparateelectrons,if,asisat
    presentbelieved,theelectronistheultimatematerial
    particle.Eitherthepositiveorthenegativetendency
    startsoutbybuildingupmoreandmorecomplicated
    atoms;buttheneutraltendencydoesnosuchthing;
    accordinglywecantakethisasoneofthe

    characteristicsoftheneutraltendency.Another
    characteristicoftheneutraltendencywouldbethat,
    thoughitrequiresimpenetrablematter,yet,sinceany
    frictionresultingfromthemotionofbodiesthroughit
    wouldtendtobecounterbalancedbytheequalnegative
    elementofbuildingupmotion,theresultwouldbe,an
    apparentlackofresistance,characteristicagainonlyof
    theneutraltendency.And,inasmuchasitisnow
    supposedthat,thoughradiantenergyisvibration
    transmittedbytheether,yetitiselectronsscattered
    throughtheetherthatareinvibration,andsincethe
    etherwithitssupposedelectronsseemstobetheonly
    thingknownthatoffersnoresistancestothepassageof
    movingobjects,itfollowsthattheether,orthe
    electronsitcontains,istheexampleofneutraltendency
    tobefoundinouruniverse.
    Butwehavesaidbeforethattheprobabilityofthe
    neutraltendencyiszero;howthendoesthiscome?As
    wehavesaidbefore,azeroprobabilityismerelyan
    extremeimprobability,butnotnecessarilyan
    impossibility.Forinstance,ifwehaveafinitesegment
    ofaline,andweselectapointonthelineatrandom,
    theprobabilitythatthatpointwillbethemiddlepointis
    preciselyzero,sincethereareonthelineaninfinite
    numberofpoints,ofwhichonlyoneisthemiddle
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    TheExtensionoftheSecondLaw

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    point;sothattheprobabilityoftheselectedpointbeing
    themiddlepointis1dividedbyinfinity,thatis,zero.
    C
    A________|_________B

    Or,totakeanotherexample,theprobabilitythatapoint
    selectedinspaceatrandomwillbewithintheearthis:
    theearth'svolumedividedbythevolumeofspace,
    whichiszerosincethelatterquantityisinfinite.Here,
    thereareaninfinitenumberofpossibilitiesofthepoint
    beingwithintheearth,andyettheprobabilityiszero.
    Thusitiswiththe"neutraltendency."Itsprobabilityis
    zero,andyetthereisachanceforaninfiniteamountof
    matterintheuniversetocomeunderit,providedthat
    thereisinfinitelymorematterthatiseitherthepositive
    orthenegativetendency,Infact,weknowfromthe
    theoryoferrorthatamechanicalefficiencyof100%,
    beingexactlytheaverageoftheuniverse,ismore
    probablethananyothergivenmechanicalefficiency,let
    ussay85%.Andyet,inspiteofthat,itsprobabilityis
    zero.Infact,ifwefigureouttheprobabilityofthe
    positionoftheuniverseatagivenmomenthavingcome
    outexactlyasitdid,wealsoarriveattheconclusion
    thatthetheoreticalprobabilityoftheuniversebeingas
    itis,is0.Andyettheuniverseexists,inspiteofitszero
    probability.
    Nowletusconsiderthechemicalstructureofthe
    positiveandnegativetendencies.Forthispurposeit
    willbenecessarytodistinguishbetweenexothermic
    andendothermiccompounds,thatis,between
    compoundsonalowerlevelofchemicalenergythan
    theirconstituentsandcompoundsonahigherlevelof
    chemicalenergythantheirconstituents.Wemight
    expectthattheformerwouldbebuiltupunderthe
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    positivetendency,andthelatterunderthenegative
    tendency,becausethecompositionoftheformeroutof
    theirconstituentsinvolvestheconversionofsome
    chemicalenergyintoheat,whilethecompositionofan
    endothermiccompoundfromitsconstituentsinvolves
    theconversionofheatintoahigherlevelofchemical
    energy.However,wemustdrawsomedistinctionshere.
    Thepositiveandthenegativetendenciesmerelytendto
    builduprespectivelyexothermicandendothermic
    compounds.Underspecialcircumstancesexceptions
    canbefound.
    Itistrue,indeed,ingeneral,thatthenegative
    tendencytendstobuildupmoreandmoreendothermic
    substances;thoughmanyexothermicsubstancesmay
    result,eitherfrommoreexothermicsubstancesor
    whereasubstance,onaccountofitsexothermic
    properties,hasverylittlechemicalactivity.Also,the
    positivetendencydoes,asawhole,buildupexothermic
    substances,thoughendothermicsubstancesmaybe
    produced,usuallyasaresultofadifferenceofenergy
    levelhigherthanthatoftheendothermiccompound.
    However,whetherthenegativetendency,forinstance,
    buildsupendothermicsubstancesinnegativeorin
    positiveobjects,isaquestionwhichcannotbe
    considereduntilweconsideralittleinrelationtothe
    reactionsononeanotherofthepositiveandnegative
    substances.Wewillaccordinglyproceedtoinvestigate
    that.
    Contents
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    CHAPTERIX
    THERELATIONBETWEENTHETENDENCIES
    Itwouldseemthatthenegativetendencydependsfor
    itspossibilityoncertainspecialcombinationsof
    positiontakingplace,whichcombinationswould
    probablytakeplaceanywaybyaccident,butwhich
    wouldbemuchmorelikelytohappenasaresultof
    othersimilarcombinations.Inotherwords,ifwetake
    thenegativetendency,wewillfindthatany"negative"
    eventmusthavebeenimmediatelyprecededbyan
    extremelyimprobablesortofcombination,butis
    followedbyamoreprobablecombination.Thiscanbe
    seenifwetakethesimplestexampleofthenegative
    tendency,thesuperelasticcollision,which,inorderto
    happenatall,mustbeprecededbyaratherunlikelysort
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    ofconcentrationofparticlesandenergyattheexact
    pointofcollision.Thisdoesnotintheleastcontradict
    ourconclusionthatthepositiveandnegativetendencies
    areequallyprobable;for,onanalysingthepositive
    tendency,wefindthatitisfollowedbyasimilarly
    improbablecondition.Thus,inthenegativetendency,
    thecauseiswheretheimprobablestagecomesin,butin

    thepositivetendency,thatsameimprobablestage
    comesinattheeffect.However,thetwovarietiesof
    "improbablestage"donotcorrespondexactly;forthat
    ofthenegativetendencyconsistsinaconcentrationof
    motion,whilethatofthepositivetendencyconsistsofa
    divergenceofmotion.Hencetheeffectofapositive
    eventcouldhardlyserveasthestartingpointfora
    negativeevent.Outsideofsomeaccidental
    combination,anegativeeventmusthaveanegative
    combinationforatleastpartofthecause.Thereverse
    ofthisruleis,thatapositiveeventmustgiveriseto
    positiveeffects,atleastpartially.
    Inotherwords,wehavesuchthingsasanegativeora
    positiveeventgivingrisetoanothereventofitsown
    kind;butwithonlypositivecauses,anegativeresult
    wouldhardlybeexpectedtoarise.Ifweidentifythe
    negativetendencywithlife,thestatementreducesto
    this:Alllifecomesfromsomelivingcause.
    Onthecontrary,thereisnosuchimprobabilityina
    purelynegativecausegivingrisetopositiveeffects.In
    fact,aswehaveseen,apositiveuniversecouldnot
    haveexistedforaninfinitetimepast,noranegative
    universeforaninfinitetimeinthefuture;ineitherkind
    ofuniverse,thechangefromnegativecausetopositive
    effectmusttakeplace;infact,itistobeexpectedthatit
    willbeverycommonforanegativecausetogiveriseto
    apositiveeffect.
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    Wethusseethatthetransformationfrompositiveto
    negativetakesplaceinaverydifferentwayfromthe
    changefromnegativetopositive.Thelattercantake
    placeasacomparativelysuddentransformation,a
    suddencessationofalllifeactivity;whilenonliving
    bodiescannotbecomealiveexceptbyaccretionon
    otherlivingbodies.Thetransformationfrompositiveto
    negativecanoccuronlyasanextensionofthenegative
    tendencyfromsomesortofcenterthatisalready
    negative;thatis,byalivingbodygrowing.
    Itmightbesupposedthatthisdifferencebetweenone
    kindoftransformationanditsinverseindicatesan
    irreversiblelaw;andwehavealreadyseenthat,ifwe
    giveupthesecondlawofthermodynamics,wemust
    replaceitbythestatementthatallphysicallawsare
    reversible.Henceitwouldseemasthoughwehad
    arrivedataninconsistency.But,ifweexamineintothe
    question,wewillseethatoneformoftransformationis
    nottheactualreverseoftheother,butthateachprocess
    issymmetricalintime,andisreallythereverseofitself.
    Forthetransformation,forinstance,ofanegativecause
    intoapositiveeffectsuddenlyandcompletely,isa
    strictlyreversibleone,ifweconsiderthefactthata
    negativecausecorrespondsinthereverseuniversetoa
    positiveeffect,andviceversa;sothat,wheninthereal
    universewehaveanegativecauseandapositiveeffect,
    wewillhavethesameinthereverseuniverse,sothat
    theprocessremainsunchangedwhenreversed.The
    sameistrueoftheotherprocess,bywhichapositive
    causemightgiveanegativeeffect.
    However,inthelattercase,thereisadifferent

    element,whosereverseisnotquiteidenticalwithitself,
    andthereforewhosereversecanbeusedtosupplement
    theproposition.Thatistosay,wheresucha
    transformationmust,aswehaveseen,requiresome
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    negativeelementtoenterintothecause,thereverseof
    thisrequiressomepositiveelementtoenterintothe
    effect.Thatis,suchatransformationnotonlycannotbe
    spontaneous,butitalsocannotbecomplete.Ifa
    positivesubstancebeabsorbedintoanegativebody,
    somepositivemattermust,attheendoftheprocess,be
    rejected.
    Inotherwords,wecometothefollowing
    conclusions:(1)Lifecannotgeneratespontaneously,
    exceptbyanaccidentthatissoextremelyunlikelythat
    itwouldhardlyhappenonceinawholeuniverse;(2)
    lifeextendstonewmatterbyaprocessofgrowth,that
    is,byaccretionroundalivingcenter;(3)wherealiving
    bodyabsorbsinanimatematter,someinanimatematter
    mustberejected;(4)however,thetransformationof
    livingintolifelessmattermaytakeplacesuddenlyand
    completely,manifestingmerelyasuddencessationof
    lifeactivities,acessationwhichwouldbean
    irreparableone.
    Contents
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    CHAPTERX
    EXOTHERMICANDENDOTHERMIC
    SUBSTANCES
    Tocomebacktothequestionthatwebeganto
    consider,andwhichweleftoffinthemiddle;namely,
    thatofthesortofchemicalsubstancesthatwouldbe
    builtupunderthetwotendencies.Wewillhaveto
    distinguishbetweenthecasewherewearedealingwith
    apositivesectionoftheuniverseandthatwhereweare
    dealingwithanegativesectionoftheuniverse.Totake
    theformercasefirst,letussupposethatthepositiveis
    theprevailingtendency.Thistendencywouldtendto
    buildupexothermicsubstances,whilethe
    comparativelyfewcasesofthenegativetendency
    wouldformthosesamesubstancesintoendothermic
    substancesfortheirownconstituency.Someofthese
    endothermicsubstances,itistrue,willberejectedas
    positiveorinanimatematter,but,onthewhole,there
    willbeatendencyforthemoreendothermicsubstances
    togointothenegativetendency,orintolife,andforthe
    moreexothermicsubstancestobefoundinlifeless
    matter.
    Sinceeachprocessmustchemicallybuildup
    substancesfromtheirelements,whichexistedasfree
    elementswhentheworldwasatahighheat,itmightbe
    expectedthattheremightbeatendencytowards
    complexcompounds,sothatsubstancestend,toagreat
    extent,tocombinewiththetetravalentelements,which
    formthemostcomplexcompounds.Thetwomost

    commontetravalentelementsarecarbonandsilicon,
    thecomplexcompoundsofsiliconbeingextremely
    exothermic,whilethecomplexcompoundsofcarbons
    areextremelyendothermic.Itmightthereforebe
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    expectedthatinanimatematterwouldtendtobuild
    itselftoagreatextentintocomplexsiliconcompounds
    (silicates,suchasearth,clay,manyrocks,etc.),while,
    onthecontrary,livingmattermightbeexpectedtoform
    asmuchaspossibleintocomplexcarboncompounds,
    asendothermicaspossible.Suchisknowntobethe
    case;infact,suchcarboncompoundsaregenerally
    knownas"organiccompounds."
    Furthermore,onesubstancethatformscompounds
    ofahighchemicalenergy,thoughitselfhavingvery
    lowchemicalenergy,isnitrogen.Thiselementforms
    extremelyendothermiccompounds,whichareinmany
    casesexplosive.Ateveryordinarychemical
    transformationinvolvingnitrogen,somefreenitrogen
    goesoffintotheair;butthereverseprocess,the
    fixationofnitrogen,thatistosay,theformationof
    nitrogencompoundsfromnitrogenitselftogetherwith
    othernecessarysubstances,isaprocessrequiringan
    immenseamountofenergy(byoneprocess,a
    temperatureofabout3000degrees,byanotherprocess,
    apressureofabout200atmospheres).Sincenitrogen
    formssuchextremelyendothermiccompounds,we
    mightexpectthat,wherethegeneraltendencyis
    positive,lifewilltendtoincludenotonlyasmuch
    carbonaspossible,butalsoasmuchnitrogenas
    possible.Itwouldtherefore,inasectionoftheuniverse
    wherethepositivetendencyprevails,seemtofollow
    thatlifewouldtend,asfaraspossible,tobefoundin
    complexcarbonnitrogencompounds.Thesimplestof
    thesecompoundsofcarbonandnitrogen,itselfan
    endothermiccompound,iscyanogen,(CN)2,andwe
    mightexpectthattheCNradicalwouldbethe
    foundationoflife.
    Onthecontrary,wherealivingbodyreactswithan
    inanimatebodyinanyway,itisalsolikelytobuildup
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    suchcomplexcarbonnitrogencompoundsnotonlyas
    thelivingproduct,butalsoasthelifelessproductwhich
    wehaveseenmustbeformed.Hencetheseproducts
    mustbeformedtosomeextentnotmerelyinliving
    matter,butalsoininanimatematter.Forinstance,this
    veryprocessofthefixationofnitrogen,thatwehave
    alreadyreferredto,wemightexpecttobefound
    accomplishedbylivingbodieswhichcanabsorb
    nitrogenandreactwithit,leavingnitrogencompounds
    asrejectedmatter,besidesformingthemselvesinto
    nitrogencompounds.Wedo,infact,findsuchaprocess
    operatingamongwhatarecalledthenitrogenfixing,or
    nitrifying,bacteria,whichabsorbnitrogenandreject
    nonlivingnitrogencompoundsinamannerthatcould
    hardlybeexplainedasanythingbutreversingthe

    secondlawofthermodynamics.
    Thusistheresultwheretheprevailingtendencyis
    positive,andwherethenegativetendencyisthe
    exception.Totracethisresultfurther,wemuch
    rememberthatlife,thenegativetendency,growsby
    accretiononalivingcenterwhichisnecessary.Living
    bodiesabsorbinanimatematter,extendinglifemore
    andmore,absorbingtosomeextentexothermic
    substances,rejectingtosomeextentendothermic
    substances,untilthislivingactivitybeginstotakeinthe
    majorityofthesectionoftheuniverse.Meanwhilethe
    living,thenegative,activitieswillhaveabsorbedmost,
    ifnotall,oftheexothermicsubstances,whilethe
    positivetendencywillbekeptupbytheconstant
    rejectionofmostlyendothermicsubstancesaslifeless
    matter.Thuswilltheextremelycomplicatedcarbon
    nitrogencompoundstend,inasectionoftheuniverse
    wheretheprevailingtendencyisnegative,tobefound
    moreandmoreaspositive,aslifelessbodies.
    Furthermore,sincesuchasectionoftheuniverseisthe
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    exactreverseofapositivesectionoftheuniverse,such
    positivebodieswilltendtobeformedasexactlysuch
    complexorganismsasare,inoursectionofthe
    universe,foundinlivingbodies.Wewillhavea
    complex,lifelikeorganism,butwithnoneofthelife
    activities(withsomeexceptions,asweshallsee).We
    maycallsuchorganismspseudolivingorganisms.In
    our"reverseuniverse"thesepseudolivingorganisms
    willtaketheexactshapesofthelivingorganismsinour
    realuniverse.
    Suchextremelyendothermiccompoundsare
    unstableunderthepositivetendency,butrequirethe
    negativetendencytostabilizethem.Underthepositive
    tendency,thesecompoundswilltendtodecomposeinto
    exothermictendenciesveryquickly.Butthetendency
    ofnegativeactivitiestoextendfromanegativecenter
    willbeveryactivewhenmostoftheuniverseis
    negative,andhencesuchexothermicsubstanceswillbe
    likelytobequicklyabsorbedbytheprevailingnegative
    tendency;while,onthecontrary,theprevailing
    negativetendencywilltendquicklytobuildupas
    rejectedpositivematterthesesameendothermic
    compoundsintothepositive,pseudolivingorganisms.
    Thusthesepseudolivingorganismsdifferfromcorpses
    inthatthereisaconstantcycleofchemicalreaction
    withthesurroundingworld,aconstantbuildingupand
    decompositionofsubstance.Sincetheseorganismsare
    theexactreverseoflivingorganismsasweknowthem,
    itfollowsthat,inasectionoftheuniversewherethe
    prevailingtendencyispositive,anylivingbodiesmuch
    existintheformofchemicalmachinesthatconstantly
    absorbinanimatematter,buildupintolivingmatter,
    andasconstantlymakepartialdecompositionsoftheir
    ownsubstanceintomoreexothermicsubstanceswhich
    arerejectedasinanimatematter.Thatis,bothliving
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    substancesinoursectionoftheuniverseandthe
    pseudolivingorganismsinthenegativesectionsofthe
    universehaveincommonthepropertyofmetabolism.
    Alltheseconclusionsholdexceptataheatsogreatthat
    theformationofcompoundsisimpossible(e.g.,onthe
    sun).Metabolismisthusnotapropertyoflife,butof
    theminoritytendency.Thesameistrueofthechemical
    compositionoforganisms.Inapositivesectionofthe
    universetheorganismsareliving;inanegativesection
    oftheuniversetheyareessentiallylifeless.
    Wheretheheatistoogreattopermitofthe
    formationofchemicalcompounds,suchchemical
    machinescannotexist;buttheminoritytendency,
    whetherpositiveornegative,wouldprobablyexist,the
    chancesofitsnonexistencebeingextremelysmall.
    Underanyconditionsthechancesareoverwhelmingly
    infavoroftherebeingamixtureofthetwotendencies.
    Yet,thoughbothtendenciesarepresent,therewillbea
    majorityandaminoritytendency.Butwhatsuch
    minoritytendencymaybelike,itisdifficulttoimagine.
    Forinstance,itwouldbedifficulttoimaginewhatsort
    ofphenomenonlifewouldbeonthesun.Itwould
    certainlyhavetobedifferentfromanylifethatwe
    knowof,thoughwiththecommonpropertiesof
    irritability,apparentteleology,andreserveenergy.
    Contents
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    ExothermicandEndothermicSubstances

