P.

Kundur

Outline
Evolution of Wind Power
Wind Turbine Characteristics
Types of Wind Turbine Generator

Technologies
Protection Systems
Reactive Power Compensation and Voltage

Control Requirements
Impact on Power System Dynamic

Performance
Mitigation of Stability Problems

P. Kundur

WTG - 1

 One of the fastest growing primary sources

of energy for generating electricity in

recent years
In 2006, more than 20% of total energy

supply in Denmark was provided by wind

power
In Europe, the total installed capacity of

wind generation in 2011 was about 70 GW,

and is expected to double by 2015
Global Wind Energy Council predicts that

global wind power capacity could reach

2,300 GW by 2030, providing nearly 20% of
of the worlds electricity needs
Introduces new challenges for ensuring

stable and reliable operation of power

systems

P. Kundur

WTG - 2

 The building block to harvest wind power

is a wind turbine generating (WTG) unit

A WTG includes four main components:
Wind turbine
Electric machine (generator)
Power-electronic converter/conditioner
WTG-level controller
A Wind Power Plant (WPP) is a cluster of

WTG units that are collectively interfaced

to the host power system at a point of
interconnection (POI)
WTG units are designed to collectively
interact with the host power system so as
to ensure satisfactory performance

P. Kundur

WTG - 3

 Most modern wind turbines have three

blades
Based on the axis of rotation, wind turbines

can be classified into two basic types:

Horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT)
Vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT)
The HAWT are more efficient in extracting

the kinetic energy from the wind, and are

widely used
There are two types of HAWT rotor

configurations: upwind and downwind

The dominant WTG technology, particularly

for applications in WPPs, is based on the

horizontal axis, three bladed, upwind turbine
structure

P. Kundur

WTG - 4

 Wind turbine components:

wind turbine runs at low speed (0.5 Hz)
mechanical drive train includes a gear box

converts low speed of turbine to high

speed of generator

Mechanical speed regulation:

blade pitch angle control

each blade rotated about longitudinal axis

variable speed
stall control

no pitch actuators required

fixed speed

Types of generators
induction generator
synchronous generator
doubly fed induction generator

WTG ratings range from 25 kW to 7.5 MW

P. Kundur

WTG - 5

 Figure below shows typical output versus wind

Percentage Rated Output

speed characteristics of wind turbines:

cut-in

rated
cut-out

wind speed (m/s)

The cut-in, rated and cut-out speeds shown are

typical for utility-scale WTGs

Generally, WTGs are designed to work at

maximum aerodynamic efficiency between cutin and rated wind speed

For wind speeds higher than rated and lower

than cut-out:
blade pitching or blade stalling is used to
maintain loading within the equipments rating

WTGs shut down for wind speeds higher than

cut-out speed to avoid excessive mechanical

stress
P. Kundur

WTG - 6

Four major types of WTG Technologies used:

1. Squirrel Cage Induction Generators driven by

fixed-speed, stall-regulated wind turbines ((high mechanical stress)

2. Induction Generators with variable external

rotor resistance driven by a variable-speed,

pitch regulated wind turbines
3. Doubly-Fed Induction Generators driven by

variable-speed, pitch regulated wind turbines

4. Synchronous or Induction Generators with full

converter interface (back-to-back frequency

converter), driven by variable-speed, pitch
regulated wind turbines
(not synchronously connected to the grid. connection through frequency converters)

P. Kundur

WTG - 7

 Generator is an induction generator, which

is directly interfaced with the host utility

network
Rotor speed is determined by grid frequency,
regardless of wind speed

Induction generator equipped with an

electronic starter and shunt capacitor

banks for reactive power compensation
Main features: simplicity, robustness of

components, and relatively low cost

Drawbacks: excessive mechanical stress;

significant fluctuations in output quantities

Widely used in the early 1990s;

not used for large-size WTGs and WPPs

P. Kundur

WTG - 9

 Generator is a wound-rotor induction

generator
equipped with a rotor resistor adjustment
device, and
Enables slip control, typically up to 10%
Shunt capacitor system for reactive power

