ASM Handbook, Volume 7, Powder Metallurgy

P. Samal and J. Newkirk, editors

Powder Metallurgy Methods

and Applications
W. Brian James, Hoeganaes Corporation, retired

Powder metallurgy (PM) is the production

and utilization of metal powders. Powders are
defined as particles that are usually less than
1000 nm (1 mm) in size. Most of the metal
particles used in PM are in the range of 5 to
200 mm (0.2 to 7.9 mils). To put this in
context, a human hair is typically in the 100
mm (3.9 mils) range.
The history of PM has already been outlined
in the article History of Powder Metallurgy
in this Volume. This article reviews the various
segments of the PM process from powder production and powder processing through to the
characterization of the materials and their properties. It will cover processing methods for consolidating metal powders including options for
processing to full density.
Powders have a high ratio of surface area to
volume and this is taken advantage of in the use
of metal powders as catalysts or in various
chemical and metallurgical reactions. While
this article focuses on the use of powders to
make functional engineering components,
many metal powders are used in their
particulate form. This aspect of PM is covered
in the arti-cle Specialty Applications of Metal
Powders in this Volume.
Powder technologies are exciting to engineers because processing options permit the
selective placement of phases or pores to tailor
the component for the application. The capability of press and sinter processing or metal injection molding (MIM) processing to replicate
parts in high volumes is very attractive to
design engineers. The ability to fabricate
complex shapes to final size and shape or to
near-net shape is particularly valuable. Powder
metal-lurgy offers the potential to do this in
high volumes and also for applications where
the volumes are not so large.
The three main reasons for using PM are economic, uniqueness, and captive applications, as
shown in Fig. 1 (Ref 1). For some applications
that require high volumes of parts with high
precision, cost is the overarching factor. A good
example of this segment is parts for the automotive industry (where approximately 70% of

10 / Introduction to Powder Metallurgy

ferrous PM structural parts are used). Powder

metallurgy parts are used in engine, transmission, and chassis applications. Sometimes it is a
unique microstructure or property that leads to
the use of PM processing: for example, porous
filters, self-lubricating bearings, dispersionstrengthened alloys, functionally graded materials (e.g., titanium-hydroxyapatite), and cutting
tools from tungsten carbide or diamond composites. Captive applications of PM include
materials that are difficult to process by other
techniques, such as refractory metals and reactive metals. Other examples in this category are
special compounds such as molybdenum disilicide and titanium aluminide, or amorphous
metals.
The metal powder industry is a recognized
metal forming technology that competes directly with other metalworking practices such as
casting, forging, stamping (fine blanking),

and screw machining. The industry comprises

powder suppliers and parts makers, plus the
companies that supply the mixing equipment,
powder handling equipment, compacting
presses, sintering furnaces, and so forth.
Powder metallurgy processing offers many
advantages. The PM process is material and
energy efficient compared with other metal
forming technologies. Powder metallurgy is
cost effective for making complex-shaped parts
and minimizes the need for machining. A wide
range of engineered materials is available, and
through appropriate material and process selection the required microstructure may be developed in the material. Powder metallurgy parts
have good surface finish and they may be heat
treated to increase strength or wear resistance.
The PM process provides part-to-part reproducibility and is suited to moderate-to-high volume
production. Where necessary, controlled microporosity can be provided for self-lubrication or
filtration. While dimensional precision is good,
it typically does not match that of machined
parts.
In the case of ferrous PM parts, they have
lower ductility and reduced impact resistance
compared with wrought steels.
The majority of PM parts are porous and consideration must be given to this when
performing finishing operations.

Metal Powders
Metal powders come in many different shapes
and sizes (Fig. 2). Their shape, size, and size distribution depend on the manner in which they were
produced. Metal powder production is cov-ered in
depth in various articles in the Section, Metal
Powder Production in this Volume.

There are three main methods of powder

production:

Fig.
1 Three main reasons for choosing powder
metallurgy shown in the form of a Venn diagram.
The intersection of the three circles represents

an ideal area for applying PM techniques. Source: Ref 1

Mechanical, including machining, milling,

and mechanical alloying
Chemical, including electrolytic deposition,
decomposition of a solid by a gas, thermal

5 m

5 m

Fig. 2 Example of the different particle shapes possible with metal powders

decomposition, precipitation from a liquid,

precipitation from a gas, solid-solid reactive
synthesis
Physical, including atomization techniques
Most metals are available in powder form.
Some may be made by many different methods,
while for others only a few options are possible.
The characteristics of the powder are deter-mined
by the method by which it is produced. The shape,
size, size distribution, surface area, apparent
density, flow, angle of repose, com-pressibility,
and green strength depend on the powder
production method. In-depth coverage of the
sampling and testing of metal powders is
presented in the articles in the Section Metal
Powder Characterization in this Volume.

Powder Processing
For the production of PM parts in high
volumes, compaction is carried out in rigid
dies. In most instances, the metallic powders
are mixed with a lubricant (e.g., ethylene bisstearamide) to reduce interparticle friction during compaction and to facilitate ejection of the
compacted parts by reducing friction at the diewall and core-rod interfaces.
The metal powders may be elemental pow-ders;
mixtures of elemental powders; or mix-tures of
elemental powders with master alloys or
ferroalloys, prealloys, diffusion alloys, or hybrid
alloys. See the article Ferrous Powder Metallurgy
Materials in this Volume for an in-depth review
of the alloying methods used in ferrous PM. A
consequence of the various alloying methods
available is that only the PM materials made from
prealloyed powders are chemically homogeneous.
The other alloying methods can result in
chemically inhomoge-neous materials. The
hardenability is determined by the local chemical
composition, and the resulting microstructures are
generally quite complex. Chemical analysis can be
a challenge due to the inhomogeneous nature of
the materi-als. Guidelines for sample preparation
for the