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    CHAPTERXI
    THEORIESOFTHEORIGINOFLIFE
    Accordingtoourhypothesis,lifealwayshasexisted
    andalwayswillexistunderallconditionsinsomeform,
    thoughthatformmaybequitedifferentfromanyform
    oflifethatcomeswithinourexperience.Ifwetrace
    backtheancestryofpresentdaylife,wewillalwaysbe
    abletotraceitbacktosomelife,thoughitmaybein
    suchaformthatitmightbeextremelydifficultto
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    recognizeitaslife.Thus,thereneverwasatimewhen
    lifestartedontheearth;itmerelydevelopedintoits
    presentcomplexformfromsomesimplerformthat
    existedonearthwhentheearthwasinamoltenoreven
    inavaporouscondition;stillfurtherback,itcanbe
    tracedtosomeextremelysimpleformoflifethat
    existedasfarbackasthenebulaoutofwhichthesolar
    systemoriginated;weshalllaterattempttotraceitback
    beyondthenebula.
    Ourtheoryoftheoriginoflifeisthusthattherewas
    noorigin,butonlyaconstantdevelopmentandchange
    inform.Thisbelongstotheclassoftheoriesknownas
    theBiogenetictheories,ascontrastedtothe
    Abiogenetictheories,whichassumethatatsome
    previoustimelifedidnotexist,andthatundercertain
    specialcircumstancesthatexistedwhentheearthwasin
    aheatedconditionthenecessaryelementscame
    togethersomehowandassembledthemselvesintoa

    livingbodyfromwhichallotherlivingbodiesare
    descended.Thenatureofthisautomaticassemblageof
    constituentsremains,ofcourse,rathermystical;notto
    speakofthefactthattheassumptionofspontaneous
    generationisrathercontrarytoobservedfacts.
    Suchabiogenetictheorieshaveveryfrequentlybeen
    advanced,especiallysinceeverynowandthenthereis
    arecrudescenceofthebeliefthatspontaneous
    generationoflifeispossibleunderpresent
    circumstances,thatlifecouldbeproducedinthe
    laboratory,inspiteofallobservedfactstothecontrary.
    Haeckelrepresentsthisabiogenetictheoryinitsmost
    generalform:that,whenwaterfirstliquifiedonthe
    earth,itsreactiononvarioussubstancesthenpresent
    producedproteid,whichwastheoriginallifefrom
    whichalllifehasdescended.
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    Howthisproteidwasformedremainsamystery.We
    have,however,amoredetailedexplanationinPflger's
    theory,whichistothegeneraleffectthattheoriginal
    combinationwasthatbetweencarbonandnitrogen,
    formingcyanogen,whichinitsturnunitedwithother
    substance,especiallythehydrogenandoxygenof
    water,toformmoreandmorecomplexcyanogenor
    othersimilarcarbonnitrogencompounds,such
    combinationformingasafinalresultproteid,the
    chemicalbasisofwhichwouldthusbethecyanogen
    radical,CN.Herewehaveaverylikelyexplanation.In
    thefirstplace,evenmanysimplecyanogencompounds
    havemanychemicalreactionsverysimilartothoseof
    proteid;inthesecondplace,whereasproteidhas,in
    itself,beenfoundtoconstituteaverygreatpoison,itis
    alsoknownthatcyanogenisoneofthemostpowerful
    poisonsknown,andthatitscompoundsare,ingeneral,
    extremelypoisonous,thoughincertaincombinations
    foundinlivingbodies(e.g.,almonds)suchcompounds
    seemtobequiteharmless.
    Onedifficultywiththisisthatthisideaof
    spontaneousgenerationissomewhatcontraryto
    observedfacts;thereisnoinstanceobservedofsucha
    thingasspontaneousgenerationoflife.Butthemain
    difficultyistoexplaintheformationofcyanogenand
    especiallyofitscompoundsfromtheirelements.Itis
    perfectlytrue,asalleged,thatcarbonandnitrogen
    beingtogetheratahightemperaturewillformalittle
    cyanogen,but,withthelargeamountofoxygenpresent,
    thiscyanogencouldnotlastlong,sincecyanogenisa
    veryendothermicsubstance,andunderthesecondlaw
    ofthermodynamics,itwillreducetothecombination
    thathaslesschemicalenergy,losingthedifferencein
    theformofheat;resultingincarbondioxideand
    nitrogenasaproduct.Accordinglywemustsuppose
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    somepeculiarsortofcarbonandnitrogenthatwillnot
    onlyuniteintocyanogen,butwhichwillformsucha

    peculiarformofcyanogenthat,insteadofoxidizingon
    contactwithoxygen(asordinarycyanogenwould),it
    notonlyholdsitselfalooffromoxidationbuteven
    formsmorecomplexandmoreendothermic
    compounds.Wemustsupposesomeformofcarbonand
    nitrogenwhichwouldreversetheordinarychemical
    reactionsunderthosecircumstances;or,sincethose
    reactionsarebasedultimatelyonthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics,wemustsupposethattherewasatthat
    periodoftheearth'shistorysomecarbonandnitrogen
    thatpossessedtheabilitytoreversethesecondlawof
    thermodynamics.Ifwesupposethat,ourtheoryoflife
    caneasilyharmonizewiththePflgerideaastothe
    originoforganiclifefromcyanogencompounds.In
    fact,aswehaveseen,ourtheoryoflifeissuchthatwe
    wouldtheoreticallysupposethatlivingorganisms
    wouldhaveachemicalconstructionbasedonthe
    cyanogenradical,thusfallinginexactlywithPflger's
    ideathatlifeontheearthoriginatedincyanogenandits
    compounds.
    Somuchfortheabiogenetictheories.Turningnow
    tothebiogenetictheories,wecanhardlyfindthem
    muchmoresatisfactory.Wehave,forinstance,Preyer's
    theorythattheearthitself,intheheatedstate,wasitself
    animmenselivingorganism,fromwhichallliving
    organismsexistingatpresentaredescended;all
    inorganicmatterontheearthbeingmerelytherejected
    excretionsoftheformerlivingearth,whiletheliving
    substancecamemoreandmoretoresembleprotoplasm.
    Absurdasthistheorymaysound,thereisnothing
    impossibleaboutit.However,theastronomyofthe
    propositionisratherpoor.Thereisnoreasontobelieve
    thattheearth,inaheatedstate,wasinanydifferent
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    conditionfromallotherknownbodieswhichwefindin
    asimilarlyheatedstate(e.g.,themajorplanetsandthe
    sun);andtheseheavenlybodiesarehardlyina
    conditionwhichcouldbyanystretchofimaginationbe
    calledliving.However,ifbylivingismeantthatthere
    isapotentialityofthegenerationoflife,ofcoursethe
    earthinaheatedconditionmusthavecomeunderthat
    heading.Butsincetheheatedplanetshavenoparticular
    resemblancetolife,whatismorelikelyis,thatonthe
    earthinaheatedstate,therewaslife,andtherewas
    suchlifeeveninthenebula,almostasdifferentfrom
    thelifethatweknowatpresentasthekindofearth
    organismthatPreyersupposes,buthavingsome
    propertiesincommonwithpresentlife.Thisis
    preciselywhatourtheoryoflifewouldleadto.
    Wecomenowtothebiogenetictheorymost
    commonlyadvanced,onewhichnumbersamongits
    supportersHelmholtzandSirWilliamThompson.This
    isthesocalledtheoryofcosmozoa,otherwiseknown
    asthetheoryofseedbearingmeteors.Thistheoryisto
    theeffectthattwoplanets,atleastoneofwhichhad
    developedlifeonit,cameintocollision,sothateachof
    theplanetswasbrokenintosmallpieceswhichwere
    scatteredalloverindifferentdirections.Someofthe
    piecesofthelifebearingplanet,intheformof

    meteorites,passedthroughspacefromthesystemof
    onestartothatofanother,alwaysbearingwithinthem
    theseedsoflife.Thesemeteoritesfinallycameintothe
    solarsystemandenteredtheearth'satmosphere,then
    strikingtheearthandplantingtheseseedsoflifeonthe
    earth,whichafterwardsdevelopedintothevarious
    formsoflifethatnowexist.
    Thistheorysoundsveryplausible,butagainitis
    basedonverypoorastronomy.Thecommonmeteors,
    orshootingstars,whicharetheactualbodiesthatseem
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    tohavepassedfromonesystemtoanotherinthis
    manner,neveractuallyreachtheearth'ssurface,butare
    completelyburnedupbeforetheyhavepenetratedvery
    farintotheatmosphere.Thelargerbodiesthatactually
    reachtheearth'ssurfacearethesocalledmeteorites
    whichareasmuchpartsofthesolarsystemasthe
    planets,andevenmoveroundthesuninthesame
    directionastheplanets;whichare,infact,simplystray
    asteroids.Tracinglifetosuchbodiesisnottracingitto
    anyotherstellarsystem,butmerelytothesolarsystem,
    andmakesitmoreimpossiblethanevertotraceback
    wherethesesupposedseedsoflifecamefrom,orhow
    theygotintothemeteorite.Thereis,ofcourse,nothing
    toprovethatsuchameteoriteasthishypothesis
    assumescouldnotbeformed,orthatitcouldnotthus
    transplantlifefromoneplanettoanother.But,since
    suchmeteoritesasarelargeenoughtoreachtheearth's
    surfaceandatthesametimearenotmembersofthe
    solarsystemdonotseemtobearegularoccurrence,
    therebeingnoknowninstanceofsuchabody,itwould
    seemthatsuchanoccurrenceisaveryrareone,if
    indeeditcanhappenatallthatanylifeinitspresent
    formcouldsurvivesuchacollisionorsuchalongtrip
    throughspace.Shouldtwoplanetshappentocollideas
    thehypothesisassumes,andshouldanylifeonthose
    planetssurvivethecollision,thechancesarealmostnil
    that,inthecasewhenithappens,anyofthepiecesof
    wreckagewouldstrikeanotherplanetatall,muchless
    thatitwouldstrikeoneattheveryperiodwhenthat
    planetwasreadytoreceivetheveryformoflifecarried
    bythemeteorite.Thusnotonlyisthehypothesis
    improbableperse,itisalsocontrarytoanyobserved
    facts,sincetheactualbodiesthatcouldbesupposedto
    comefromotherstellarsystemsare,asfaras
    observationgoes,sosmallthattheyareburnedby
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    frictionwiththeatmospherelongbeforetheycanreach
    thesurfaceoftheearth.
    Itmightbeinterestingtonotethat,inthetimeof
    HelmholtzandThompson,thedistinctionbetweenthe
    meteorsorshootingstarsthatcomefromotherstellar
    systems,andthemeteoritesoraeroliteswhichformpart
    ofthesolarsystem,wasadistinctionwhichhadnotyet
    beenclearlydrawn.

    Wethuscometotheconclusionthatthetheoryof
    Cosmozoaisentirelyunacceptableinviewofpresent
    facts,whilePreyer'stheoryoftheearthorganismcan
    onlybeacceptedintheextremelymodifiedformthat
    theearth,initsmoltenandvaporousstates,contained
    life(insteadofhavingbeenalive,asPreyerhimself
    wouldhaveit).Thuswecometotheconclusionthatlife
    isaseternalastheinanimate,andistobefoundas
    universally,underasvaryingconditions,asinanimate
    phenomena.Ontheotherhand,wecanalsoacceptthe
    Pflgerideathatlifeasitexistsonthisearthoriginated
    fromtheformationofcyanogenanditscompounds.
    OurtheoryoftheoriginoflifeisreallyBiogenetic,
    inthatitsupposesthatalllifeoriginatedfromlifeforan
    eternitypast;but,onthecontrary,inasmuchasthepast
    lifefromwhichthepresentlifeisderivedwasinan
    almostunrecognizablydifferentformfromthatin
    whichlifeatpresentappears,itsuppliesabasisforthe
    Abiogenetictheoriesoftheoriginoflifefromnon
    livingorganismswhichare,accordingtoourtheory,
    inorganiclife.
    Contents
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    CHAPTERXII
    THEASTRONOMICALUNIVERSE
    Theconsiderationofthequestionoftheoriginoflife
    andthevarioustheoriesformedonthatquestionhasled
    usintoastronomicalconsiderations,sothatitmaybe
    worthwhiletoexaminetheastronomicalaspectsofour
    theoryofthereversibilityoftheuniverse.Andwemay
    well,afterdealingbothwithobjectsofordinarysize
    andwithverysmallandevenultimateparticles,turnto
    theconsiderationofobjectsofadifferent,alargerscale
    ofmagnitude:theheavenlybodies.Weshalltherefore
    considerourtheoryinconnectionwithsuchobjects.
    Astronomydealsnotonlywithindividualplanetsinour
    solarsystemasawhole,butalsowiththealmost
    inconceivablyvastextentsofspacewhichstand
    betweenthevariousstarsandtheirspecialsystems,and,
    finally,withthetheoryofthatgeneralgroupofallstars
    whichisknowntoastronomersasthestellaruniverse,
    orsimplyastheuniverse.Accordinglyoneofthefirst
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    thingsweshouldinvestigateshouldbetheastronomical
    theoriesoftheuniverse,especiallysinceourtheoryof
    reversibilityisessentiallyatheoryoftheuniverse.
    Whenwecometoexaminetheastronomicaltheories
    oftheuniverse,wefindthattheydividethemselvesinto
    twogroups.Justasthebiologicaltheoriesofthenature
    oflifeare,generallyspeaking,tobedividedintothe
    mechanisticandthevitalistic,sotheastronomical
    theoriesofthenatureoftheuniversemaybedivided
    intothetheoriesofthefiniteuniverseandthetheories
    oftheinfiniteuniverse.And,asourtheoryeffectsa
    compromisebetweenthetwokindsoftheoriesoflife,
    wemaytrytoseewhetherourtheorycannotalso

