Basic Elements of Generalized Process Control

In the process control, four basic elements are normally involved:

1.
Process
2.
Measurement
3.
Evaluation (with a controller)
4.
Control element
Fig. 27.6 shows the block diagram of generalized process control and the function of
each block are given as follows:

Fig. 27.6 Block diagram of generalized process control

1.

Process
The term Process as used in relation to process control refers to the methods of
converting raw materials into the end product(s). The raw materials which either
pass through or remain in a liquid, gaseous, or slurry (a mix of solids and liquids)
state during the process, are transferred, measured, mixed, heated or cooled,
filtered, stored, or handled in some other way to produce the end product. Many
dynamic variables may be involved in a process, and it may be desirable to
control all these variables at the same time. There are single-variable processes,
in which only one variable is to be controlled. However, most industrial processes
are multivariable processes, in which many variables, perhaps interrelated, may
require regulation.
2.
Measurement
To perform control, it is necessary to measure the process parameter, so that we
can have information on the variable itself. In general, a measurement refers to
the transduction of the variable into some corresponding analog of the variable,
such as a pneumatic pressure, an electrical voltage, or current. A transducer is a
device that performs the initial measurement and energy conversion of a dynamic
variable into analogous electrical or pneumatic information. Further

transformation or signal conditioning may be required to complete the

measurement function. The result of the measurement is a transformation of the
dynamic variable into some proportional information in a useful form required by
the other elements in the process-control loop.
3.
Evaluation
The next step in the process-control sequence is to examine the measurement
and determine what action, if any, should be taken. The evaluation may be
performed by an operator, or by electronic/pneumatic signal processing, or by a
computer. A controller is a device that receives data from a measurement
instrument, compares that data to a programmed set-point, and, if necessary,
signals a control element to take corrective action. Computer use is growing
rapidly in the field of process control because it is easily adapted to the decision
making operations and because of its inherent capacity to handle control of
multivariable systems. The controller requires an input of both a measured
representation of the dynamic variable and a representation of the desired
value of the variable, expressed in the same terms as the measured value. The
desired value of the dynamic variable is referred to as the set point. Thus, the
evaluation consists of a comparison of the controlled variable measurement and
the set point and a determination of action required to bring the controlled
variable to the set point value.
4.
Control element
The correcting or final control element is the part of the control system that acts
to physically change the manipulated variable. This element accepts an input
from the controller, which is then transformed into some proportional operation
performed on the process. In any process control loop, final control elements are
typically used to correct a variable that is out of set-point.
In most cases, the final control element is a valve/servo motor used to restrict or
cut off fluid flow, but motors, louvers (typically used to regulate air flow),
solenoids, and other devices can also be final control elements. For example, a
final control element may regulate the flow of fuel/air to a burner to control
temperature, the flow of a catalyst into a reactor to control a chemical reaction.
A block diagram can be used simply to represent the composition and
interconnection of a system. Also, it can be used together with transfer function to
represent the cause and effect relationship throughout the system. Transfer
Function defines the relationship between an input signal and an output signal for
a system.

Each element in a process-control loop is represented in a block diagram as a

separate step. The controlled dynamic variable in the process is denoted by C
and the measured dynamic variable is labeled as C M. The controlled variable set
point, labeled CSP, must be expressed in the same proportion as that provided by
the measurement function. The evaluation operation generates an error signal (E
= CM - CSP) to the controller for comparison and corrective action.
To further illustrate, the block diagram concept in Fig. 27.7 shows a typical flow
control system. In this example, the dynamic variable is the flow rate that is
converted to electric signal as an analog. The process is the flow, and the
measurement is to determine the difference of pressure. With the set point in the
controller, the flow of the process is controlled through the control element i.e. the
valve.

Fig. 27.7 Process Control System to regulate flow and the corresponding block
diagram
27.5 Process Equations
The purpose of a process control loop is to regulate some dynamic variable in a
process. The dynamic variable or a process parameter may depend on many other
parameters (in the process) and thus suffer changes from many different inputs. One
of these parameters is selected as a controlling parameter. This means that if a
measurement of variable shows the deviation from the set point, then the controlling
parameter is changed. For an example, consider the control of liquid temperature in
tank shown in Fig. 27.8.