chemical analysis of the metallic elements in

PM materials are provided in MPIF Standard 67
(Ref 2).
Complex, multilevel PM parts compacted in
rigid dies will not have the same green density
throughout. While the objective is gen-erally to
achieve a density as uniform as pos-sible
throughout the compacted part, taller parts and
parts with multiple levels are subject to the
presence of density differences between
adjacent regions. This is due to frictional effects
and compacting tool deflections. Taller parts
will have a neutral zone or density linethe
region of the compact that has experienced the
least relative movement of powder. The
position of the neutral zone may be adjusted by
varying the pressure exerted by the upper and
lower punches.
Compaction in rigid dies is limited to part
shapes that can be ejected from the die cavity.
Parts with undercuts, reverse tapers, threads,
and so forth, are not generally practical. Such
features are formed by postsintering machining
operations.
There are two main types of compacting
press: mechanical and hydraulic. Some hybrid
presses offer features of both. A detailed treatment of compaction is provided in the Section
Metal Powder Compaction in this Volume.
Some PM parts are molded (shaped) rather
than compacted. Fine-particle-size metal powders (5 to 20 mm, or 0.2 to 0.8 mils) are mixed
with binders and plasticizers and processed to
form a feedstock for MIM. Molding is performed using machines similar to those used
for plastic injection molding. Shrinkage during
the subsequent sintering operation is extensive
(15 to 20%) due to the fine-particle-size powders used and the high sintering temperatures.
Because the parts are molded and not compacted, they do not contain density gradients
that lead to distortion or problems with dimensional control. The process makes complexshaped, small-to-medium sized PM parts with
high relative densities.
Some metal powders are not very compressible. The powder particles are hard and have

limited plasticity. Rigid die compaction is not

suitable for consolidating such powders, and
they must be processed by other means such as
hot pressing, extrusion, or hot isostatic pressing
(HIP), described subsequently in this article.
Highly reactive metal powders are also not
suitable for rigid die compaction. They
generally need to be vacuum hot pressed, or
encapsulated and extruded, or HIPed.
Rigid die compacted parts and MIM parts are
thermally treated to increase their strength in a
process known as sintering. The parts are
heated, generally in a reducing atmosphere, to a
temperature that is below the melting point of
the primary constituent of the material, in order
to form metallurgical bonds between the
compacted metal powder particles. Sintering is
a shrinkage process. The system tries to
reduce its overall surface area via various diffusion processes. Metallurgical bonds (microscopic weldments) form between adjacent metal
particles (after oxides have been reduced on the
surface of the powder particles), pore surfaces
become less irregularly shaped, and larger pores
grow at the expense of the smaller pores.
Sintering is generally carried out using
continuous mesh-belt furnaces. For higher
temperatures (>1150 C, or 2100 F), pusher,
roller hearth, or walking-beam furnaces may be
used. Batch furnace processing is used for
special applications (e.g., pressure-assisted
sintering). More information on sintering may
be found in the Section Sintering Basics in
this Volume.

Powder Metallurgy Material

Properties
The majority of PM parts contain pores (see
options for processing metal powders to full
density later in this article). This is an advantage when metal powders are used to make selflubricating bearings in which the surfaceconnected pores of the parts are impregnated
with oil. When the bearing surface heats up due
to frictional heat, oil is released from the pores.
When the bearing cools, the oil is sucked back
into the pore channels by capillary action. The
porosity in PM parts has an effect on the
physical, mechanical, magnetic, thermal, wear,
and corrosion properties of the parts.
Thermophysical properties of sintered steels,
in particular their coefficient of thermal expansion and their thermal conductivity, are needed
when designing parts and when modeling heat
treatment processes. Opinions differ in the PM
community as to the effect of density on these
properties. Danninger has shown, how-ever,
that the coefficient of thermal expansion up to
1000 C (1832 F), measured through
dilatometry, is virtually independent of porosity
(density) over a density range from 5.97 to 7.53
g/cm3 (Ref 3). In addition, thermal conductivity was determined in the same temperature range by using laser flash to measure
thermal diffusivity, and specific heat, and then

Powder Metallurgy Methods and Applications / 11

the
thermal
conductivity was
calculated from
these parameters
and the density in
accordance with:
a l rCp
(Eq 1)

where
a
is
thermal
diffusivity, l is
thermal
conductivity, r is
density, and Cp is
specific heat at
constant pressure.
Thermal
conductivity was
shown to depend
on density. The
effect of porosity
in the tech-nically
relevant density
range
was,
however, slightly
less pronounced
than the effect
exerted by the
alloying elements;
specifically, the
vari-ation
observed between
different standard
PM steel grades in
the
low-tomedium
temperature
range.
Both
thermophysical
properties
are,
therefore,
significantly less
influenced
by
poros-ity than by
chemical
composition.
Powder
metallurgy steels are
more similar to
wrought
steels
than
was
generally
assumed.
The
elastic
constants are also
of interest to the
design engineer.
Youngs modulus,
Pois-sons ratio,
and the shear
modulus
are
related according
to:
E 2G1 n
(Eq 2)

where
E
is
Youngs modulus,
G
is
shear
modulus, and n is
Poissons ratio. E

and
n
are
determined
by
resonant
frequency and G
is
calculated
from Eq 2.
Beiss (Ref 4)
has shown
that:
m

E E0r=r0
(Eq 3)

where E0 is the
Youngs modulus
of the pore-free
material, r is the
density of the
material, r0 is the
density of the
pore-free
material, and the
exponent
m
depends on the
pore morphology
and
varies
between 2.5 and
4.5.
Nevertheless,
over the density
range of interest
for ferrous PM
structural
materials, 6.4 to
7.4
g/cm3,
Youngs modulus
is essentially a
linear function of
density (Fig. 3)
(Ref 5).