compensation
As compared to Type 1 WTG, slightly

aerodynamically more efficient and has

modestly lower drive-train mechanical
stress
Not the preferred choice for present-day

large-size WTGs and WPPs

P. Kundur

WTG - 10

 WTG is composed of a pitch-controlled

wind turbine, a gear box, and a doubly- fed

induction generator (DFIG)
Stator of the DFIG is directly connected to

the host power system

Three-phase rotor circuit is connected to

the grid through a back- to-back voltagesourced converter system

Applies voltage across the rotor that is
regulated by two rotor current controllers

Typically provides variable speed

operation from about 40% to +30% of the

nominal power system frequency
Aerodynamically more efficient;

lower drive-train mechanical stress; and

lower power/voltage fluctuations
Contd
P. Kundur

WTG - 11

 Wound rotor induction generator with

slip rings
Rotor is fed from a three-phase variable

frequency source, thus allowing variable

speed operation
reduction of mechanical stress; higher
overall efficiency, reduced acoustical noise

The variable frequency supply to rotor is

attained through the use of two voltagesource converters linked via a capacitor
Since the converter system handles only

the rotor quantities, its rating is

significantly smaller (about 30%) than the
generator rating
Note: A more appropriate designation for
this type of generator is: Doubly Fed
Asynchronous Generator (DFAG)
P. Kundur

WTG - 12

DFIG

Grid

Grid side
converter

DC Link

Reactor

Cbc

P. Kundur

WTG - 13

Chopper

Rotor side
converter

 The converters handle ac quantities:

rotor-side converter carries slip frequency
current
stator-side converter carries grid frequency
current

Hence, they are controlled using vector-

control techniques:

based on the concept of a rotating reference

frame and projecting currents on such a
reference
such projections referred to as d- and q-axis
components

With a suitable choice of reference frame,

AC quantities appear as DC quantities in

the steady state
contd

P. Kundur

WTG - 14

 In flux-based rotating frames:

changes in the d-axis component of current will
lead to reactive power changes
changes in the q-axis component will vary
active power

This allows independent control of active

and reactive power of the stator

Implemented through rotor-side converter
control
An important aspect of the DFAG concept !

Since rotor flux tracks the stator flux, air

gap torque provides no damping of shaft

oscillations
additional modulating signal has to be added

P. Kundur

WTG - 15

 Rotor current protection:

Limits current in the rotor side converter
If current rises above set value, a crowbar is
activated

short-circuits the rotor winding at the slip

rings with a static switch
Generator operates as a squirrel cage
induction motor
In newer units, an active crowbar is used
Typically, the case when the voltage at the
terminals of the generator decreases rapidly,
for example during a fault in the grid
In order to avoid overspeeding of turbine, the
speed reference for the pitch control is
reduced simultaneously

increases pitch angle and reduces

mechanical power

P. Kundur

WTG - 16

 Rotor speed protection:

disconnects WTG from the grid if speed
of rotor is higher or lower than set levels
for a predefined time

Over/under voltage protection:

disconnects WTG from the grid if voltage
is above or below set values for a
predefined time

P. Kundur

WTG - 17

 DFAGs have the ability to hold electrical

torque constant
rapid fluctuations in mechanical power can be
temporarily stored as kinetic energy
improves power quality!

Performance for large disturbances

requires thorough analysis

may lead to separation of the unit
process may not be readily apparent from
simplified dynamic simulations

P. Kundur

WTG - 18

 Large disturbances lead to large initial fault

currents, both at the stator and rotor

will flow through rotor-side converter; voltage
source converters are less tolerant of high
currents
further, additional energy goes into charging
the dc bus capacitor and dc bus voltage rises
rapidly

crowbar may be activated

may lead to tripping of the unit

Need for a careful assessment and proper

design of controls to improve capability to

ride through faults

P. Kundur

WTG - 19

 Temporary reduction of active power:

Active Power is ramped down for a predefined time
and then ramped up again to prefault value
This stabilizes wind turbine during the fault and
reduces the current in the rotor converter
Disadvantage: rotor can speed up causing
overspeed protection to trip turbine

handled by the pitch controller

Temporary reduction of active power with

reactive power boosting:

Increases terminal voltage
Improves system stability

P. Kundur

WTG - 20

 Generator is either a synchronous machine

or an induction machine
Generator is connected to the utility

network through a power electronic

converter system
Most often composed of two cascaded AC-DC
converters (back to back voltage source
converters)
Enables full rage of variable speed operation
for the unit, and reactive power control at the
point of connection

A pitch controlled wind turbine is

mechanically interfaced to the generator,

either through a gearbox (conventional
scheme) or directly (direct-drive scheme)
For conventional structure, the generator

is a high speed (e.g. 4-pole) machine, and

thus requires a gearbox
P. Kundur

WTG - 21

 By contrast in the direct-drive structure,

the generator is a low speed (e.g., an 84pole) machine

Generator is directly interfaced to the
turbine rotor shaft; no need for a
gearbox
Generator can be a wound rotor
(conventional) synchronous/induction
machine or a permanent magnet
synchronous machine (PMSG)
Direct-drive units with permanent magnet

synchronous generators are increasingly

being used for large-size WTGs
Type 4 WTGs, like Type 3 WTGs, are

aerodynamically more efficient; have lower

drive-train mechanical stress and lower
power/voltage fluctuations

P. Kundur

WTG - 22

 Most modern WTGs are of:

- Type 3 configuration, or
- Type 4 configuration with PMSG
With a Type 3 unit, the the rating of power-

electronic converter system associated

with the rotor circuit is about 30% of the
generator rating
Less expensive and have lower losses than
the converter system for Type 4 units
Main drawbacks of Type 3 configuration

are its requirement for slip ring and the

need for special rotor current protection
system
Type 4 WTG with PMSG has the following

features: smaller and lighter, does not

require slip-rings, and is structurally
simpler since the rotor control system is
not needed
P. Kundur

WTG - 23

 Utility-scale wind power plants consist of

several tens to hundreds of WTGs

Each unit with a pad-mounted transformer
Connected to transmission network through
a medium-voltage collector network
A power transformer used to interface with
the transmission grid
Depending on the application and type of

WTG, shunt reactive power compensation

may be added at one or more of the
following locations:
WTG terminals
Collector system
Substation interfacing with the
Transmission grid

P. Kundur

WTG - 24

 Wind power plant output varies with wind

resource

Cannot be dispatched like conventional power

plants
System operators cannot control the rate of
power decreases, i.e., ramp down due to falling
wind speeds
For ramping up, some manufacturers provide
the option of controlling rate of power increase

As wind power capacity within a control

area increases, the variability of wind

power can have a significant impact on:

the efficiency of unit commitment process, and

the reserve requirements to meet reliability
performance standards

P. Kundur

WTG - 25

 In areas with large amounts of wind

generation, wind variability can have a

significant impact on voltage profiles
may require switched capacitor banks and
shunt reactors, and transformer tap changer
control

Some wind power plants have the ability to

control/regulate voltage at or near the point

of interconnection to transmission grid
accomplished by installing separate devices
such as SVCs and STATCOMS,
alternatively, external controller may be added
for adjusting the power factor of each
individual WTG until target voltage is achieved

P. Kundur

WTG - 26

 The dynamics of individual WTGs and the

entire wind farms could have a significant

impact on the stability of the bulk power
system

Rotor angle stability is not an issue with

wind power plants because most WTGs are

asynchronous units
No equivalent concept of rotor angle or
synchronizing and damping torques for such
generators

Some studies have revealed that bulk

power system transient rotor-angle

stability is improved if wind power plants,
as compared to conventional power plants
with synchronous generators, are added at
the same location
with WTGs, a smooth and non-oscillatory
power delivery is re-established following a
disturbance
contd