    reconcilethetwokindsoftheoriesoftheuniverse.Let
    us,therefore,examinemoreindetaileachofthetwo
    kindsofastronomicaltheoriesoftheuniverseandthe
    variousargumentsthatcanbeadducedinsupportof
    bothkindsoftheories.
    Letustakethetheoriesofaninfiniteuniverse.The
    generalideaofthesetheoriesis,thatspaceisinfinite,
    andthereisnospecialreasonwhymattershouldbe
    confinedtooneportionand,atthat,onlyan
    infinitesimalportioncomparedtotheinfinityofspace.
    Thuswegetthepictureofaninfinitegeometricalspace
    filledwithstars,heretoasomewhatgreaterdensity,
    theresomewhatlessdensely,but,onthewhole,witha
    certainaveragedensity.Thisreasoningonthebasisof
    thetheoryofprobabilityisaperfectlygoodone,andit
    is,furthermore,nottheonlyargumentinfavorofan
    infiniteuniverse.Thereareargumentsthatarebasednot
    ontheorybutonactualobservation.
    Themostimportantoftheseisthegravitational
    consideration.Iftheuniverseisinfinite,andmatter
    approximatelyuniformlydistributedthroughoutthe
    universe,then,ontheaverage,thegravitationalpullson
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    agivenstellarsystemshould,onthewhole,completely
    balanceeachother,sothatgravitationwouldnottendto
    pullanystellarsysteminanyparticulardirection,and
    thepropermotionofanystarshouldbe,inaccordance
    withthelawofinertia,auniformmotioninastraight
    line.But,onthecontrary,iftherewereintheuniversea
    centerofdensity,andespeciallyiftherewereafinite
    universe,thenallstellarsystemswouldtendtobe
    pulledontowardsthatcenterofdensityand,ingeneral,
    revolveroundthatcenter.Thefactsindicatethatthe
    propermotionofstarsisactuallyuniformmotionina
    straightline,andthatthereisnocenteraboutwhichall
    starsmove;sothatthisargumentwouldpointmost
    distinctlytoaninfiniteuniverse,withmatterdistributed
    throughoutspaceapproximatelyuniformly,onepartof
    spacebeinginthisrespectnodifferentfromanother.
    Butthereisoneoutstandingobjectiontothistheory
    thatthestellaruniverseisinfinite.Theremaybe
    supposedtobenoreasonwhytheaveragebrightnessof
    starsshouldbeanydifferentinonepartofspacefrom
    whatitisinanyotherpart;multiplyingthisaverage
    brightnessbytheaveragenumberofstarsperunit
    volume(theaveragestardensitythatwesupposefor
    theinfiniteuniverse),wewillgettheaverageamountof
    lightissuingfromaunitvolumeanywhereinspace;let
    uscallthisproductL.Now,astheapparentbrightness
    ofanysourceoflightisinverselyproportionaltothe
    squareofthedistancebetweenthatsourceandthe
    observer,then,ifwecallthatdistanced,theaverage
    apparentbrightnessofaunitofvolumeatdistanced
    fromtheobservercouldberepresentedasL/d.Ifwe
    dividespaceintoaninfinitenumberofconcentric
    sphericalshells,withtheobserveratthecenter,each
    withequalthickness,letussaytheunitdistancedivided
    by4,then,especiallywhenthesphereisverylarge,
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    thevolumeofeachshellisapproximately
    d.Multiplyingtheaverageapparentbrightnessofa
    unitvolumeatdistancedbythevolumeoftheshellof
    distanced,wefindthatthevolumeofeachsuchshellis
    aconstant,l.Sincethestellaruniverseconsistsofan
    infinitenumberofsuchshells,eachofwhichhasthe
    sameapparentbrightness,itfollowsthatthebrightness
    ofthesky,orindeedofthesmallestpartofit,mustbe
    altogetherinfinite.Theconsequenceofthetheoryof
    aninfiniteuniverseisobviouslycontradictedbyfacts.
    Onaccountofthisobjectiontotheuniversebeing
    infinite,therearosethetheoriesofthefiniteuniverse,
    whichseemtodependmainlyontheobserved
    distributionoflightinthesky(outsideofthelightfrom
    thesun,moon,andothermembersofthesolarsystem).
    Thesetheoriesofthefiniteuniversestartedwiththe
    greatobserver,SirWilliamHerschel(oneofthethree
    originatorsoftheNebularHypothesis),whosetheoryis
    thatofthesocalled"drumuniverse."Accordingto
    Herschel'stheory,theuniverseisintheshapeofavery
    flatcirculardrum,or,inotherwords,athin,wide
    circularslab,withpossiblyanothersecondaryslabata
    planeinclinedafewdegreestothefirst,thetwoslabs
    beingconcentric,andthecenterbeingthesun!It
    seemsthatevenHerschelhadtheideathatoursolar
    systemisthecenterofallthings,whichissomewhata
    survivaloftheancientdoctrinethattheearthisthe
    centeroftheuniverse.Infact,wemaysaythat
    Herschel'stheoryoftheuniverseisamodernized
    versionoftheancientprimummobilecontainingthe
    starsandhavingtheearthforacenter.However,the
    drum(ordoubledrum)shapeoftheuniverseis
    intendedtoexplainthedistributionoflight;for,ina
    planeofthedrum,weshouldhavetolookthroughsuch
    animmenselygreateramountofstarsthaninadirection
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    withanyconsiderableinclinationtotheplane,sothat
    weshouldhavetheappearanceofawhitestreak
    runningallaroundthesky,whichweactuallyhave
    underthenameoftheMilkyWay;thedoubledrum
    shapewouldrequireabifurcationofthiswhitestreakat
    twooppositeparts;whichagainisstrictlyinaccord
    withobservedfacts.Herschelwasperfectlywillingto
    believethatthereareothersimilardrumshaped
    universes,twoofwhich,accordingtohim,arevisibleto
    us,andknownastheMagellanicClouds.These
    "clouds"werefirstdiscoveredbythefamous
    explorerMagellan,andarecircularpatchesinthesky
    ofthesouthernhemispherewhichlooklikedetached
    portionsoftheMilkyWay,thoughataconsiderable
    distancefromtheMilkyWay.
    Themoderntheoriesofthefiniteuniverse,though
    notacceptingHerschel'sexplanationastothe
    MagellanicClouds(rathertendingtosupposethatthose
    objectsarewithinourownstellaruniverse),arevery

    similartoHerschel'sdrumtheoryingeneraloutline,and
    allhavethesamecharacteristicofbeingattempted
    explanationsofthedistributionoflightactuallyfound
    inthesky.Thetendency,however,isnottosuppose
    thatthesolarsystemisatthecenteroftheuniverse,but
    rathertosupposethatthesolarsystemisconsiderably
    southofthecenter,beingalmostonthesouthernsideof
    thedrum,andmuchnearerthesouthernpartofthe
    drumedgethanitistothenorthern.Thereis,further,a
    tendencytosupposethatthisstellaruniverseisthe
    resultofacollisionoftwosemiuniverses,whichis
    whatwehaveseenwouldbetheresultofpushingthe
    secondlawofthermodynamicstoitslogicalconclusion,
    itbeinganobservedfactthatthestarsseemtomovein
    twogeneralcurrents.However,justasthetheoryofthe
    infiniteuniversecannotbesupportedonthegroundsof
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    thedistributionoflight,sosimilarlythetheoriesofthe
    finiteuniversecannotbesupportedonthegroundsof
    theconsiderationofgravitationalattraction.
    Wethusfindthatconsiderationsofgravitational
    attractionleadustosupposeaninfiniteuniversewith
    starsapproximatelyuniformlydistributedthroughout
    space;similarlywithconsiderationsofprobability,
    whichleadustothesameconclusion.But,onthe
    contrary,theobserveddistributionoflightinthesky
    leadsustothedirectlyoppositeconclusion,thatour
    stellaruniverseisfinite,thoughtheremaybestraystars
    outsidethatuniversethatoccasionallycomein,and
    thoughsimilarlysomestarsmayoccasionallystrayout
    ofthelimitsoftheuniverse.Theremaybeothersuch
    finiteuniverses,inwhichcasewemayconceiveof
    thingsinsuchaseriesasthefollowing:
    Electronsaretheparticlesthatmakeupatoms;
    Atomsaretheparticlesthatmakeupmolecules;
    Moleculesaretheparticlesthatmakeupmasses;
    Massesaretheparticlesthatmakeupplanets,etc;
    Planets,etc.,aretheparticlesthatmakeupstellar
    systems;
    Stellarsystemsaretheparticlesthatmakeup
    universes;
    Universesaretheparticlesthatmakeupexistence.
    Allofwhichsoundsperfectlyreasonable;butthe
    gravitationalconsiderationspoilsthissimpleseries;and
    itisaconsiderationthatcannoteasilybedisposedof.It
    wouldseem,then,asiftherewasgravitationallyan
    infiniteuniverse,whileinrelationtolighttheshapeof
    theuniverseissomethinglikeHerschel'sdrum.Inother
    words,starsareuniformlydistributedthroughoutthe
    wholeofinfinitespace,sothatthegravitational
    phenomenawillbelikethoseofaninfiniteuniverse;
    whilesomehoworother,beyondHerschel'sdrum,stars
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    donotgiveoutlight.Thisphenomenoncannotbe
    explainedbyapartialopaquenessofether;forthenthe

    apparentshapeoftheuniversewouldbespherical,with
    ourselvesatthecenter,insteadofdoubledrumshaped,
    withourselvesonthesouthernside.Hencetheremust
    besomeotherexplanation,especiallysincethissame
    questionofprobabilityindicatesthatetherislikelyto
    beuniformlydistributedthroughinfinitespace.
    Someotherexplanation,then,mustbefound.
    BeyondtheboundariesofHerschel'sdrum,forsome
    unknownreasonorother,starsfailtogiveoutlight.
    Eithertheyareallcoldortheyarehotbutnotbright.
    Andfurthermore,starsmustbeconstantlyenteringand
    leavingthelimitsofthisHerscheldrum.Wemayeasily
    supposethatastar,afterhavingpassedalltheway
    acrossthispartofspace,hascooleddownsomuchasto
    givenolight;butonentering,theyaremuchhotterthan
    lateron,becausestarsconstantlyloseheattothe
    surroundingether;hence,ifthesestarswerecoldbefore
    enteringtheHerscheldrum,somethingmusthave
    happenedtothemneartheboundarytoheatthemup
    suddenly.Ifthereis,aroundtheboundaryofthedrum,
    anymaterialwhichwouldheatupastarbycollision,
    friction,orcontact,thenitwouldfollowthatcoldstars
    leavingthedrumwouldbesimilarlyaffected;whichis
    hardlyinaccordancewiththetheory,asdeducedfrom
    observation.Henceweconcludethatthestarswhich
    entertheHerscheldrumare,toagreatextentatleast,
    hot,butgiveoutnoradiantenergy(light).Thus,outside
    thelimitsoftheHerscheldrum,asfaraswecanjudge,
    starsexist,andmanyofthemareevenhotterthanthe
    starswithinourobservation,anditwouldseemthatthe
    etheristheretoreceiveradiantenergyfromthem,but
    noradiantenergyisforthcoming.
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    Theresult,then,is,thatwedoindeedhaveaninfinite
    stellaruniverse,butthatHerschel'sdrumhasthe
    peculiaritythat,withinit,stellarheatisconvertedinto
    radiantenergy,whilenosuchconversiontakesplace
    outsidetheHerscheldrum.Theremay,furthermore,be
    otherHerscheldrumsinotherpartsofspacehaving
    similarpeculiarities.Inordertounderstandthespecial
    peculiarityoftheseHerscheldrums,letusexaminewhy
    stellarheatisconvertedintoradiantenergyatall.
    Inthefirstplace,theetherofinterstellarspaceisata
    verylowtemperature,while,ingeneral,astarisatan
    extremelyhightemperature,manystarsbeingmuch
    hotterthanoursun.Accordingtothesecondlawof
    thermodynamics,theenergyshouldtendtorundown
    towardsacommonlevel;thatis,thestar'sheatenergy
    wouldradiateintothesurroundingspaceandappearin
    theformofethervibrations,thatis,intheformof
    radiantenergy,underwhichheadingisincludedlight.
    If,then,outsideHerschel'sdrums,therearemanyhot
    stars,hotenoughtogiveoutlightofallvibration
    periods(whitehot),butwhichdonotissueanyradiant
    energy,itfollowsthatsomehowthesecondlawof
    thermodynamicsappliesonlywithintheHerschel
    drumsbutissomehowsuspendedorevenreversed
    outsidethem.Inotherwords,theactualstellaruniverse,
    asmanifestedbygravitationalphenomena,isinfinite,

    andstarsareapproximatelyuniformlydistributed
    throughoutinfinitespace;butwecanonlyseethestars
    inthatsectionofspacewherethesecondlawof
    thermodynamicsprevails,andthereforethesectionof
    thestellaruniversethatisvisibleis,afterall,onlyfinite.
    Wethuscometotheconclusionthattheboundaryof
    theHerscheldrumisreallythelimitingsurfacebetween
    positiveandnegativesectionsoftheuniverse.Andnow
    wecometothequestionwhether,startingwithour
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    theoryofthepositiveorthenegativetendency
    prevailingindifferentpartsofspaceandtimeaccording
    tothetheoryofprobability,wecandrawanymore
    detailedconclusionsinrespecttotheexactappearance
    ofthestellaruniverse.
    Inthefirstplace,wehavecometotheconclusion
    that,takinganygivenmomentoftime,thepositiveand
    thenegativepartsoftheuniverseshouldbe
    approximatelyequal,asamatterofprobability;infact
    that,ifwetakethewholeofspaceandtime,thepositive
    andnegativesectionsbeartowardsoneanotheraratio
    ofexactly1.Sincewearedealingwithonlythepresent
    time(ortimesnearthepresent)indealingwiththe
    presentappearanceoftheuniverse,wemayconfine
    ourselvestothestatementthat,inagivenportionof
    time,thereshouldbeapproximatelyequalpositiveand
    negativesectionsofspace;and,ifmatteris
    approximatelyuniformlydistributedthroughoutspace,
    thatthevolumesofthetwokindsofsectionsshouldbe
    approximatelyequal.Thenextquestionis,inwhatway
    thenegativesectionofspacecanbedistinguishedfrom
    thepositivesection.
    Ourpreviousconsiderationontheproductionof
    radiantenergyfromthestarsindicatesthatsuch
    productionofradiantenergyisonlypossiblewherethe
    secondlawofthermodynamicsisfollowed,thatis,ina
    positivesectionoftheuniverse.Inanegativesectionof
    theuniversethereverseprocessmusttakeplace;
    namely,spaceisfullofradiantenergy,presumably
    producedinthepositivesectionofspace,andthestars
    usethisradiantenergytobuildupahigherlevelof
    heat.Allradiantenergyinthatsectionofspacewould
    tendtobeabsorbedbythestars,whichwouldthus
    constituteperfectlyblackbodies;andverylittleradiant
    energywouldbeproducedinthatsectionofspace,but
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    wouldmostlycomefrombeyondtheboundarysurface.
    Whatlittleradiantenergywouldbeproducedinthe
    negativesectionofspacewouldbepseudo
    teleologicallydirectedonlytowardsstarswhichhave
    enoughactivitytoabsorbit,andnoradiantenergy,or
    almostnone,wouldactuallyleavethenegativesection
    ofspace.Thepeculiarityoftheboundarysurface
    betweenthepositiveandnegativesectionsofspace,
    then,is,thatpracticallyalllightthatcrossesit,crosses

    itinonedirection,namely,fromthepositivesidetothe
    negativeside.Ifwewereonthepositiveside,asseems
    tobethecase,thenwecouldnotseebeyondsuch
    surface,thoughwemighteasilyhavegravitationalor
    otherevidenceofbodiesexistingbeyondthatsurface.
    Furthermore,justas,inthepositivesectionofspace,
    lightisgivenoutuniformlyinalldirections,so,inthe
    negativesection,lightmustbeabsorbedbyastar
    equallyfromalldirections.Thus,toanystarinthe
    negativesection,lightmustcomeinaboutthesame
    amountfromalldirections;and,sincemostofthislight
    comesfromthepositivesections,itfollowsthatthe
    negativesectionsmustbecompletelysurroundedby
    positivesectionsandmustthereforebefiniteinall
    directions.Byreversingthis(sincewehaveseenthatall
    physicallawsarereversible),itfollowsthatany
    positivesectionmustalsobefiniteinalldirections,and
    becompletelysurroundedbynegativesections.We
    thusfindtheuniversetobemadeupofanumberof
    whatwemaycallbricks,alternatelypositiveand
    negative,allofapproximatelythesamevolume;asort
    ofthreedimensionalcheckerboard,thepositivespaces
    countingaswhite(givingoutlight),andthenegative
    spacesasblack(absorbinglight).
    Thuswhatweseeissimplythewhitespacethatwe
    arein.Thesurroundingblackspacesareinvisible,and
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    inaddition,absorbthelightfromthewhitespaces
    beyond,sothateventhosecannotbeseen,and,ifwe
    judgefromthedistributionoflightinthesky,wegetan
    ideamerelyofthesizeandshapeofourspecialwhite
    space.
    Letustry,now,togetatheoreticalideaasto
    approximatelywhatshouldbetheshapeofthesewhite
    andblackspaces,sothatitcanbecomparedwith
    observation.Fordevelopingthetheoryinthisdirection,
    wemustrememberthattheproportionofpositive
    matterinanypartofspaceshould,accordingto
    probability,beabout50%.Butthissametheoryof
    probabilitywilltellusthatitisextremelyimprobablein
    anygivenpartofspacethatthisproportionshouldbe
    exactly50%,butthatthereshouldbeadiscrepancy
    betweenthepercentageofpositiveandthatofnegative
    phenomena,thisdiscrepancybecomingincreasingly
    improbablethegreaterthediscrepancyis.Accordingly
    wemaysupposethattherearesurfaceswherethe
    proportionofpositiveeventsis50%(ourboundaries),
    andothersimilarsurfaceswherethereareotherspecial
    proportions,while,inthemiddleofthepositive
    "bricks,"therewillbeamaximumpercentagepoint,
    andinthemiddleofthenegative"bricks"therewillbe
    aminimumpercentagepoint.Aroundthesemaximum
    andminimumpointsourwhiteandblackspaceswillbe
    built,thefundamentalvariationofthepercentageaway
    fromthesepointsbeingpresumablybasedonthree
    principaldirectionsordimensions,ofwhichthe
    variationinotherdirectionswillbecompounded.
    Proceedingfrom,letussay,oneofthemaximum
    points(centerofapositivesectionoftheuniverse)in

