Uvod U Studij Književnosti

Introduction to Literary Theory
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GENRES
Lyrical / poetry sonnets, odes, hymns, ballads

Drama (plays) comedy, tragedy, tragicomedy, satirical play, melodrama
Epic
Narrative novels, short stories, novellas, fables, fairy tales
Narrative genre focuses on telling a story, on action and events. Word are organised into
sentences organised into paragraphs, chapters it is relatively long, has characters and a
narrator.
Lyrical/poetry is relatively short. Words are organised into verses/lines, stanzas it focuses on
feelings/emotions, it explains and expresses thoughts and emotions. It has a poetic persona.
Dramatic in longer in form, focuses on actions. It is told in dialogues by characters themselves
and performed. It has characters, acts and scenes.
SUZAN GRIFFIN
This Is The Story of the Day in the Life of a Woman Trying
This poem has characteristics of the narrative genre: it is telling a story, focusing on
events, the words are organised into sentences (here we have very long verses sentences); it
is relatively long longer than ordinary poem, it has characters:
Woman, child, her friend, man who telephoned, woman she shares house with, people in
the babysitting agency, etc.
She is a writer, wants to dedicate herself to her work (shes trying to be a writer) but lot of
everyday tasks (dishes, sick child, telephone, bills, etc) come in the way.
The Carpenters Wife

Ballads are narrative poetry; they focus on the events, on retelling the story and have
characters. This ballad has some narrative characteristics (story, events, and characters) but the
poem-characteristics prevail. It also has some characteristics of dramatic genre its told in
dialogues between the characters.
The Unquiet Grave is also a ballad and has same characteristics. Talks about emotions
but gives descriptions, has characters, has even a dialogue
(S) CRITERIA OF CLASSIFICATION
Criteria of classification:
1Linguistic: English, Italian, Russian, etc.
2National:
English,
Italian,
Canadian,
American, etc. These two must not be identified.
3Aesthetic/theoretical: high vs. trivial or the elite vs. mass literature. Aesthetic is the
science of beautiful. High literature means serious, elite which is put in literary canon by
universal professionals.
4Sociological: which targets certain groups to which it is appealing womens, youth
literature, etc.
5Historical: medieval, Renaissance, modernistic, etc.
1
A Script for Final Test
1Medium-oriented: oral (in the beginnings stories, poems were transmitted orally), written
(writing comes later) or audio-visual (modern).
2-Mimetic vs. anti-mimetic or realistic vs. fantastic
Mimetic from mimesis copy or imitation
Mimetic is more realistic and anti-mimetic more fantastic.
- Conventional vs. experimental: conventional respects rules of a certain time. Experimental
does not respect those rules but as time passes it may become conventional.
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MAIN LITERARY GENRES:

poetic/lyrical texts poetry
dramatic texts drama
narrative texts the narrative (1. fiction? imaginative writing - in this case fiction includes all
of
this; 2. only prose)
POETRY
1-
Poetic/Lyric: (expresses feelings)

1- ode, hymn (pray poems, dedicated to gods), sonnet (love poem Petrarch,
Shakespeare), elegy (lyric poem, poem with sad melancholic mood; usually expresses lament
for someone or something)
2Dramatic: related to poetic drama
This is between poetry and drama. Includes many dialogues, lot of
communication) - Narrative: ballad
Focuses on events, on retelling the events, telling a story.
Most poems are usually a blend of these characteristics.
DRAMA
Tragedy hero experiences a downfall.
Comedy
Tragicomedy, farce, etc.
Poetry expresses more feelings, more inner thoughts than drama; drama concentrates on
expressing more action, having more dialogues, etc.
NARRATIVE TEXTS
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Novel (the longest, has variety of characters, episodes, etc)

Novella (or short novel)
Short story
Fairy tale
Fable
Epic has a special place; it can be included in the narrative texts or it is treated as a separate
genre; it is a mixture of poetic and narrative forms.
The epic is a combination of
elements: Poetic elements:
verse form
orally performed
accompanied
with
music has lyrical parts
Narrative elements:
It is long
Has series of episodes
Concerned with action and great deeds of heroes (it also includes some
lyrical passages with the expression of emotions)
The epic is the oldest literary form
Classical epic: Homers Iliad and Odyssey (1200 800BC)
These epics have mythical past, uncertain authorship, historical unreliability and different time
planes
Non-European epics: Gilgamesh epic (ca.2000 BC), Mahabharata and Ramayana (ca.200 BC)
Classical epic national or folk epic
e.g. Beowulf traditions of Germanic tribes of northern Europe)
Secondary or literary epic:
Has easily identifiable author; is modelled on older epics; treats artistically or borrows themes
and stories
e.g. Virgil: Aeneid; Milton: Paradise Lost; Spenser: Faerie Queene; Dante: Divine Comedy.
Mixture of fiction and non-fiction:
1- Essays
2- Sermons and other religious writings
3- History books
4- Travelogues
5- Letters, diaries, memoirs
6- Street ballads
7- Political pamphlets
8- Cyberpunk etc.
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SUBJECTIVITY
Subjectivity is the individual treatment of particular theme.

Arthur Quiller-Couch - Daffodils
He was walking in the nature alone and lonely and saw the daffodils. Because of the reaction
of the daffodils to the wind he sees them as if they were dancing.
He sees a whole field of daffodils and compares them with the Milky Way because it seems
that they are endless there is so many of them that they seem as if they end where the sea
begins in the bay. He sad he saw the thousand because he saw a lot of them he could say one
million as well, and the wind was blowing so they were dancing.
He draws a parallel between the flowers and waves. In this stanza he also shows us that the
poet himself is the poetic persona and hes happy, he enjoys the view.
When in bad mood he recalls the view and the daffodils dancing in the wind.
A
Scri
pt
for
Final
Test
Ezra Pound Liu Che

In this poem is described the death of a beloved person but the poetic persona doesnt say
anything about his feelings. It is autumn and life is missing in this poem; there is nobody
walking, no more movement, no more rustling of the silk, just dust and fallen leaves. Leaves had
fallen on the ground and she the rejoicer of the heart is beneath them shes dead. He tries to
make this less personal but it is not, it is mocking personal he obviously misses her but he
doesnt say so but everything expresses the feelings.
In a Station of the Metro
Pound used haiku because of the movement Imagism in the early 20 th century. It
concentrates on the images themselves. Haiku has only 3 lines and number of syllables in lines
is 5 7 5.
In a station of the metro there are many strangers, even the metro itself is strange its from
France. The petals are the strangers they hang but they may fall off as well. Black bough is the
rail lines which are usually black, and it is wet because its raining.
Walt Whitman Tears
On the beach at night hiding and crying not showing emotions in public. The theme is
how we behave in public we dont show ourselves.
Important here are the images that the poet creates and that a reader should create in his
mind his mental images.
Perspective is the point of view that the teller takes.
Siegfried Sasoon Glory of Women
Sasoon wrote from the trenches, he was in the War Poets. This poem is about World War II.
YOU are the women that partook in the confront. Women started producing ammunition; they
were left alone in the cities while men were in the battle. This poem is anti-war. Who is the I?
the soldier. Even the German mother is mentioned because nobody was left untouched by the
war.
Stevie Smith Not Waving But Drowning
Stevie Smith attempted suicide.
A man is dead and the other are not paying attention. While he was alive he was crying for
help but they misunderstood. His jokes were not necessarily just jokes but cries for help. There
is the dead persons perspective and the others perspective. Second stanza their perspective
people observing. 3rd stanza is the way he saw and knew the situation. Relativity what appears
to be waving to someone can be drowning for someone else.
A
Scri
pt
for
Final
Test
Theodore Roethke My Papas Waltz

The boy is telling the story and addressing his father. This poem can be interpreted as a
positive or as a story of a battered child. There are many ambiguous facts in this poem.
(S) POETRY
Typical features:
1. shortness
2. subjectivity: selective treatment of the theme individual approach; perspective
3. condensed language
4. musicality/melodiousness: rhyme, repetition of words, etc.
5. the stanzaic form
1. even the longest poem is shorter than drama or a novel

2. Subjectivity is related to highly selective treatment of the theme. Poet treats the theme from
individual, specific perspective. The theme is not what makes a poem subjective, but the approach
the theme does not have to be original (death of beloved person not original theme), but the
original approach of the author makes the poem subjective. The author tries to deal with the
theme on his own original way. E.g. Liu Che not original theme but the way that Pound
chooses to treat the theme (theres no pathetic approach in this poem).
Perspective is the point of view who is speaking to whom, who is the speaker and who is the
addressee? Here is important the angle which the poetic I takes. (poetic I = poetic voice, poetic
persona, lyrical I this is the speaker)
The poetic I is not the poet himself (usually); it is another invention of the
poet. There is implicit and explicit I :
Explicit I - e.g.
I am tired of work; I am tired of building up somebody
Elses civilisation
Let us take a rest M Lissy
Jane. I will go down to the
(F. Johnson Tired, 1922)
Explicit I and explicit addressee Miss Lissy Jane
Implicit I e.g.
The golf links lie so near the
mil That almost every day
The labouring children can look
out And see the men at play
(S. Cleghorn, 1917)
The I here remains impersonal (example also in the station of a metro)
Theme: poverty, injustice, dissatisfaction, compassion for the children. This is socially engaged
poetry. I is disappointed with how life is but we dont know who this person is.
A
Scri
pt
for
Final
Test
Subjectivity e.g.
At ten AM the young housewife
Moves about in negligee behind..
(William Carlos Williams The Young Housewife 1917)
Here we have the explicit I (I pass solitary in my car)
The I feels compassion, sympathises with the woman, shes alone, her everyday duties and
obligations. Theme: position of a woman in marriage negative one.
We have also the implicit addressee the poetic voice addresses nobody special
3. Self-referentiality of poetic language
The language in poetry draws attention to itself by:
1unusual expressions and extraordinary combinations of sounds/words
2- strange/unusual ideas
4. lyric from lira (mus. Instrument Greek) originally referred to music, because in the
beginnings poetry had musical background. In late development lyric became written form. In the
early stages it was performed orally, companied by music.
We can achieve melodiousness in poetry in few levels:
1. Phonological level level of sounds, when you achieve musicality through rhyme, poetic
meter, etc.
2. morphological level e.g. repetition of words
3. syntactic level arrangements of sentences
4. semantic level use of exceptionally figurative language
RHYME
Rhyme is part of musicality in poetry.
End rhyme or pure rhyme is the repetition of sounds beginning with the last stressed
vowel: Bright night
Internal rhyme is the rhyme that occurs inside lines (crowd bough)
Slant rhyme, also called: imperfect rhyme, off rhyme, para rhyme, half rhyme, near rhyme,
etc. crowd bough type 1 of slant rhyme repetition of vowels
type 2 consonance repetition of consonants, e.g. rider reader, farer fearer
Alliteration is repetition of initial consonant (usually) in 3 or more successive words: when
weeds in wheels
Homophonic rhyme words that are pronounced the same but are written differently (knight
night)
Historical rhyme prove and love you pronounce [luv] as it was pronounced in 16 th century
just to achieve the rhyme
Rhyme Scheme
Sequence of end rhymes in a stanza/poem marked by small letters, e.g.
- rhyming couplets: aa, bb, cc
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alternate rhyme: abab, cdcd (typical for the sonnet)

embracing rhyme: abba, cddc
chain rhyme: aba, bcb, cdc
Poetic Meter in the text collection for practical classes