Fig. 27.8 Hot water temperature control system

Here the dynamic variable is the liquid temperature T L. This temperature depends on
many parameters in process like input flow rates in pipe A, output flow rates via pipe
B, ambient Temperature TA, the steam temperature Ts, inlet temperature To, and the
steam flow rates QS. In this case, steam flow rate is the controlling parameter. If one
of other parameters changes, accordingly there is change in temperature results. In
order to bring the temperature back to the original value the steam flow rate is
adjusted accordingly. This can be described by a process equation where liquid
temperature is a function as:
TL = F (QA, QB, QS, TA, TS, TB, TO)
Where:
QA, QB = flow rates in pipes A
and B
QS = Steam Flow rate
TA = ambient temperature
TO = Inlet fluid temperature
TS = steam temperature
27.5.1 Process load
Process load refers to set of all parameters excluding the dynamic variable. At some
point in time, a process load change causes a change in dynamic variable e.g. when
all parameters in a process have their nominal values, it is known as the nominal
load on the system. The required control parameters value under these conditions is
the nominal value of that parameter. If the set point is changed, then the control
parameter is altered to cause the variable to adopt new operating point. The load is
still nominal, however, because of other parameters are assumed unchanged. Now if

one of the parameters changes from nominal value, causing a corresponding shift in
the controlled variable then a process load change is said to have occurred.
27.5.2 Process lag
It represents a delay in reaction of controlled variable to a change of load variable
e.g. the process control loop in a process responds to assure, some finite time later
that the variable returns to set point value. Part of this time is consumed by the
process itself and referred to as process lag. Process time lags are affected by
capacitance which is the ability of a process to store energy; resistance, the part
of the process that opposes the transfer of energy between capacities and
transportation time, the time required to carry a change in a process variable from
one point to another in the process. This time lag is not just a slowing down of a
change, but rather the actual time delay during which no change occurs.
27.5.3 Self-regulation
Self regulation is characteristic that a dynamic variable adopts some nominal value
commensurate with the load with no control action. The output will move from one
steady state to another for the sustained change in input. This means that for change
in some input variable the output variable will rise until it reaches a steady state
(inflow = outflow). It is the tendency of the process to adopt a specific value of
controlled variable for nominal load with no control operations. A significant process
characteristic is its tendency to find a specific value of dynamic variable for nominal
load with no control operations. The control operations may be significantly affected
by such self-regulation. The process of Fig. 27.8 has self regulation as shown by the
following arguments:
(a) Suppose we fix the steam valve at 50 % and open the control loop so that no
changes in valve position are possible.
(b) The liquid heats up until the energy carried away by the liquid equals that input
energy from the steam flow.
(c) If load changes, a new temperature is adopted (because the system
temperature is not controlled).
(d) The process is self regulating because the temperature will not run away but
stabilizes.

Process Control
In almost all industrial process applications, control of process variables is critical to
the safe and efficient operation of the process. The most common variables
controlled are pressure, level, temperature, and flow. Even though there are many
different methods used to control these processes, this monitoring and control is
generically called process control. Level, pressure, temperature, and flow are all
controlled in a similar fashion. In this series of modules, level control will be used to
explain the various concepts and control methods.
Control Types
The type of control needed to maintain a process is dependent upon the type of
process involved. Each process has its own unique set of characteristics, depending
on the kind of process and the physical components that make it up. There are two
broad categories of processes: self-regulated processes and non self-regulated
processes.
Self-Regulating Process
Self-regulating processes are processes that are inherently self-regulating. Selfregulated processes have built-in feedback characteristics that cause the process to
tend towards self-regulation. An example of a self-regulating process is a tank of
water with an input of water entering the tank and an output of water leaving the
tank. Lets say the water level in the tank is constant at 10 inches. Water enters the
tank at a rate of 20 gallons per minute and leaves the tank at a rate of 20 gallons per
minute. As long as this balance is maintained, water level in the tank will remain
constant at 10 inches.
What happens if the outlet valve is opened an 1/8 of a turn and water leaving the
tank changes to a rate of 25 gallons per minute?
Since this is a self-regulating process, the level will actually stabilize at a new
position and maintain that position. Flow out of the tank is proportional to the square
root of the differential pressure across the output valve. As level decreases, the
differential pressure will also decrease, causing the rate of drainage to decrease. At
some point, the drainage rate will once again equal the fill rate, and the tank will
reach a new equilibrium point.
Time Constants
Every self-regulated process has a time constant associated with it. The time
constant is the amount of time it takes the process to change 63.2% of the final value