P. Kundur

WTG - 27

 Wind power plants could have a significant

impact on voltage stability following a

network fault

Induction generators absorb higher reactive

power when voltage is low
Even DFIGs may crow-bar during a fault, and
act as an induction generator
Increased reactive power consumption can
lead to voltage instability if the transmission
grid is weak
Voltage stability related to characteristics of
WTGs, as opposed to load characteristics
A short-term phenomenon
Adequate and fast control of reactive power
and voltage required
Overall solution requires coordinated control
of wind farms, including use of external
compensators such as SVCs and STATCOMS
contd

P. Kundur

WTG - 28

 Type 3 and Type 4 WTGs do not contribute

to system inertia

May contribute to frequency instability,

particularly in smaller power systems with high
penetration of wind generation
Special controls, such as inertia control,
often used to address this problem

Detailed simulation studies using

appropriate WTG models essential for

satisfactory integration of large WPPs into
power grids
includes EMTPDC/ PSCAD simulations, in
addition to system stability studies

P. Kundur

WTG - 29

A good source of reference addressing

some of these issues is the CIGRE
Technical Brochure on:
Modeling and Dynamic Behavior of Wind
Generation As It Relates to Power System
Control and Dynamic Performance
- CIGRE Technical Brochure 328, August 2007
- Prepared by CIGRE WG C4.601

P. Kundur

WTG - 30

 Wind field model describing wind speed

Wind turbine model
Model for internal grid of wind power plant
For system studies aggregated

representation is sufficient

a single WTG model to represent the farm or

a sub-group of WTGs
Induction/synchronous generator

represented by a third order or fourth order

model
d and q axis rotor circuits and acceleration
of rotor

Models for controls and protections

P. Kundur

WTG - 31

 Detailed models for WTGs developed by

manufacturers and consultants for grid

integration studies and design of WPPs are
considered as:
Proprietary user-defined models
Further, maintenance of numerous vendor-

specific models is unmanageable for

regional reliability organizations and grid
operators
Efforts are underway for developing

Generic WTG models suitable for

system impact studies and planning and
reliability evaluation studies
Joint report prepared by IEEE WG on Dynamic
Performance of Wind Power Generation and
WECC WG is attached

P. Kundur

WTG - 32

 In the past, wind power plants were

allowed to trip off for nearby transmission

faults and system disturbances
Early WTGs were not integrated in a way

that supported bulk power system

operation
Due to the significant increase in wind power
capacity, this is no longer appropriate

Transmission operators and reliability

coordinators have begun to capture

performance requirements for wind power
plants in Grid Codes
The Grid Codes are new and as such

evolving

Contd

P. Kundur

WTG - 33

Grid Codes (Contd.)

Grid codes typically include performance

requirements relating to:

Active power and frequency control;
Ramp rate control
Reactive power and voltage control
Fault tolerance/ ride-through capability

Requirements can vary depending on the

host power system characteristics, depth

of wind power penetration
With the anticipated significant growth in

wind power in North America and Europe,

NERC and ENTSO-E have organized work
plans to support the power industrys
integration of variable generation
Wind power plants will be required to perform
like conventional power plants from a terminal
point of view

P. Kundur

WTG - 34

Modern WTGs can contribute to the reliability

and efficiency of grid operation by offering
the following capabilities:
Voltage and VAr control/regulation
Fault ride-through: ability to ride through

specific low and high voltages

Real power control, ramping, and

curtailment
Primary frequency regulation
Inertia response: special control
Short-circuit duty control: inverter-based

WTGs have built-in capability to limit the

fault current

Controllable wind power plants are the

way of the future!
P. Kundur

WTG - 35

 An effective way to integrate large

percentage of wind generation

Permits interconnection with main

transmission network at relatively weak

parts of the network
Provides good dynamic response and

ability to comply with demanding grid code

requirements
Results in smaller footprint
Ongoing development in power

semiconductor switches expected to

address the problem of circuit interruption
and switching
Growing interest in the application for

interconnection of off-shore wind farms

with the transmission network

P. Kundur

WTG - 36