5. STANZAIC FORM
Stanza = poetic
paragraph Couplet 2
verse lines Tercet
Quatrain
2 tercets sestet
2 quatrains octet or octave
The Italian and the English sonnet (14 verses) most rigid verse form
Stanza consists of verses verse lines.
Internal structure of a poem: syntax and verse length:
End-stopped lines are when theres 1 idea in 1 verse line; 1 syntactic unit in 1 line.
Enjambment or run-on lines is when syntactical unit spills over the verse lines, from the 1 st to
the 2nd and so on.
(P) ARISTOTLE POETICS TRAGEDY
Mimesis imitative process
Tragedy = imitation of action
Action: Serious (matter of life and death)
Complete (beginning, middle, end)
Has magnitude (person in difficult situation)
Media:
Language (made, artificial-poetic language)
Acting (actors)
Purification of the audience means that they should feel pity and fear.
Language has to be:
Rhythmic and melodious (poetic language)
Different forms verses, songs (music, choruses, singing)
Constituent elements (make the form): plot, characters, verbal expression, thought, song
composition, visual adornment
Plot is structuring (organisation) of events (of the action imitated)
Aristotle constantly focuses on the plot; plot is imitation of the events and tragedy is imitation of
events theres no tragedy without plot.
What is imitated: plot, characters, thought
A
Scri
pt
for
Final
Test
Constituent elements:
1 the greatest importance has the plot; tragedy imitates life actions in life
2 characters tragedy imitates the persons for the sake of their actions
3 thought underlying the theme of the tragedy based on the ability of the
writer 4 verbal expression
5 song composition
6 visual adornment
[8]
Unity of plot of place and time
Unity of plot depends on logical connection of events and how logically events are tied. It has to
be all the elements of plot tightly knit in order to make sense.
Hierarchy of disciplines
Events
History just describes what has happened
Literature prevents something from happening.
Characters are important because of their actions. In Shakespearean tragedy Hamlets inner
state is important. In Oedipus its not.
Chapter 12 - Plots
Simple and complex plot
If we have a tightly knit structure it is a good plot if not it is a simple plot which is not good. Here
if it is not simple it is complex contains events that are fearful and pathetic; it has to induce fear
and pathos (emotional charge)
The plot is best constructed if even the events that are unexpected come logically; even
accidents have to be very much connected with the previous actions.
Cause and effect logical causality of plots
REVERSAL (shift, change): in simple plot there is no peripety and no recognition (anagnorisis);
in complex plot we have both the peripety and anagnorisis.
Peripety is a sudden reversal. Recognition is finding some peace of information we did not know
before.
Everything begins with chorus (people of city Thebes) begging Oedipus to save them from the
plague. Reversal is when Teiresias tells Oedipus The shift is when Oedipus starts realising
something is wrong. He realises the strangeness of this all.
Hamlet begins with the ghost.
Monologue is meant to be heard.
Cythe govor postrance short comments that nobody hears, while other characters are
speaking
Soliloquy 1 character is alone on the stageit seems as if he were speaking to God of himself.
Hamlet has several plots
Accidents : Polonius death and Ophelias suicide
Revenge is at the end

Pg 37 of Poetics:
3 elements:
Pathos (destructive act, acts causing
pain) Peripetia ( peripety, shift)
Anagnorisis (recognition)
Chapter 13 pg 38
-pity/fear is motivating catharsis through characters of particular type and particular direction of
events evolve.
Artistically made plot.
HAMARTIA mistake (character is a normal person, not too good, not wicked, not a god, hes
just what is expected of human being; but he does make mistakes)
Direction of events is from good to bad
Chapter 15 characters
Deux ex macinae in Greek theatre everything supernatural image of god coming from machine
no person plays gods.
Pg. 43 appropriate in actions behave in a particular way in society
Inappropriate is not credible, has to behave according to the expectations
Consistent behaves in the same way throughout the whole play
Likeness to human nature should be a human, even if a hero must not be a superman.
Hamlet experiences a downfall because of a mistake, because of hi indecisiveness; he spends too
much time lamenting and acting, hes melancholic; he thinks and prolongs; he is inconsistent; hes
more good than bad. In Elizabethan time theatre is about characters not just actions; it does not
revolve around actions. Hamlet had chances but he does not act no cause and effect relation.
Pg 42 underlined : according to this Hamlet would be a disaster of a play; but this reflects the
modern theatre.
(S) ANCIENT GREEK THEATRE
5th century BC was the golden age of ancient Greek drama: Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides.
Tragedy builds on the epic; the stories from the epics were used again in the drama. Sophocles
did not invent Oedipus; this story was already known to the Greek society from the epic. Epic
was the oldest, then comes drama, then lyric.
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Theatron or Koilon
Greek theatre was an open-air theatre amphitheatre. In theatron, rows or seats are Kerkis,
stairs Klimakes; there are 2 parts upper and lower, separated by aisle Diazoma. There is a
special seat for the priest of Dionysius; its a kind of throne; its very decorated. Orchestra is
circular space in the centre (not music orchestra); or dancin place; in the centre of orchestra is
an altar. A part of dramatic action took place there; a chorus stood there (a group of singers and
dancers that stood in orchestra they commented, sang, danced + served as a guide for the
audience they summed up, dropped hints etc. they provided entertainment). Chorus was
very important for the development of drama. The Greek tragedy evolved from the chorus.
Beyond the orchestra is the Skene scene stage building that looked like a house; it provided
background for the stage Logeion Proskenion. First it was made of wood and then it became
permanent stone building. Approval of the play was shown not only by clapping, but with
shouting, hissing, if they didnt like the play the audience would throw fruit, stones
The theatre has religious origin: god Dionysius and his annual festivals : The Lenaea and
The Greater Donysia. It had a religious function; it was rooted in religion. It was inevitable a
sacred place, built between the temple and market place.
Dionysius is Roman god Bachus. Dionysius was god of wine, hedonism (sexual orgies),
to Greeks he represented positive qualities, but he also had a dark and positive side. Bachus is
a simplified version of Dionysius; he was a god of wine and sexual orgies; the view of him was
too simple.
Dionysius negative side:
The followers of the god revered him till self-destruction; specially drinking rituals which
included lots of wine and other psychedelic substances. The followers did all this jus to be united
with the god Dionysius. He symbolised unity of being all existing forms would go back to him.
They had sexual orgies as well and the aim wasnt pure entertainment but unity with god
Dionysius.
Positive side:
He symbolised rebirth, natural renewal, fertility, continuation of life, regeneration, spring,
nature. He had 2 big annual festivals and some small village fests. In that time the plays in
honour of god Dionysius were played (role of the th3eatre).
Leanea was a festival of wine press. Wine was considered to be mystical substance. It
was held in January and February.
The Greater Dionysia the City Dionysia; was a central festivity in honour of god
Dionysius. It was held in March and April. During this festival contests in skills were held:
1tragedy
2comedy
3dithyramb (hymn dedicated to Dionysius, praise the god)
On the 1st day religious processions were held, on the 2 nd day contests in dithyramb, on
3 day contests in comedy and last 3 days contests in tragedy. From this we can see the
importance of tragedy. It was regarded as perfect art form. We dont know her exact origin but it
may have developed from dithyramb.
rd
1
0
Origin of tragedy as a dramatic form

Dithyramb / satyr play/ tragedy
Dithyramb is a hymn in honour of god Dionysius. Satyrs are mythological creatures halfmen half goat with great sexual energy; the were chasing the nymphs. Tragedy is the most
recent. It evolved from the satire and dithyramb tradition. How?
1st theory:
Chorus was the nucleus of tragedy. Ion the beginning it must have been just chorus.
Then
st
1 of the singers just separated
from
the
others
and
a
form
of
conversation
developed
1
verbal
exchanges. Son of 1st single singer was a kind of narrative of events from life of god Dionysius.
With time other themes came not just god D.
Aeschylus added the 2nd actor; now there were 2 actors and a chorus.
Sophocles added the 3rd actor + the chorus. Nov the tragedy was more developed than in
the beginning. In the 5th century BC tragedy and satyr-play were the dramatic forms and
dithyramb poetry.
Aristotles Poetics is the most important document; it is the oldest known peace of literary
theory in the western world. It was written 50 75 years after the Greek tragedy experienced its
peek.
Aristotles Poetics had 2 parts. The 2 nd part was lost. Division of 1 st part: introduction
(chapter 1-5); main part (ch. 6-22) on tragedy; final part (ch. 23-26) on epic and tragedy vs. epic.
Introduction: mimesis (imitation) is the fundamental phenomenon of art imitation of life.
Final: action in the play has to take place within 24 hours unity of time. Epic is longer.
Tragedy must have single action; epic can combine more actions and episodes. Unity of place;
action has to take place in 1 city. Epic hasnt these restrictions.
Theory of tragedy in Poetics
Descriptive or prescriptive approach?
1. definition of tragedy and 6 constituent elements
2. elements of tragic plot: primacy of plot: primacy of plot over character
3. effect on audiences: eleos (pity), phoibos (fear or terror), catharsis
Tragedy imitates action NOT
characters. Cause-effect chain:
Middle action has to logically follow out of the beginning and affect the ending.
Magnitude stands for the tone/atmosphere of tragedy. Events are always highly intense,
dramatic. The theme is universal; the audience has to recognise themselves. You can measure
the quality of tragedy depending on the effect on the audience.
Mixed characters is what a tragic hero in a good tragedy must be like not perfect but not
totally bad.
Oedipus is symbol of humanity left in ignorance.
Hamartia is what is responsible for the downfall of the hero. In Oedipus it is and error a
mistake; he falls not because hes a bad character; he is not the cause of his fall. Hamartia is not
moral deficiency; its just a mistake in judgement he makes. He falls because he makes mistakes.
A
Scri
pt
for
Final
Test
1
1
Primacy of plot
Plot = arrangement of incidents (not the story itself)
Connection with the Greek world picture and religious origins of the Greek theatre: man is
what he does (no psychological approach) and the concept of fate or gods
Oedipus is tragic because he remains dignified; because of his response, reaction; he
confronts his fate. Not because of his moral, just what he did is important primacy of plot.
(S)17.10.2008.
1*
2*
3*
primacy of plot
mixed characters
effect on the audience
Hamartia is different in Greek and Elizabethan tragedy. Greek gods are not like
Christian/monotheistic god; they can be mean and nasty and monotheistic god is on the other
hand loving and forgiving.
Oedipus is a tragic hero because he wanted to find the truth; he showed his dignity and stoicism.
In Aristotelian criteria he was a perfect tragic hero; he took the full responsibility for his acts, he
was also not a villain but not too good either; he showed rashness and hot temper. Rashness
why did he marry a woman old enough to be his mother although he knew about the prophecy
and did he get in fight and kill an older man, a man old enough to be his father? These bad
characteristics of his are also shown in his behaviour towards Creon and Teiresias.
In this tragedy the whole story of his life is not necessary, just this part where the most important
events occur.
The beginning, middle and end are connected with cause-effect chain; this means that one event
leads to another. The beginning is the event that triggers off. The plot structure is shown on
Freytags triangle.
First Oedipus promises to find the murderer of Laius. He consults the oracle in Delphi. The
climax are the messengers; both of them have a function an that is to get to the truth.
Peripeteia/Reversal (of the messengers intention)
Anagnorisis/Recognition
Desis/rising action/tying up/complication
Lusis/falling action/unravelling/denouement
Reversal and recognition come at almost the same time in climax.
Is Hamartia error or flaw?
1Error/mistake with no moral overtones (because of Greek value-system and Greek
theatre): Oedipus as a symbol of mankind left in ignorance and wrong judgement despite the
search for truth, dignity and nobility.
2Flaw: tragic moral flaw in the character, false moral judgement (because of Christian
value-system and Elizabethan theatre) - Hamlet
What is ironic about Oedipus is the fact that Teiresias is blind but sees and Oedipus can see but
is blind; then Oedipus blinds himself because when he had eyes he did not see the truth.
ELIZABETHAN THEATRE / SHAKESPEAREAN THEATRE
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Renaissance in 16th century attitude to Aristotelian rules