of the process. In this example, the process changes by 10%. The time it takes to
change 6.32 inches (63.2% of 10 inches), is the time constant. It takes five time
constants in order for the process to complete the total change.
Process Gain
The time constant is affected by the capacity of the process and the process
resistance to change. The larger the process capacity, the longer the time constant,
and the more resistive elements in the process (small pipes, penetrations, valves,
etc), the longer the time constant.
Dead Time
Dead time, by definition, is the time difference between when a change occurs in a
process and when the change is detected. Dead time exists in all processes and is
a factor in the control loop control, which must be addressed when turning the loop.
Non Self-Regulating Process
A non self-regulating process is one where the process does not tend towards selfregulation. These processes have no self-regulating feedback characteristics and will
tend towards being unstable if not controlled externally.
Take, for example, the initial scenario. The water level in the tank is constant at 10
inches. Water enters and leaves the tank at a rate of 20 gallons per minute. In this
process, instead of having a discharge valve on the tank, a positive displacement
pump is used to drain the water. As long as the balance is maintained, water level in
the tank will remain constant at 10 inches.
If we increase the discharge rate of the positive displacement pump to 25 gallons per
minute, what will happen? Initially, as with the self-regulating process shown before,
we are removing 5 more gallons per minute from the tank than we are putting in the
tank. This causes the level to drop. However, unlike the self-regulated process, this
drop in level does not affect the flow out of the tank. A positive displacement pump
will discharge a set flow rate regardless of head pressure. The pump will continue to
discharge at a rate of 25 gallons per minute until the tank is completely empty.

Terminology
The various components that make up a control system are seen in the diagram
here. Each of these components has its own characteristics, and changing any
single component will change the overall response of the control loop.
A simple control loop, shown above, is comprised of six major parts:

Controlled Variable The controlled variable is a process parameter being

controlled. In the example here, water level in the tank is the controlled variable, but
it can be any process you wish to control. Controlling this variable is the primary
function of process control. Controlled variable is indicated with the letter c.

Measured Variable The measured variable is the electronic or pneumatic

representation of the value of the controlled variable. The measured variable
typically comes from a transmitter, which measures the controlled variable and
produces an output representative of it. In the example here, the level transmitter is
measuring level in the tank (the controlled variable) and converting that level to a 420 milliamp signal. Measured variable is indicated with the letter b.

Setpoint The measured variable is sent to the controller in the loop, where it is
compared to a desired value called the setpoint. The setpoint and the measured
variable are compared in order to produce an error signal. The setpoint is often
manually entered by an operator, but it can also be automatically obtained from other
systems. Setpoint is indicated with the letter r.

Error Signal The error signal is the difference between the measured level and the
setpoint. It can be either a negative or positive value. The error signal is then added
to the base signal level of the controller to create the controller output. For example,
the base, or initial output, value of the controller may be 50% with a zero error signal.
Any error signal developed by the controller is then added or subtracted to this 50%
base level. Error signal is indicated with the letter e.

Controller Output The controller output is simply the total output of the controller.
With the controller in automatic, the output is calculated by the controller itself. If the
controller is placed in manual, the output can be manually adjusted to any desired
position. Controller output is indicated with the letter p.

Manipulated Variable The manipulated variable is the parameter that is adjusted to

bring the process back to the desired setpoint. The manipulated variable in this case
is the water entering the tank. The water flow is manipulated in order to keep the
level constant as the output demand changes. Manipulated variable is indicated with
the letter m.
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