    anydirection,thediscrepancyfromthenormalof50%
    shouldbecomefirstpositive,thennegative,inasortof
    vibrationaryform.Thisvibrationshouldbeirregular,
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    accordingtothetheoryoferror,thoughwithacertain
    average;butinthethreeprincipaldirections,
    approximatelyperpendiculartoeachother,weshould
    expecttofindthemmoreuniformlyperiodic.
    Ifthese"vibrations"wereregularandperfectly
    periodicinthesethreedirections,theboundarysurfaces
    wouldbeplanesmidwaybetweenthemaximumand
    minimumpoints,andthesectionsoftheuniversewould
    taketheshapeofrectangularparallelopipeds.Withsuch
    shape,thesectionsoftheuniversewouldindeedbe
    "bricks."Butsuchregularuniformvibrationsarehardly
    tobeexpected.Thetheoryoferrorwouldleadusto
    expectirregularitiesfromeventhat;butthevolumeof
    thesectionsshouldremainunaltered.Furthermore,a
    positivesectionmusttouchanotherpositivesection
    alonganedge,orelseatthatedgetwonegativesections
    willformacontinuoussection,andwearethusliableto
    getacontinuouslineofnegativespacetoperhapsan
    infiniteextent,whichiscontrarytoanythingthatwe
    shouldexpect.Hencewemustexpectthat,inthe
    irregularities,boththeedgesandthevolumewouldbe
    butslightlychanged.
    Thefacesoftheparallelopiped,however,may,even
    undertheseconditions,beconsiderablychanged.We
    may,forinstance,expectthatthevibrationsofthe
    percentage,insteadofbeingthesimpleharmonic
    vibrationswhichwouldproduceplaneboundary
    surfacesmidwaybetweenthemaximumandminimum
    points,maybecompoundedwithits"harmonics,"that
    is,maybecompoundedwithvibrationsofmultiple
    frequency,ofwhichthedoublefrequencyisthemost
    important.Thedoublefrequencywouldbelikelyto
    makeawholefaceoftheparallelopipedeithercavein
    orbulgeout,thehigherfrequencieswillsimply
    introducefurtherirregularities.Sincethereistobelittle
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    alterationofvolumeofthesections,twooftheopposite
    pairsofsurfacesmustbechangedinonedirection,and
    thethirdintheother.Thelongerdimensionsofthe
    parallelopipedarethoseinwhichmoreirregularityis
    likelytoshowitself,sothatthebiggestalterationwould
    showitselfononeofthetwosmallerpairsofopposite
    faces.Theothertwopairsoffaceswillthenhavetobe
    alteredintheoppositewaytomakeupforthis;
    presumablythelargestandthesmallest,themedium
    pairsoffacesshowingthegreatestirregularity.The
    irregularitymaythusbeoftwovarieties:eitherthe
    mediumpairoffacesiscavedin,andthelargestand
    smallestbulgedoutsomewhatless;orthelargestand
    smallestpairsoffacesarecavedinslightly,andthe
    mediumpairoffacesextremelybulgedout.

    Takingeachofthosetwoshapes(andtheyareliable
    toalternatetosomeextent,somesectionsofthe
    universebeingofonekindofshape,andsomeofthe
    other),wecansupposeofeachonethatitrepresenteda
    positivesectionoftheuniverse,andattempttopredict
    thedistributionoflightintheskyasseenfrom
    somewherenearthemaximumpoint.Ifthe
    parallelopipedsarecomparativelyflat(astheyarelikely
    tobe,thethreedimensionsofthesefiguresprobably
    beingwidelydifferent),itfollowsthatinthesky,the
    planeparalleltothelargestpairoffaceswouldseemto
    befilledwithathickwhitestrip.Accordingtowhichof
    theformsofirregularitieswesuppose,theshapeofthe
    stripwillvary.Ifthelargestandsmallestfacesare
    bulgedout,thiswhitestripwouldbemuchless
    conspicuous,therebeinginotherdirectionsagood
    distributionofstarsvisible,butthestripwouldstillbe
    visible,andthehollowinonepairoffaceswouldmean
    that,inoneplaceonthestrip,aswellasintheopposite
    part,therewouldbeawidening(duetothemediumpair
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    offacesbeingnearerthanthesmallest,and
    consequently,appearingwider)withadarkspaceinthe
    middleofthiswidening.Midwaybetweenthesedark
    spacesthestripbecomesnarrow,duetothefactthat
    therethesurfaceboundingthesectionoftheuniverse
    recedestoagreatdistance.Iftheothershapeofthe
    positivesectionwereadopted,weshouldhave
    somethingsimilar,exceptthatthestripwouldtend
    moretobeofuniformwidth,and,ifanything,the
    "coalsacks"wouldbeinthenarrowpartofthestrip.
    Wemayrepresentthetwoformsofthestripsomewhat
    asfollows:
    These"coalsacks"wouldtendtobeovalinshape,
    insteadofpointedattheends,asHerschel'sdouble
    drumwouldleadustosuppose.Ifweareonthe
    southernsideofthepositivesection,thenonthe
    southernsidemoreirregularitieswouldbeseen,suchas
    striationsofthestrip,occasionallysmall"coalsacks"in
    otherpartsthanwhereexpected,whilesomeofthe
    irregularwavyvariationsonthelargestfaceofthe
    "brick"onthesouthsidewouldresultinourseeing,
    nearthisstrip,apparentlydetachedsections,
    presumablyapproximatelycircular.Asamatteroffact,
    thesocalledGalaxyorMilkyWayhastheshape
    indicatedinthefirstofthetwoabovediagrams,with
    exactlysuchirregularitiesaswehavepredicted.The
    shapeofthecoalsacksisindeedapproximatelyoval,
    andnotpointed,asHerschel'stheorywouldleadusto
    expect.Furthermore,suchcirculardetachedsectionsof
    theMilkyWayactuallydoappearinthesouthern
    hemisphere,andhavebeenphenomenawhichhave
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    alwaysbeendifficulttoexplain;theyarecalledthe
    MagellanicClouds,andwecanseethat,accordingto

    ourtheory,theyareexactlywhattheylooklike:
    detachedsectionsoftheMilkyWay.And,iftheyresult
    fromwhatwesuppose,namely,thelargestofthethree
    southernfacesofthe"brick"becomingwavyand
    extendingsuddenlyagreatdistanceout,itfollowsthat
    theneighboringregions,whicharetheoppositephase
    ofthesamewaves,shouldbesonearusthatthere
    shouldtheoretically,aroundtheMagellanicClouds,be
    veryfewstarsvisible.Thisisindeedthecase;the
    MagellanicCloudsarefoundinaregionoftheskythat
    isalmostcompletelydevoidofstars.
    Wethusfindthatnotonlydoesourtheoryofa
    reversibleuniverseactuallyreconcilethetheoriesofthe
    infiniteuniversewiththetheoriesofthefiniteuniverse,
    butitactuallyenablesustopredictthedistributionof
    lightintheskymuchmoreaccuratelythananytheory
    hasyetbeenabletodo.Wethusseethattheuniverseis
    infinite,butdividedintoalternatelypositiveand
    negativespacesofapproximatelyequalvolume,and
    thattheapparentstellaruniverseismerelythepositive
    sectioninwhichweare.TheGalaxyconsistsmerelyof
    thedistantsidesoftheirregular"brick"thatconstitutes
    thispositivesection.
    Togetanapproximateideaofthesizeofthis"brick,"
    thetemporarystar,NovaPersei,whichappearedin
    1902,wasintheMilkyWay,andwasprobablyas
    distant.Itsdistancehasbeenestimatedatabout3400
    lightyears,sothatthisgivesusthelengthofthe"brick"
    asabout7000lightyears.TheMilkyWaynearthe
    coalsacksbeingabouttwiceaswideashere,thewidth
    ofthe"brick"wouldbeabout4000lightyears.And,
    thegreatestwidthoftheMilkyWaybeingabout15
    degrees,thatgivesthethicknessofthebrickatabout
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    1000lightyears.Inreducingtoordinarymeasurement,
    wemaynoticethatalightyearisabout5.8trillion
    miles.
    Contents
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    CHAPTERXIII
    THENEBULARHYPOTHESIS
    Sofar,wehaveconsideredonlyasinglecrosssection
    intimeoftheuniverseinourastronomical
    considerations.Thatis,wehaveonlyconsideredthe
    appearanceoftheuniverseatagivenmomentoftime,
    andthuscometotheconclusionthat,atagiven
    moment,theuniverseisbuiltofpositiveandnegative
    sectionswithatolerablywelldefinedshape,asa
    consequenceofourtheoryofthereversibilityofthe
    universe.Butwehavenotyetconsideredthechangesin
    theuniverseorinitsconstituentparts,thestars,thatare
    broughtaboutbytime;whattheuniversewasinthe
    past,whatitwillbeinthefuture;inshort,thecourseof
    eventsthatgeneratesinindividualstellarsystems,orin
    theuniverse,itspast,present,andfutureconditions.

    ThisbranchofastronomyisknownasCosmogony.
    90

    Page 91
    Letus,then,examinetherecenttheoriesonthe
    matterofCosmogony.Thefirsttheorywhichhada
    scientificbasiswasthesocalledNebularHypothesis.
    Thishypothesisisinterestingpartlyfromthefactthatit
    originatedinthemindsofthreemenindependentlyat
    aboutthesametime,thesethreemenhavingarrivedat
    itfromthreedifferentpointsofview,andbeinginthree
    differentcountries,whileeachwasamongthemost
    prominentmeninhisownspecialty.Oneofthosethree
    menwasImmanuelKant,thefamousphilosopher,who
    originatedthishypothesisasanincidentalspeculative
    conclusionfromhisownphilosophy;anotherwasthe
    wellknownmathematicianLaplace,whoarrivedatthe
    hypothesisfromconsiderationsofhisstudiesof
    celestialmechanics;whilethethirdoriginatorofthis
    hypothesiswasSirWilliamHerschel,whoiswell
    knownasanastronomicalobserver,andwhoarrivedat
    theNebularHypothesisasanexplanationofmany
    phenomenaheobservedamongthestars.
    Accordingtothistheory,whichwasquitegenerally
    acceptedalmostthroughoutthenineteenthcentury,the
    universewasoncewhattheoriginatorsofthe
    hypothesishavebeenpleasedtocall(probablyafterthe
    Greekmythology)aChaos;whichseemstomean
    undifferentiated
    matter
    uniformly
    distributed
    throughoutinfinitespace.Centersofattractionwere
    formedwhere,inanyspot,thematterwasslightly
    denserthaninitsvicinity,andsurroundingmatterwas
    drawnintothesecenters.Thuswereformed
    whirlpools,whichsetupagreatrotationateachcenter,
    increasingwiththeincreasingcondensationatthe
    centers.ItwasfurtherassumedthattheoriginalChaos
    wasatanintenseheat,sothat,atthecentersof
    attraction,great,hot,rotatingbodieswereformed.The
    rotationbecamefasterandfasterasthematterwas
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    drawnintowardthecenter,thecentrifugalforcefinally
    becomingsogreatthattheringsofmatterwerethrown
    off.Ineachringacenterofattractionwasformed,and
    theprocesswasrepeated.Fromtheprimarywhirlpools
    therethuscamethestars;fromthecentersofattraction
    resultingfromtherings,cametheplanets;andthese
    planetsthemselvesthrewoffringswhichfinally
    becamesatellites.Sincelargerbodiescooloffslower
    thansmallerbodies,thestarsandthelargestplanets
    remainedhot,thesmallerplanetsandthesatellites
    cooledofftoasolidcondition.
    Thistheorywasacceptedgenerallythroughoutthe
    nineteenthcentury,withoccasionallysomeminor
    modifications.Forinstance,theassumptionthatthe
    originalChaosoruniversalnebulawasinastateof

    intenseheathadsincebeendropped,becausetheenergy
    ofmattercominginfromadistanceundertheinfluence
    ofgravitationwouldbesufficienttoexplainthatheat
    wouldariseinimmenseamounts.Whenpotential
    gravitationalenergyatahighlevelisreducedtoa
    smalleramountataproportionatelylowerlevel,the
    differenceisconvertedtoheatwithoutlossunderthe
    secondlawofthermodynamics.
    Thistheorywascorroboratedbythesupposedfact
    thattheplanetsandstarsinthevariousstageswere
    visibletoastronomers;suchashotplanets(themajor
    planets,suchasJupiterandSaturn),andeventhering
    aroundSaturn,starsinthevariousstagesfrom
    extremelyheatedstarstoalmostdarkstars,Algol's
    companionstarbeinganexampleofacompletelydark
    star;whiletheveryfirststageofstarformationwould
    beindicatedinthemanynebulasthatarevisibleinall
    partsofthesky.Onestage,ofcourse,thatwasnot
    exemplifiedinobservation,wastheChaos,oruniversal
    nebula,fromwhichallstarssupposedlyoriginated.
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    Further,intheexplanationofhowthisChaosgaverise
    tostars,itissupposedthatcentersofattractionaroseat
    theplacesofmaximumdensity.But,sinceinthe
    originalChaosthedensitywasassumedtobeuniform
    throughout,thequestionnaturallyarisesastowhat
    miraclecouldhavegiventhestartbycondensingsome
    spotsandrarefyingothers.Infact,thistheoryleadsus
    backmoreobviouslytosomecreativemiraclethan
    eventhesecondlawofthermodynamics.
    Inthelasthalfofthenineteenthcenturyfurtherfacts
    aboutthestarsandaboutthesolarsysteminparticular
    begantobediscovered,whichmadetheoriginal
    NebularHypothesisveryimprobableindeed,andwhich
    necessitatedtheformationofanewcosmogonic
    hypothesis.Thisgraduallytookshapeintheformof
    whatisnowknownasthePlanetesimalHypothesis,
    which,thoughpartlybasedontheoldNebular
    Hypothesis,hasalteredthemainideas.
    ThisPlanetesimalHypothesisoriginatedfromthe
    theoryoftidalfriction,asdevelopedbyGeorgeDarwin.
    Accordingtothistheory,whentwodarkstars(ofwhich
    theuniverseissupposedtobefull)comeclosetogether,
    beingledtopassclosetoeachotherbytheirrespective
    propermotions,theextremeproximityresultsinthe
    twodarkstarsmutuallyraisingimmensetidesonone
    another,thetidalfrictionbeingsogreatastoheatboth
    starstoanimmenseheat,andatthesametimeto
    produceineachstararotationintheplaneofthe
    relativevelocityofthestars.Incidentally,themutual
    attractionofthetwostarswouldprobablymakeagreat
    changeinthepropermotionsofboth.
    Thetidalforceactingoneachstarwouldfurthermore
    bestrongenoughtoovercomethecohesionoftheparts
    ofthestar,andthustearalmostalltheexteriorpartsof
    thestarawayfromthestarintothesurroundingspace,
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    formingaspiralnebula.Thisnebula,asthusformed,
    willcontainmanycondensationsoflargerorsmaller
    size;these,oncooling,absorbsurroundingportionsof
    thenebula,andbecomeplanets,satellites,asteroids,and
    meteorites.Allthesewilltendtorevolvearoundtheir
    suninthesamedirectionastheirsunitselfrotates,as
    wellastorotateontheirownaxesinthesame
    direction.
    ThePlanetesimalHypothesisthustendstoassume
    thattheuniversealwayswassomewhatasitisnow,but
    thatstarscomeandgoingenerations,asitwere.There
    arethussupposedtobeatpresentstarsofallsortsof
    ages;starsoftheoldergeneration,andyoung,warm
    starsofthenewergeneration.Theveryyoungeststars
    aresurroundedwithnebulas,whichare,indeed,usually
    foundtotaketheformofspiralnebulas.Thelifeofa
    starissomewhatasfollows:Aftertheprocessthathas
    justbeendescribed,thenfirsttheplanetsandthenthe
    staritselfcoolsoff,possiblybecomingdark,till
    proximitywithanotherstarcomesaboutagain,when
    thesystemsareoncemoreheatedupandproximityof
    thetwostarsgeneratesinbothanewplanetarysystem.
    Fromtheproximityoftwostarsthereissuestwonew
    stars.Andsotheprocesskeepsonfromonestar
    generationtothenext.
    ThisPlanetesimalHypothesisisundoubtedlya
    plausibleone,though,likeeveryothertheory,thereare
    plentyofobservedphenomenathatiteitherdoesnot
    explainorexplainsonlyimperfectly.Nodoubt,iftwo
    darkstarscomeintosuchproximity,thatproximitywill
    generatenewstarswithaplanetarysystemtoeach,as
    thathypothesisassumes.Anditisalsotruethatalmost
    allstagesofgrowthofastarunderthePlanetesimal
    Hypothesisareactuallyobservedintheskybut,asin
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    thecaseoftheNebularHypothesis,theinitialprocessis
    amissinglink.
    Themaincommongroundofthesetwohypothesesis,
    thattherewasanebulawhichcondensedintoastellar
    system,thestars,planets,etc.,ofthestellarsystem
    becomingconstantlycoolerastheyradiatetheirheat
    intooutsidespace.Somuchcanalmostbeobserved
    directly,forallthesestages,fromthenebulaon,are
    exemplifiedinthesky.The"ringstage"assupposedin
    theoriginalNebularHypothesishas,however,never
    beenobservedinanystar,andtheonlypossible
    exampleofthatisSaturn'srings,which,however,isa
    spuriousexample,sincespectroscopicobservations
    showthattheringsaroundSaturnarenottruerings,but
    simplycollectionsofsmallsatellitesatapproximately
    thesamedistancefromtheplanet,andwhich,fromthis
    distance,looklikerings.
    However,practicallyallstagesofthePlanetesimal
    Hypothesiscanbeseenexemplifiedinthesky.The
    PlanetesimalHypothesisdoesnotdenythatsometimes
    anewbodycanarisebyrotation;but,eveninsucha
    case,thereisnoringprocess.Inthecaseoftheearth,
    forinstance,itissupposedthattheearthwasrotating