Outside England Aristotle was influential even after the Renaissance, but in England plays of
new type were written. There was a different understanding of plot, characters and of the effect
on audience. It was Shakespearean theory of drama.
Greek and Elizabethan theatre: common characteristics
They were both concerned with the position of human being in the world. They emphasized
human dignity, worth, responsibility and stoicism, nobility of mind, even in the worst situations.
Tragedy shows human being reaching the highest point of dignity when in the worst situation.
Tragedy directly or indirectly hints that human lives are governed by some higher forces (gods).
They have similar effect on audiences pathos and pity. They focus on sad, tragic, dramatic
events: murder, incest, death, pain, cosmic loneliness. They are never entirely pitiful nor entirely
fearful (terrifying) (entirely pitiful are soap operas and cheap love stories). There is good dosage
of fear and pity but none should prevail. They are partly outcome of mans actions and partly
gods decision. Shakespeare gives more free will to his characters but he also shows a hint of
higher authority.
NEW CONCEPT OF DRAMA
Primacy of character the tragic hero and Hamartia as tragic flaw
It is important what the characters are like; their inner motivation for what they do not just the actions
as in Greek tragedy. There are many monologs and soliloquy, which are typical of Shakespeare (To
be or not to be). Their function is to reveal the mind of the character/tragic hero. Even here there are
mixed characters; not too god and not villains. They fall due to the fact that their deeds are judged
because of the tragic moral flaw which is in themselves in their nature. This flaw is a tragically
overstressed quality; e.g. Hamlets indecisiveness, he tends to exaggerated analysing. Hamlet is an
anti-hero; he is the opposite of Oedipus; does not do anything.
Disregard of unities
Modern theatre doesnt respect unities. Unity of time (everything has to happen within 24 hours)
Shakespeare disregards this rule. Unity of action (everything happens on 1 place Oedipus is
in Thebes on the court) Shakespeare disregards this unity as well, action happens on different
places graveyard, travels, court etc.
Unity of plot (1 single plot) has similar elements but not strictly. There is the main plot
(Hamlets story) and sub-plot (Ofelias family; Laertes revenge for his father and sister).
Mixture of the tragic and the comic
Shakespeare combines tragic and comic elements. E.g. character of the fool (kings jester) in
Shakespeares plays this character utters what everybody thinks but nobody is allowed to say openly.
There are also human follies ridicule of some other characters. Shakespeares comedies were not
pure comedies; they had elements of tragedy; some dark bitter observations. His late comedies are
considered to be dark comedies. Greeks would never make or accept this mixture.
Different physical setting the stage
The Globe theatre Shakespeare was the owner, playwright and actor as well.
First plays were the university plays and interludes. In Renaissance England, the interludes were
performed in private mansions and the university plays were performed in schools, especially in
law schools Inns of Court. First professional acting companies were the travelling actors; they
would set up temporary stages in fields. In 16 th century the reputation of these groups grew
there were 2 Inns in London..:
The Elizabethan Stage
1
3
First were temporary or improvised stages. The inns served as temporary theatres (in midcentury) e.g. The Saracens Head and The Boars Head. First permanent playhouses were
e.g. The Globe (1599); The Rose; The Swan. The entrance to these playhouses was paid;
earlier the entrance in the inns was not paid. The shape: baiting house and inn. The playhouses
were built outside the city because they were frowned at and disapproved; everything that had to
do with acting was disapproved.
In 1613 The Globe was burnt down the roof got fire. In 1614 it was reopened. In 1644 it was
finally demolished because the puritans (religious fanatics) ordered all theatres to be closed. In
1660 it was again reopened and in 1997 the New Globe was opened.
The precise view of the stage is not certain. There is a sketch of the Swan theatre made by
Dutchman Johannes de Wit about 1596. it is similar to Globe; has circular shape, inner
courtyard, stage.
Shape of the Globe
Circular form of the baiting house where the cock fights took place. The tiring house had 2
floors. The performances depended on weather and there were no lights so there were no night
performances. The stage was the apron stage it was projected towards the audiences so the
performance took place in the midst of the audience. Classification of the audiences:
1 the groundlings they stood on the ground around the stage ( cheap 1 penny ticket)
2 those who paid more expensive tickets and sat on the benches on surrounding galleries (2
floors)
3 the richest they had private room on the gallery
This was a democratic stage. Different social classes were allowed to come; the theatre was not
restricted only to aristocracy. Social classes mingled. The town council thought that the Globe
was bad influence; especially because of the possibility it offered different classes to mingle
uncontrolled mixing. They tried to isolate playhouses and place them outside the city.
The size of the theatre was - it could receive 2000 3000 spectators; had good acoustic so the
actors did not have to shout in order to be heard; there was a close contact between the
audiences and the actors; there was almost no scenery, no furniture, just some stoles and
maybe a throne. There were 2 stage doors for the actors. Between the doors was the curtained
room used only in special acts for sick-bed parts not too often. There was the 2 nd floor balcony
which was used only in particular scenes (Romeo and Juliet) and which was also used for the
musicians. There was a flag, when it was unfurled it was a signal that the shoe will begin shortly.
Hell was separated by curtains and there was a trapdoor on the stage leading to hell. Deux ex
machina was part of tiring house. There was entrance and exit for the actors; main entrance was
in front. Apart from the apron stage it was also called Passe-partout scenery:
Since there was little or no furniture on the stage, it demanded lot of imagination of the
audiences. There were many lines in the plays that told the audience what they should imagine
(e.g. Macbeth). There was no curtain on the stage; the action was moving fast and everything
was taking place in front of the audience. The signal for the change of scene was: the group of
actors came out through the exit door and another group of actors came in. no change of
location could be signalled because there was no furniture. Pass partout for the Elizabethan
theatre was the tiring house; it never changed that part had to serve every action, every scene;
the scenes changed but the same physical background remained. There was no extra effort
invested in decoration. The stage suggests a variety of locations deck of a ship, forest, street,
court Actors had richly decorated costumes and a lot of music was played. There were no
women actors; boys played women. There were 4 to 5 main actors.
Usually there was up to 12 actors. Companies were run by non-acting managers. With time the
actors also got share (part of profit) in the theatre (e.g. Shakespeare). There were performances
for 4 of 5 nights in row. If a play was a real success it could be rerun. There was competition
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between acting groups. Demand for plays was big and there was lot of work for the actors and
playwrights.
SHAKESPEARES HAMLET
Identify structural elements of the plot:
1. Incentive moment
2. rising action
3. climax and recognition; reversal
4. falling action
5. resolution
(2 plots intertwined; 5 acts in Hamlet)
1. The beginning causes the chain of other events (in Oedipus it was plague). Everything begins
with the appearance of ghost. Now Hamlet has to revenge and this triggers off the chain of other
events.
2. cause-effect chain chain of events from the appearance of the ghost to climax.
Hamlet fakes madness. This is his strategy to be able to investigate in peace under cover of
madness and to uncover his uncle. This way hes buying time so that Claudius thinks that
Hamlet is not a worthy opponent.
Ophelia talks to her father; she is offended by Hamlets words when he acts mad because he
was insulting and harsh. She thinks he doesnt love her. He also had to show Ophelia that he is
mad; he couldnt tell her the truth. (Ophelias flaw was that she was Polonius daughter).
King calls Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. They are spies and Hamlet knows that they are on a
mission. He doesnt trust anyone, especially Polonius. He trusts only
Horatio. 3. 3rd Act
Hamlet decides to organise a play a mousetrap for his uncle to see if he is really guilty. He
orders the actors to act the scene of his fathers death to see Claudius reaction. This is the
beginning of the crisis and it leads to the catastrophe. After the play the uncle is affected and he
is praying; Hamlet has a perfect opportunity to kill him but he cant kill him while hes praying
because he believes that that way hell send his soul to heaven and not to hell. He misses the
chance. He goes to his mothers room. Polonius is hiding behind the curtain and Hamlet kills him
(compensation for not killing Claudius). This the moment of peripety reversal:
Now Claudius knows that Hamlet is not mad, that he knows the truth and that he could be
planning to kill him. Now everything is in the open between Hamlet and Claudius. There are 2
recognitions here:
1st Hamlet is now sure that Claudius is guilty the moment he sees Claudius reaction to the
play 2nd Claudius knows what Hamlet hides that he is not mad and that he knows.
This is not a classical recognition.
4. Events that Claudius undertakes against Hamlet unravelling the plot:
12-
Ophelias suicide
Laertes and Claudius conspiracy against Hamlet
5. this is not classical resolution justice is not served in classical way. Hamlet has fulfilled his
task, he revenged, he managed to kill Claudius BUT his mother, Laertes and he himself are
dead. It is an ambiguous resolution; justice is partly served.
(P) OUR TOWN
15
This play was written in the 30s. Structure has narrative elements.
Genre:
dramatic
narrative
Plot
Story/plot
Enactment
Narration (narrator)
Characters
Characters
Scenes/acts
Lines/paragraph/chapters
Dialogue
Dialogue and/or description
Action
Action/events
Costumes/scenery
Wilder:
No scenery/costumes
Little action
Some dialogues
Plot
Enactment
Characters + narrator
Narration and descriptions
He doesnt follow the characteristics. He wants the audience to imagine; he focuses on the
imagination of the audience.
Preface:
th
In the Preface he blames issues of 19
century middle class; says that theatre became dull
th
business due to habits and tastes of 19 century middle class see in the text!
Tragedy aimed at the audience
Satire aimed at government form of criticism
Comedy exaggerated characteristic of people set the model of behaviour;
All of their purpose was teaching; this can happen to you. Now the teaching part was less and
Wilder showed rebellion against it.
Then the most popular were the melodrama (todays soap operas), sentimental drama and
comedy (grotesque comedy). Dramas were sheer entertainment and the theatre became a place
where you went to be seen.
The theatre lost its universality, it became particular. We understand something because we can
identify with everything that is universal. Ideas and messages have to be universal; antiillusionist theatre was universal.
Message of this play: enjoy your life as it is!!!
Main idea: grab a day and enjoy it!
Act 1 : Daily Life
1901
Daily activities in an ordinary small town presented on the example of the Webbs and
Gibbs. 1 Stage Manager introduces the play and the setting.
2 Paper boy, milkman, Dr Gibbs
3 Stage Manager talks about paper boys life and
death 4 The families have breakfast
Act 2 : Love and Marriage
1904
16
Wedding day and ceremony of Emily W and George G.

1 Stage Manager introducing/describing the setting for the act
2 Milkman and constable
3 George visits the Webbs house
4 Stage Manager introduces a flashback
5 Emily and George in 1901/02
6 Ceremony
Act 3 : Death
1913
Funeral of Emily Webb Gibbs and her reappearance on a day of her 12 th birthday
1902. 1 Stage Manager introduces the setting and the background for the act
2 Grave digger and the man who is leaving
town 3 Dead speak
4 Funeral procession
5 Emily joins the dead
6 Emily returns on the day of her 12th birthday
Appreciate small things in life.
No community; no town is perfect and untouchable; cant be isolated (because of the locking of
the doors)
Anti-illusionist elements:
1 Stage Manager:
Narrator
Commentator
Character (these 3 were the tasks of a chorus in Greek tragedy)
Director
2 Sparse scenery
(difference between number of chairs live / dead)
Changes of scenery by characters themselves before your very eyes
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(S) SUBSEQUENT DEVELOPMENT: THE BEGINNING OF MODERN STAGE

Inigo Jones (1573-1652): the court, the masque and the picture-frame stage
Theatre changes already during Shakespeares life. Now everything is focused on picture-frame
stage and variable sets. Inigo Jones was an English architect and set designer. He made the
first changes in the theatre. He was very active in Jacobean period (King James I). He
collaborated with Ben Johnson costume designer. Inigo Jones invented highly elaborate scene
and stage; it was much decorated; with lot of furniture, flowers, nature-scenes, facades of the
houses; the facades were technological inventions. He introduced perspective paintings
background paintings which gave the audiences a feeling of depth.
The new play was court masque; those were brief dramatic presentations based on classical
stories from Greek or Roman mythology or stories that celebrated the royal couple. They were
performed in court or palaces of rich men. The queen even participated in acting and the royal
coupe even wrote some of these plays. They were spectacular entertainment; had expensive
scenery and costumes; there was singing, dancing and music and as we see it was related to
the opera. This is called the illusionist theatre; it creates illusion of reality in the audiences.
Illusionist theatre, the invisible 4th wall; the absolute drama
The willing suspension of disbelief means that you could willingly accept the illusion. In 17 th, 18th
and 19th century the illusionist theatre dominated. Audiences went to the theatre which invited them
to identify themselves with the play, to forget themselves. The theatre was the illusion of reality; it
imitated real life as far as possible. The picture-frame stage, also called the box-stage, was
separated from the audiences (by curtain and ramp on 3 sides) and it seemed like a room with
invisible 4th wall. Elizabethan theatre had no sides, no walls, no ramp and no curtain; there was
closer contact between the audience and the actors; the stage was open and projected into the
audience. Now, in the modern theatre, the stage was illuminated and the audience was in the dark;
there was no eye-to-eye contact between the audience and the actors. Curtain was used to mark the
beginning and the end and to hide the changes of scenery so that the illusion of reality would not be
destroyed. This kind of theatre was the absolute drama; it tries not to undermine the dramatic
illusion at all costs (e.g. use of curtain). The picture-frame stage is tied to the realist play; it supports
the feeling in the audience that they are witnessing something real. (On the other hand Greeks and
Romans had open stages in the open space).
In the late 19th century the illusion of reality became disapproved by critics, directors and the
actors. A parallel development of plays for this stage and these conventions and of new authors,
playwrights and directors began. They found this kind of stage childish, restricted and introduced
new form: epic-drama; anti-illusionist to escape from these formal restrictions. The epic drama
was the counter movement in modern development. It culminates in works of Bertolt Brecht
German playwright who took this new form to the extreme.
Absolute vs. Epic drama
There are 3 levels of dramatic communication:
1. non-fictional communication
2. fictional mediation
3. fictional action
3. Fictional action is the basic level of drama; it is the actual action of the play; this is what is
presented in the theatre action. It is purely dramatic level what makes drama a drama.
There are 2 types of communication:
1- verbal action when the characters communicate (dialogues, monologues, soliloquy..)
2- non-verbal action gestures, facial expressions, movements
Every drama has this level of dramatic communication.
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2. Fictional mediation does not exist in absolute drama; actually, the absolute drama
has no or little fictional mediation. Everything is presented directly o stage; it
doesnt have anything to guide the audience; the audience just witnesses; there is
nobody who mediates between audiences and drama.
Anti-illusionist drama has this element. Beside direct representation we have
fictional mediation as well. There is the narrator figure; hes a mediator, historian,
character. The epic drama has certain connections with the novel: narrator (a
mediator between reader and rest of the action; he is the one who explains the
action). Protagonist is not a narrator. Narrator does not appear in traditional drama.
He is partly part of action but mostly outside the action; he explains. Narrator is
fictional; hes a product of imagination; he mostly addresses to fictional addressees
with which the audiences identify. (e.g. the additional level in ndHamlet is the play
within the play). In traditional absolute drama theres no 2 level of dramatic
communication; theres no use of narrator figures. Hamlet is an example of absolute
drama; it creates illusion, theres no narrator, just action presented. The audiences
confirm the expectation; they consciously embrace the illusion.
Epic drama: the use of epic devices and mediation, epic theatre alienation effect
Epic uses narrative devices; its focused on the narrator figure; just like in prose
fiction here we have a visible, clearly recognisable narrator figure. He is the
additional level of communication prologue, epilogue, conclusions; he informs,
comments; he can even stop the action at a time and comment or indicate the
future narrative pause/break.
Epic drama alienation effect (efekt otuenja)
Bertolt Brecht had wide range of theatrical devices used by playwright to destroy
the illusion; this is opposite to the picture-frame theatre aims (to uphold the illusion).
These devices were used to discourage the audience from identifying with
characters.
A new type of novel appeared as well stream of consciousness.
Stage changes here are not hidden; the stage hands can be seen there is no
curtain, lights are on. The auditorium is even used as acting area; sometimes the
actors would even invite the audiences to interact sing, dance even act. E.g. Stage
Manager in Our Town has also a task to emphasize the main theme of the play
(simple things are important, grab the day) not just to destroy the illusion.
LITERARY THEORETICAL TERMS
1- person (in real life) vs. character (in play)