Poissons ratio
is a weak function
of density, and for
ferrous
PM
structural steels it
can be taken as
0.27 0.02.
The mechanical
properties of PM
materials are a
function
of
density:
P=P0 r=r0
(Eq 4)

where, P is the
property
of
interest, P0 the
value for the porefree material, r is
the density of the
material, r0 is the
density of the
pore-free material,
and m is an
exponent
the
value of which
depends on a
given
property
(Fig. 4) (Ref 67).
While
tensile
strength increases
in a linear fashion
as
density
increases, tensile
ductility is more
dependent
on
reducing the level
of
porosity.
Fatigue
performance
is
even
more
influenced
by
density with an
exponent m of
between 3.5 and
4.5. Impact energy
is
the
most
dependent
on
density, with an
expo-nent m of
approximately 12.
Magnetic
properties
of
ferrous
PM
materials
are
affected
by
density. Induction
and per-meability
increase as the
density
is
increased.
Permeability and
coercive
field
strength
are
structure-sensitive
properties that are
degraded by the
presence
of
impurities.
The
sintering
conditions
are
extremely
important to keep
carbon, nitrogen,
and
oxygen

contents to low
levels (C = 0.03
wt% max; N =
0.01 wt% max;
and O = 0.10 wt%
max).
Residual
stresses
from
operations such as
sizing, machining,
or shot peening
degrade
the
magnetic
properties.
The
properties can be
restored through
an
annealing
treatment.

Processing
Options to
Consolidate
Metal
Powders

Youngsmodulus,GPa

There are three

basic approaches
to
the
consolidation
of
metal powders, as
shown in Fig. 5
(Ref 8).
Pressurebased
compaction
establishes
density via the
compaction
process
then
sinters

to
develop
strength in the
compacts. Rigid
die
compaction
falls into this
category and is
the most costeffective method
for the highvolume
production of PM
structural parts. In
order for this
method to be
viable, the metal
powders need an
irregular
shape
and good flow
character-istics,
they must be
compressible, and
they must have
good
green
strength. (Green
is the term used to
describe an aspressed compact.)
Extremely
hard
particles with a
spherical
shape
are
not
appropriate
for
use in rigid die
compac-tion.
Compaction takes
place at high
pressure
in
confined dies (the
dies are generally
made from cold
work tool steel or
cemented
carbide).
Compacting
pressures
for
ferrous powders
are generally in
the range from
400 to 700 MPa
(60 to 100 ksi),
from 100 to 400
MPa (14.5 to 60
ksi) for aluminum
and
aluminum
alloy pow-ders,
and
approximately
400 MPa (60 ksi)
for copper and
copper-alloy
powders.

The
green
density increases
as the compacting pressure is
increased
and
levels
out
at
higher
compacting
pressures. Powder
particles
work
harden as the
result of plastic
deformation and it
requires
higher
pressures to cause
further
plastic
flow. In addition,
the lubricant that
is
typically
admixed to aid
particle
rearrangement
and to reduce the
fictional
forces
between
the
powder and the
compacting tools
eventually has no
place
to
go
because all the
voids
between
particles
have
been
closed
either by metal
flow or by the
presence
of
lubricant. More
lubricant
is
beneficial
at
lower compacting pressures, but
there
is
a
transition point at
which
the
additional
lubricant impedes
further
densification (Fig.
6) (Ref 9).
Warm
compaction
processing
was
developed
to
overcome
the
compressibility
constraints
of
rigid-die
compaction (Ref
10). The powder
mixture and the
compacting tools
are heated

Fig. 3 Youngs modulus as a

function of sintered density. Data
from Ref 5

of
Fig. 4 Effect
density on

mechanica
l and
physical
properties
of PM
materials.
Source:
Ref 6

12 / Introduction to Powder Metallurgy

Three
Fig. 5basic

appro
aches
to the
consol
idation
of
metal
powde
rs.
Sourc
e: Ref
8

to
approximatel
y 120 C (250
F) and the
powder
is
compacted in
a single press
stroke. Green
densities of
up to 7.3
g/cm3
are
possible with
highly
compressible
ferrous
powders. This
is
approximatel
y 98% of the
pore-free
density of the
powder
mixture being
compacted
(The
porefree density
of the powder
mixture is the
green density
that could be
reached if all
the porosity
was removed
from
the
material.
It
can
be
calculated for
any mixture
based on the
density and
the amount of
each
constituent in
the mixture
and
the

volume they would occupy in

the
pore-free
condition.)
Special lubricants and bindertreated
premixes
were
developed
for
warm
compaction. The efficiency of
the special lubricant enabled it
to be reduced to 0.6 wt% from
the 0.8 wt% more typically
used for rigid-die compaction:
the pore-free density increases
by 0.1 g/cm3 for each 0.2 wt%
reduc-tion in the amount of
the
admixed
lubricant.
Examples of warm compacted
parts are shown in Fig. 7.
More recently, warm-die
compaction
has
been
introduced. In this instance,
only the com-pacting tooling
is heated (the powder is not
heated). The optimal die
temperature varies according
to the specific lubrication
system being used. The die
temperature is set so that the
surface temperature of the
green compacts reaches the
desired range for the lubricant
sys-tem in question. Warm-die
compaction is ideal for smallto-medium size parts that
weigh less than 700 g (1.5 lb),
are up to 32 mm (1.3 in.) high,
and have wall thicknesses of
up to 19 mm (0.75 in.). For
larger parts warm com-paction
processing is required. Green
densities of 7.45 g/cm3 have
been reached using warm-

Fig. 6 Effect of lubricant content on

Green

density,

g/c

the compressibility of metal powders.

Source: Ref 9

Examples of warm
Fig. 7compacted
PM parts. (a)

Torque converter hub.