    withextremerapidity,thecentrifugalforcefinally
    elongatingitintoasortofpearshape,theelongation
    continuinguntilthecentrifugalforceattheendofthe
    pearexceedsthegravitationalattraction.Thenthepart
    oftheearthatthesmallerendofthe"pear"separated
    andbecamethemoon.Tidalfrictionafterwardslowed
    therotationofbothpartsandthereactionmovedthe
    moonawaytoitspresentdistancefromtheearth.
    Thesameoriginmaybesupposedformanymultiple
    stars.Infact,thevariousstagesofthisprocesscan
    actuallybeseemamongthestars;fortherearevariable
    starswhosevariationinbrightnesscouldonlybe
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    explainedbythispearshape,andagaintherearethose
    whosevariationindicatesthattheyareveryclose
    "binary"(physicallydouble)stars,andagainwehave
    thevisiblebinaries.Itmaybeinterestingtonotethat
    thisprocessoforiginofnewbodiesbyrotationhasa
    remarkableresemblancetotheprocessesofcellular
    reproduction,onlyinthelattercasesurfacetensionand
    notcentrifugalforceproducestheconstrictionand
    division.
    Aswehavestatedbefore,onestrongtestofthese
    hypothesesistheobservationintheskyofstarsin
    variousgradesofformationfromthenebulatothedark
    star.Thedarkstaritselfisofcourseinvisible,butall
    gradesuptothatcanbeobserved,and,infact,all
    gradesofstardevelopmentassumedbythe
    PlanetesimalHypothesis,asfarbackasthespiral
    nebulastage,areactuallyobservedinthesky.However,
    thecruxofdifferentiationbetweenthehypothesesis:
    Whatwastheprenebularstage,whatbroughtabout
    thesenebulas?Theobservationalmethodofanswering
    thiswouldbe:Doweseeintheskyanyphenomenathat
    wouldbelikelytoleaduptotheformationofanebula?
    Theonlysuchphenomenathatcanbeobservedare
    thesocalled"temporarystars",orNovae.Theseare
    starsthatsuddenlyflareup,lastafewmonths,andthen
    graduallyfadeout.Beforetheflareup,nothing
    whateverisvisibleintheplacewhereafterwardsthe
    temporarystarappears;afterthestarfadesout,ithas
    simplyradiatedagreatproportionofitsnewlyacquired
    lightandsettlesdowntotheusualbrightnessofthe
    starsinitsvicinity.However,itisageneralrulethat
    mosttemporarystars,ifnotall,aresurroundedbya
    nebula.Wemaysupposethattheexplanationofthe
    nebularconditionasgenerallyobserved(mostnebulas
    havingoneormorestarsorstarlikecondensationsin
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    thecenter)couldbefoundintheflareupofthe
    temporarystar.
    Thisexplanationwouldbeverysatisfactoryifwe
    onlyknewjustwhathappenswhenatemporarystar
    suddenlyappears.Itwouldseemthat,byobservation,
    thehistoryofastellarsystemcannotbetracedback

    fartherthantheappearanceofatemporarystar;sothat,
    ifwewishtotracebackthedevelopmentofsucha
    system,itwouldbeimportanttofindoutjustwhat
    makesatemporarystarflareup.Itseemstobethe
    generalconsensusofopinionamongastronomersthat
    thereisnothingintheappearanceofatemporarystarto
    makeitevenremotelypossibletoassumethattheyare
    duetocollisionsofbodies.Acommontheoryis,that
    theflareupisduetoexplosionsofhydrogen.Thismay
    soundreasonable,untilwenoticethathydrogenisnot
    anexplosivesubstanceunlessincontactwitha
    sufficientlylargeamountofsomesuchsubstanceas
    oxygen.Wewouldthushavetosupposeabody
    consistingofhydrogenmeetinganoxygenshoaland
    thenexploding.Atemporarystar,however,consists
    mostlyofhydrogen,andhardlycontainsenough
    oxygentomakeallthathydrogenexplode.
    Furthermore,atsuchaheatasthatofordinarystars,
    stillmoresoatthatoftemporarystars,water,whichis
    theproductofanoxyhydrogenexplosion,couldnot
    exist,anditsdecompositionundertheinfluenceofthe
    explosiveheatwouldabsorbjustasmuchheatasthe
    explosionproduced,thusleavingourtemporarystar
    withoutanyheatorlightatall.
    UnderthePlanetesimalHypothesisithasbeen
    suggestedthatatemporarystaractuallyconsistsoftwo
    starsapproachinginproximitytoeachotherand
    drawingoutofoneanotherheatandanebula.This
    soundsveryplausible,butisabitdifficulttosupport.
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    Besides,itisdifficulttoseewhymostofthese
    phenomenashouldoccurintheMilkyWay,thatis,near
    theedgeoftheHerscheldrum.Infact,itisnoteasyto
    understandexactlywhatdoeshappenwhenatemporary
    starappears.Wemaypossibly,however,benefitbythe
    moredetailedobservationstakenofNovaPersei1902,
    atemporarystarwhichappearedinAugust1902,andin
    connectionswithwhichmanystrangephenomenawere
    observed.
    Thisstarwasfirstdiscoveredbyamanwho,though
    notaregularastronomer,wasahabitualstargazer.One
    eveninginAugust,1902,henoticedintheconstellation
    ofPerseusanewsecondmagnitudestarthathehad
    neverseenbefore.Thisdiscoverybeingmadepublic,it
    turnedoutthat,onthepreviousnight,aphotographic
    plateofthatpartoftheskyhadbeentakenatthe
    observatory,showingstarsdowntothetwelfth
    magnitude,andyetthespotwherethisnewbrightstar
    appearedwasvacantonthoseplates.Evidently,within
    24hours,thestarhadflasheduptothesecond
    magnitudefromamagnitudecertainlylessthanthe
    twelfth,ifindeeditgaveanylightatall;thatistosay,it
    flaredupsuddenlyatleast10,000timesitsoriginal
    brightness,if,indeed,itgaveanylightatallbeforethe
    flareup.Onecharacteristicofthisflareup,then,was
    itssuddenness:thetimethestartooktoflareupinthis
    mannerisnotknown,butitcertainlywasonlyamatter
    ofhours.
    Butafarmoreinterestingaspectoftheaffair

    appearedlater.Thestar,indeed,appearedabithazy;
    butsoonitwasseensurroundedbyanebula,which
    keptonincreasinginsize.Thenebulawas
    approximatelycircularinshape,theradiusofthecircle
    increasingbyabout5secondsofarceachmonth,which
    wouldmakeinayearabout1minuteofarc.Sincethe
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    starshowednoparallax,sothatitsactualdistancewas
    toogreattobemeasured,thatmeantthatitsdistance
    wasmorethanmerelyhundredsoflightyears,but
    ratherranintothethousands.Therateatwhichthis
    "nebulainmotion"wasspreading,beingaboutaminute
    ofarcinayear,mustbe,inayear,about1/3400ofthe
    distanceofthestar(aminuteofarchbeingaboutthat
    fractionoftheradiusofthecircle).Thismeant,ifthe
    distanceofthestarwastobemeasuredinthousandsif
    lightyears,thattherateofspreadofthenebulawasat
    leastonethirdthevelocityoflight,ifnotmore.The
    mostprobablehypothesiswas,thattheratewasexactly
    thevelocityoflight,makingthedistanceofthestar
    about3400lightyears.
    Now,sincewecouldhardlysupposethatany
    explosion,howeverviolentitmaybe,orespeciallyany
    resultoftidaldisruption,wouldproducematterwhich
    wouldactuallymoveinalldirectionswithavelocityso
    greatasthatoflight,theobserverswereledtothe
    hypothesisthatthenebulawasactuallytherebeforethe
    starflaredup,andthattheapparentspreadofthenebula
    wasanillusionduetotheactualspreadoflightthrough
    thenebula,firstinthecentralparts,thengradually
    towardtheedges.Inotherwords,theconclusionwas
    arrivedatthatthestarwasinanebulousconditionlong
    beforeitbegantogiveoutlight.
    ThisishardlyinaccordwitheithertheNebularor
    PlanetesimalHypothesis,for,onthefirst,lightwould
    notbeasuddendevelopment,and,onthesecond,both
    lightandnebulaoriginateatthesametime,thelight
    reachingoutsidepointslongbeforethenebula.Infact,
    wemaysayasamatterofobservationthatonlythe
    starswhichappeartobeoftheoldergenerationare
    surroundedbynebulas.Weshouldthereforeconclude
    thatanebulaissomesupervaporousphenomenon
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    whichisonlypossibleastheresultofsuchextremeheat
    thatthevibrationofmanyparticlesgetsthemalmost
    altogetherawayfromtheinfluenceofgravitation.Thus,
    theconclusionthatthenebulaexistedpreviouslytothe
    flareupcanonlymeanthatthestarwas,beforeit
    suddenlyflaredup,inashotaconditionasafterwards.
    Thiscanonlymeanthattheflareupcouldnothave
    beenduetothesuddenaccessionofheatthatmightbe
    supposedundertheinfluenceofeithertidalfrictionor
    ofacollisionorexplosion.Theheatwastherebefore,
    butsomehoworotheritdidnottransmititselfinto
    outsidespace.But,sincesuchtransmissionofheatinto

    outsidespaceintheformofradiantenergy,andin
    particular,ofsuchgreatheatintheformofwhitelight,
    isaconsequenceofthesecondlawofthermodynamics,
    andmustbearesultifthesecondlawof
    thermodynamicsissupposedtrue,wemustsupposethat
    NovaPersei1902hadallthenecessaryheat,butthat,
    untilthatday,thesecondlawofthermodynamicswas,
    forsomereason,notoperativeonit.
    Beforetheflareup,then,thestarinquestionwasina
    conditioninwhichitshowedlittleornoneofthe
    positivetendency.Thetendencycouldhardlyhavebeen
    theneutraltendency,for,aswehaveseen,theneutral
    tendencydoesnotformbodiesatall,thoughtheremay
    possiblybesuchathingasabodygoingthroughthe
    neutralstagetemporarily,whenitishalfpositiveand
    halfnegative.Itfollows,then,thattheflaringupofthis
    starmusthaveconsistedinitschangingoverfromthe
    negativetothepositivetendency.Andwemayreadily
    assumethatsimilarcircumstancesgiverisetoother
    phenomenaoftemporarystars;and,sincethetemporary
    starseemstobethephenomenonthatprecedesthe
    nebula,wemaycometotheconclusionthatthepre
    nebulaconditionofanystellarsystemisastagein
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    whichthatsystemfollowsthenegativetendency,
    followedbyasuddenchangetothepositivetendency
    accompaniedbyagreatoutburstofradiantenergy.
    Ifwetake18,000,000astheapproximatenumberof
    visiblestars,andallowabout9timesasmanythatare
    darkortoofainttobeseen,andtakeasanaverage
    speedofpropermotionofthestars10milespersecond,
    then,ifwesupposethateverystar,onenteringthe
    Herscheldrum,withthedimensionswehavesupposed,
    flaresupasaresultofthechangefromnegativeto
    positive,suchflareupsshouldhappen,ontheaverage,
    alittlemorefrequentlythanonceayear.Thisisindeed
    theaveragefrequencyoftheappearanceoftemporary
    stars;anditisremarkablethatmosttemporarystars
    appeartobenearthesurfaceoftheHerscheldrum.
    Accordinglywemaytakethisasthegeneral
    explanationoftemporarystars.
    Contents
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    CHAPTERXIV
    THEREVERSIBILITYTHEORYOFCOSMOGONY
    Wehaveseenthat,accordingtotheresultsof
    observedfacts,itseemsprobablethattheprenebular
    stageofastarwasanegative,alivingcondition.Now
    letusseewhatwouldbethetheoreticalresultof
    supposingourtheoryofareversibleuniverse,asfaras
    suchresultsmayrelatetocosmogony.
    Wehaveseenthatthestructureoftheuniverse,
    accordingtothetheoryofreversibility,isthatit
    consistsofirregularlyshapedsections,alternately
    positiveandnegative.Inthepositivesectionsallheated
    bodiesgiveoutradiantenergy,accordingtothesecond

    lawofthermodynamics.Inthenegativesections,onthe
    contrary,hotbodies,insteadofgivingoutlightorother
    radiantenergy,wouldtendtoabsorbitandconvertit
    almostentirelyintoheat,thusheatingthemselvesup
    withlightreceivedfromoutsidesources.Thisisin
    strictaccordwiththereversalofthesecondlaw
    ofthermodynamics.
    Inthefirstplace,whenweexaminethechangesthat
    takeplaceintime,wemayfirstnoticethatthestructure
    oftheuniverseprobablyremainssomewhatthesame
    always.Thepositiveandnegativesectionsdoprobably
    indeedchangetheirposition,but,onthewholesuch
    changewouldconsistofageneralmotionofall
    thesectionsalikethroughspace,sothatthesectionsdo
    notmoverelativelytooneanother.Further,theremay
    beslightchangesintheshapeofthevarioussections.
    Butbyfarmoreimportantisthemotionofthe
    individualstarsrelativetothevarioussections.The
    motionofastar,beinguniformmotioninastraightline
    underthelawofinertia,(theinfiniteuniverseassuring
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    usthattherewillbenogravitationaldisturbanceunless
    byaccidentthestarshouldcomeveryclosetoanother
    star)willhavetheresultthatthestarwillconstantlybe
    crossingfromonesectionoftheuniverseintothenext,
    fromapositivesectionintoanegative,andfrom
    thenegativesectionintoanotherpositiveone,andsoon
    adinfinitum.
    Inapositivesectionoftheuniverse,thestar,which
    wasatfirsthotandbright,radiatesitsheatintooutside
    space,andgraduallybecomescoldanddark.Wehave
    alreadyseen(inChapterX)that,asthiscoolingprocess
    goeson,lifegraduallyextendsitselfattheexpenseof
    theopposite,thepositivetendency,until,whenthe
    coolingprocessiswellunderway,lifehasabsorbed
    practicallyallinorganicmatter,leavingasnonliving
    mattertheorganiccompoundsformedbylife,whichit
    buildsupintopseudolivingorganisms.Wemay
    supposethat,whenastellarsystemcrossesoverfroma
    positivetoanegativesectionoftheuniverse,
    therehappensthisslowprocessofdevelopment,oflife
    growth,changingthestarfromapositiveonetoa
    negativeoneverygradually.
    Totracethisprocessofdevelopmentfarther,we
    mustnotethattheevolutionoflivingstarsandplanets
    consiststoagreatextentintheirabsorbingradiant
    energyfromoutsidespaceandusingittobuildup
    higherheatlevelsinthemselves.Thelifeofthesestars
    andplanetsdependsontheirbeingconstantlyfed,soto
    speak,withradiantenergyuniformlyfromall
    directions;whichissomethingthatisnotobtainablein
    thepositivesectionoftheuniverse,wherethe
    distributionoflightisveryirregular.Inthenegative
    section,however,wearesurroundedbypositive
    sections,andinsuchawaythatthelightobtainedfrom
    themisapproximatelyuniform,sothatthenegative
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    starsandplanetscontainedthereincanbeproperlyfed.
    Thetidalforcesproduce,underthoseconditions,not
    tidalfriction,astheywouldunderthepositive
    tendency,butasortoftidalirritation,speedingupall
    motionsofrotation,etc.Theselivingstarsandplanets,
    buildingupinthemselveseverhigherlevelsofheat,
    finallypassintothemoltenandthenintothevaporous
    stage,andfinallythestardevelopsanebularstage,this
    nebulatakingaspiralformonaccountoftherotational
    motionofthestar,everincreasingthroughtheprocess
    oftidalirritation.Thuswegettoanebularstage;and
    thedissociationofatomsthatgoesoninthelastpartof
    thenegativestage,whenwehavegreatheat,willmake
    thestellarsystemlargelyonethatisconstitutedof
    hydrogen,thesmallestatomknown.
    Meanwhilewemightexpectthatnotonlythestar
    anditsplanets,butalsoanumberofsmallmasseson
    thestar,wouldhavelife,thatis,wouldfollowthe
    negativetendency;besidestheexistenceofanumberof
    pseudolivingorganisms.Thesesimplelivingmasses
    would,whenintheheatedcondition,alsotendtolive
    byabsorbingradiantenergyfromoutsidespace.
    Now,wemaysupposethat,afterthenebularstage
    hasbeenreached,andthestarandallitsplanetsarebut
    morecondensedvaporsinthenebula,thestellarsystem
    inquestionfinallycomestowardtheendofthatpartof
    itspathwhichisinthenegativesectionoftheuniverse.
    Thestellarsystem,nebulaandall,isquickly
    approachingtheboundarysurface,withthepositive
    sectionshiningbrightlyaheadofit.Thesudden
    absorptionofanimmenseamountoflightfromthe
    frontwilltendtocauseagreat,sudden,additional
    buildingupofheat,sothatwewillhaveanimmense
    amountofheatdevelopedbeforetheboundarysurface
    isfinallyreached.Star,planets,nebula,andall,are
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    constantlyabsorbingevermoreandmoreheat;
    includingalsothesmallerlivingmassesonthestarsand
    planets;withthepossibleexceptionofthepseudo
    livingorganisms.Allaredependentontheconstant
    accessionofradiantenergytosustaintheirlife.
    Now,whenthesystemcomesneartheboundary
    surface,whenitisonthatsurfaceorveryclosetoit,the
    accessionofradiantenergysuddenlyceasestobe
    uniforminalldirections,and,oncetheboundary
    surfaceiscrossed,nolightwhateverisreceivedfrom
    behind,becauselightcrossestheboundarysurfacein
    onlyonedirection,thatfromthepositivetothenegative
    side.Theuniformaccessofradiantenergythatthe
    systemhastofeedonissuddenlycutoff,andthestars
    andplanetscannolongercontinuetolive.Theproper
    supplyofradiantenergyfoodbeingsuddenlycutoff,
    thedeathofthesystemresults,andtherefore,after
    crossingtheboundarysurface,ifnotalittlebefore,
    thereoccursinthestarsandplanetsofthatsystemthe
    transitionfromthenegativetendencytothepositive.As
    wehaveseenbefore(inChapterIX),thetransitionin
    thisdirectionmightbetheoreticallyexpectedtobea