2- primary speeches of all the characters) vs. secondary (everything that is not
the primary text; title, subtitle, historical notes, cast of characters dramatic
personae, stage directions) text
3- speech (utterance of a single figure) vs. dialogue
4- kinds of speech:
1o monologue (long speech, a character talks to himself; does not exist in
Greek tragedy)
2o soliloquy (character alone on the stage talks to himself; doesnt exist in
Greek tragedy)
3o aside (there are 3 forms how a character can speak):
monological (remark made by 1 character to himself while hes
engaged with dialogue with other character)
dialogical (remark addressed to a specific hearer; not to be heard by others) ad spectatores
(to the audience; brief remark to the audience that cant be
heard by the others)
Speech heading (parts of secondary text), stage direction (didascaly), closure (or resolution)
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PART II
13.11.2008. PRACTICAL
Viewpoint:
External (not part of action/story)
Internal (is part of the story, is a character)
Narrators:
Omniscient
Objective
Protagonist
Witness
1H. Fieldings Tom Jones (English author) 18th century has omniscient narrator.
2E. Hemingway (American author) Short and Happy Life of Frances Macomber, 20th
century has objective narrator
3Jonathan Swift Gullivers Travels protagonist narrator
4Herman Melville Bartleby the Scrivener witness narrator
External point of view: omniscient and objective
Internal point of view: protagonist and witness
Omniscient and objective, similarities:
- 3rd person narration (prevailing)
Differences:
Omniscient knows everything and tells you everything; explains the thoughts of characters; tells
you what to think (directly and subtly); passes a judgement of the character (e.g. Nightingale);
points at himself; uses royal we; presents a certain image of himself
Also called: Olympian narrator.
Objective: does not know everything; follows action; gives dialogues; does not give judgements;
he reports (no unnecessary details or comments)
Also called: Camera-eye, fly-on-the-wall
Protagonist and witness in
common: - 1st person narration
Protagonist is telling a story which is happening to him, his thoughts.
Witness is expressing emotions, but expressing his own emotions not characters whose story
hes telling. Hes a bit similar to the omniscient: witness tells because he knows; omniscient
because hes a God-like figure.
Gullivers Travels
1- protagonist narrator
2- 1st person narration
Parts of Gullivers Travels:
2
0
In each of its four books the hero, Lemuel Gulliver, embarks on a voyage; but shipwreck or some
other hazard usually casts him up on a strange land. Book I takes him to Lilliput, where he
wakes to find himself the giant prisoner of the six-inch-high Lilliputians.
Book II takes Gulliver to Brobdingnag, where the inhabitants are giants. In Book III Gulliver visits
the floating island of Laputa, whose absent-minded inhabitants are so preoccupied with higher
speculations that they are in constant danger of accidental collisions.
Book IV takes Gulliver to the Utopian land of the Houyhnhnmsgrave, rational, and virtuous horses.
There is also another race on the island, uneasily tolerated and used for menial services by the
Houyhnhnms. These are the vicious and physically disgusting Yahoos. Although Gulliver pretends at
first not to recognize them, he is forced at last to admit the Yahoos are human beings.
Melville
1witness narrator
2describes Bartleby and his actions not his own actions
3he watches and describes the actions of a character; he mentions his own actions only
when they have to do with Bartleby. He focuses on Bartleby, on his position in the office, on his
work
the way he does it, describes which kind of character he
is. Bartlebys temperament:
(silent mechanic..) theres no passion, hoes completely phlegmatic, he could not possibly
rebel Bartleby is described as sedate, neat, pitiably respectable, incurably forlorn
But in the end Bartleby shows protest, quiet rebellion. A mechanic, silent man rebelled contrast
!!!
Byron was a rebellious character Byron and Bartleby pure contrast.
The chief treats Bartleby as his servant authoritarian relationship.
privacy Bartlebys desk is behind a screen but where he can hear bosss demands. Boss is
not satisfied, he doesnt respect Bartlebys work silent, pale, mechanic; hes not happy nor
passionate. Theres no respectful relationship just bosss orders.
Woolf and Joyce are British authors from 20 th century. The movement is called Modernism. In
that time there was much experimentation in order to find best ways to express characters
thoughts and actions. Sometimes these novels were not even understandable because of this
experimentation; e.g. later works of Joyce.
NARRATIVE GENRE (S)

Narratology is part of literary theory that analyses narrative texts.
Drama:
1- absolute drama; traditional theatre; no narration devices no mediation
2- experimental epic drama; has narrator figures and other theatrical
devices antiillusionist devices (alienation effect); it flourishes throughout 20 th century and exist even
today together with traditional theatre.
Epic drama and novel similarities:
1 story or plot + fictional mediation
Fictional mediation is not only restricted to epic drama; we find it in the novel as well. Theatre is
multimedial form audiences are able to see the figure that mediates. Novel is a monomedial form
we can only read it. The same type of fictional mediation is in novel but the reader has to
imagine the figure that mediates.
2 double chronology
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We have to distinguish between 2 levels