Courtesy of
Chicago
Powder Metal Products.
(b) Transmission output
shaft hub. Courtesy of
GKN Sinter Metals. (c)
Hand tool parts. Courtesy
of PoriteTaiwan Co. Ltd.

die
compaction
with lubricant
additions of
approximatel
y 0.3 wt%
(Ref 11).
In
sinteringbased
densification
, the shape of
the
component is
formed in a
molding operation
(e.g.,
MIM)
and
sintering
is
enhanced by
the use of
high
temperatures
and
fineparticle-size
powders.
While
extensive
shrinkage
occurs during
sintering, it is
essentially
isotropic in
nature so that
good
tolerance can
still
be

achieved.
Metal
powder
loading in
the
feedstock used
for MIM is
approximatel
y 60%. The
binders and
plasticizers
added
to
make
the
mixture
moldable
must
be
removed
prior

to
final
sintering. This
debinding
step is the
ratecontrolling
phase of the
MIM process.
Other
sinteringbased
densification
processes that
involve
the
molding
or
shaping
of
powders are
slip casting
and
tape
casting.
Hybrid
Densification.
For
some
materials,
a
hybrid
densification
process is used
in
which
pressure and
temperature
are applied at
the same time.
As mentioned
previously,
some powders
are not suitable
for
rigid-die

compaction;
they are too
hard,
are
spherical
in
shape, or are
too reactive. In
this instance,
processes such
as
pow-der
extrusion
(typically after
encapsulation)
or

HIP
are
used.
Hot
pressing
(often
in
vacuum) or
spark
sintering
may also be
used.

Processi
ng to Full
Density
Options
for
processing
metal
powders to
full density

are mapped in
Fig. 8 (Ref
12). The vertical
axis
relates
to
relative stress
(the applied
pressure
divided by the
in situ yield
strength
of
the material)
and
the
horizontal
axis relative
temperature
(based on the
melting
temperature
of
the
material).

Powder Metallurgy Methods and Applications / 13

Full-density
processing
requires
the
simulta-neous
application
of
pressure
and
temperature. The
approach works
because
most
materials soften as
temperature
is
increased. They
also become more
ductile
and
deform with less
work hardening.
The processing
options fall into
the
following
categories:
Low-stress
processes that
operate at high
temperatures
and
are
dominated by
diffusion
processes (e.g.,
liquid-phase
sintering)
Processes that
apply
intermediate
stress levels and
operate
at
intermediate
temperatures
and

rely on
diffusional
creep
processes
(e.g., hot
pressing or
HIP)

High-stress
routes
that
operate at high
strain rates and
lower
temperatures
(powder
forging

or extrusion)
Routes
that
achieve high
density
via
the
application of
ultrahighstress
at
ambient
temperature
(explosive
compaction)
Liquid-phase
sintering results
in a composite
microstructure
that consists of a
skeleton of a
high-meltingtemperature
phase in a matrix
of a solidified
liquidfor
example, W-NiFe heavy alloys,
WC-Co
cemented
carbides.

Hot pressing is
performed in a
rigid die using
uniaxially applied
pressure: it is a
low-strain-rate
process. Graphite
dies may be used,
in
which
case
induction heating
may be employed.
Hot pressing cycle
times are slow
compared
with
rigid-die
compaction.
Vacuum
is
sometimes used to
minimize
contamination of
the
compact.
Diamond-metalcomposite cutting
tools are often hot
pressed.
Spark
sintering
is
a
process related to
hot pressing. In
spark
sintering,
direct
resistance
heating is applied
to the punches, die,
and powder mass
during
consolidation.

Hot
isostatic
pressing applies
pressure from all
directions
simultaneously. In
order to estab-lish
a
pressure
differential,
powders must be
processed to the
point where they
have no surfaceconnected,
interconnected
porosity, or they
need
to
be
encapsulated prior
to
the
HIP
process. Prior to
HIP, a container is
filled with powder
and heated under
vacuum
to
remove volatile
contaminants.
After evacuation
and degassing, the
container
is
sealed. The container may be
fabricated from
any material that
is
soft
and
deformable at the
consolidation
tem-perature, for
example,
glass,
steel or stainless

steel (the choice

depends
on
compatibility
with the powder
that is being

compacted). A
HIP vessel is
illustrated in Fig.
9
and
the
sequence used to

make a HIPed
part is shown in
Fig. 10 (Ref 13).

Fig. 8 Options
for processing
metal powders to
full density. Source:
Ref 12

Fig. 10

Vacuu
m
sintering
then
backfilli
ng the
sintering
furnace
with
pressuri
zed gas
to assist
final
densific
ation is
employe
d
in
sinterHIP
processi
ng
(a
pressure
-assisted
sintering
process). A
typical
cycle is
shown
schemat
ically in
Fig. 11
(Ref
14).

Fig. 9 (a) Typical hot isostatic pressing (HIP) vessel. (b) Schematic of the
wire-wound unit. Courtesy of Avure Technologies. Source: Ref 13

14 /
Introduction to

Powder
Metallurgy

Powder forging
bridges the gap
between
conventional pressing
and sintering and
wrought
steel
technology. The
process
is
illustrated
schematically in
Fig. 12 (Ref 15).
A PM pre-form is
typically
compacted,
sintered, and then
reheated before
being forged in a
single stroke in
confined dies. A
detailed review of
the
pow-der
forging of ferrous
materials is given
in the Section
Powder
Metallurgy
Carbon and LowAlloy Steels in
this Volume.
Extrusion
is
used to make
some PM tool
steels.
These
materials
have
better properties
than
similar
wrought
tool
steels
because
they contain a
finer and more
uniform
dispersion
of
carbides
compared
with
the wrought tool
steels. In the
latter, the carbides
are often banded
and in the form of
stringers due to
the rolling process used to make
them, as shown in
Fig. 13 (Ref 16).