    suddenandcompleteone.Hence,somewherenearthis
    boundarysurface,wemightexpectasuddenreversalof
    thisprocessduetothedeathofthesystem,toits
    suddenlyceasingtobealiveasitwaswheninthe
    negativesectionoftheuniverse.Andthemomentthis
    transformationoccurs,thesecondlawof
    thermodynamicsimmediatelybeginstoapply,andthe
    heatofthesystembeingatahigherlevelthanthatof
    outsidespace,wouldsuddenlybegintospreaditselfata
    rapidrateintooutsidespacebyasuddenoutburstfrom
    thestarofradiantenergy.Thenebula,beingmore
    scattered,givesoutmuchlesslight,buthastobe
    lighteduptoagreatextentbythecentralstar.Thiswill
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    producethephenomenonofthe"nebulainmotion"as
    seeninNovaPerseiin1902.Inothercases,thenebula
    itselfwillgiveoutenoughlighttobevisible
    immediately.
    However,thisreasonforthe"death"ofthestar,
    planets,andnebula,doesnotbyanymeansapplytothe
    smallerlivingmassesthatexistedonthosebodies.The
    pseudolivingorganismsthatformerlyexistedonthose
    bodieswillthen,withverylittlechange,becomesimply
    inanimatebodies;butthesmalllivingbodies,unlikethe
    stars,planets,etc.,willsuddenlygetanewandpossibly
    bettersupplyoftheirfood,radiantenergy,fromthe
    flareupofthestar.Insteadofhavingtodependonthe
    radiantenergycominginfromadistance,thereis
    suddenlyopenedupforthemanimmensenewsupply
    oflightonthestaritself,orontheplanets.Thesmall
    livingbodiesthusbegintofeedonthedeadbodiesof
    thestarsandplanets.Thedeathofthestarsandplanets
    givesanopportunityfornewlifetodevelopasasortof
    parasiteonthedeadbodies.Fromthissurvivaloflife,
    furtherlifeontheplanetsofthatsystemisdescended.
    Afterthissuddenflareup,thelightandheatwould
    thenproceedtofadeoutgradually,andthesystem
    wouldcontinuetoevolvealongthelinesindicatedby
    thePlanetesimalHypothesis,thisbeingtheprecise
    reverseoftheevolutionasittookplacebeforeinthe
    negativesectionoftheuniverse.Finally,theworlds
    cooloff,lifeextends,and,bythetimethatthesystem
    leavesthepositivesection,lifehasagaingradually
    extendedsoastotakeonthelargebodies.Nowthe
    cycleiscomplete,andwearebackattheoriginalstage.
    Contents
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    CHAPTERXV
    THEPSEUDOLIVINGORGANISMS
    Wehaveseenthatorganicstructureislikelytobe
    foundineithersectionoftheuniverseintheminority
    tendency.Inthecaseofthenegativesectionofthe
    universe,wheremostobjectsarealive,thisminority
    tendencywillbethepositivetendency.Thusthe
    organicstructuresinthenegativepartoftheuniverse

    arenotlivingbutlifelessbeings,thoughhavingcertain
    appearancesoflife.Thesewehavecalledpseudoliving
    organisms,which,thoughincertainrespectsthey
    appearlikelivingbeings,yettheirmotionsareofa
    passiveratherthananactivecharacter.
    Inasmuchas,onreversalwithrespecttotime,a
    negativeuniversebecomesapositiveone,andthe
    inorganiclifethatisfoundinthenegativesectionofthe
    universecorrespondstotheordinarylifelessinorganic
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    bodiesthatweobserve,sowemaynoticethatthese
    pseudolivingorganismsaretheexactreverseofthe
    livingorganismsthatcanbeobservedinthepositive
    sectionoftheuniverse.
    Wehaveseenthat,atordinarytemperatures,these
    pseudolivingorganisms,inordertokeepexisting,must
    haveaconstantmetabolicprocessalwaysgoingon;this
    beingtheexactreverseofthemetabolicprocessgoing
    oninlivingorganismsinthepositivesection.Infact,
    takeanyprocessgoingoninlivingorganisms,andits
    exactreversewithrespecttotimewillgiveusthe
    correspondingprocessgoingoninpseudoliving
    organisms.
    Take,forexample,thesensitivenessthatis
    characteristicofnearlyalllife.Thiswill,indeed,be
    foundalsointheinorganiclifeinthenegativesection
    oftheuniverse.Butthepseudolivingorganismshave
    nothingofthesort.Theyarenotsensitivetocauses,but
    toeffects;forasmalleffectmay,intheseorganisms,be
    theresultofalargecause,asweshouldexpectfromthe
    secondlawofthermodynamics.Thus,whileallliving
    substanceissensitivetothepast,alllifelesssubstance
    issimilarlysensitivetothefuture.Thisisindicatedin
    ordinaryphysicalobjectsbythefactthatitiseasier,
    wherebothareunknown,totracethefuturethanthe
    past.Thesamewillbetrueofthepseudoliving
    organisms,whicharebutcomplicatedphysicalbodies
    surroundedbylivingsubstance.Suchorganismswillbe
    organizedtobeabletofeelwhatiscoming,butnot
    whathasalreadyhappened.Astothepast,anythingin
    thoseorganismsthatmaypossiblybecalledfeeling
    wouldbeabsolutelyblank.
    Inthecaseoflivingorganisms,thisfeeling,itits
    mostelementaryform,consistsmerelyofthat
    irritabilitywhichwehavealreadyidentifiedwiththe
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    reversalofthesecondlawofthermodynamics.Thatis,
    feelingconsists,initsmostelementaryform,ofa
    stimulusreleasingreserveenergyandmakingit
    availableenergyorelseactuallyusingit.Onthe
    contrary,thepseudolivingfeelingwouldbeexactlythe
    reverse,turningavailableenergyintoastoreofreserve
    energyaseffectuallyasmaybe.Inthemorecomplex
    livingorganisms,specialorgansoffeelingare
    developed,whichareofspecialirritability,organs
    whicharespeciallyefficientinextractingavailable

    energyoutofreserveenergy.Infact,inthosespecial
    organsoffeeling(thenervoussystem)isconcentrated
    mostofthemechanicalefficiencywithrespectto
    extractingavailableenergytobeusedasmolarmotion.
    Finally,wehavethedevelopmentofabrain,acentral
    organinwhichthereserveenergyisstoredasaresultof
    specialstimuli,andwhichcanusethatenergyto
    producemolarmotion.Inthepseudolivingorganism,
    whichistheexactreverseofthelivingorganism,this
    nervoussystemandbrainwouldconstituteasystemof
    extremelylowmechanicalefficiency,thatis,asystem
    fordoingasnearlynothingaspossible.Itwouldindeed
    storeupimmenseamountsofreserveenergy,orrather,
    ofpartlyavailableenergy,whichwouldbealmostas
    goodasunavailable.
    Thusthenervoussystemandthebrain,whichin
    livingorganismsisthemostactivepartoftheorganism,
    wouldalsobefoundinthepseudolivingorganism,
    withthesamesize,shape,position,substance,etc.,but
    would,insteadofbeingextremelyactive,bethedeadest
    partofanapparentlydeadorganism.Andthereasonfor
    thisobvious,ifwewillbutconsider.Thephysicalbody,
    andespeciallythepseudolivingorganism,issensitive
    onlytothefuture.Ifsomethingstrikesit,orifanyother
    stimulusisappliedtoit,thisimmediatelybecomesa
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    pastphenomenonandtheorganismcannolongertake
    cognisanceofit.Butshoulditeverhappenthatthe
    bodyitselfproducesavisibleeffectinthemannerof
    motion,sound,heat,etc,thebodyshowsitbyits
    internalconditionbeforetheeffectisproduced,though,
    assoonastheeffectappears,thisabnormalconditionof
    thebodydisappears.Thebodycanfeelwhatisgoingto
    happen,notindeedwhatisgoingtohappentoit,but
    whatisgoingtohappenasaresultofit;andthe
    momenttheeventhappens,allisforgotten,asitwere,
    thatis,noresultinginternalconditionisnoticeable.In
    pseudolivingorganisms,speciallifelessorganisms
    builtupbylivingsurroundingstoresembleincertain
    respectsthelivingbeingsthatwesee,thesephenomena
    will,inthemorecomplexcases,bespecializedintoa
    nervoussystem.Thusthephenomenaunderthepositive
    tendency,andinparticularinthepseudoliving
    organisms,thatareanalogoustofeeling,refernotto
    pastcauses,norindeedtofuturecauses(thisnotbeing
    thetruereverseofpastcauses),buttothedirectreverse
    ofpastcauses,namely,tofutureeffects.
    Where,inalivingorganism,wehaveenough
    complexitytofindsuchanorganasabrain,we
    immediatelyhavethebrainreactionswhichareknown
    asmentalphenomena.Thesearethecentralizedstores
    ofavailableenergywhichthenervoussystemhas
    extractedfromtheoutsidereserveenergy,andwhich
    canbeusedunderastimulustoproducemolarmotion.
    Themindisthuspartofthebrainmachinery,ahighly
    complexandspecializedmachineryfortheextractionof
    reserveenergyanditsfinalconversionintomolar
    energy.Theextractionofreserveenergyintheoriginal
    processissensation;theenergystoredupinthebrainat

    ahigherlevelisthementalprocess;andthismindcan
    onlyfeelsensations,andretaintracesofprocesses,that
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    havealreadyhappened,andreferthemtothepast.On
    thecontrary,inthepseudolivingorganism,the
    similarlycomplexandspecializedprocesswillmerely
    producereserveenergyfortheoutsideworldtouse,and
    anymentalprocessinsuchorganismcouldonlyrefer
    nottothepastcausesbut,likeallfeelingunderthe
    positivetendency,tofutureeffects,which,however,
    wouldbefeltasstimuliandnotaseffects;fortheobject
    itselfwouldbeunderastrainasifstimulated.Inother
    words,thispseudolivingmind,thismachinefordoing
    nothingaseffectuallyaspossible,couldonlyperceive
    andrememberthefuture,andwouldconceiveofthat
    futureasthereverseofwhatitreallyis,namely,as
    stimulusinsteadofaseffect.
    Sincetheordinaryorganicbodiesarethesimplest
    formsoutofwhichthepseudolivingorganism
    developsasahighdegreeofcomplexity,justasthe
    inorganiclifeofthenegativesectionoftheuniverseis
    thesimpleformofwhichlivingorganismsareahigher
    development,wemayeasilysupposethatordinary
    inorganicbodiessuchasweconstantlyobservehave
    thisreversedfeeling;but,asmentalprocessesarea
    resultofahighlycomplicatedandspecialized
    organism,wecannotattributetoordinaryphysical
    objectsanythinglikeamind.
    IthasbeenafavoritetheoryofthelateProf.Josiah
    Roycethatphysicalobjectsarealiveandevenendowed
    withamind,butthatwecannotcommunicatewith
    themorobservethatmindonaccountofthedifference
    inreactiontime.Accordingtohistheory,whilewe
    reacttoastimulusin,letussay,atenthofasecond,let
    ussupposethatthereisabeingthatreactsinathousand
    years.Themotionsofthatbeingwillbesoslowthatto
    ushewillappearpracticallymotionlessanddead,
    while,ontheotherhand,ourmotionswillbesorapid
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    thathewillbetotallyunabletoperceivethem,sothat
    hewillalsothinkusdead.Thistheoryindicatesthata
    differenceinreactiontimemightbethecauseofour
    notattributinglifeandfeelingtophysicalobjects.
    Underourtheoryofreversibility,thesamewillbetrue,
    onlythereactiontimeofaphysicalobjectwillnot
    merelybedifferentfromours,butnegative,sothatall
    meansofourobservingthesimilaritywouldbecutoff.
    Thisdoesnot,ofcourse,mean,thatthereareno
    observationsorexperimentspossiblefromwhichwe
    couldindirectlyinfersuchsimilarity,butmerelythat
    wecouldnotpossiblyobserveitdirectly,becauseitis
    superficiallydifferentalmostinkindfromliving
    feeling.Itisnot,ofcourse,quitetrue,thatphysical
    objectsdonotshowtheeffectsofstimuli;theydo
    indeed,insomecases,buttoamarkedlylessdegree

    thantheyshowtheincubationoffutureeffects.Thus,if
    thissensitivitycouldbeatallcalledfeeling,aphysical
    object,onceaneventispast,wouldfeelitvaguelyifat
    all,andwithagreatuncertainty.Tothepseudoliving
    organism,thepasthasthesamevaguenessand
    uncertaintyasthefuturehasforus,thoughsomedim
    guessesastothepastmightconceivablybemadebythe
    pseudolivingmind.
    Butitstillremainstrue,thatifweweretransported
    intoanegativesectionoftheuniverse,thoughthe
    pseudolivingorganismwouldappearinshape,
    substance,structure,etc.,exactlyliketheliving
    organismsweareaccustomedto,yetweshouldnot
    recognizetheexistenceofsensitivityormental
    phenomenainthematall,andtheyshouldappeartous
    aslifelessbodies,whichindeedtheyare.Theywould
    appeartousmerelyasextremelywellpreserved
    corpses.And,becausewecannotfeelwhatthepseudo
    livinganalogueofamindwouldconceiveasastimulus,
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    andwouldnotreacttoit,thoseorganismswould
    similarlythinkofusasdead.
    Contents
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    CHAPTERXVI
    PSYCHOLOGICALASPECTOFREVERSAL
    Thismatterbringsupthequestionastohowthe
    pseudolivinganalogueofamind,this"machinefor
    doingnothing,"wouldconceiveofitsownportionof
    theuniverse.Intryingtosolvethisquestion,wemust
    rememberthatitsmemoryisdirectednottowardthe
    pastbuttowardthefuture;because,memorybeingbut
    thestoredupfeelinginahigherformofdevelopment,
    andfeelingbeingthatofreserveenergy,itfollowsthat
    feelingandenergymust,inanyorganism,bedirected
    towardsthatdirectionintimeinwhichthatorganism
    hadlessreserveenergy,andawayfromthatdirectionof
    timeinwhichtheorganismacquiresmoreavailable
    energy.
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    Now,weknowthatthemethodbywhichwereally
    distinguishbetweenthepastandthefutureisbythefact
    ofourrememberingthepast,whilethefuturetousisan
    uncertainmatter.Itfollows,therefore,thattothe
    pseudolivingmind,thepastwillbeconceivedofas
    future,andthefutureaspast.Anorganismconceives,
    therefore,oftheflowoftime,intheinversedirectionto
    thatinwhichitsmemoryisdirected,thatis,inthe
    directionoftimeinwhichthatorganismbuildsup
    reserveenergyintoavailableenergy.Or,sinceorganic
    phenomenaarefoundintheminoritytendencyofa
    givensectionoftheuniverse,suchanorganismmust
    conceiveoftimeasflowinginthatdirectioninwhich