1- time spent covered by the action; duration of action; time spent play or novel covers and
2- additional time duration of play or time you need to read the novel; duration of
performance of the play (you cant stop the play you can just physically leave the theatre
but noel you can stop whenever you want and then continue to read).
In Our Town time spent is from 1901 to 1913 12 years of time.
Joyces Ulysses the action covers only 1 day but the book has more than 1000 pages, you
might need much time to read it.
Epic drama and novel differences:
1- drama is multimedial form
2- novel is monomedial form
Novelist has more freedom than the playwright; the reader is alone with the book and his/her
imagination. Also, dramatic text is meant to be performed before audiences, the playwright is
limited with production on stage. Novelist knows that novel wont be performed and has greater
freedom. In 17th century were written closet plays (Milton), they are the only exception; they are
intended to be read only, not performed. (closet symbolises closed space).
Text of a play can be considered to be just a blueprint fully realised during performance in
theatre. (e.g. as libretto in opera). Plays acquire their full meaning only on the stage during
performance; they are multimedial forms, meant not only to be read but to be seen as well. In
novel theres nothing visualised; the reader visualises himself. (playwright = dramatist)
STORY, PLOT AND CONTENT: WHAT MAKES NARRATIVE TEXTS NARRATIVE?
We can analyse from 3 sides (which are usually combined):
1) Story-oriented approach: every novel (as play) tells a story; it has a story or a plot. Story
is a chronological sequence of events. Plot is causal sequence of events; it deals with 1
portion of events in a story. E.g. Oedipus the King his story begins with or even before
his birth, but this story, told chronologically from beginning onwards is too much for a
single play. Plot deals only with portion of story of final section of story, and includes
parts of story into play (parts from Oedipuss past). (Theres no story in poetry, only in
narrative poetry e.g. ballads).
2) Discourse-oriented approach: narrative texts have particular narrative viewpoint (we did
viewpoint in practicals). It analyses how the events are presented/mediated to the reader
and who did it. We have viewpoint in poetry as well; we can apply this approach to drama
and poetry. (repeat: narrator types and viewpoints)
3) Content-oriented approach: narrative texts reflect human experience. This is the level of
theme of novel; what the messages and universal ideas are; what the writer wanted to say.
It is difficult to keep these approaches apart, they naturally come together when analysing a
literary work. It is best to combine them. Usually one of them exceeds; this depends on the
period, style or particular narrative genre.
What is primary in adventure novel? Story oriented approach, because here the story is the
most important; how the events are connected. In modernist novel? Discourse-oriented and
content-oriented. And postmodernist novel combines all 3.
STORY-ORIENTED NARRATOLOGY
- Time, place, characters, plot/story
Here the focus is on:
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Time when the action is taking place, where, what are the characters like, how is the story told
(chronological sequence or causal connection).
- Characterisation: static vs. dynamic; types (flat) vs. individuals (round)
Relation among characters:
* static: they dont change in the course of the novel, they dont develop. They are also called a
type or flat character. Theres no transformation or intellectual of emotional development in these
characters. They are usually found in traditional literature (e.g. type: talkative woman). There are
also types according to social class to which they belong; social types, e.g. soldier in every
novel of certain time the soldier is presented in almost the same way. Or also there are
psychological types, e.g. in Mollieres play the character of shinflint, grouch; also: liar, thief etc.
This is presentation of characters in accordance with age, clichs, social status, gender. This
changed in early 19th century with Romanticism. Ian Forster introduced difference between flat
and round characters:
* dynamic: possesses a variety of qualities and resembles more to a real-life person. They
mainly occur in novels and tragedies and flat characters in comedies. In medieval drama the
personification of abstract qualities was the types/flat. Comedies in Renaissance till today
operate with types. Dynamic characters are many-sided round.
Perspective: explicit (characters themselves or other characters/narrator) vs. implicit (structure of
story/plot itself, names, behaviour, dress etc.)
ELEMENTS OF THE PLOT:
* more or less significant elements: kernels or nuclei vs. catalysts or satellites
The smallest element of the plot is the event (what proves important for further progress of the
plot). Less significant elements give information but dont bring the plot further. Roland Barthes
introduced theoretical distinction of more or less important elements:
1- Kernels or nuclei bring action further; they are most important elements in plot.
2- Catalysts or satellites are less important, additional elements which dont bring the plot
further.
In Oedipus there are no catalysts; Aristotle clamed that it would make a bad play. Every element
here is a kernel, it brings the plot further.
In Our Town there are catalysts:
e.g. Professor Willards history of the town and Mr. Webbs political and social report and the
questions from the audience that he answers.
Modernist and postmodernist novels relativise this distinction! E.g. Virginia Woolf
Characterisation: character in novels who gives the information about characters; characters can
be described explicitly and implicitly:
Explicit characterisation: the character describes himself the event and himself (what kind of
character is he,)
Implicit characterisation: you drag conclusions yourself (e.g. Hemingway) about characters
through dialogues; tone of voice, facial expression, gesture, dress, appearance, even names (in
classical novel); this all is called non-verbal communication.
TECHNIQUES OF EXPOSITION
From what side do you choose to tell the story:
1- ab ovo (from the egg): to begin at the beginning
2- in medias res: to begin in the middle of the story ( Shakespeare used this, in Hamlet
everything begins from the appearance of the ghost..)
2
3
1- in ultimas res: to begin from the end (Sophocles begins with the final days of Oedipus
reign)
Closed, open ending or deus ex machina:
Closed ending is more traditional, all conflict are resolved, villains punished, everything
complicated is resolved, you get all the answers.
Open ending is favourite in postmodernist novels, we dont get all the answers, not all
conclusions are drawn, there are no black/white answers.
Dues ex machine ending (Aristotle finds this disgusting) is the extraordinary solution, miracle,
miraculous changes occur, its sudden and not logically motivated; usually its not convincing.
DISCOURSE-ORIENTED NARRATOLOGY: viewpoints and types of narrator:
- External viewpoint: non-participant narrator:
1 Omniscient narrator (with Olympian viewpoint)
2 Objective or dramatic narrator (fly-on-the-wall viewpoint)
WOOLF, JOYCE (P 20.11.2008)
20th century British authors experimented with techniques. They goal was to present the
state of mind of characters.
VIRGINIA WOOLF MRS. DALLOWAY
Technique that she used is interior monologue. The point of view is internal (perspective of one
of the characters). Here we have personal narrator personal medium. She uses 3rd person
narration but not as in external point of view. Personal medium the external world is described
through perspective of one or more characters in the novel. (Swift gives us objective description
of external world, gives us facts and we can draw conclusions). Personal medium is inside the
story. He talks about other characters when they come into his/her thinking process; when they
affect his/her thinking process.
Peter Walsh is Clarissas former lover.
Armenians/Albanians, Committee and then roses she talks about them because they affect her
thinking at the moment. She shoes external world when it affects her shows it through her
eyes. Personal medium is interested in showing his/her thoughts.
(Freud had strong impact on world literature in this
time.) Reader was allowed access to the mind of character.
QUESTIONS:
1 narrator (who reports) is protagonist (who
experiences)? 2 object of narration?
3 language/syntax; grammar;
punctuation? 4 form?
5 which person narration?
6 facts of the external
world? 7 time/flashbacks?
8 transitions between conversations and contemplations?
Thoughts break
communication. * excerpt
After lunch husband and wife are having conversation, which is broken by her thoughts. The line
between conversation and thoughts is blurred tanks to the thinking process. There is sometimes
24
absence of direct speech and quotation marks and punctuation. The transition between
conversation and thoughts is not clearly shown.
ANSWERS:
1 blurred, it is better to call it personal medium because we cannot distinguish narrator from
protagonist.
2 the way she thinks, feels, the way her mind goes on triggered by the things she sees/feels (aim
is to recreate the mental process, to show how we think not talk). 3 rd person is used instead of I
when she steps out of herself. Aims to represent chaos and defects of our thinking process.
3 language has to show the chaos in the head, because of that the rules of syntax are broken,
some punctuation is missing. Grammar rules are not always respected.
4 combination of dialogue (direct speech) and reporting indirect speech; presentation of inner
thoughts
5 uses 3rd person when referring to herself, presentation of inner world; shes analysing
herself 6 given only when they affect her thinking process
7 goes back and forth, which is quite chaotic. Encouraging development of ideas in characters
mind; blending of ideas, realities, experiences
8 transitions are blurred
Distance between them (e.g. poem Tears idea: youre sincere only when youre alone), it is the
status of 20th century marriage. Theres no closeness, not even in marriage. Only thing that is
shown is coldness. Her opinion of marriage is a struggle between her idea of marriage and what
it should be and what shes got, this is because of conventions about gender roles. Her life is all
about hiding emotions. The conventions say that a woman should be a housewife and one of her
main obligations is the organisation of parties.
Pg 132* she is trying to find reasons for that feeling of unhappiness. Here shes a person but a
pearl as well (pearl is something that has no practical use). What is the reason? No one
understood her parties and what they meant. The reasons are not even that someone called her
husband stupid (earlier she spoke about his adorable simplicity even in her mind hes a bit
limited) not even that her daughter Elizabeth is lesbian and has a girlfriend Doris Kilman; shes
not bothered with any of these but with the fact that no one understood her parties. Hunting pearl
is a metaphor representing searching process trying to find reasons.
JAMES JOYCE ULYSSES
Internal viewpoint/personal
medium -similar:
Personal medium
But Joyce uses more complicated technique; he is more extreme in terms of blurring (language
and style). He records true inner life of his characters, he goes to the extremes and because of
that it is necessary to free yourself he uses barely fool sentences, little punctuation, language
seems simple but grammar rules and rules of syntax are broken and all of that makes this more
complicated. (Virginia Woolf uses at least some amount of marks that show what is thinking and
what dialogue). Joyce expresses the free flow of thoughts stream of consciousness. Every
single thought is like a stream chaotic, you cant completely control it. External environment
triggers it and it goes freely in your mind.
QUESTIONS:
1 differentiate/distinguish narrator/character?
2 content (object) of narration?
3 language?
4 form?
2
5
5 which person
narration? 6 time flux?
7 external world/internal world of
character? 8 what type of thoughts?
Pg 1806, time: evening, twilight
Leopold Bloom Jew journalist and
writer Story:
Bats connects them with reincarnation you can become a tree from grief what tree?
Weeping willow then hes thinking of religious beliefs again bats church, evening mass
repetition; ironic point of view mocking; this shows either his atheism or Jewish mistrust of
Christianity then hes back to his school days again bats man on beach colours cats
(cant see more than 3 colours).
ANSWERS:
1 blurred theres no difference at all
2 constant, chaotic, not chronological, sets of associations, reactions to external environment,
dreams, memories, even frustrations, secret emotions
3 no regular punctuation, no suggestion where the direct where indirect speech
comes 4 Woolf had dialogues, Joyce gives only narration
5 1st person narration
6 goes back and forth
7 just stimulates thoughts
8 serious? Not! It is a mix of thoughts serious, intellectual and trivial. Joyce tends to present
the way human mind thinks based on associations: external world only triggers everything else.
SEMINAR 21.11.2008
1- viewpoint of the narrator (external narrator stands outside the action of the novel, hes
not directly involved into the action)
Narrator is also a literary device invented by the author (not the author himself!) just like the
other characters.
1 Omniscient narrator
2 Objective narrator
Only thing that they have in common is the external viewpoint, strategies of mediation are
different.
Different periods favourite different narrators. In 18 th and 19th century use of omniscient
narrator was popular as well as the use of 1 st person narrator. Fielding, typical 18th century
English novelist uses omniscient narrator. Swift uses 1stperson narrator. Change came in about
20th century. Novelists were dissatisfied with these kinds of narrator. So with modernists come
changes and new kinds of novels. (in her essay Virginia Woolf defends modernist novel).
They introduced new type of novel. They dont use narrator as it was used so far, there
are no traditional types of narrators. Now personal medium is used. The technique is called
interior monologue or stream of consciousness. Theres no narrator but mediating
consciousness personal medium. He mediates in a very subjective way. This kind of novel is
connected with development of psychology Freuds psychoanalysis. They wanted to go into
the head of character.
Objective/dramatic narrator is more prominent throughout 20 th century. Hemingway
operated with this approach.
Realism 18th and 19th century. Novelists from this period call themselves realists because they
operate with 1st person and omniscient narrator; they give real image of the world. Novel begins
2
6
to develop intensely in 18th century. Fielding belongs to Realism. They claimed that they recorded
only truth facts. (this says even the narrator in Fieldings Tom Jones) They wanted to record
everything in a noel as truth in order to play with readers imagination; here again we encounter
willing suspension of disbelief. Novels create illusion for readers that what hes reading is about real
persons, places, events etc. because of this we have long descriptions of nature, physical
appearance, furniture, dress-details of anything. Narrator is and educated, knowledgeable person
author creates him this way to persuade the readers to trust the narrator. Narrator makes many
digressions. His aim is to persuade the reader that what hes reading is not just a novel, but world of
real events; to uphold the illusion. Novel had to recreate worlds, to imitate life and to be the exact
recreation of reality. This was fulfilled thanks to descriptions, details, and experienced,
knowledgeable narrators. Realism lasted in Europe ca.200 years.
Most classical types of narrator are: omniscient (external viewpoint) and 1 st person narrator
(internal viewpoint). Omniscient has access into characters inner world; he knows and shows what
has happened and what will happen; makes hints FORWARD POINTING this creates suspense
for the reader, ties the reader to the story. The narrator can look back in the past BACKWARD
GLANCING; constraints of time do not apply to him. He can stop action and make long digressions
(like stage manager in anti-illusionist theatre) e.g. narrator in Tom Jones makes digression about
Cicero (about Ciceros orator skills to show that he knows much about rhetoric
he knows everything; this is not said explicitly but we have to conclude). He uses royal plural.
In postmodernist novel they use omniscient narrator to ridicule them; they are all but reliable; or
are not used at all.
Omniscient narrator gives moral judgement. Realist novels were supposed to teach the
reader: gender roles, what is appropriate, what not etc. They promoted certain world view related
to the middle class. Novel is a genre that came to being by middle class. (Middle class
accumulates wealth not by inheritance but by making money by industry; when they become
rich they imitate the lifestyle of aristocracy, they try to cultivate their taste.) Values presented are
middle class values and norms: order, discipline, patterns of life, hard work etc. Realist novel is
conventional form of novel; it promoted values of this time. (In 18 th century Laurence Stern,
experimental novelist, was largely rejected, he wrote something too ahead of his time.)
Omniscient narrator controls the action in a God-like level (Olympian compared to Greek
gods).
Objective/dramatic narrator is a complete opposite to omniscient narrator. Only similarity

is the external viewpoint.
This technique is used by Hemingway (and others) in 20 th century.
Objective narrator doesnt explain anything explicitly; he pretends not to know much. This
technique is just illusion; the narrator is designed this way. He gives very basic information. We
conclude about characters from dialogues and non-verbal communication. He gives clues which
the reader has to decipher. Reader is invited to draw conclusions and to read between the lines.
E.g. she takes a sip of whiskey and then shakes a little she does what is expected of a woman
by this worldview. Also: she does not like hunt, shes pale; she behaves as a real woman in this
situation.
It seems that the narrator doesnt know much more than the reader.
Why is he called dramatic narrator?
The main part of a drama is dialogue. In this kind of novel dialogue is also used to show the relations
between characters; this is the use of dramatic technique. We have 1/2 dialogues and images of
the action (e.g. hunting scene). Combination of dialogues and pragmatic descriptions of action is
given thats why hes called dramatic narrator. One action is following the other (hunt of the bull).
Very detailed and straightforward description of the sequence of actions is given.
2
7
Why fly-on-the-wall? He remains on the surface of things, theres no in-depth approach; he says
only what can be seen or heard.
The camera-eye impression as if its given as on film.
INTERNAL VIEWPOINT AND PARTICIPANT NARRATOR
First-person narrator (Ich form) subdivided into:
1. 1st person narrator as protagonist

2. 1st person narrator as witness
1. Narrator is the main hero and records what has happened to him (e.g. Gulliver). Many
characteristics of omniscient narrator can be applied here as well.
2. Narrator is one of the minor characters (not main) but he tells what happens to protagonist, from
his point of view. Herman Melville (Moby Dick) Bartleby the Scrivener the theme of this story
is dehumanisation in capitalism. People just have to work and not be noticed. Bartleby is the
main character. The boss is the narrator. He reports about Bartleby and his description is
subjectively coloured. The author here is not inviting the reader to identify with narrator but with
Bartleby. (Omniscient narrator reader is invited to share opinions, values with narrator.) The
narrator in this story is hateful; hes a demonising capitalist boss. Bartleby is peaceful, calm, but
he does protest in a very decent way Id rather not this is a very unusual rebellion.
SPECIAL CASE: PERSONAL NARRATOR

(E.g. Woolf and Joyce)
Two approaches:
1. Limited omniscient narrator (access to the mind of a single character) viewpoint?
2. Separate category: internal viewpoint and personal narrative medium
Typical of modernist and postmodernist novels: the narrative techniques of stream of
consciousness and interior monologue.
1. This narrator gives all necessary information about only 1 or 2 characters. Omniscient
narrator is tied to external point of view; this is internal viewpoint.
The viewpoint has to be internal because of the psychological approach which is adopted. It is
as if youve entered the mind of the character. The reader cant distinguish between protagonist
and narrator theres no difference.
Mrs. Dalloway combines dialogues and new technique called by Virginia Woolf interior
monologue. It presents inner mental state of character. The aim is to present inner mental
workings. They dont respect syntax and grammar.
Joyce goes more to the extremes; he used the technique stream of consciousness. These 2
techniques are almost the same, but internal monologue is less complex. Grammar is not
respected because we dont think in grammatically neat sentences.
People werent used to this kind of novel where everything is mingled and the distinctions are
blurred.
2
8
FIGURES OF SPEECH (27.11.2008) (P)