Freeform
Fabrication
Thermal
spraying
of
nickel-base and
cobalt-base alloy
powders to form
wear-resistant
coat-ings
has
been
practiced
for many years.
Spray forming is
a consolidation
process
that
captures a spray
of molten metal
or alloy droplets
on a moving
substrate
(Ref
17). Figure 14
illustrates billet
formation in a
vertical mode by
spray forming.
The process can
be used to form
bil-lets, strip, and
thick-walled
tubing.
The
term
additive
manufacturing
of metals is used
to
describe
freeform
processes
that
offer
the
possibility
to
produce
complex-shaped
PM parts without
the
design
constraints
of
tradi-tional
manufacturing
routes (Ref 18).
The
pro-cess
relies on the
transfer of a
digital file to a
machine that then
builds the threedimensional
component layer
by layer from a
metal
powder
using a laser or
an electron beam
to
fuse
the
particles together.
Schematic
illustrations
of
powder-bed and
powder-fed
systems
are
shown in Fig. 15
(Ref 19).

While PM is
considered a net or
near-net
shaping
process, many PM
parts
require
finishing

Fig.

11

Schemati
c
of
pressureassisted
sintering
process
cycle.
Source:
Ref 14

Powder fill
Press proform

E
j
e
c
t

f
u
l
l
y

d
e
n
s
e

p
a
r
t

Finishing
Operations

operations.
Sometimes parts
need
closer
tolerances
than
can be held during
the pressing and
sintering
operation;
they
can be sized to
reduce
their
dimensional
variability.
The
surfaceconnected,
interconnected
poros-ity in PM
parts
can
be
impregnated with
oil, and this is the
basis for selflubricating
bearings (Ref 20).
Conventional
bearings
can
absorb from 10 to
30% by volume of
oil.
Pressure
tightness can be
achieved in PM
parts by sealing
the
surfaceconnected porosity
by
resin
impregnation.
Vacuum
processing
is
generally used to
impregnate
the
PM
parts.
In
addition
to
developing
pressure tightness,
resin impregnation
of
PM
parts
permits
plating
(oth-erwise,
plating solutions

would be trapped
in the surfaceconnected pores).
Resin impregnation significantly
improves
the
drillability of PM
parts, as shown
in Fig. 16 (Ref
21).
Machining
parameters
for
PM parts are different from those
used for castings
or
wrought
components. The
PM
materials
contain
pores.
Depending on the
hardness of the
material,
the
material in the
vicinity of the
cutting tool will
densify to a
greater or lesser
extent. As the
amount
of
porosity
decreases,
PM
parts
machine
more like cast or
wrought
parts
with a similar
microstructure.
Machinability
aids such as
manganese
sulfide
(MnS)
may be added to
the PM material
prior
to
compaction
to
enhance
the
machinability of
the PM parts.
Powder
metallurgy

may be turned,
milled,
drilled,
tapped,
and
ground.
Machinabil-ity
depends on the
density and the
microstructure of
the material. For a
PM material of a
given density and
microstructure, the
machinability will
depend on the type
of cutting operation
being performed,
the cutting tool
material, and the
feeds and speeds
being used.

Examination of
the cutting tool is
one of the keys to
understanding
what is happening
during
the
machining
process. Moving
to a condition of
abrasive wear will
lead to greater
consis-tency and
predictability in
the
machining
oper-ation.
A
statistical
approach
to
evaluating the

To preheat
furnace

Eject from die

parts

Hot forge
(a) Pre-HIP filled can
weighing 2050 kg (4520
lb).
(b) Post-HIP.
(c) Heat
treated and
sonic
machined

HIPed part. Courtesy

of Carpenter
Technologies. Source:
Ref 13

Fig. 12 Schematic of the powder forging

process. Source: Ref 15

Powder Metallurgy Methods and Applications / 15

Induction
heated ladle
P
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
i
n
j
e
c
t
o
r
(optional)

Atomizer
(nitrogen)

Extruded T15 tool steel. (a) Wrought. (b)

Fig. 13 PM.
Notice the bands of carbides in the

wrought tool steel compared with the

uniform dispersion of fine carbides in the
PM tool steel. Source: Ref 16

Round, s
deposited

Spray chamb

E
x
h
a
u
st

Billet
Fig. 14 formation

in a vertical
mode by
spray
forming.
Source:
Ref 17

Sweet
spot
R
o
b
u
s
t
p
r
o
c
e
s
s
,
a
b
l
e
t

o
acce
pt
varia
tion

Safe zone

Noncatastr
c, consiste
tool
performan

Fig. 17 Sweet
spot for machinability.
Source: Ref 22

Fig. 15 Schematic illustrations of (a) powderbed and (b) powder-fed additive manufacturing.
Source: Ref 18

Fig. 16 Relative drillability of various PM

materials. Source: Ref 21

data is extremely beneficial. Abrasive

wear is
without the tool failing in a
catastrophic manthe common and natural mechanism of
wear
ner. This is the safe zone for
machining,
during machiningit is the desired
mechanism.
Fig. 17 (Ref 22).
There are combinations of machining
paraFerrous PM parts may be heat treated
to
meters (cutting tool, feeds, speeds,
etc.) that
improve their hardness, strength, and
wear resis-

result in consistent machining

performance
tance. Oil quenching and tempering may
be used

for
neutral
hardening.
Induction
hardening of PM
parts
is
also
possible. Gaseous
carburizing,
nitriding,
carbonitriding,
and
nitrocarburizing
processes
are
applicable. Care is
required
with
ferrous parts at
densities
below
7.1 g/cm3 (0.26
lb/in.3), because
gas penetration to
the core of the
part can lead to
loss of toughness.
The use of salt
baths is to be
avoided because
the salt would
penetrate
the
surface-connected
pores and lead to
subsequent
corrosion
problems.
Microin-dentation
hardness testing is
used to determine
the effective case
depth of surfacehardened
PM
parts (Ref 23).
Where there is a
clear
difference
between
the
hardened
layer
and the rest of the
part, such as with
an
inductionhardened part, a
metallographic
estimate may be
made of the case
depth (Ref 24).
Powder
metallurgy parts
are often tumbled
in an abrasive
medium
in
rotating barrels or
agitated
in
vibrating tubs to
clean them and
remove
burrs.
They
are
generally resin or
oil impregnated
before tumbling