    themajoritytendency,thatis,thegeneralsurrounding
    world,decreasestheamountofavailableenergyand
    increasestheamountofreserveenergy.Inotherwords,
    anorganicbeing,whetherlivingorpseudoliving,must
    conceiveoftimeasflowinginsuchadirectionthatthe
    secondlawofthermodynamicsprevails,independently
    ofwhetherthatconclusioniscorrectornot.
    Thisarisesfromthefactthatthepseudoliving
    organism,thoughexistinginaworldinwhichthe
    secondlawofthermodynamicsisregularlyreversed,
    doesnotperceiveitssurroundingsastheyare,but,on
    accountofthefactthatitisnotlife,butreversedlife,it
    perceivestheworldasreversedintime,itsperceptions
    formasortoftimemirror,whichwouldthusproduce
    theillusionofreversal,withtheresultthatsucha
    perceptionwouldshowtheorganismitselfasalive(not
    asapseudolivingorganism)andthesurrounding
    world,whichisreallyalive,aslifelessandasfollowing
    thesecondlawofthermodynamics.
    Thus,ifwewerepseudolivingorganismsina
    universetheexactreverseofours,thatistosay,inthe
    correspondingpartofthereverseuniverse,weshould,
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    aspseudolivingorganisms,beunderthisreversal
    delusionandconceiveoftheworldandofourselves
    exactlyaswedonow,and,infact,wewouldhave
    exactlythesameideasasnowinrelationtoeverything.
    Thusthereisactuallynowayforustotellwhetherwe
    arelivingorganismsinapositiveuniverseorpseudo
    livingorganismsinanegativeuniverse;inbothcases,
    theformerwouldbetheapparentsituation.Underthe
    conditionsunderwhichacomplexorganizationlikea
    mindcanbeproduced,thatmindmustconceiveofits
    surroundingsinsuchawaythatthesecondlawof
    thermodynamicswouldfollow.Itmaybethatthelawis
    orisnotaphysicalfactinthatparticularpartofthe
    universe,butconceivingofthingsinthatmannerisa
    necessityforanorganizedmind.Inotherwords,the
    secondlawofthermodynamicsisnotaphysicalbuta
    mentallaw.
    However,thismustbeconstruedwithlimitations.
    Therearecertainphysicalfactsastowhetherthe
    secondlawofthermodynamicsisactuallytrueornotin
    anygivenpartoftheuniverse.Wecannotsaythatthe
    realuniverseandthereverseuniverseareoneandthe
    sameonthestrengthofthisreasoning;forwerewe
    transportedintothereverseuniverse,weshouldnotice
    thedifference;andsimilarlythepseudoliving
    organismstransportedintoourrealuniversewouldalso
    easilyperceivethedifference.Butthedifferencerather
    suggeststhedifferencebetweenrightandleftrather
    thananythingelse.Therearemanysubstanceswhich
    formtwospecies,onewithrighthandedmoleculesand
    onewithlefthandedmolecules.Thereactionoftwo
    righthandedsubstancesisthesameasthatoftwo
    similarlefthandedsubstances;butwegetentirely
    differentreactionsifarighthandedsubstanceofone
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    kindisbroughtintocontactwithalefthanded
    substanceoftheotherkind.
    Wemustregardsimilarlythedifferencebetweenany
    possiblecombinationofeventsanditsreversewith
    respecttotime.Theyaresimilar,andatthesametime
    different,inmuchthesamemannerasrightandleft.
    Thereisnoreallyessentialdifferencebetweenthe
    forwardandbackwarddirectionintime,anymorethan
    thedifferencebetweenrightandleftisanessentialone.
    Timeisreallyatwodirectionphenomenon,andthetwo
    directionsarepracticallyinterchangeable,insteadof
    beingasingledirectionflowwithonedirection
    essentiallydifferentfromtheother.Thefactthatthe
    twodirectionsoftimeappearessentiallydifferentisdue
    tothefactthatourmindissoconstructedastofaceone
    direction.Theremightseemtoustobeanessential
    differenceinspacebetweentheforwardandbackward
    directions,ifnotforthefactthatweareabletoturn
    around.
    Thepseudolivingmindisoneinallaspectslike
    ours,withthedifferencethatitissoconstructedasto
    facetheotherdirectionintime;andithastheillusions
    ofdifferencebetweenthetwodirectionsaccordingly.
    Toanymind,thepastismerelythedirectionoftime
    whichthememoryfaces,andthefutureistheopposite
    directionoftime.Hencethepseudolivingmindwill
    seepastwhereweseefuture,andviceversa."Thefirst
    shallbethelast,andthelastshallbethefirst"forthe
    pseudolivingmind.Andthereasonthatthereisnoway
    oftellingwhetherwearelivingorganismsinapositive
    universe,orpseudolivingorganismsinanegative
    universe,isthatthedifferenceisreallyonemerely
    betweenthetwodirectionsoftime,and,thoughthose
    twodirectionsareoppositetoeachother,theyhaveno
    physicalpropertieswhichareinanywaydifferent.
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    Thereareothercasesofsuchconjugaterelations,
    wheretwophenomenaaredifferent,butcanbe
    mutuallyinterchangedwithoutthepossibilityofany
    testtoindicatethedifference.Thecasethatisnearestto
    thatwhichweareconsidering,isthatofanytwo
    oppositedirectionsinspace.Iftwooppositedirections
    inspacewereinterchanged,weshouldmerelyhavea
    mirrorworld,butnodifferentphysicalproperties;and,
    ifweweretosupposethat,inthatworld,weshould
    conceiveofrightasleftandviceversa,therewouldbe
    nowaytotellsuchaworldfromtheonewelivein.
    Amuchmoreclearcutcaseofsuchaconjugate
    relationistobefoundinthedomainofalgebra,when
    dealingwithimaginaryquantities.Thequantityiis
    definedasthesquarerootof1,butwemightremember
    thatanyquantityexceptzerohastwosquareroots,each
    thenegativeoftheother,soitiswith1;andwethus
    gettwoquantities,iandi.Now,itmakesabsolutelyno
    differencetoanypossibleformulainconnectionwith
    thetheoryoftheimaginaries,whichofthequantities

    wecalli,andwhichi;theyareabsolutely
    interchangeable;andyetthetwoquantitiesareanything
    butidentical.Forinstance,thedifferencebetweentwo
    identicalquantitiesiszero;andyetthedifference
    betweenthesetwoquantitiesisanythingbutzero,butis
    twiceoneofthequantities.Thedifferencecanbemade
    tobetwiceeitherofthequantities,accordingtowhich
    issubtractedfromtheother.
    Infact,wemaynoticethatperfectinterchangeability
    isnotidentity.Thetestofidentityis,notthatthetwo
    thingsmaybeinterchangedinanystatementwithout
    vitiatingthetruthofthestatement,butratherthateither
    maybesubstitutedfortheotherinanystatement
    withoutvitiatingthetruthofthestatement.Inapplying
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    thistestforidentityofAandB,weshouldsubstituteA
    forBwithoutatthesametimesubstitutingBforA.
    Wemaythensaythatthemindconceivesoftimeas
    flowing,becausethemindisnotsymmetricalwith
    respecttothetwodirections;itfacesonedirection,
    accordingtothelawsgoverningthespecialmachines
    thatwouldhavetopumpreserveenergy,andtherefore
    accordingtothephenomenamanifestedbyreserve
    energy;and,undertheconditionswhichproducesuch
    mechanisms,theresultinglawisthatanorganizedmind
    mustconceiveoftimeasflowingtowardsthatdirection
    inwhichismorereserveenergyinthatparticularpart
    oftheuniverse.Thismaybeeitherdirectionintime,
    eitherthatwhichis,inourparticularminds,forwardsor
    backwards;but,ifweconceiveofpastandfuturewith
    thismentaldefinition,thesecondlawof
    thermodynamicsfollowsasanecessarymentallaw.
    True,werewetransportedtoanegativesectionofthe
    universe,weshouldnotseethingsasconformingtothe
    secondlawofthermodynamics;butthechancesare
    verysmallthatwewouldbeabletoliveunderthose
    specialcircumstances,underwhichasensitive,living
    airmighttakeanaversiontoourbreathingit,or,what
    wouldbemorelikely,wouldsendusitscarbondioxide
    andleavetheoxygenforitself,asitwoulddotothe
    pseudolivingorganisms.
    Ifwerepresentthepercentageof"availableenergy"
    inagivenpartoftheuniversebyacurveshowingthe
    variationofthatpercentagethroughtime,wegeta
    wavycurve,resemblingsomewhatthesinusoid.Ifthe
    pastisplacedattheleft,andthefutureattheright,then,
    aswegoalongthecurvefromlefttoright,theupward
    sectionsofthecurverepresentthenegativeportions,
    andthedownwardsectionsthepositiveportions.Time,
    then,isatwodimensionaffair,likethebottomaxial
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    line;butamindinanypartwouldconceiveofthattime
    asaflowtowardsthelowerpartofthecurve,though
    thatmayactuallytakeittowardsthepastinsteadof
    towardsthefuture.Tothatmind,however,no

    differencewouldbenoticeable.
    Inthediagramtheabscissarepresentstime,andthe
    ordinatesthepercentageofavailableenergyinthe
    particularsectionoftheuniverse.Thelawthenis,that
    whateverkindofmindwouldbeproducedunderthe
    variouscircumstanceswouldbesoconstructedasto
    conceiveoftimeasflowingtowardsthelowerpartof
    thecurve,thatis,towardsthetroughsofthewavesin
    thediagram;whilememorywouldalwayslooktowards
    thecrestsofthosewaves.Itmakesnodifference
    whethereitherofthosedirectionsisactualpastor
    future,thatis,onthediagram,whetherthesedirections
    pointtowardstheleftortowardstheright(left,onthe
    diagram,representingpast,andtherightrepresenting
    future).Inrelationtothephysicaltime,thesecondlaw
    ofthermodynamicsmayormaynotbetrue;but,asfar
    asconcernsthementalconceptionoftime,thesecond
    lawofthermodynamicsmustbetrueasamajority
    tendencyinthatparticularsectionoftheuniverse.
    Hence,inthelastanalysis,thesecondlawof
    thermodynamicsistobeinterpretedasamentallaw,as
    thelawdeterminingthedirectioninwhichagivenmind
    willconceiveoftimeasflowing.
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    Itmustfurtherberememberedthattimeitselfisnota
    mentalphenomenon,butonlytheappearanceofflow.
    Thereisactuallynomoreflowintimethaninspace,
    andeitherdirectionintimemaybecalledpastandthe
    otherfuture,withoutanydifferenceinthepropertiesof
    theuniverse.Buttheactualexistenceofintervalsof
    timewemustassumeasbeingaphysicalreality,and
    absolutelynecessaryfortheexplanationofphysical
    phenomena.
    Inasmuchasitmakesnodifferenceinwhich
    directionwesupposetimetoberunning,andwemay
    fixeitherdirectionarbitrarilywithoutchangingthe
    physicalpropertiesoftheuniverse,itismore
    convenient,inordertoavoidanydisputeastothe
    natureanddirectionoftime,tocallthatdirectionpast
    inwhichourmemorypoints,andtocallthatdirection
    futuretowardswhichweconceivetimeasflowing.In
    relationtothisdirectionoftime,then,wemaysaythat
    ourownsectionoftheuniverseispositive,andthatin
    thatsectionthesecondlawofthermodynamicsprevails.
    Infact,wemayreadilyconceiveoftimeasasortof
    fourthdimensionoftheuniverse.Thiscouldreadilybe
    donetheoretically,onlythereisadifferentrelationto
    physicalobjects.Ifweusedsuchaconception,we
    shouldhavetoimagineeachparticleasasortofthread
    infinitelyextendedinthetimedimension.And,further,
    measurementsintimecannotbecomparedwithspace
    measurements.But,althoughweshouldnotsuppose
    thatwhatwehaveisanetworkofthreadsinafour
    dimensionalspace,yetwecanusethisasapossible
    illustrationtoshowwhatatwodirectiontimeis.
    Suppose,then,afourdimensionalspacewitha
    perfectlystationaryloom,fullofthreadsentangledin
    allsortsofways.Theendsoftheloomwemust
    supposetoberemovedtoinfinityintheirrespective

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    directions.If,then,wesupposeathreedimensional
    filmtobemoveddownwardsthroughthisloom,the
    crosssectionsofthreadswouldchangeaboutsoasto
    appearasthemotionofparticles.If,now,wesuppose
    thatcertainsectionsofthreadhavesomesortof
    consciousness,andcanperceivewhatisinthefilm
    whenthefilmpassesthem,andtheirpreviouscondition
    (or,inotherwords,theconscioussectionjustabovethat
    part),weshouldhavetheeffectofmentalactivity.If
    insteadofsupposingthisfilm,wenowsimplysuppose
    thatcertainsectionsofthreadareconscious,andthat
    eachcrosssectioncanperceiveonlythesurrounding
    objectsofitsownlevelandthehighercrosssectionsof
    itself,thenwemaysaythateachcrosssectioncan
    perceivethehighercrosssection,butnotviceversa.
    Thiswouldgivetheimpressionofaflowfromthe
    highertothelowercrosssections,thusgivingthe
    illusionofoneflowingandthreestationarydimensions;
    inotherwords,ofonedimensionoftimeandthreeof
    space.Probablythisisnotthecorrectexplanationofthe
    conceptionoftime,butitillustratesthefactthatthetwo
    oppositedirectionsintimearenomoredifferentthan
    twooppositedirectionsinspace.
    Ifwesuppose,intheillustration,thatanyconscious
    bunchofthreadalwaysperceivesparallelcrosssections
    inthedirectioninwhichthethreadsarelessentangled,
    itwillgivetheillusionofflowofthisfourthdimension,
    butinsuchadirectionthatmotionofparticleswill
    alwaysseemtoscatter.Thatis,ifthethreadsinthis
    illustrationareconstitutedtoperceiveinthatmanner,
    theywillnotmerelyconceiveofonedimensionas
    beingtimeinsteadofspace,buttheywillactually
    conceiveofthattimeassoflowingthatthesecondlaw
    ofthermodynamicswillbetrue.
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    Thoughallthisisbutanillustration,wemay
    conclude:Thesecondlawofthermodynamicsisreallya
    mentallawindicatingthedirectionoftheillusoryflow
    oftime.Timeitselfreallyexistsasatwodirection
    affair,andreallyhasnomoreflowthanspace.
    Contents
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    CHAPTERXVII
    GENERALSUMMARYOFTHETHEORY
    Accordingtoourtheoryofthereversibilityofthe
    universe,thesecondlawofthermodynamicsrepresents
    oneoftwooppositetendenciesfoundintheuniversein
    equalproportions.Thesetendencieswehavenamedthe
    positiveandthenegativetendency.Thepositive
    tendencyisthatwhichfollowsthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics,whilethenegativetendencyreverses

    it.Thephenomenaofthetwotendenciescorrespondto
    eachothertothesmallestdetail,eachbeingthereverse
    oftheotherwithrespecttothetimeelement.Thus,a
    movingpictureofthenegativephenomenacouldbe
    obtainedbytakingamovingpictureofordinary,thatis,
    positive,phenomena,andrunningthereelbackwards
    whenthereelisbeingprojectedontothescreen.
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    Page 125
    Theordinaryphysicalbodiesobeythesecondlawof
    thermodynamics,thatis,theybelongtothepositive
    tendency;whilelivingbodies,onthecontrary,follow
    thenegativetendency,andthereforereversethesecond
    lawofthermodynamics.Ifwereverseordinaryevents
    withrespecttotime,as,forinstance,withthedeviceof
    runningamotionpicturereelbackwards,thelivingand
    thelifelesswouldchangeplaces,though,indeed,the
    shapesandthestructuresofeverythingwouldremain
    unchanged.So,also,wouldeveryphysicallawnot
    derivedfromthesecondlawofthermodynamics,sothat
    everythinginsuchareversalcouldbeexplainedonthe
    basisoftheordinaryphysicallaws.Thereverseofthe
    ordinaryphysicalbodyisaninorganicformoflife;
    whilethereverseofanordinarylivingbodyiswhatwe
    havecalledapseudolivingorganism,havingthe
    organicstructureoflifebutnotitsvitalactivity.
    Occasionally,inmovingpictures,inordertogetan
    effectwhichcannotbeobtainedinactuality,suchasa
    mangoingupasmoothverticalwall,thedeviceof
    reversingthereelisused.Inwatchingthepicture
    producedbysuchareversedreel,anapparently
    unnaturaleffectisnoticed,thoughitisdifficulttosay
    whatissounusualaboutit.Forinstance,inonecase,a
    motionpicturerepresentedanumberofpersonsdiving
    intotheoceanfromahighspringboardandfinding
    underthewatersomethingthatfrightenedthem.They
    werethenrepresentedasimmediatelyjumping
    backwardsoutofthewaterontothespringboard.This
    lastpartofthefilmwasobviouslyareversalofthepart
    representingthediving;butitwasnoticeablethatthere
    werecircularwaterwavesconvergingtowardsacenter
    beforeanyonecametothesurface,and,justasthe
    wavescametothecentertoproduceabigsplash,the
    undercurrentsbroughtthepeopletothesurfacewhile,
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    insteadofjumping,thepicturerepresentedthemas
    beingsplashedbythewaterintotheair.Thepeople
    themselves,ontheotherhand,lostinthisreversalall
    appearanceofactivity;aroundthemthewaterand
    everythingelsewasjumpingandmoving,theywere
    beingmovedinapassiveway,asthoughthewaterand
    springboardwerelivingandtheydead.
    Anotherwayofexpressingthedistinctionbetween
    thetwotendenciesisbydrawingthedistinction
    betweenavailableenergy,energywhichcanbeused
    underthesecondlawofthermodynamics,ontheone
    hand,andreserveenergy,energybelowthelevel