Also: rhetorical figures
Rhetoric is art of speech. Figures come in particular shape/form.
Morphological figures of speech: anaphora, epiphora, epanalepsis, anadipolisis, polyptoton,
figura etymologica, synonymy.
These use sentence for expressing: parallelism, chiasmus, asyndention, inversion, hysterion
proteron, ellipsis, aposiopesis, zeugma.
Semantical figures of speech: metaphor, metonymy, synedochy, personification, synaestesia, antonomasia,
hyperbole, euphemism, litotes, periphrases, irony, oxymoron, paradox, antithesis, hendiadys, pun, symbol.
LAKOFF METAPHORS WE LIVE BY

Chpt.7 Personification
Objects, plants, animals, abstract conceptions, ideas, emotions inanimate
entities Personification is giving human characteristics to inanimate entities.
According to Lakoff personification is:
1. metaphor
2. ontological metaphor
3. obvious (because metaphors are not easy to see/understand)
Metaphor is a form of comparison-, indirect, implied comparison (no as no like) e.g. red rose
is my love red rose stands for a person.
Text examples: This
fact argues
Fact has no vocal qualities, cant argue. This means fact is like a human who argues
Personification gives human qualities to inanimate entities it is more specific than
metaphor. From text personification in itself allows us to comprehend
Why personification is not metaphor? (in texts)
4. non-human becomes human

5. A (inanimate) is B (person) a particular type of person. A certain aspect: inanimate thing is
given a particular property of a person. E.g. of aspect: its not a person but enemy.
Personification is different in terms of aspect you pick.
-general category under which you can pick any quality; range of qualities you would use for a metaphor.
Metonymy
In personification we refer to inanimate entities as persons, but not in
metonymy. METAPHOR A=B (theres no logical but there is
extraordinary connection) e.g. Person A = sunshine
METONYMY (also a form of comparison)
1. Here there is logical connection between A and B.
A = B (logical, almost tangible connection between entities)
According to Lakoff metaphor is implicit comparison A and B have no obvious logical
connection. Aim is to create extraordinary connections between entities.
In metonymy the relation is based upon logical connection between entities. It establishes
connection between A and B which is logical, related B is part of A; A is part of B.
2. Synecdoche (pars-pro-toto) pg 36-39
2
9
This is a particular type of metonymy. It goes further A is part of B (e.g. picture of the face a
part stands for the whole face stands for the body)
TO HIS COY MISTRESS Andrew
Marvell 17th century
What is this poem about?
CARPE DIEM grab/seize your day! (phrase used by the Roman poet Horace to express the idea
that one should enjoy life while one can. The sentiment has been expressed in many literatures,
especially in 16th-and 17th-century English poetry. Two of the best-known examples are Robert
Herrick's To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time and Andrew Marvell's To His Coy Mistress.)
Poetic persona is a man; addressee of the poem is a young lady. Hes trying to persuade her to
get into sexual relations with him. This poem is a formal invitation for sex. In this period (17 th c)
men wanted their wives in bed. (In To His Coy Mistress, which is one of the most famous
poems in the English language, the impatient poet urges his mistress to abandon her false
modesty and submit to his embraces before time and death rob them of the opportunity to love)
Carpe diem philosophy was developed and it was theme of
many poems. There are 3 parts in this poem:
1. the poetic I the man suggests all the things they could do if they had time
2. but they do not have enough time
3. so because they dont have time lets do it, lets have sex
This poem uses metaphors, personifications and hyperbole.
28.11.2008. SEMINAR
Personal medium/mediator the viewpoint is always internal never external. In early 20th
century modernist novel developed Woolf and Joyce.
Realism 18th and 19th century omniscient narrator was preferred (and 1 st person narrator
internal viewpoint)
Objective narrator developed in 20th century but it doesnt mean that it didnt exist before.
(Objective is a more recent technique; narrator is created in such a way that it seems that he
doesnt know much more than the reader.)
Personal narrator persona who describes is person who lives the events, but in a different
way than in classical novels.
Impression created?
1cut out classical rules
2no neat transitions between dialogues and thoughts; everything seems chaotic, a huge
amount of chaotic information. Theres an impression of feeling, a sense of intimacy through
consciousness as if you had possibility to get into mind of the person describing events. Theres
impression that theres no narrator, just flow of ones thoughts is presented directly; theres no need
for a mediator/no explanations, no mediation; youre directly confronted with someones thoughts.
Thoughts of a character are presented. External reality is presented only when it interacts with
the internal reality of mind; it is shown how external is processed in mind workings of human
mind. Everything is inside so the viewpoint has to be internal. (In Mrs. Dalloway we have mainly
access to Clarissa Dalloways thoughts and to everything that is reflected in her mind.)
Postmodernist novel gives no descriptions only true reality is the reality of human mind. Real
reality is in human mind.
1920s are time of high modernism it was the peak of modernism. The reader is confronted with
internal/subjective impressions of characters. Lot of sensory impressions were transmitted example:
3
0
Bloom on beach and sees a bat. It is not a conventional description different approach we
read what Bloom thinks when he sees that bat and how his thoughts flow. Joyce didnt create
grammatically neat sentences because we dont think in grammatically neat way; thats why he
came to the verge of readability. Bloom sees a bat ant this triggers off new flow of thoughts, next
chain of associations. (tremendous influence of Freud)
Reflectorial narration is structured around experiencing events (how Clarissa Dalloway
experiences events). Nothing is told, theres no retelling, but only experiencing/viewing.
Interior monologue is easier to be followed by the reader. These novels have dialogues, not only
thoughts combination of thoughts with traditional devices (parallel processes Clarissa talks to her
husband and thinks to herself). Medium uses she it might be misleading it is not the narrator that
is talking it is she who is thinking and uses she instead of I. We can see interaction between her
thoughts and external reality most of the time her mind works independently of external reality.
Message conveyed is: theres no genuine communication between people. Clarissa is bored
with her marriage but she does not say anything there is a gap between a husband and wife.
Joyce takes this technique to the extreme. It is called stream of consciousness. The thoughts are
messier; theres no obvious line between thoughts and reality; theres no necessary logical order
of flow of the thoughts.
SOME OTHER TERMS:
1- the nave narrator (for some reason he does not understand the events hes talking about a child
e.g. narrator is presented by the author like this for some reason), unreliable narrator (he
reminds the reader not to trust him, that he does not know for sure alienation effect as in epic
drama it is a postmodernist technique used to show that the truth can never be surely shown)
2- psycho-narration, narrated monologue, interior monologue

NOVEL: HISTORICAL OUTLINE
- ROMANCE story of knightly adventures; France 11th century; troubadours and trouvers
Troubadours are wandering poets from south of France, provansal wandering poets minstrels;
they developed love poetry adoration of beloved woman.
Trouvers are wandering poets from north of France; they did not wrote love poetry but heroic,
epic poetry. Romance is combination of love and heroic/epic poetry; it includes love elements but
the main focus is on deeds of the knights (quests etc.)
It was the first prose genre that developed; later it developed into novel.
1in early 17th century Miguel de Cervantes wrote Don Quixote, first part in 1605 and
second part in 1615. This is time of transition between middle ages and modern time. Don
Quixote is considered to be the first great modern novel.
2-
The golden age of the novel: the 18th and 19th centuries
England was cradle of this genre literary Realism. This new genre was connected with social context,
with development of society, economy and politics. (Industrial revolution brought economic prosperity and
new social class middle class, which promoted the novel, promoted their values and lifestyle.)
THE 18TH CENTURY ENGLISH NOVEL:

- Daniel Defoe, Henry Fielding, Jonathan Swift, Samuel Richardson, Laurence Sterne
31
Goal of these novels was pretence of realism, introduction of middle-class values, and use of
omniscient or 1st person narrator. The form that was often used is picaresque form; that is a
novel in which the protagonists are on travels (e.g. Tom Jones Fielding is travelling, meeting
people and getting involved in different actions).
19TH CENTURY ONWARDS:
1the Victorian novel (19th century realism): the Bronte sisters, William Thackeray, Charles
Dickens
2modernist novel (early 20th century):

James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, D. H. Lawrence (was influenced by Freud Oedipuss complex),
William Faulkner
- postmodernist novel (late 20th century): 1960s
Historiographic metafiction typical postmodernist type talks about the relationship between
history and literature (any version of history must be taken with caution, because history shows
facts and fiction, it is not always more reliable than literature)
Self-referentiality: Julian Barnes, John Fowles, Thomas Pynchon it offers 2 endings of a novel.
SUBJECT MATTER/THEME:
1Historical novels: Ivanhoe (Walter Scott)
2Family sagas: The Budennbrooks (Thomas Mann), The Forsyte Saga (Galsworthy)
3Society novel: Vanity Fair (Thackeray)
4Love novels, womens novels, war novels, etc.
The most common case was the intersection of several themes such as in Emily Brontes The
Wuthering Heights.
Another type:
1Bildungsroman: e.g. The Catcher in the Rye (Sallinger); The Apprenticeship of Wilhelm Meister (Goethe)
2Epistolary form (novels in which characters communicate through letters)

3Style: classical (before middle ages), romantic (England
in 1800 1830), realist (18 and
th
19 century), naturalist (realism to the extreme,
late
18
century),
modernist (first of 20 th
th
century), postmodernist (second of 20 century)
FIGURES OF SPEECH
- literal vs. figurative meaning or denotative vs. connotative
meaning: Literal meaning basic meaning denotative.
Figurative we dont mean literally connotative meaning figurative, extra meaning, based on
associations.
e.g. sweet cake denotative or person connotative
Trope use of words in figurative sense. Trope also denotes figure of speech.
Rhetoric (Greece, Rome origins) is art of persuading audience through language, it is the skill of eloquence; art of
delivering good speeches; it also had task to train politicians to reach their audiences better.
FIGURATIVE/CONNOTATIVE
Trope (Greek tropos, Latin tropus) is figurative use of language.
Aristotle Rhetoric; Quintilian Institutes of Oratory
32
1- the Middle Ages:

Septem arte liberates > quadrivium (astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, music) and trivium
(grammar, rhetoric, logic)
Rhetoric through time becomes written performace, later it was more and more reserved for the
area of art. Today it is widely used in poetry. Rhetoric is not just decorative use of language; it is
not just used in fiction but also in journalism, commercials, politics, etc.
MORPHOLOGICAL FIGURES OF SPEECH (on the handout)
They operate on level of words.
SEMANTIC FIGURES OF SPEECH
1- metaphor and metonymy
2- personification
3- simile
4- synaesthesia
METAPHOR
Metaphor symbolises indirect use of language. It is not restricted only to literature, but it
also occurs in all discourses (journalism, scientific, common speech).
Origin:
Metaphor > metapherein > metaphora > carry over meaning
Metaphor means that A is indirectly described through B, which belongs to entirely
different sphere. A is implicitly/indirectly described through use of B; A and B are not necessarily
logically connected. B is taken from completely different semantic field.
Metaphor implies indirect comparison. A word is used to refer to another thing, without
logical connection.
Examples:
the curtain of night krinka noi
curtain belongs to semantic field of household or theatre; it is applied to night which is
implicit comparison. There is no logical connection between curtain and night. Night is indirectly
described through curtain. At the second glance, there is some connection. Night covers/hides
something as well as curtain does. This aspect of meaning of curtain is used.
What aspect of curtain is neglected/disregarded?
In theatre curtain is a signal for beginning of play, it is used as separation of audiences and actors,
etc.
Here we describe night implying indirectly that night has something in common with
curtain they hide something.
Political metaphor: iron curtain
Which aspect of curtain is emphasized here in contrast to the previous
example? What is the political implication?
This metaphor is connected to Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact. Communist countries were isolated
and ion curtain was used to describe countries that belong to Warsaw Pact/Block. It was used by US;
democratic countries from NATO Block. (The western world was divided into these 2 blocks.) This was
ideological confrontation between communist block and capitalist block. Capitalists were those who
coined this metaphor. It had pejorative meaning it is a curtain that cant be raised. Iron suggests
arms/weapon. These countries were not easily accessible because of physical barrier isolation.
What aspect of
curtain? -separating
3
3
-covering
Curtain separates communist world from capitalist; there is no exchange. It is covered
we cant see what is inside (hiding what was going on in there isolation).
Iron it was heavily defended by military power; bringing down of curtain was
dangerous. In 1989 with the fall of Berlin Wall, the iron curtain fell as well.
This is implicit comparison curtain and Communist world.
TERMINOLOGY: e.g. iron curtain
1- Vehicle (sredstvo): context from which you borrow; word we use to describe something
else here: curtain
2- Tenor: the desribed; entity which we describe
3- Curtain is vehicle donor field (whole semantic field) source domain
4- Political division between East and West: tenor recipient field target domain
In metaphor 2 semantic fields are connected in a limited way. It uses just certain meaning of
vehicle. Metaphor establishes connection between 2 semantic fields.
Example:
Gorbatschov is the father of Perestroika (promjena preobraaj)
Gorbatschov initiated political reforms in Soviet Union; he initiated the beginning of end of
Communism. Here the Perestroika is the tenor political reforms in Russia.
Semantic fields connected: family and Soviet political reforms.
Freud is the father of modern psychoanalysis St.
Aidan is the father of the Northumbrian church
Father is used as giver of life he conceives