to minimize water absorption. Rust

inhibitors should be added to the
water. Parts may be spun dry or heated
to dry.
Ferrous PM parts may be furnace
blackened (steam oxide treated) for

indoor corrosion
resis-tance.
Afterward, they
may be oil dipped
for

16 / Introduction to Powder Metallurgy

color as well
as
slightly
greater
corrosion
resis-tance (a
dry film oil is
particularly
suitable).
Steam
treating forms
a coating of
magnetite
(Fe3O4) in the
surfaceconnected
pores. Parts
are heated to
480 to 570 C
(896 to 1060
F)
and
exposed
to
superheated
steam under
pres-sure.
This
improves the
wear
resistance of
fer-rous PM
parts
and
improves
their
compressive
strength.
It
does,
however,
degrade
tensile properties
(Ref
25).
All types of
plating
processes
may
be
applied to PM
parts, but the
parts should
have surfaceconnected
porosity
sealed
by
resin
impregna-tion
prior
to
plating.
Electroless
nickel plating
is applicable
to
nonimpregnat
ed PM parts.
Most
conventional
welding
methods are
applicable to
PM parts (Ref
26).
Care
must be taken
to
avoid
residual
lubricants,
quench oils,
machining
coolants,
plating

solutions,
impregnating
materials,
cleaning or
tumbling
agents, and
free graphite
or residual
ash.
An
example of a
PM
weldment is
shown
in
Fig. 18 (Ref
27).
Care
must
be
taken with
lowerdensity PM
parts,
particularly
during
fusion
welding.
Subsequent
solidification
causes high
stresses that
often result
in cracks.
Furnace
brazing can
be used to
join
PM
parts. When
choosing
a
brazing alloy,
the
capillarity of the
pores
imposes
a
special
condition.
Standard
brazing
compounds
will infiltrate
the adjacent
pores, leaving
insufficient
material
to
form a sound
brazed joint.
A
special
brazing system has been
developed for
PM materials
that restricts
brazing alloy
penetration to
the
immediately
adjacent areas
of the part
(Ref 28). An
example of a
brazed carrier
and one-way
rocker clutch
assembly is

provided
Fig. 19.

in

Applicatio
ns of
Powder
Metallurgy
Parts
The
following
examples
have
been
selected
to
illustrate the
wide diversity
of the parts
made

using
PM
processes.
They
are
taken
from
parts
that
have
won
awards at the
MPIF Design
Excellence
Competition,
which is held
annually to
highlight the
advances
made in PM
part
production (Ref
29).
The carrier
and one-way
rocker clutch
assembly
shown in Fig.
19 are used in
the
Ford
Super Duty
TorqShift sixspeed
automatic
transmission.
The
hybrid
assembly
contains five
PM steel parts
weighing
a
total of 7.7 kg
(17 lb). The
sinter-brazed
subassembly
consists
of
four
multilevel
PM parts, of
which three
parts (cage,
spider,
and
carrier plate)
are made to a
density of 6.8
g/cm3.
In
addition,
there are 17
compacted
brazing
pellets. The
rocker plate is
sinter
hardened
during
the
sinter-brazing
phase and has
a density of
7.0
g/cm3.
The assembly
also has a
doubledpressed and
doublesintered cam
plate made to
7.3
g/cm3
density with
an
ultimate
tensile
strength
of
1170
MPa
(170 ksi) and
a
mean
tempered
hard-ness

exceeding 40
HRC.
To
form
the
parts
and
maintain
precision
tolerances,
innovative
tooling was
developed
and used in
conjunction
with
unconventio
nal
press
motions.
Ford
subjected the
assembly to
stringent
durability
testing: ultimate
torsional
torque
loading at a
minimum of
10.8 kN m
(7970 lbf.ft)
and fatigue
testing at a
minimum of
299,000
cycles at 2.3
kN m (1700
lbf.ft). The
application
provided an
esti-mated
20%
cost
savings over
competing
pro-cesses
and
represents a
new era in
the
scope
and size of
PM parts.
A
ballramp actuator
consisting of
a sector gear
and a fixed
ring
is
illustrated in
Fig. 20. The
actu-ator
applies torque
to the front
wheels in the
BMW highperformance
X-Drive
transfer case
that goes into
various
BMW
platforms.
Warm
compacted
from a hybrid
low-alloy
steel,
the
parts have a
density of 7.2
3
g/cm in the
ball
ramps
3
and 7.0 g/cm
between

ramps and on
teeth, a typical
tensile strength
of 1330 MPa
(190
ksi),
typical yield
strength
of
1144
MPa
(166 ksi), and
a
sur-face
hardness of 50
HRC on the
ball
ramp
surface. The
parts replaced
forged
components
that had

been used in
an
earlier
transfer case
design
and
provided 35%
cost savings
over
the
forgings.
The
variable valve
timing (VVT)
rotor shown
in Fig. 21
consists of an
assembly of a
PM steel rotor
and
an
adapter. The
parts
are
joined by an
adhesive,
which joins
them during
the machining
of cross-holes
and
other
features
on
the
inside
diameter, and
seals the joint
bet-ween
them.
The
assembly,
used in a
Chrysler

court
esy
of
MPIF

Fig.

19

Car
rier
and
one
way
roc
ker
clut
ch
ass
em
bly.
GK
N
Sint
er
Met
als
LLC
,

Fig.