    requiredbythatlaw,ontheotherhand.Oftheenergy
    oftheuniverse,partcomesunderoneheadingandpart
    undertheother.Thepositivetendencyusesupavailable
    energyandbuildsitupintoastoreofreserveenergy,
    whilethenegativetendency,onthecontrary,utilizes
    thatstoreorreserveenergythatthepositivetendency
    hasbuiltupandcreatesavailableenergyoutofitonce
    more.Inotherwords,lifelessobjectsbuildupthe
    energyoftheuniverseintoareservestore,whichthey
    themselvescannotuse;forthem,theenergyisrunning
    downintoanunavailableform.Buttherearealways
    presentlivingbodieswhichutilizethereserveenergy
    andagainbuilditupintoanavailableform.
    Oursectionoftheuniverseisoneinwhichthe
    positivetendencyprevails;butthisistrueforafinite
    sectionofspace;ingeneral,therearecertainplacesand
    timesinwhichonetendencyprevails.Takingagiven
    amountoftime,thisdivisionbetweenthetwo
    tendenciesdividesspaceintoaninfinitenumberof
    approximatelybrickshapedsections,alternatively
    positiveandnegative.Whenweareinapositive
    section,wecanseeonlytheparticularsectionwearein,
    thoughwemayhaveotherevidence(e.g.,gravitational)
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    ofmatterbeyondthatsection.Astellarsystem,asit
    movesfromonesectionintoanother,graduallyevolves
    fromasetoflifelessbodieswithlifeonthem,througha
    livingstagewheretherearesomepseudoliving
    organisms,intoanebularstage,thenfinally,onentering
    apositivesection,becominga"temporarystar"and
    goingthroughthereverseprocess,fromthenebulaback
    tothecoolerstages.
    Onetendencyisasuniversalasitsopposite.Life
    mustbefoundeverywhere,underallconditions,
    preciselyaslifelessbodiesare.Thereisnospontaneous
    generationoflife,andthereforelifecanbetracedback
    asfaraswecantracebackthematterofwhichthesolar
    systemismade,thatis,toaneternitypast.
    Butthebasisofthedistinctionisthatlivingbodies
    aresensitivetowardsthepast,andlifelessbodiesare
    sensitiveonlytowardsthefuture.Ifalifelessbodycan
    developasufficientlycomplicatedorganicstructureto
    manifestmentalphenomena,oranythinganalogous,
    thissensitivenesstowardsthefutureinvolvesamemory
    ofthefutureonly,and,asaresult,anillusionofaflow
    oftimefromthefuturetowardsthepast,insteadofthe
    reverseaswesupposeittobe.Thesensitivenessof
    livingbodiestowardthepastandoflifelessbodies
    towardthefutureisduetothefactthat,underthe
    secondlawofthermodynamics,largecausesarelikely
    toproducesmalleffects,while,underthereversalof
    thatlaw,itissmallcausesthatarelikelytoproduce
    largereffects.Anotherconsequenceofthesamefactis,
    thatlifelessphenomenaaremoreeasilyexplainedby
    theircauses,whilelivingphenomena,onthecontrary,
    thoughequallytherigidresultofcausality,aretobe
    moreeasilyexplainedbythefuturechainsofthecausal
    relation,orasthatwhichistoproducecertaineffects.
    Thatis,livingphenomena,phenomenawhichfollow

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    thenegativetendency,arecharacterizedbyanapparent
    teleologyorfunctionalitythatisabsent(oratleast,
    apparentlyso)inlifelessphenomena.
    Therearealsothepropertiesofbothtendenciesas
    majorityorasminoritytendencies.Forinstance,inone
    partoftheuniverse,thepositivetendencyisamajority
    tendency,andthenegativetendencyisaminority
    tendency.Inotherpartsoftheuniverse,onthecontrary,
    thereverseisthecase:themajoritytendencyisthe
    negative,orlife,whilethelifelessphenomena
    constitutetheminoritytendency.Wemaynotethat
    therearevariouscharacteristicsoftheminority
    tendencysuchastheformationofcomplexendothermic
    compoundsandofanorganicstructure;whilethe
    majoritytendency,whetherpositiveornegative,is
    characterizedbyaninorganicstructureandthe
    formationofexothermiccompounds.Theminority
    tendency,again,whetherpositiveornegative,is
    characterizedbyametabolicprocesswhereverthereis
    nottoomuchheattopermitofsuchchemicalreactions
    goingon.
    WemayusethediagraminChapterXVItoillustrate
    thealternationinanypartoftheuniversebetweenthe
    positiveandnegativetendency,rememberingthatthe
    lowerpartsofthecurverepresentaconditionwhere
    thereislessavailableandmorereserveenergy.Wemay
    makeanadditionalremarkonthecurveinthatdiagram,
    thatatomsintegratewherethecurveisconcavetowards
    theleft,anddissociatewherethecurveisconcave
    towardstheright;inotherwords,theconcavesideof
    thecurvealwaysfacesthatdirectionintimetoward
    whichwefindsmalleratoms.
    Besidesthepositiveandnegativetendency,thereis
    alsoaborderingtendency,whichwehavecalledthe
    neutraltendency.Thisiscomparativelyrare,andit
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    sufficestosaythatithasnotendencyeventoform
    compoundparticles,butremainsdecomposedintothe
    separateultimateparticles.Itthereforeisnottobe
    found(unlessmaybeforasinglemomentintime)in
    anyknownsubstance,fornosubstanceswillbeformed
    undertheneutraltendency.Buttheneutraltendencyis
    probablytobefoundinthespacesbetweenthe
    heavenlybodies,whereitrepresentsthephenomenonof
    asubstancewithimpenetrabilitybutwithnoresistance
    tothepassageofabodythroughit.
    Wemaytabulateasfollowsthesimilaritiesand
    differencesbetweenthepositiveandthenegative
    tendency:
    THEPOSITIVE
    TENDENCY
    THENEGATIVE
    TENDENCY
    1.Followsthesecond

    lawofthermodynamics.
    1.Reversesthesecond
    lawofthermodynamics.
    2.Decreasesdifference
    ofenergylevel.
    2.Increasesdifference
    ofenergylevel.
    3.Formsunavailable
    reserveenergy.
    3.Usesthisreserve
    energy.
    4.Usesupavailable
    energy.
    4.Formsavailable
    energy.
    5.Lifeless;appears
    passive.
    5.
    Living;
    appears
    active.
    6.Inelasticcollisions.
    6.
    Superelastic
    collisions.
    7.
    Mechanical
    efficiencylessthan100%.
    7.
    Mechanical
    efficiencyover100%.
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    8.
    Larger
    causes
    producesmallereffects.
    8.
    Smaller
    causes
    producelargereffects.
    9.Explainedeasiestby
    cause;apparentrigidityof
    causality.
    9.Explainedeasiestby
    effect;apparentteleology.
    10.Appearlivingwhen
    reversed.
    10.Appearlifeless
    whenreversed.
    11.
    Absence
    of
    irritability.
    11.Irritability
    12.Atomsintegrateat
    great
    heat,
    otherwise
    dissociate.

    12.Atomsdissociateat
    great
    heat,
    otherwise
    integrate.
    13.Chemicalreactions
    tendtowardsexothermic
    compounds.
    13.Chemicalreactions
    tendtowardsendothermic
    compounds.
    14.Spontaneousand
    completegenerationfrom
    opposite
    tendency
    possible.
    14.Spontaneousor
    completegenerationfrom
    opposite
    tendency
    impossible.
    15.
    Can
    generate
    oppositetendencyonlyby
    gradualgrowthfroma
    livingcenter.
    15.Generatesopposite
    tendency,spontaneously,
    suddenly,andcompletely.
    16.Partlyremainswhen
    thereistransformationinto
    theoppositetendency.
    16.Isneededifmoreis
    tobeformed.
    17.Hotbodiesgiveout
    lightetc.
    17.Hotbodiesabsorb
    lightetc.
    18.Lighttendsnotto
    18.Lighttendsnotto
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    enterthepositivesection
    oftheuniverse.
    leavethenegativesection
    oftheuniverse.
    ASAMAJORITYTENDENCY
    19.Tendstoinclude
    exothermiccompounds.
    19.Tendstoinclude
    exothermiccompounds.
    20.Ordinarylifeless
    objects.
    20.Inorganiclife.
    ASAMINORITYTENDENCY
    21.Tendstoinclude
    complex
    endothermic
    compounds.

    21.Tendstoinclude
    complex
    endothermic
    compounds.
    22.
    Pseudoliving
    organisms.
    22.Livingorganisms.
    23.Metabolism.
    23.Metabolism.
    OTHERMISCELLANEOUSPROPERTIES
    24.Obeysthethree
    lawsofmotionandthe
    lawofgravitation.
    24.Obeysthethreelaws
    ofmotionandthelawof
    gravitation.
    25.Conservationof
    massandofenergy.
    25.Conservationof
    massandofenergy.
    26.Sensitiveonlyto
    thefuture.
    26.Sensitiveonlytothe
    past.
    27.Organismsconceive
    oftimeandeventsas
    reversed.
    27.Organismsconceive
    oftimeandeventsinthe
    orderinwhichtheyoccur.
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    28.Memorymustrefer
    tofuture.
    28.Memorymustrefer
    topast.
    29.Illusioninpositive
    mentalphenomenaof
    flowoftimefromfuture
    topast.
    29.Illusioninnegative
    mentalphenomenaofflow
    oftimefrompasttofuture.
    30.
    All
    positive
    phenomena
    fully
    determinedbyeither
    causeoreffect.
    30.
    All
    negative
    phenomena
    fully
    determinedbyeithercause
    oreffect.
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    CHAPTERXVIII
    SOMEOBJECTIONS
    TOTHEREVERSIBILITYTHEORY
    Thereversibilitytheoryoftheuniverse,whichhas
    herebeensetforth,isonlyadvancedasamere
    speculation,asapossiblehypothesis.Therearemany
    objectionstothetheoryofthereversibilityofthe
    universe.Allthatisintendedhereis,nottoprovethis
    theoryscientifically,oreventoclaimitasperfectly
    consistentwithitselforwithfacts,butmerelyto
    indicatethatthereare,onthequestionofreversibility,
    otherpossibletheoriesthantheoneatpresentgenerally
    acceptedbyphysicists,andyetnotmoreabsurdormore
    inconsistentwithfacts.Thetheoryofthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics,aswehaveseen,leadstomany
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    Page 134
    absurdities,andwehaveseenanumberoffacts
    indicatingthepossibilityofareversalofthesecondlaw
    ofthermodynamics.Havingexaminedallthefactsand
    alltheargumentsthatwehavealreadymarshalledon
    thesideofthistheoryofthereversibilityofthe
    universe,wemightaswellexamineafewfacts
    mitigatingagainstthattheoryinfavorofthegenerally
    acceptedtheoryoftheuniversalityofthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics.
    Inthefirstplace,oneessentialpointofthe
    reversibilitytheoryisthesuppositionthattherearesuch
    thingsasreversalsofthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics,andthatthosereversals,inoursection
    oftheuniverse,constitutethephenomenaknownas
    life.Thisimmediatelyinvolvesthequestion:Doeslife
    reallyreversethesecondlawofthermodynamics?We
    havenoproofthatitdoes,anditmayindeedbe
    consideredextremelydoubtfulwhetheritdoes.Ifwe
    lookdownthelistofpropertiesofthenegative
    tendency,bothingeneralandastheminoritytendency,
    (excludingthename"life,"whereveritoccursinthat
    list),wewillstillfindthatnothingunderourdirect
    observationexceptlifecouldcomeunderthatheading,
    sothat,unlesslifeisthatreversal,therearecertainlyno
    reversalsofthesecondlawofthermodynamicswithin
    ourobservation.Now,amongthecharacteristicsof
    thesereversalswefind"superelasticcollisions"and
    "mechanicalefficiencyover100%."Thesearevery
    importantdistinguishingcharacteristics,andyetitis
    doubtfulifwecouldfindasingleauthenticatedinstance
    ofasuperelasticcollisionoccurringeveninthecaseof
    livingbeings;and,ifthatispossible,itcertainlyistrue
    thatinelasticcollisionsarethemorecommon
    phenomenawithlivingaswellaswithlifelessbodies;
    whichwouldnotbetrueiflifewereareversalofthe
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    secondlawofthermodynamics.Forinstance,whenwe
    clapourhandstogether,itdoesnotresultinalarger

    rebound;infact,thereboundisslight,andtheapplause,
    ifkeptupalongtime,producesadistinctsensationof
    heat,theheatfinallysubsiding.Herewehavean
    inelasticcollision,molarmotionresultinginheat,
    whichfinallyrunsdowntoacommonlevelexactly
    whatwemightexpectunderthesecondlawof
    thermodynamics.Inotherwords,therecertainlyare
    livingphenomenawhichobeythesecondlawof
    thermodynamicsinsteadofreversingit.
    Furthermore,turningtochemicalproducts,thefinal
    productoflivingforcesiscarbondioxide,themost
    exothermiccompoundofcarbon.Doesnotthis,then,
    indicateaprocessofproductionofcarbondioxideby
    theoxidationofmorecomplexormoreendothermic
    carboncompounds,preciselyaswemightexpectunder
    thesecondlawofthermodynamics,andpreciselyaswe
    shouldnotexpectunderitsreversal?Andthe
    accompanyingresultistheliberationofalargeamount
    ofchemicalenergy,whichmightbeusedtoexplainthe
    energyoflifewithouthavingrecoursetothereserve
    energywhichthesecondlawofthermodynamicssaysis
    unavailable.Infact,thisprocessoftheoxidationof
    carboncompoundstocarbondioxideisaprocess
    distinctlycharacteristicofthepositiveratherthanofthe
    negativetendency,thusindicatingthatlifeobeysthe
    secondlawofthermodynamicsinsteadofreversingit.
    Inotherwords,itwouldseemasthoughourtheory
    ofthereversibilityoftheuniverseisbasedmerelyona
    superficialresemblanceoflivingphenomenatothe
    theoreticalappearanceofasupposed"negative
    tendency."Theactualproofthatsucha"negative
    tendency"isactuallytobefoundiswantingandit
    seems,indeed,extremelydoubtfulwhetheritdoesexist.
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    Further,inourtheoryoftemporarystarsasstars
    whicharealreadyinaheatedcondition,andwitha
    nebula,butsuddenlygiveoutlightontakingonthe
    positiveinsteadofthenegativetendency,wemay
    noticethatwehavedependedonthepeculiar
    observationsofthe"NebulainMotion"inthecaseof
    NovaPersei1902.Itcertainlyisremarkablethat,while
    temporarystarsareseenaboutonceayearoroftener,
    thatsuchphenomenashouldhavebeenobservedon
    onlythisonestar.Thusatheoryoftheuniverseandof
    theevolutionofstellarsystemsbasedonthe
    observationsofthisstarisonethatisnotlikelytoapply
    ingeneral,becausethisstarisanexceptional
    phenomenon.Ifthereversibilitytheoryiscorrect,the
    phenomenonoftheNebulainMotionshouldbemuch
    morecommonthanitreallyis.
    Further,thetheoryofthereversibilityofthe
    universesupposesthatlifeexistsunderallsortsof
    circumstances,evenonsuchhotbodiesasthesun.
    Certainlyonthesunthereisnopossibilityofanything
    ofthesortthatcomesundertheheadingoflifewithin
    ourexperience.Iflifeexistsonthesun,itmust
    certainlybesodifferentfromanythingthatweareused
    tocalllife,thattherecouldhardlybeanypointsof
    resemblance.Andsimilarlyundermanyother

    circumstancessuchascompleteabsenceofair,water,
    orboth,as,forinstance,onthemoon.Inshort,asmuch
    aswecanobserveoflifewouldratherseemtoindicate
    thatlife,farfromexistingunderallsortsof
    circumstanceseverywhereintheuniverse,isratheran
    extremelycomplexphenomenonthatcanonlyexist
    underveryspecialcircumstances.
    Furthermore,ifwecometotheconclusionthatthe
    secondlawofthermodynamicsisfundamentallybased
    onaconceptualillusion,itwouldbejustaslogicalto
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    admitthesamepossibilityfortheotherphysicallaws,
    inwhichcasethetheoryofthereversibilityofthe
    universewouldalmostcarrywithititsownrefutation,
    sincethereversiblephysicallawsarethefoundationof
    thattheory.Ifobservedfactscanbeexplainedinone
    caseasaconceptualillusion,whynotinanothercase?
    Contents
    137
    SomeObjectionstotheReversibilityTheory

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