the life. How is this connected here?
Gorbatschov initiated reforms gave life to them gave birth to these ideas. Father is used in a limited way
just because of the ability to give life.
Semantic field of vehicle is family.
QUESTION: ideological function of metaphor (ideology works best when unnoticed Terry Eagleton)
Example: the British Empire being referred to as the mother of the family, which implies that
British colonies are her children?
What does this metaphor imply?
Unjust relationship between Great Britain and colonies. GB is seen as mother colonies as
children. Empire is the mother it owns, decides over the development of children; colonies are
not free, not independent; were protected by mother; mother is cleverer than children; teaches
them to behave it implies to complete mental inferiority of children.
Some Life and Art metaphors:
Shakespeare used them often:
1. All the worlds a stage, and all men merely players
Life tenor indirectly described through stage in theatre. It is negative; means that we all
behave like actors play our role and leave the stage. Life is short and transitory duration of
life is compared with duration of play.
34
2. Lifes but a walking shadow, a poor player that struts and frets his hour upon the stage
Life is not even a person, just a shadow. Jadni glumac koji se mui na sceni (moda I jedva eka da ode). We are
struggling in life but usually dont do well. We are not good at living (acting).
METONYMY
A is described through replacement by B
A is replaced by B which is linked to it in a logical way:
The ham sandwich wants to pay
Spoken in a restaurant by a waitress to another waitress. Ham sandwich stands instead of person who ordered a ham
sandwich. Logical connection: meal ordered and person who ordered it. (meaning narrowed)
You describe A by replacing it with B and they are logically connected: A and B
are taken from the same semantic field.
Metonymy replaces a notion by another notion with a logical connection between
them. There is no transferring from 1 semantic field to another both A and B are
from same semantic field only the meaning is narrowed of broadened.
He likes to read Shakespeare.
He likes to read the works by Shakespeare logical connection author and his works. (meaning
expanded) {Lakoff pg 38 metonymic relations groups LEARN!}
{compare to metonymy, define, include said in Lakoff classification and give 2

examples for each group}
Metaphor
Metonymy
Usually illogical or indirect
Logical or direct connection
connection:
- father and Perestroika
- meal
- curtain and night

- life and bad actor
and
person who
orders it
- painter and
his painting,
etc.
She is an unbesieged fortress.

This is a metaphor. Tenor is a woman; vehicle a fortress. In male conversation about a woman he cant have, he cant
conquer; shes as fortress inaccessible as if she were a heavily defended military object.
Simile would be: She is LIKE/AS an unbesieged fortress.

Ted Hughes: Lovepet (love tenor; pet vehicle)
This poem is an extended metaphor the whole poem is a metaphor a single huge
metaphor, where love is presented as a pet.
my vegetable love metaphor if he had time love would grow slowly, gradually as
a plant.
HISTORY OF LITERARY CRITICISM
From ancient Greece:
First interested in literary theory classical antiquity Plato (427 347 BC). He
was first to deal with literature beyond rhetorical issues. He was a philosopher and at
the same time a literary critic. He was idealist philosopher (idealizam; Aristotle
materialism). Plato believed that world we perceive with 5 senses is not real world, but
that those are only physical appearances only mere reflections of real. Real were
abstract ideas/concepts. Real world was the higher world of ideas, concepts. Our world
was lower, inferior
world it was an imperfect copy of higher real world. Because of this he did not respect literature
and poetry (nor any kind of art). They were even more inferior than our world:
Ideas
--------------Our world
--------------Arts
Arts showed invented worlds modelled by our already imperfect world. They are just
copy/imitation of our world the third and the worst copy imitation of an imitation. Artistic world
was even further removed from ideal world than our world.
Poets/artists were through art drawing attention of audiences to petty physical sensations
they distracted people from trying to see through our world to ideal world.
Poet was enemy of philosopher. Poet was inferior; he disregarded highest reality; he was the
enemy of truth. Philosophers basic concern, on the other hand, was the truth world of abstract ideas.
rd
art poisons the mind it is only the 3 rate copy. Plato believed that people who watched too
many plays would flee from reality. It goes to their heads. He despised poets and art and especially actors
and reciters, because they wanted to be someone else they didnt know who they were.
Plays encouraged people to live in fantasy and not to search for truth. Plato wrote The
Republic. It contains several volumes. He describes ideal state in this work; he classifies the
artists as least important citizens they should be exiled because they corrupt minds.
In Ion he seems to celebrate good artists through theory of divine inspiration. Even
Plato admitted that the best among artists could be good because they became instruments of
divine energy. Divine is the indefinite principle which selected a particular artist as its instrument.
Inspiration when artist creates best work he is in state of divine lunacy and divine speaks
through him. Only this way artist can be useful when used as vessel through which divine
energy flows. This is a mystical theory. Artists are best when they dont do anything they are
passive instruments of divine. They cant control when the moment of inspiration will come.
{explain paradox how Plato celebrates poet and does not appreciate art}
PRACTICALS 11.12.2008
PLATO: ION
Plato says that art is a poor copy of something that is already a copy of real world. Art = mimesis
just imitation, copy, but not in the sense Aristotle says. In Republic Plato says that world should be without
artists. Statesmen should be the philosophers lovers of wisdom/truth they are the best equipped to
govern a state. He wants to banish artists because they are dangerous; they have the ability to attract
attention; they can fill minds of people and take them from real reality world of ideas.
Artists focus on the distorted view of reality which is remote from real world. They can
corrupt the masses, can lead them astray. They had great influence.
Out of the ideas of Plate we can see that he thought that artists were dangerous; had
dangerous power to lead people astray. Only GOOD art could penetrate the world of ideas.
Plato: Ion 380 BC
Genre? Form? Participants? Strategy? Theme? Ideas? Imagery?
Divine inspiration inspiration that comes from god.
Poets may lead masses astray (Republic).
True world real world art.
Genre:
36
Narrative, not fiction but theory; this is a theoretical piece of work theoretical essay
discussing role and nature of art and artists.
Form:
Dialogue
Participants:
Socrates (Platos teacher) and Ion
Here Socrates speaks on behalf of Plato. Ion is a rhapsode, a performer, recites poetry. He
interprets Homer; hes just come back from a festival where he got and award for best interpretation
of works of Homer. Homer is considered to have been the greatest Greek poet; he wrote epics.
Theme:
Art and artists.
Strategy:
They start having a casual conversation. Socrates strategy is asking questions (question
answer strategy) and coming to the point where Socrates/Plato expresses his ideas.
Ideas:
Socrates asks Ion why he is the best at interpreting
Homer. Ion says:
why then do I loose attention and go to sleep when anyone speaks of any other poet; but
when homer is mentioned, I wake up at once and am all attention and have plenty to say?(pg4)
I can interpret them equally well, when they agree(pg 2) Socrates asks
How did you come to have this skill of Homer only?
Ions argument: he is good at interpreting Homer because he has learnt it, he practised it
he has practice, skill, talent.
Socrates says no, because in that case he could then interpret other poets as well.
(examples with arithmetician, military leader etc): The reason my friend is obvious. No one can
fail to see that you speak of Homer without any art or knowledge. If you were able to speak of
him by rules of art, you would have been able to speak of all other poets; for poetry is a whole.
He calls Ion a liar here if you learned it youd be able to discuss everything.
Pg 5:
Art techne (talent, knowledge, skill)
Basic ideas:
It is not artist who is speaking, but God is speaking through artists mouth. Artists are
chosen. They are instruments of God to communicate with people. They have no consciousness
or wilful report. They are possessed with divine inspiration.
He compares artists/poets/rhapsodes to holy prophets and diviners (shamans of a kind).
Artists are instruments media.
The best poets perform best poems when they are not conscious. He
compares them to Bacchic maidens and Corybantian revellers.
Chain:
God is a magnet. The ones attracted to him are the chosen possessed by
him; they are: Prophets
Diviners
Poets (good)
Rhapsodes/performers
Audiences/ordinary people
37
Because artists are attracted they also attract characteristics of magnetic field.
Socrates: Was not this the lesson which the God intended to teach when by the mouth of
the worst poets he sang the best of songs?
Pg 6
This means that poet is passive media; he cant choose when hes going to be
inspired/possessed. It is not skill or technique but divine inspiration; gods words.
Poets have nothing to do with what they create. They are just empty passive vessels.
Pg 12/13
But, indeed Ion, if you are correct in saying that by art and knowledge you are able to
praise Homer, you do not deal fairly with me
Ion would rather be inspired than dishonest this is ironic because it means that Ion
would rather be possessed than have a skill.
{ Platonic theory of souls:
Soul comes from the world of ideas. It is in shape of ellipsis with wigs. As it gets heavy it looses its
wings, splits in half and 1 part goes to one other to other person. (soul mates) Through whole life 1 part
searches the other (but never finds) so that they could unite and return to the world of ideas. }
SEMINAR 12.12.2008
HISTORICAL SURVEY OF LITERARY CRITICISM
Plato said that art was just a pale echo of reality. There were few good artists and they
could only occasionally get in touch with the world of ideas through divine inspiration.
Ion is the best actor because divine energy flows through him. Skill comes from God and doesnt
belong to artist himself.
This idea will be modified through time. First modification was already made in antiquity by neoPlatonists. They gave Plato a mystical touch. They didnt see this as negative. Positive aspect of Platos
theory was emphasized. Artists became most important because they can get in touch with divine.
Art becomes a kind of semi-religious vision; becomes more mystical artist gets insight.
This was philosophical and religious experience.
This idea will never die in Europe;
it will only be forgotten during certain periods. It will be
th
popular
again
in
Renaissance
in
16
century
(Sidney). Then again forgotten. Then it reappears
in 19th century in Romanticism (Shelly). In USA American Transcendentalism in mid-19 th century
will again re-bring these old ideas, mystical ideas art as religious experience.
Aristotle was a materialist philosopher. He did opposite from Plato. Ideal didnt rest in other world.
He looked into our own world and said that idea is not superior to thing. He looked into things. Every living
creature possessed ability to develop in itself had in itself potential for development entelechy.
Example: acorn contains within itself everything to grow into oak tree.
Aristotle says that art is imitation, mimesis, but positive. Moral purpose of art is emphasized.
Hierarchy of disciplines (in Poetics) says that literature is superior to history but inferior to philosophy:
Philosophy
--------------Literature
--------------History
3
8
Longinus was ancient Roman. He combined Greek theory with his own theory. He equally
appreciated form/skill/technique and content/ideas. He made a balance between these two.
Practical side his work is major literary critical work in which he also discusses rhetoric.
His theory is pragmatic how can you use your language pragmatically to persuade audience.
He tries to define the sublime, which is the essence of good art. Art which does not contain
sublime is not art. Sublime is the essence of good poetry. Use language to bring audience into
ecstasy effect of good art. The aim of art is to transport audiences into higher world of art. Form is
as important as content. He says that poetry had to contain raw emotions to be charged with
emotions. Poetry of raw emotions is better than formally perfect but emotionally empty poetry.
Longinus says that poetry should have form but content/idea is important as well should
be expressed well.
{Notion of mimesis for Plato and Aristotle is different, how?}