20

Sect
or
gear
and
fixed
ring.
Cloy
es
Gear
&
Prod
ucts
Inc.,
court
esy
of
MPI
F

409 Cb wrought tube

409 Cb wrought tube

409 Cb
TIG
weldFig.
no
filler

Example of a PM weldment.
Fig. 18 Source:
Ref 27. Reprinted with
permission from SAE
Technical Paper 930490,
copyright SAE International

21 Variable valve
timing
(VVT) rotor
adaptor
assembly.
GKN Sinter
Metals,
courtesy of
MPIF

Powder Metallurgy Methods and Applications / 17

V-6 engine, is
mounted to the
engine camshaft.
Formed
to
a
density of 6.8
g/cm3, the rotor
has an ultimate
tensile strength of
415 MPa (60 ksi),
yield strength of
380 MPa (55 ksi),
and a 160 MPa
(23 ksi) fatigue
limit. The adapter
is formed to a
density of 6.9
g/cm3,
has
a
minimum ultimate
tensile strength of
400 MPa (58 ksi),
and has a yield
strength of 365
MPa (53 ksi).
After sizing and
grinding, there is
no
other
machining
performed on the
rotor. The adapter
is not machined
prior to assembly
and is made to net
shape
with
vertical slots for
oil feeding. The
cus-tomer,
however,
machines
the
cross-holes for the
oil feed.
Figure
22
shows a complex
PM steel twostage helical gear
and spur pinion
used in a power
lift-gate actuator.
Made
to
a
nominal density
of 6.85 g/cm3, the
combined helical
gear-and-pinion
design
features
precision
journals for precise
orientation in the
actuator assembly.
The part has a
tensile strength of
450 MPa (65 ksi)
and yield strength
of 380 MPa (55
ksi). The precise
elemental
gear
data
tolerances
enable quiet gear
performance,
decreasing noise,
vibration,
and
harshness.
Four
metal
injection molded
(MIM) parts (a
blank discharge
check,
stop
discharge check

valve,
valve
discharge check,
and CRV spring
seat) that go into
a device that
controls
fuel
flow in gasoline
direct-injection
pumps are shown
in Fig. 23. Three
of the parts are
made of 440C
stainless
steel,
while the fourth
is

Helical
Fig. 22gear

and spur
pinion.
Capstan
Atlantic,
courtesy
of MPIF

made of 17-4 PH.

The
extremely
complex geometry
of
the
blank
discharge check,
with
the
intercrossing
of
holes,
required
tooling with six
side cores, three
of which move at
different timings.
The parts have a
minimum density
of 7.65 g/cm3, an
ultimate
tensile
strength of 480
MPa (70 ksi),
yield strength of
150 MPa (22 ksi),
an elongation of
45%, and a 100
HRB maximum
hardness.
This
design was judged
by the fabricator
to be perhaps the
most
complex
high-volume part
ever made by
MIM.
The
customer realized
cost savings of
close to 35%,
while the pump
performance was
improved
by
modifying
the
geometry of the
holes to enhance
flow
dynamics,
with the result
being a 10 to 20%
fuel
economy
boost.
Another
automotive
application
is
shown in Fig. 24.
It is a PM
aluminum
camshaft-bearing
cap used in GMs
high-feature V6
engine. Designed
originally for PM,
the capstwo of
which go into
each
engine
operate in engines
that
go
into
various
GM
brands, including
the Cadillac CTS,
SRX, and CTX;
Buick LaCrosse
and Rendezvous;
and Saab 9-3. It is
the first dual
overhead
cam
engine using a
single cap across
both camshafts.
The cap maintains
the
camshaft
position, radially

and axially, while

providing integral
oil channels for
cam lubrica-tion
and
hydraulic
control of the
variable
cam
timing
(VCT)
system. Made to a
net shape, the
multiple-level part
has
a
tensile
strength of 117
MPa (17 ksi) and
a hardness range
of 85 to 90 HRH.
Choosing
PM
over an alternative
manufacturing
process, such as
die
casting,
provided
an
estimated
50%
cost saving by
elim-inating
preassembly
machining steps.
The PM caps
require only one
line-boring step
during
installation.
In addition to
being
used
in
automotive applications, PM parts
are also chosen for
lawn and garden
use.
The
parking/emergency
brake piston shown
in Fig. 25 is used
in
hydraulic
transmis-sions in
zero-turn-radius
lawn maintenance
equipment. Made
from an FC-0208
iron-copper steel,
the
piston
is
compacted
with
three features on
top and six on the
bottom, using two
upper and three
lower punches plus
a die shelf. The
piston has a density
3
of 6.9 g/cm , a
tensile

strength of 565
MPa (82 ksi),
yield strength of
450 MPa (65 ksi),
and a hardness of
80 HRB before
steam
oxide
treatment.
The
part is an original
design for PM,
because its shape
makes
it
impractical
for
traditional metal
cutting meth-ods.
It is pressed and
sintered to net
shape, requiring
no postsintering
machining
operations.

An example of
small, intricate
PM parts is
provided in Fig.
26. The three
partsbracket,
slide,
and
removable dropin hookused in
the Damon 3MX
self-ligation
orthodontic
tooth-positioning
system are made
via MIM processing. One bracket
and one slide go
on each tooth,
with the hook an
option
for
approximately
5% of the teeth.
The very tiny,
intricate parts are
made by MIM
from 17-4 PH
stainless
steel
pow-der to a
density of 7.5
g/cm3. They have
impres-sive
physical
properties:
a
tensile strength
of 1190 MPa
(173 ksi) and
yield strength of
1090 MPa (158
ksi). All of the
parts are made to
a net shape. The
customer tumble
polishes
them

and performs a
brazing operation
before assembly.

Fig.