MIDDLE AGES
Churchmen disapproved of antiquity, of classical civilisation, because they were
considered to be pagans. Everything before Christ was considered to be less valuable.
Christian church disapproved theatre in Middle Ages (until 10 th century there were no
plays no performances in theatre). Interest was taken in rhetoric because it could be harmonised
with Christian teaching.
Many theories of classical art were rejected, especially Aristotles mimesis. View of
creation rested upon Bible. Church didnt approve of much entertainment. Art offered too much
entertainment and too little moral teaching.
Literature was disliked as fantasy lies. Events and persons in classical literature were not true but invented
and that bothered the church. Also they had false gods; classical civilisation evoked false gods.
Method of interpretation of literary texts theology and exegesis. Texts were interpreted
always to support Christian view of world. Scholars defended classical works of literature so that
they said that classical works harmonised with Bible.
RENAISSANCE
Sir Philip Sidney in 1595 Defence of Poesy
This is the most important piece of literary theory in Anglo-Saxon world.
Sidney defends art against church. He was a philosopher, a poet, a writer, musician etc.
He defended poesy (which stands for literature) against church accusations that literature is only
lies and that it morally corrupts people.
He wanted to prove that literature enobles human minds it doesnt corrupt. He defended
poesy on moral ground. This title was slightly provocative in that time.
Hierarchy of disciplines:
He changes Aristotles hierarchy and says that literature is
on top: Literature
-------------Philosophy
-------------History
This reflects new spirit of Renaissance. This change was revolutionary move. He does not only
defend poesy but places it on top. In Renaissance comes new view humans were placed in the centre.
4 major kinds of poetry:
3
9
1234-
religious
philosophical
historical
true poetry
He intends to defend the fourth essential true poetry. This poetry is more universal in
themes and questions. It is the proper poetry independent from religion, philosophy, history.
This shows the independence of arts he fights for.
It shows life in its fullness; it teaches people; has moral aspect. It provides moral teaching
and entertainment unlike religion and philosophy which are strict and rigid and do not have
pleasant way of teaching.
He justifies literature/poetry on moral grounds.
{Sydneys arguments for/against art}
NEOCLASSICISM (enlightenment prosvjetiteljstvo)
Classical antiquity was popularised again. In many branches of art architecture,
painting, literature, sculpture, etc. It was revival of classical culture. This was also time of
development of natural sciences (Newton, gravity).
Aim was education enlightenment of people.
Also first ideas for development of rights (civil, women) appeared. Influence of church
was further reduced. Education was most important.
Atheism becomes for the first time legitimate worldview.
Domination of reason:
There was no superstition and blind fate; you should be enlightened believer be able to
understand what you believe in.
Reason was ability light of God in human mind.
This was age of rationalism; all ideas were checked and rationally explained. They
avoided exaggeration. Decorum well measured.
In literature they valued more form than content; it was more important how something is expressed than
what is expressed (Aristotle). The importance of form was stressed. They even interpreted Shakespeare in different
light. Rules of composition classical rules established by Aristotle had to be respected.
Symmetry, regularity, elegance and moderation were the ideals. They tended not to
exaggerate to be moderate (in many branches of art).
Plain simple style/language was used; not decorated and flamboyant language as in
Renaissance. This language was as language of science simple, plain, precise.
At the end of 18th century happened contra reaction to Neoclassicism and that was
flamboyant and playful ROMANTICISM.
It was opposite to Neoclassicism; it had different values: imagination, fantasy. (e.g. folk
fairy tales Brother Grimm). Neo-Platonist idea was rediscovered in the early 19 th century.
This was the time of the beginning of industrialisation. Artists were not happy about it and
they nostalgically looked back into past.
Church was becoming less and less important to masses. Gap that appeared because of
deterioration of church was fulfilled with art. Artists were considered to be semi-gods. They
claimed that art will be the substitute for religion.
Neo-Platonist ideas were divine ideas, inspirations. They claimed that artistic experience is
not just artistic but also religious divine and philosophical they had insight into secrets of world.
40
Cult of genius appeared. Artists were thought to be extraordinary, they could feel what no
one else could were hypersensitive; were geniuses because of their moments of insight.
Around 1830 Romanticism subsided. People got tired.
VICTORIAN AGE:
Critics were partly using former ideas partly new ones. People, tired of Romanticism, were
now more realistic. This is the age of literary Realism; the time of rise of the novel.
Victorian critics said that literature had new function: social, political, moral instruction. It
gave orientation to disoriented people.
This was the age of industrialisation. People didnt like it. Industry turned people to selfish beings. Money
became measure of everything. So artists turned to past, looked for models in past to educate masses.
1900 1960 is the age of NEW

CRITICISM It had 2 phases:
1st wave in the early 20th century
2nd wave in the mid 20th century
In literature this was time of Modernism (Woolf, Joyce). Literature was for the first time
thought of as academic discipline and was taught in universities.
They focused on text close reading. Meaning was in the text itself, everything outside
work of art was irrelevant. (opposite to Postmodernism)
In eastern world in this time were Russian Formalists. They were very conservative and
spoke about literariness of literature.
POSTMODERNISM 1960 some say that it still lasts
Combines various approaches in analysis. You can analyse from different points of view.
Works were reread and analysed.
41
INTERNET SOURCES:
GHOST in HAMLET
As all the books say, a ghost was a common feature in the genre of the Revenge Play, of which HAMLET is a highly
developed example. Shakespeare used them in other play as well, noteably MACBETH, JULIUS CAESAR and
RICHARD III. Belief in ghosts was common in Shakespeare's time (though many of the more educated did hold
belief in them to be merely superstition). King James I wrote a treatise on demons and ghosts and stuff. Different
spirits were understood to have different characteristics and meanings.
Specifically in HAMLET, I think the ghost has several functions.

Hamlet never doubts the existence of the spirit, only questions whether it is actually his father,
and whether its intentions are good or evil. See I.ii.244-245, I.v.40-44, II.ii.595-600, III.ii.80-84.
That it appears, and in armour, indicates to Hamlet and Marcellus that 'all is not well', that
'something is rotten in the state of Denmark', as indeed it turns out to be: Claudius has killed the
King and usurped the throne.
The ghost scares the hell out of Marcellus, Bernardo and Horatio, so the way Hamlet faces it is
clearly meant to show his bravery.
It speaks only to Hamlet. I.v, as well as furthering the plot by having Hamlet made aware of
Claudius' act, also gives some opportunity to show the relationship between father and son.
Hamlet is certainly unhappy in II.ii, but his encounter with the ghost must be seen as adding to
his anguish and trauma and despair, and plunging him into a whirlpool of doubt and self-doubt.
Hamlet is a humanist by education and inclination, a firm believer in the Dignity of Man (see
I.ii.187-188, II.ii.303-309, IV.iv33-39). But the ghost's news shakes this to the core, making him
aware, in an extremely personal way, of the depths to which mankind can also descend.
It is his father's ghost which intitially pressures Hamlet into taking revenge, and it reiterates the
demand in III.iv. Though this means killing his uncle and his King and his mother's husband,
Hamlet never resents being told to do it by the ghost. He sees it as a duty owed to his father. But
it goes against his sense of moral and Christian right at least until Act V (see V.ii.63-70). The
ghost can therefore be interpreted as a little ambiguous, as regards good and evil.
Perhaps the ghost is a parallel to Polonius: a father sacrificing a child to a principle or a perceived greater good. The
ghost doesn't reappear after Act III. Neither does Polonius. The functions of both are completed. Ophelia goes mad
and dies. Hamlet, who was never mad, kills Polonius, comes to terms with death, and thus also with life, finally kills
Claudius, and dies himself. Good and evil, life and death, married in one man, as is the true nature of mankind.
Without the ghost, Hamlet could not reach that fulfillment of himself.
In addition, the ghost has a great wodge of really powerful poetry, including one of my favourite bits, '... So
lust, though to a radiant angel linked,/ Will sate itself in a celestial bed/ And prey on garbage.' Oh wow!
In a Station of the Metro

"In a Station of the Metro" is an Imagist poem by Ezra Pound published in 1913 in Poetry.[1] The
poem attempts to describe Pound's experience upon visiting an underground metro station in
Paris in 1912, and Pound suggested that the faces of the individuals in the metro were best put into
a poem not with a description but with an "equation". Because of the treatment of the subject's
appearance by way of the poem's own visuality, it is considered a quintessential Imagist text. [2]
4
2
The poem was reprinted in Pound's collection Lustra in 1917, and again in the 1926 anthology
Personae: The Collected Poems of Ezra Pound , which compiled his early pre-Hugh Selwyn Mauberley
works.
The poem
The poem contains only fourteen words, further exemplifying Imagism's precise economy of
language. Pound was influential in the creation of Imagist poetry until he left the movement to
embrace Vorticism in 1914. Pound, though briefly, embraced Imagism stating that it was an
important step away from the verbose style of Victorian literature and suggested that it "is the
sort of American stuff I can show here in Paris without its being ridiculed". [3] "In a Station at the
Metro" is an early work of Modernist poetry as it attempts to "break from the pentameter",
incorporates the use of visual spacing as a poetic device, and contains not a single verb. [2]
Text
IN A STATION OF THE METRO
The apparition of these faces in the crowd ;
Petals on a wet, black bough.
Analysis
The poem was first published in 1913 and is considered one of the leading poems of the Imagist tradition.
Written in a Japanese haiku style, Pounds process of deletion from thirty lines to only fourteen words
typifies Imagisms focus on economy of language, precision of imagery and experimenting with nontraditional verse forms. The poem is Pounds written equivalent for the moment of revelation and intense
emotion he felt at the Metro at La Concorde, Paris. Pound explains in his artic value.
The poem is essentially a set of images that have unexpected likeness and convey the rare emotion that
Pound was experiencing at that time. Arguably the heart of the poem is not the first line, nor the second,
but the mental process that links the two together. "In a poem of this sort," as Pound explained, "one is
trying to record the precise instant when a thing outward and objective transforms itself, or darts into a
thing inward and subjective." This darting takes place between the first and second lines. The pivotal
semi-colon has stirred debate as to whether the first line is in fact subordinate to the second or both lines
are of equal, independent importance. Pound contrasts the factual, mundane image that he actually
witnessed with a metaphor from nature and thus infuses this apparition with visual beauty. There is a
quick transition from the statement of the first line to the second lines vivid metaphor; this super-pository
technique exemplifies the Japanese haiku style. The word apparition is considered crucial as it evokes a
mystical and supernatural sense of imprecision which is then reinforced by the metaphor of the second
line. The plosive word Petals conjures ideas of delicate, feminine beauty which contrasts with the
bleakness of the wet, black bough. What the poem signifies is questionable; many critics argue that it
deliberately transcends traditional form and therefore its meaning is solely found in its technique as
opposed to in its content. However when Pound had the inspiration to write this poem few of these
considerations came into view. He simply wished to translate his perception of beauty in the midst of
ugliness into a single, perfect image in written form.
It is also worth noting that the number of words in the poem (fourteen) is the same as the
number of lines in a sonnet. The words are distributed with eight in the first line and six in the
second, mirroring the octet-sestet form of the Italian (or Petrarchan) sonnet.
43

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Introduction to Literary Theory

Lyrical / poetry sonnets, odes, hymns, ballads

The Carpenters Wife

Introduction to Literary Theory

MAIN LITERARY GENRES:

Poetic/Lyric: (expresses feelings)

Novel (the longest, has variety of characters, episodes, etc)

Introduction to Literary Theory

Subjectivity is the individual treatment of particular theme.

Introduction to Literary Theory

Ezra Pound Liu Che

Introduction to Literary Theory

Theodore Roethke My Papas Waltz

1. even the longest poem is shorter than drama or a novel

Introduction to Literary Theory

Introduction to Literary Theory

alternate rhyme: abab, cdcd (typical for the sonnet)

Poetic Meter in the text collection for practical classes

Introduction to Literary Theory

Introduction to Literary Theory

Revenge is at the end

Introduction to Literary Theory

A Script for Final Test

Introduction to Literary Theory

Origin of tragedy as a dramatic form

Introduction to Literary Theory

Introduction to Literary Theory

Renaissance in 16th century attitude to Aristotelian rules

Introduction to Literary Theory

Introduction to Literary Theory

Introduction to Literary Theory

Introduction to Literary Theory

Wedding day and ceremony of Emily W and George G.

Introduction to Literary Theory

(S) SUBSEQUENT DEVELOPMENT: THE BEGINNING OF MODERN STAGE

Introduction to Literary Theory

1- person (in real life) vs. character (in play)

heard by the others)

Introduction to Literary Theory

Introduction to Literary Theory

NARRATIVE GENRE (S)

Introduction to Literary Theory

We have to distinguish between 2 levels

Introduction to Literary Theory

Introduction to Literary Theory

Introduction to Literary Theory

Introduction to Literary Theory

Introduction to Literary Theory

Objective/dramatic narrator is a complete opposite to omniscient narrator. Only similarity

Introduction to Literary Theory

1. 1st person narrator as protagonist

SPECIAL CASE: PERSONAL NARRATOR

A Script for Final Test

Introduction to Literary Theory

FIGURES OF SPEECH (27.11.2008) (P)

LAKOFF METAPHORS WE LIVE BY

4. non-human becomes human

Introduction to Literary Theory

Introduction to Literary Theory

2- psycho-narration, narrated monologue, interior monologue

THE 18TH CENTURY ENGLISH NOVEL:

Introduction to Literary Theory

2modernist novel (early 20th century):