25

Brake
piston for
hydraulic
transmissi
on used in
zero-turnradius
lawn
maintenan
ce
equipment
. Lovejoy
Powder
Metal
Group,
courtesy
of MPIF

Fig. 24
Fig. 23 Gasoline direct-injection pump parts. Indo-US

MIM Tec Pvt. Ltd., courtesy of MPIF

18 / Introduction to Powder Metallurgy

Another
example
of
MIM parts is
provided in
Fig. 27. It is a
highcompression
jaw used in
laparoscopic
vessel fusion.
The
jaw
design has top
and bottom
jaws,
an
anchor, and
an
I-beam.
All
four
components
are
made
from 17-4 PH
metal powder
and have assintered
densities
greater than
7.6
g/cm3.
The
parts
have very thin
walls
and
highly
complex
geometries,
making them
difficult
to
manufacture
economically
by any other
technology.
Top
and
bottom jaws
pivot at the
lobes
that
provide the
fulcrum for
the assembly.
The cutting
mechanism
on
the
laparoscopic
device is in
the shape of
an
I-beam.
Very
high
compression
is maintained
as the blade is
advanced
from
the
proximal to

the
distal
end of the
jaw.
The
SurgRx
system
incorporates
smart
electrotechn
ology in a
highcompression
jaw design
to provide
rapid vessel
fusion
without
thermal
effects.
A sound
tube used in
a
hearing
aid,
the
func-tion of
which is to
enhance
sound
frequency
and improve
hearing, is
shown
in
Fig. 28. Fabricated via
MIM using
316 stainless
steel,
the
highly
complex part
achieves all
its features
in the assintered
condition,
with
only
glass-bead
blasting for a
better finish
performed as
a secondary
operation.
The tube has
a minimum
density
of
7.65 g/cm3,
an ultimate
tensile
strength of
480 MPa (70
ksi),
yield
strength of
150 MPa (22
ksi),
an

elongation of
45%, and a
hardness of
100
HRB
max.
An
original
design
for
MIM, it is
estimated the
part provides
20%
cost
savings over
competing
forming
processes.
A
threepiece
assembly
(nozzle
interface,
outer nozzle,
and
metal
collar)
that
goes
into
high-end
soundisolating
earphones
that
enable
usercustomizable
frequency
responses is
shown in Fig.
29. Made via
MIM
from
316L stainless
steel,
the
components
met the objective
of
producing
final
netshape
parts
that not only
satisfied the
cost demands
of the highly
competitive
professionalaudio market
but
also
maintained a
cosmetically
perfect
surface
so
critical in a
consumer
product with
a clear exte-

rior. The parts

have a density
>7.6 g/cm3,
an
ultimate
tensile
strength
of
520 MPa (75
ksi),
yield
strength
of
175 MPa (25
ksi),
an
elonga-tion of
50%, and an
apparent
hardness of
67
HRB.
Metal
injection
molding was
the
ideal
choice
because
alternative
fabrication
methods, such
as die casting
or machining,
could neither
have provided
the precision
needed at a
reason-able
cost nor been
able
to
provide the
required
material
performance.
At
the
other end of
the spectrum
are
much
larger
examples. An
end
cover
used in the
Large Hadron
Collider, the
worlds
largest
and
highestenergy
subatomic
particle
accelerator, is
shown in Fig.
30.
Made
from 316LN
stain-less
steel powder,
the part is hot
isostatically
pressed to full
density. The
superconducti
ng
dipolecryomagnets
operate in a
cryogenic
environment
at 268 C (
450 F). As
HIPed to a
near-net
shape of 115
kg (253 lb),

the fin-ished
end
cover
weighs 69.5
kg (153 lb).
The
fabricator
incorporated
finiteelement
analysis,
computeraided design,
numerically
controlled

Fig.

Fig.

27

Lapa
rosc
opic
jaws
.
Par
mate
ch
Corp
orati
on,
court
esy
of
MPI
F

28

Hear
ing
aid
soun
d
tube.
IndoUS
MIM
Tec
Pvt.
Ltd.,
court
esy
of
MPI
F

sheet
metal
cutting
technology,
and
cuttingedge robotic
welding and
part
manipulation
to produce the
end
covers.

This resulted
in an increase
of more than
50 times over
the
typical
production
rate of fully
dense, HIPed
PM near-net
shapesan
unprecedented
breakthrough
in
productivity.
Approximately
2700
end
covers
have
been delivered
to
the
European
Organiza-tion
for
Nuclear
Research
(CERN). The
design of the
part features
several
complex
configurations.
For
example, both
the inner and
outer surface
of the broad
face
are
radiused with
the
inner
surface
approximately
parallel to the
outer surface.
The exterior of
the
curved
surface
has
either eight or
ten
projections,
depending on
which version
of the part is
produced. The
design differs
slightly
depending on
which side of
the
dipole
magnet it is
located. The
PM HIPed part
meets
the
equivalent
mechanical
properties of
316LN
wrought
stainless steel,
including
internal
toughness and
high ductility.

A
final
example (Fig.

31) is a
manifold
used
in
offshore oil
and
gas
production.
Formed by
HIPing from
a
duplex
stainless
steel
material, the
manifold
weighs
approximatel
y 10,000 kg
(22,050 lb).
Hot isostatic
pressing
replaced

Fig.

Fig.

29

Nozz
le
asse
mbly
for
highend
soun
dinsul
ating
head
phon
es.
Flom
et
LLC,
court
esy
of
MPI
F

30

Dipo
le
cryo
mag
net
end
cove
r.
Body
cote
HIPSura
ham
mar,
court
esy
of
MPI
F

der
me
t
AB,
cou
rte
sy
of
MP
IF

Fig.

31

Mani
fold
used
in
offsh
ore
oil
and
gas
prod
uction.
Mets
o
Pow

forging and
conventional
machining of
these
very
large parts,
providing an
8%
cost
savings. Hot
isostatic
pressing also

reduced
the
need
for
extensive
welding. The
manifolds are
formed close
to net shape.
The
only
machining
required
is
preparing weld
bevels
for
circumferential
welds of the
header outside
diameter and
sealing areas
of
the
connecting
flanges. The
manifold

Powder Metallurgy Methods and Applications / 19

sections
are
produced to an
average length of
2.5 m (98 in.).
The
manifold
collects oil or gas
from
wellheads
and is also used
for
water
injection.
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